The Ganges

1

1. INTRODUCTION
The Ganges River, also called Ganga, is a river located in northern India
that flows toward the border with Bangladesh (map). It is the longest river in
India and flows for around 1,569 miles (2,525 km) from the Himalayan
Mountains to the Bay of Bengal. The river has the second greatest water
discharge in the world and its basin is the most heavily populated in the world
with over 400 million people living in the basin.
The Ganges River is extremely important to the people of India as most
of the people living on its banks use it for daily needs such as bathing and
fishing. It is also significant to Hindus as they consider it their most sacred
river.
River systems have been the birthplace of civilizations all over the world.
They are woven into the social and economic fabric of society and penetrate
deep into the psyche of the people living around them. Nowhere is this more
evident than in India where the Ganga, Indus, Narmada and other rivers possess
the cultural identity transmitted down the ages through sacred literature, the
Puranas and the Vedas, as well as through popular myths and legends.
The river Ganga (commonly called as Bhagirathi in the stretch Gangotri
to Devprayag and Hubli in the stretch Farakka to Ganga Sagar) occupies a
unique position in the ethos of people of India. Emotional attachment to the
river and the centers of pilgrimage on its banks runs deep and long in the Indian
History.
The Ganga basin accounts for a little more than one-fourth (26.3%) of the
countrys total geographical area and isthe biggest river basin in India, covering
the entire states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar, Delhi, and parts of
Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and West
Bengal.
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2. GEOGRAPHY
The idea is you should not judge a great soul by his parentage, or a
river by its source. But the mighty Ganges is great on several counts, including
its origin. The sources of this holy river are the pristine, icy glaciers of the
Himalayas.
The origin of river Ganges lies at the
height of 13,800 feet in the mountain ranges of
Himalayas, near Gangotri. It emerges from an ice
cave in the Himalayas at the altitude 10,300feet.
The place, where Bhagirathi flows out from
Gangotri, is called Goumukh, which means Cow
mouth. With bit of imagination this icy cave can
remind you a face cow. Gangotri is the place of
origin of the Majestic Ganges river, known to hindu's as Ganga Maa (Mother
Ganges). The supreme amongst Indian rivers, is the longest river and greatest
waterway in India. The Ganges has been declared as India's National River.
Ganges is the source of sustainment of life in the great Indian plains and it is at
Gangotri that the journey begins. River Ganges gets water from the melting
snow of Nanda devi, Gurla, Mandhata, Dhaulagiri, Gesaisthan, Kanchenjunga
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and Mount Everest. Many small and big rivers merge with the Ganges in the
Himalayan region.
Ganges (Hindi Ganga), major river of the Indian subcontinent, formed in
the Himalaya, in Uttarakhand State, India. The
Ganges mostly flows in India, except
Bangladesh before emptying into the Bay of
Bengal. The Ganges Basin, one of the most
fertile regions of the world and also one of the
most densely populated, lies between the Himalaya and theVindhyachal Range,
and embraces an area of more than 1 million km
2
(386,100 mile
2
).
The Ganges, about 2,510km (1,560 mile) long, emerges in a snowfield
called The Gangotri Glacier, situated among three Himalayan mountains all
more than 6,706m (22,000 ft) high. It starts as the Bhagirathi River from an ice
cave, 3,139m (10,300 ft) above sea level, and falls 67 mts./km (350 ft/mile).
About 16 km (10 mile) from the source
is Gangotri, the first temple on its banks and
a traditional resort of pilgrims.
At Devaprayag, 214 km (133 mile) from the
source, the Bhagirathi joins
the Alaknanda to form the Ganges.

The Ganges enters the plain from Rishikesh after completing a journey
of 229 kms. (142miles) in a rugged tarrain of Himalayas. The Ganges, after
descending 2,810m (9,276 ft), or an average of about 11 mts/km (60 ft/mile),
flows west to the border of the great plain of India at Haridwar, 253 km
(157 mile) from its source and ,312mts (1,024 ft) above sea level. From
Haridwar it continues south and then south-east to Allahabad after a winding
course of 785 km (488 mile), made unnavigable by shoals and rapids. At
Allahabad, the Ganges isjoined by the Yamuna River from the south-west, and
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from that point the river flows east past Mirzapur,Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna,
Monghyr, and Bhagalpur, receiving on the south theSon River and on the north
the Gumti, Ghaghara,Gandak, and Kosi rivers. In the Rajmahal Hills, at the
head of the Ganges delta,906 km (563 mile) from Allahabad, the river turns
south and begins a descent of 455km (283 mile) to the Bay of Bengal. Near
Pakaur, the Bhagirathi (assuming the former name of the river) and, 114 km (71
mile) lower down, the Jalangi River branch off from the main stream, and after
individual courses of193 km (120 mile) each, unite again to form the Hooghly
River, the westernmost and principal channel of navigation, on which the city
of Calcutta stands. The main branch of the Ganges, from which numerous minor
tributaries flow, continues in Bangladesh, as the Padma River, to the town of
Shivalaya (Sibalay), where it unites with the Jamuna, the main branch of
theBrahmaputra, and finally runs through the Meghna estuary into the Bay of
Bengal. Between the Meghna estuary and
the western channel of the Hooghly River
are the several mouths of the deltaic
channels. The northern portion of the delta
isfertile and well cultivated. The southern
section consists mostly of swampland,
known as theSundarbans, because of
the sundari tree that flourishes there. The marshes are inhabited by several
species ofcrocodile. From year to year the Ganges exchanges old channels for
new ones, particularly in the alluvial basin of its lower reaches. Like the
Brahmaputra, the Ganges has been adversely affected by the deforestation of
valleys in its upper course, causing flooding and an increase in sedimentation
around the river's delta in Bangladesh. This sometimes combines with coastal
flooding caused by cyclones to produce inundation of the delta area on a
massive scale.
Refer ANNEXURE I -Salient features of river Ganga
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3. RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE
3.1 EMBODIMENT OF SACREDNESS
The Ganges is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length.
All along its course, Hindus bathe in its waters, paying homage to their
ancestors and to their gods by cupping the water in their hands, lifting it and
letting it fall back into the
river; they offer flowers and
rose petals and float
shallow clay dishes filled
with oil and lit with wicks
(diyas). On the journey
back home from the
Ganges, they carry small
quantities of river water
with them for use in rituals (Ganga jal, literally water of the Ganga). When a
loved one dies, Hindus bring the ashes of the deceased person to the Ganges
River.
The Ganges is the embodiment of all sacred waters in Hindu mythology.
Local rivers are said to be like the Ganges, and are sometimes called the local
Ganges (Ganga).]The Kaveri river of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in Southern
India is called the Ganges of the South; the Godavari is the Ganges that was led
by the sage Gautama to flow through Central India. The Ganges is invoked
whenever water is used in Hindu ritual, and is therefore present in all sacred
waters. In spite of this, nothing is more stirring for a Hindu than a dip in the
actual river, which is thought to remit sins, especially at one of the famous
tirthas such as Gangotri, Haridwar, Prayag, or Varanasi. The symbolic and
religious importance of the Ganges is one of the few things that Hindu India,
even its skeptics, are agreed upon. Jawaharlal Nehru, a religious iconoclast
himself, asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the Ganges. "The
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Ganga," he wrote in his will, "is the river of India, beloved of her people, round
which are intertwined her racial memories, her hopes and fears, her songs of
triumph, her victories and her defeats. She has been a symbol of India's age-
long culture and civilization, ever-changing, ever-flowing, and yet ever the
same Ganga."

3.2 AVATARANA OR DESCENT OF THE GANGES
In late May or early June every year, Hindus celebrate the avatarana or
descent of the Ganges from heaven to earth. The day of the celebration, Ganga
Dashahara, the dashami (tenth day) of the waxing moon of the Hindu calendar
month Jyestha, brings throngs of bathers to the banks of the river. A soak in the
Ganges on this day is said to rid the bather of ten sins (dasha = Sanskrit "ten";
hara = to destroy) or alternatively, ten lifetimes of sins. Those who cannot
journey to the river, however, can achieve the same results by bathing in any
nearby body of water, which, for the true believer, in the Hindu tradition, takes
on all the attributes of the Ganges.
The avatarana is an old theme in Hinduism with a number of different
versions of the story. In the Vedic version, Indra, the Lord of Svarga (Heaven)
slays the celestial serpent, Vritra, releasing the celestial liquid, the soma, or the
nectar of the gods which then plunges to the earth and waters it with sustenance.
In the Vaishnava version of the myth, Indra has been replaced by his
former helper Vishnu. The heavenly waters are now a river called Vishnupadi
(padi: Skt. "from the foot of"). As he completes his celebrated three stridesof
earth, sky, and heavenVishnu as Vamana stubs his toe on the vault of heaven,
punches open a hole, and releases the Vishnupadi, which until now had been
circling around the cosmic egg within. Flowing out of the vault, she plummets
down to Indra's heaven, where she is received by Dhruva, the once steadfast
worshipper of Vishnu, now fixed in the sky as the polestar. Next, she streams
across the sky forming the Milky Way and arrives on the moon. She then flows
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down earthwards to Brahma's realm, a divine lotus atop Mount Meru, whose
petals form the earthly continents. There, the divine waters break up, with one
stream, the Alaknanda, flowing down one petal into Bharatvarsha (India) as the
Ganges.
It is Shiva, however, among the major deities of the Hindu pantheon, who
appears in the most widely known version of the avatarana story. Told and
retold in the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and several Puranas, the story begins
with a sage, Kapila, whose intense meditation has been disturbed by the sixty
thousand sons of King Sagara. Livid at being disturbed, Kapila sears them with
his angry gaze, reduces them to ashes, and dispatches them to the netherworld.
Only the waters of the Ganga, then in heaven, can bring the dead sons their
salvation. A descendant of these sons, King Bhagiratha, anxious to restore his
ancestors, undertakes rigorous penance and is eventually granted the prize of
Ganga's descent from heaven. However, since her turbulent force would also
shatter the earth, Bhagiratha persuades Shiva in his abode on Mount Kailash to
receive Ganga in the coils of his tangled hair and break her fall. Ganga
descends, is tamed in Shiva's locks, and arrives in the Himalayas. She is then
led by the waiting Bhagiratha down into the plains at Haridwar, across the
plains first to the confluence with the Yamuna at Prayag and then to Varanasi,
and eventually to Ganga Sagar, where she meets the ocean, sinks to the
netherworld, and saves the sons of Sagara. In honour of Bhagirath's pivotal role
in the avatarana, the source stream of the Ganges in the Himalayas is named
Bhagirathi, (Sanskrit, "of Bhagiratha").

3.3 REDEMPTION OF THE DEAD
Since Ganga had descended from heaven to earth, she is also the vehicle
of ascent, from earth to heaven. As the Triloka-patha-gamini, (Skt. triloka=
"three worlds", patha = "road", gamini = "one who travels") of the Hindu
tradition, she flows in heaven, earth, and the netherworld, and, consequently, is
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a "tirtha," or crossing point of all beings, the living as well as the dead. It is for
this reason that the story of the avatarana is told at Shraddha ceremonies for the
deceased in Hinduism, and Ganges water is used in Vedic rituals after death.
Among all hymns devoted to the Ganges, there are none more popular than the
ones expressing the worshipers wish to breathe his last surrounded by her
waters. The Gangashtakam expresses this longing fervently:
O Mother! ... Necklace adorning the worlds!
Banner rising to heaven!
I ask that I may leave of this body on your banks,
Drinking your water, rolling in your waves,
Remembering your name, bestowing my gaze upon you.
No place along her banks is more longed for at the moment of death by
Hindus than Varanasi, the Great Cremation Ground, or Mahashmshana. Those
who are lucky enough to die in Varanasi, are cremated on the banks of the
Ganges, and are granted instant salvation. If the death has occurred elsewhere,
salvation can be achieved by immersing the ashes in the Ganges. If the ashes
have been immersed in another body of water, a relative can still gain salvation
for the deceased by journeying to the Ganges, if possible during the lunar
"fortnight of the ancestors" in the Hindu calendar month of Ashwin (September
or October), and performing the Shraddha rites.
Hindus also perform pindapradana, a rite for the dead, in which balls of
rice and sesame seed are offered to the Ganges while the names of the deceased
relatives are recited. Every sesame seed in every ball thus offered, according to
one story, assures a thousand years of heavenly salvation for the each relative.
Indeed, the Ganges is so important in the rituals after death that the
Mahabharata, in one of its popular lokas, says, "If only (one) bone of a
(deceased) person should touch the water of the Ganges, that person shall dwell
honoured in heaven." As if to illustrate this truism, the KashiKhanda (Varanasi
Chapter) of the SkandaPurana recounts the remarkable story of Vahika, a
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profligate and unrepentant sinner, who is killed by a tiger in the forest. His soul
arrives before Yama, the Lord of Death, to be judged for the hereafter. Having
no compensating virtue, Vahika's soul is at once dispatched to hell. While this is
happening, his body on earth, however, is being picked at by vultures, one of
whom flies away with a foot bone. Another bird comes after the vulture, and in
fighting him off, the vulture accidentally drops the bone into the Ganges below.
Blessed by this happenstance, Vahika, on his way to hell, is rescued by a
celestial chariot which takes him instead to heaven.

3.4 THE PURIFYING GANGES
Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges to be both pure and purifying.
Nothing reclaims order from disorder more than the waters of the Ganges.
Moving water, as in a river, is considered purifying in Hindu culture because it
is thought to both absorb impurities and take them away. The swiftly moving
Ganges, especially in its upper reaches, where a bather has to grasp an anchored
chain in order to not be carried away, is considered especially purifying. What
the Ganges removes, however, is not necessarily physical dirt, but symbolic
dirt; it wipes away the sins of the bather, not just of the present, but of a
lifetime.
A popular paean to the Ganges is the Ganga Lahiri composed by a
seventeenth century poet Jagannatha who, legend has it, was turned out of his
Hindu Brahmin caste for carrying on an affair with a Muslim woman. Having
attempted futilely to be rehabilitated within the Hindu fold, the poet finally
appeals to Ganga, the hope of the hopeless, and the comforter of last resort.
Along with his beloved, Jagannatha sits at the top of the flight of steps leading
to the water at the famous PanchgangaGhat in Varanasi. As he recites each
verse of the poem, the water of the Ganges rises up one step, until in the end it
envelops the lovers and carry them away. "I come to you as a child to his
mother," begins the Ganga Lahiri.
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I come as an orphan to you, moist with love.
I come without refuge to you, giver of
sacred rest.
I come a fallen man to you, uplifter of all.
I come undone by disease to you, the
perfect physician.
I come, my heart dry with thirst, to you,
ocean of sweet wine.
Do with me whatever you will.

3.5 KUMBHMELA
KumbhMela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage in which Hindus gather at the
Ganges river. The normal KumbhMela is celebrated every 3 years, the Ardh
(half) Kumbh is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Prayag, the Purna
(complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years at four places (Prayag
(Allahabad), Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nashik). The Maha(great) KumbhMela
which comes after 12 'PurnaKumbhMelas', or 144 years, is held at Prayag
(Allahabad).
The major event of the festival is ritual bathing at the banks of the river.
Other activities include religious discussions, devotional singing, mass feeding
of holy men and women and the poor, and religious assemblies where doctrines
are debated and standardized. KumbhMela is the most sacred of all the
pilgrimages. Thousands of holy men and women attend, and the auspiciousness
of the festival is in part attributable to this. The sadhus are seen clad in saffron
sheets with ashes and powder dabbed on their skin per the requirements of
ancient traditions. Some, called nagasanyasis, may not wear any clothes.



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3.6 GANGES IN HINDUISM
In Hinduism, the river Ganges is considered sacred and is personified as a
goddess known as Ganga. It is worshipped by Hindus who believe that bathing
in the river causes the remission of sins and facilitates Moksha (liberation from
the cycle of life and death). Pilgrims travel long distances to immerse the ashes
of their kin in the precious water of the Ganges, bringing their spirits closer to
moksha.
Several places sacred to Hindus lie along the banks of the Ganges,
including Gangotri, Haridwar, Allahabad and Varanasi. During the Loy
Krathong festival in Thailand, candlelit floats are released into waterways to
honor the Buddha and the goddess Ganga (, ) for good fortune
and washing away sins (ppa in Sanskrit, used to describe actions that create
negative karma by violating moral and ethical codes, which brings negative
consequences.)

3.7 OTHER RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATIONS
According to the Hindu scriptures like SkandaPurana, the goddess Ganga
is foster-mother to Karttikeya (Murugan), who was actually a son of Shiva and
Parvati.
Parvati who created an image of Ganesha (son of Shiva and Parvati) out
of her bodily impurities but which became endowed with life after immersion in
the sacred waters of the Ganges. Therefore Ganesha is said to have two
mothersPrvati and Gang and hence called Dvaimtura and also Gngeya
(the son of Ganga).
The Hindu epic, Mahabharata tells that the Vasus, cursed by Vashishta
had requested Ganga to be their mother. Ganga incarnated and became the wife
of King Santanu on condition that at no stage shall he question her actions, or
she would leave him. As seven Vasus were born as their children, one after the
other, Ganga drowned them in her own waters, freeing them from their
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punishment and the king made no opposition. Only when the eighth was born
did the king finally oppose his wife, who therefore left him. So the eighth son,
Dyaus incarnated, remained alive, imprisoned in mortal form, and later became
known in his mortal incarnation as Bhishma (Devavrata), who is one of the
most respected characters of the Mahbhrata.
























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4. FLORA AND FAUNA
The Ganges is a finite and vulnerable resource in Asia. It flows through
India and Bangladesh and sustains life to a diverse variety of flora and fauna.
The Ganges has an Ancient History filled with many religious myths and
legends that have changed over time. People use the Ganges for farming
washing and religious beliefs. The Ganges is based around two major issues that
impact on flora, fauna and humans.
Three terrestrial Eco regions cover the Ganga delta. The
Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests Eco region covers most of the
delta region, although the forests have mostly been cleared for agriculture and
only small enclaves remain.
Thick stands of tall grass, known as canebrakes, grow in wetter areas.

4.1 AREA COVERED BY MANGROOVES
The Sundarbans freshwater swamp
forests Eco region lies closer to the Bay of
Bengal; this Eco region is flooded with
slightly brackish water during the dry season,
and fresh water during the monsoon season.
These forests, too, have been almost
completely converted to intensive agriculture,
with only 130 square kilometers (50 sq. mi) of
the Eco regions 14,600 square kilometers (5,600 sq. mi) protected. Where the
delta meets the Bay of Bengal.
Sundarbans mangroves form the world's largest mangrove Eco region,
covering an area of 20,400 square kilometers (7,900 sq. mi) in a chain of 54
islands. They derive their name from the predominant mangrove species,
Heritierafomes, which are known locally as sundry or sundari.

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4.2 WILD LIFE OF GANGES
Animals in the delta include the Indian Python (Python molurus),
(Neofelisnebulosa), Indian Elephant (Elephasmaximusindicus) and crocodiles,
which live in the Sundarbans. Approximately 1,020 endangered Bengal tigers
(Pantheratigristigris) are believed to inhabit Sundarban
It is estimated that 30,000 chital are in the Sundarbans part of the delta.
Birds found in the delta include kingfishers, eagles, woodpeckers, the shalik
(Acridotherestristis), the Swamp Francolin (Francolinusgularis), and the doel
(Copsychussaularis).
Trees found in the delta include sundari, garjan (Rhizophora spp.),
bamboo, mangrove palm (Nypafruticans), and mangrove date palm

4.3 GANGA DOLPHIN
Two species of dolphin can be found in the delta: the Irrawaddy Dolphin
(Orcaellabrevirostris) and the Ganges River Dolphin
(Platanistagangeticagangetica). The Irrawaddy Dolphin is an oceanic dolphin
that enters the delta from the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges River Dolphin is a true
river dolphin, but is extremely rare and considered endangered.


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4.4 THE INFLUENCE OF HUMANKIND:
The inland part of the tidal plain has been diked, and the former saline
lands have been converted to various agricultural and marine farming practices.
This reclaimed land has retained some of the general morphology of the original
deltaic channel scars, but it has been modified by tidal drainage networks.
Originally, the entire surface of the abandoned delta formed an extreme expanse
of mangrove forests. The only remaining large expanse of tidally dominated
mangrove forests is shown on the image by the dark-green color and here dense
stands of many species of mangrove exist. The mangrove swamp is dissected by
an intricate network of tidal drainage channels.
Geo-registered satellite images from 1989 and 2001 were compared to
detect changes to the delta plain during this 12 year period. Because of the size
of this delta, only a single satellite image was analyzed and is shown in Plate
10A.. The wetland area included in this image is 33,405 sq. km (8,254,555
acres). Analysis of the 1989 image indicated that a total of 1,080,991 acres of
open water existed in this image. By 2001, a total of 1,201,952 acres of open
water was present and thus some 120,961 acres of new water was present in
only this small portion of the delta plain. The Ganges-Brahmaputra River is a
highly actively migratory river channel (Coleman, 1969) and most of the new
open water was the result of natural migration of the river channel and
formation of new channels. Plate 10A illustrates the changes detected. Note the
major changes in the position of the main river channel shown in Plate 10A
Note also, that some of the changes in open water is associated with
enlargement of small lakes that are found throughout the delta. Thus in a 12
year period, an increase in open water was nearly 2 percent. The Ganges-
Brahmaputra delta is one of the highest populated delta plains in the world.
Plate 10B illustrates the primarily agricultural land use (colored green in Plate
10A) as determined on the 1989 image. A total of 1,975,207 acres (or 24%) of
the original wetlands had been converted to agricultural use. Some 12 years
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later, a total of 2,523,100 of agriculture was analyzed on the 2001 image. This is
an increase of 547,893 acres of wetlands that had been converted to agricultural
land in the 12 year period or an increase of 22 percent during this time. These
changes are shown in Plate 10B. Enlargement of the original high resolution
geo-registered image indicates that a high percentage of the agricultural land is
divided into small family parcels, generally on the scale of a few acres at most.
By 1989, some 3,056,198 acres of the original wetlands in this image
scene along had been converted from a delta plain wetland to agricultural use.
This represents approximately 37 percent loss. By 2001, some 3,725,052 acres
of the original wetlands had been converted to open water or agricultural use,
approximately a 45 percent loss. The average annual rate of wetland loss by
natural causes and mans modifications is 55,738 acres/year. Although this is
but a single scene, browse images of the entire delta show a similar use of the
delta plain. The largest such area is the main mangrove covered tidal plain
referred to as the Sunderlands. Examination of browse images show, however,
that even in a short period of time, agricultural land is expanding into this
region by construction of levees to prevent salt water intrusion.

4.5 PEOPLE
Ethnically, the people of the Ganges basin are of mixed origin. In the
west and centre of the basin they were originally descended from an early
population possibly speaking Dravidian or Austroasiatic languages and were
later joined by speakers of Indo-Aryan languages. In historical times, Turks,
Mongols, Afghans, Persians, and Arabs came from the west and intermingled
with them. To the east and south, especially in Bengal, peoples speaking
Austroasiatic, Indo-Aryan, and Tibeto-Burman languages have joined the
population over the centuries. Europeans, arriving still later, did not settle or
intermarry to any large extent.

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5. HYDROLOGY
The hydrology of the Ganges River is very complicated, especially
in the Ganges Delta region. One result is different ways to determine the river's
length, its discharge, and the size of its drainage basin.

The name Ganges is used for the river between the confluence of the
Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers, in the Himalayas, and the India-Bangladesh
border, near the Farakka Barrage and the first bifurcation of the river. The
length of the Ganges is frequently said to be slightly over 2,500 km (1,600 mi)
long, about 2,505 km (1,557 mi), to 2,525 km (1,569 mi), or perhaps 2,550 km
(1,580 mi). In these cases the river's source is usually assumed to be the source
of the Bhagirathi River,Gangotri Glacier at Gomukh, and its mouth being the
mouth of the Meghna River on the Bay of Bengal. Sometimes the source of the
Ganges is considered to be at Haridwar, where its Himalayan headwater streams
debouch onto the Gangetic Plain.
In some cases, the length of the Ganges is given for its Hooghly River
distributary, which is longer than its main outlet via the Meghna River, resulting
in a total length of about 2,620 km (1,630 mi), from the source of the
Bhagirathi, or 2,135 km (1,327 mi), from Haridwar to the Hooghly's mouth. In
other cases the length is said to be about 2,240 km (1,390 mi), from the source
of the Bhagirathi to the Bangladesh border, where its name changes to Padma.
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For similar reasons, sources
differ over the size of the river's drainage
basin. The basin covers parts of four countries,
India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh; eleven
Indian states, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
West Bengal, and the Union Territory
of Delhi. The Ganges basin, including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or
Meghna basins, is about 1,080,000 km
2
(420,000 sq mi), of which
861,000 km
2
(332,000 sq. mi) are in India (about 80%),
140,000 km
2
(54,000 sq mi) in Nepal (13%), 46,000 km
2
(18,000 sq. mi) in
Bangladesh (4%), and 33,000 km
2
(13,000 sq mi) in China (3%). Sometimes the
Ganges and BrahmaputraMeghna drainage basins are combined for a total of
about 1,600,000 km
2
(620,000 sq. mi), or 1,621,000 km
2
(626,000 sq mi). The
combined Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or
GMB) drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and
China.
The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and
the Transhimalaya in the north, to the northern slopes of the Vindhya range in
the south, from the eastern slopes of the Aravalli in the west to the Chota
Nagpur plateau and the Sunderbans delta in the east. A significant portion of the
discharge from the Ganges comes from
the Himalayan mountain system.
Within the Himalaya, the Ganges basin
spreads almost 1,200 km from the
Yamuna-Satluj divide along the Simla
ridge forming the boundary with
The Ganges
19

the Indus basin in the west to the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim
border forming the boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east. This
section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14 highest peaks in the world over
8,000m in height, including Mount Everest which is the high point of the
Ganges basin. The other peaks over 8,000m in the basin
areKangchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, ChoOyu, Dhaulagiri,Manaslu, Annapurna
and Shishapangma. The Himalayan portion of the basin includes the south-
eastern portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh, the entire state of Uttarakhand,
the entire country of Nepal and the extreme north-western portion of the state of
West Bengal.
The discharge of the Ganges also differs by source. Frequently, discharge
is described for the mouth of the Meghna River, thus combining the Ganges
with the Brahmaputra and Meghna. This results in a total average annual
discharge of about 38,000 m
3
/s (1,300,000 cu ft/s), or 42,470 m
3
/s
(1,500,000 cu ft/s). In other cases the average annual discharges of the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, and Meghna are given separately, at about 16,650 m
3
/s
(588,000 cu ft./s) for the Ganges, about 19,820 m
3
/s (700,000 cu ft/s) for the
Brahmaputra, and about 5,100 m
3
/s (180,000 cu ft./s) for the Meghna.
The maximum peak discharge of the Ganges, as recorded at Hardinge
Bridge in Bangladesh, exceeded 70,000 m
3
/s (2,500,000 cu ft/s). The minimum
recorded at the same place was about 180 m
3
/s (6,400 cu ft/s), in 1997.
The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by the Southwest
Monsoon. About 84% of the total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to
September. Consequently, streamflow in the Ganges is highly seasonal. The
average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6, as measured
at Hardinge Bridge. This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of
land and water resource development in the region. The seasonality of flow is so
acute it can cause both drought and floods. Bangladesh, in particular, frequently
The Ganges
20

experiences drought during the dry season and regularly suffers extreme floods
during the monsoon.
In the Ganges Delta many large
rivers come together, both merging
and bifurcating in a complicated network
of channels. The two largest rivers, the
Ganges and Brahmaputra, both split into
distributary channels, the largest of which
merge with other large rivers before
themselves joining. This current channel
pattern was not always the case. Over time
the rivers in Ganges Delta have changed course, sometimes altering the network
of channels in significant ways.
Before the late 12th century the Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary was the
main channel of the Ganges and the Padma was only a minor spill-channel. The
main flow of the river reached the sea not via the modern Hooghly River but
rather by the Adi Ganga. Between the 12th and 16th centuries the Bhagirathi-
Hooghly and Padma channels were more or less equally significant. After the
16th century the Padma grew to become the main channel of the Ganges. It is
thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt,
causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the Padma
River. By the end of the 18th century the Padma had become the main
distributary of the Ganges. One result of this shift to the Padma was that the
Ganges joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the
Bay of Bengal, together instead of separately. The present confluence of the
Ganges and Meghna formed about 150 years ago.
Also near the end of the 18th century, the course of the lower
Brahmaputra changed dramatically, altering its relationship with the Ganges. In
1787 there was a great flood on the Teesta River, which at the time was a
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21

tributary of the Ganges-Padma River. The flood of 1787 caused the Teesta to
undergo a sudden change course (an avulsion), shifting east to join the
Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmaputra to shift its course south, cutting a
new channel. This new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna
River. It flows south to join the Ganges-Padma. Since ancient times the main
flow of the Brahmaputra was more easterly, passing by the city
of Mymensingh and joining the Meghna River. Today this channel is a small
distributary but retains the name Brahmaputra, sometimes Old Brahmaputra.
The site of the old Brahmaputra-Meghna confluence, in the locality
of Langalbandh, is still considered sacred by Hindus. Near the confluence is a
major early historic site called Wari-Bateshwar.


















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22

6. HYDRO POWER PLANT DEVELOPMENT
Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated
byhydropower; the production of electrical power through the use of the
gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form
of renewable energy, these projects are
rapidly developing in river
ganges.Uttarakhand is estimated to have
a hydropower potential to the tune of
20236 MW against which around 1851
MW has been harnessed thus far through
hydroelectric projects.
The State with mighty rivers
like Ganga, Yamuna, Kosi etc., is an ideal
location for hydropower development owing to high heads and yields and
projects like Tehri have come up as a result.
A World Bank report (2011) has highlighted that hydropower potential is
one of the most important strategic assets of the State for the development of its
economy. Thus, projects of varying capacities are being implemented by State
and Central Government agencies and as well as the private sector in the State.
Many of these projects have run into troubled waters and some have been
halted or shelved amid intensified public protests. The State government and
bureaucrats have alternatively sought to step up efforts to seek revival of the
projects in order to boost the dismal power situation in the States.
The tussle between the State and the anti-dam demonstrators who are
opposing the projects on religious (the Ganges river system is considered holy
by the Hindus), social justice and environmental grounds escalates from time to
time.
Intense public outcry and the "fast-unto-death" by eminent scientist Prof.
G D Agarwal in protest against the 600MW Loharinag Pala hydropower project
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23

inUttarakhand had in September 2010 led the Finance Minister, who was
heading a Group of Ministers looking into the issue, to announce the complete
scrapping of the project.
Later, that year in November 2010 the Central Government decided at the
National GangaRiver Basin Authority meeting to halt work on the National
Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) owned 600 MW Lohari Nagpala and the
State Government owned 480 MW PalaManeri & 350
MW Bharav Ghatti projects. Further, owing to mounting environmental
concerns, the 440 MW Vishnusagar project had to be scrapped.
The Government in addition notified the river stretch of 135 kilometres of
Alaknanda-Bhagirathi as an ecologically sensitive area, and hence a dam free
zone through which the river will flow freely. These are a partial admission that
the process and plans of installing hydroelectric projects had been wide off the
mark.
It does not however look like something is being done on a long term
basis, to ameliorate the situation which the public is complaining about. For
instance, after one year of stoppage of the Lohari Nagpala project, work was
resumed. Prof. G D Agarwal has in the meanwhile this year carried out a "fast-
unto-death" in protest against this project located on the Bhagirathi River.

6.1 THE TEHRI DAM:
The Tehri Dam is the highest dam in India and one of the tallest in the
world. It is a multi-purpose rock and earth-fill embankment damon
the Bhagirathi River near Tehri in Uttarakhand, India. It is the primary dam of
theTHDC India Ltd. and the Tehri hydroelectric complex. Phase 1 was
completed in 2006, the Tehri Dam withholds a reservoir
for irrigation, municipal water supply and the generation of 1,000 megawatts
(1,300,000 hp) of hydroelectricity. The dam's 1,000 MW pumped-
storage scheme is currently under construction.
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24

The dam is a 260.5 metres (855 ft)
high rock and earth-fill embankment dam.
Its length is 575 metres (1,886 ft), crest
width 20 metres (66 ft), and base width
1,128 metres (3,701 ft). The dam creates
a reservoir of 4.0 cubic kilometres
(3,200,000 acre ft) with a surface area of
52 square kilometres (20 sq mi). The
installed hydrocapacity is 1,000 MW
along with an additional 1,000 MW
of pumped storage hydroelectricity. The lower reservoir for the pumped-storage
plant is created by the Koteshwar Dam downstream.
The Tehri Dam and the Tehri
Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Power
Plant are part of the Tehri Hydropower
Complex which also includes the 400 MW
Koteshwar Dam.The complex will
afford irrigation to an area of 270,000
hectares (670,000 acres), irrigation
stabilization to an area of 600,000 hectares
(1,500,000 acres), and a supply of
270 million imperial gallons (1.210
6
m
3
)
of drinking water per day to the industrialized in areas of Uttar
Pradesh and Uttarakhand and delhi. The total expenditure for this project was 1
billion u.s. dollars.




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25

7. IRRIGATION AND CANAL SYSTEM
The development of water resources projects in the Ganga basin has a
long history. There are a large number of water resources development projects
in the basin. A few projects are also being planned in collaboration with the
Government of Nepal. In order to boost the utilization of waterways, some
segments of the Ganga River have been declared as national waterways. A
description of the major works is given in what follows.

7.1. GANGA CANAL SYSTEMS
7.1.1. UPPER GANGA CANAL (UGC)
A remarkable work that includes many great civil engineering structures is the
Upper Ganga Canal system whose construction was initiated by the then British
government in the 1840s to ward off drought and famine in the western part of
the current the Uttar Pradesh state. Northern India experienced a famine in 1837
and 1840 when, according to estimates, the population of the area fell by 20%.
Completed in 1854, UGC was to irrigate an area of 0.7 million ha. Although in
the first project report, UGC was proposed as a navigation canal, finally it was
constructed as an irrigation canal.
UGC draws its supply from the Ganga River at Haridwar. Prior to the
construction of the permanent head works, water was being forced into the canal
by means of temporary weirs constructed of wooden crates filled with boulders.
Originally, the width at the head was 61 m and the depth at full supply level
nearly 3.3 m. Sir Cautleyplaced the head of the canal at Mayapur, a place well
settled and safe from the attack of Ganga River. Currently, the head works are
situated at Bhimgoda.
The reach of the canal from the head works to 32nd km may well be
classified among the greatest feats of irrigation engineering in India. The
alignment traverses numerous drainages track and the arrangements for
negotiating these drainages are complicated by the fact that the canal bed is at
The Ganges
26

places far below and at other far above the general level of surrounding country.
Four large torrents are crossed in this reach while several smaller ones are
admitted into the canal. The steep slope of the country moreover necessitates the
negotiation of over 18 m of bed fall in those first 32 km. UGC flows in deep
cutting up to the 19th km. In the 10th km, it encounters the Ranipur torrent
which is carried over it on a masonry super-passage. The Pathri torrent is passed
over the canal on second super passage.
At the 21st km, the Ratmau torrent is passed across the canal, being admitted
directly into the channel on one side and escaped again through a weir. At the
30th km comes the Solani aqueduct which is the finest work on the canal (see
Figure 8.13). Solani aqueduct was constructed with the special inspiration of the
great work of Alcantaraaqueduct in Portugal, constructed during the years 1,713
to 1,732 and universally accepted to be a stupendous monument of modern art
and engineering in Europe. At the time of commissioning Ganga canal in 1854,
Solani Aqueduct was ranked as one of the most remarkable massive structure of
brick masonry in the whole world.
The Upper Ganga Canal system is a leading irrigation system in India. It
extends over an area of 24,000 sq. km
bounded by natural or man made water
courses. The GangaRiver is on the
eastern side, the Hindon River and the
Yamuna River on the western side,
and the lower Ganga canal on the
southern side. The Upper Ganga Canal
takes off from the Ganga at the
Bhimgoda weir near Haridwar. The
main canal is 290 km long and is one
of the most exquisitely constructed
civil engineering structures. In view of
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27

expansion of the command area, the discharge capacity of the canal was
recently augmented to 297 m3/s. The command area of the canal is now about
districts of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bulandshahar,
Aligarh, Mathura, Agra, Etah, and Mainpuri. A major project to revitalize the
head reaches of the canal was completed in 2003. A parallel canal has been
constructed upstream of Roorkee and a new aqueduct has been constructed over
the Solani River.
A number of small rivers, such as Kali, Karwan, Solani and West Kali,
flow and interact with the ground water system in the canal command. The
Upper Ganga Canalsystem has a large expanse and the main canal as well as its
branches are an important source of recharge as they all are unlined. The
extraction from ground water is through pumping by public and private
tubewells.
UGC system is fed through a headwork complex with a regulation at
Mayapur and a diversion weir at Bhimgoda across the Ganga River. The
important branches of the system are the Deoband branch (taking off on the left
bank at 35 km), the Anupshahr branch (taking off on the left bank at 80 km), the
Mat branch (taking off on the right bank at 177 km), and the Hathras branch
(taking off from the Mat branch on the left bank at 80 km). The system is
unlined and has a network of 115 distributaries. The canal system is connected
with natural drains/rivers to discharge the surplus water of the canal.
Climatically the area belongs to a dry sub-humid to moist-humid
category. The normal annual rainfall varies from 1050 mm in the north to 650
mm in the south. Around 90% of annual rainfall occurs in the monsoon season
(June to October). The annual pan evaporation for the area is about 150 cm. The
temperat
June.
The Ganges
28

The scope of the system has been considerably altered since it was first
constructed. The Lower Ganga Canal (LGC) which was opened in 1878,
intersected by the main branches of the UGC, the Etawah and Kanpur branches
and the tail portions of these are now officially included in the LGC system. In
their place, however, three new important branches, the Deoband, Mat branches
have been added to UGC. In the length of its channels, the UGC is still largest
in India. The system comprises 910 km of main canal and branches and 5,280
km of distributaries or 6,190 km of channels in all.
There are many small hydropower plants on UGC which utilize its falls to
generate power. A hydroelectric power station was built on the Ganga canal at
Bahadrabad, 16 km from the site of the head works, where a fall of 5.8 m was
available. Incidentally, a famous research station is situated at Bahadrabad
which is involved in model studies of WRD projects. Another station is situated
at Mohammadpur near Roorkee.

7.1.2. LOWER GANGA CANAL (LGC)
To irrigate the lower portion of Ganga -Yamuna doab, a project was
sanctioned in 1872. Work commenced in that year for constructing a new canal
from the Ganga Riverwith head further down the river. LGC system comprises
a weir across Ganga at Narora (near Aligarh), some 6 km below Rajghat, and
the canal takes off from the right bank of the river. The weir, which is 1,158 m
long, is fitted with falling shutters and enables the level of the normal cold
weather supply of the Ganga to be raised by 3.05 m to feed the canal. Under
sluices, consisting of 42 vents each of 2.14 m span are provided on the right
flank of the weir. The canal head which is set at right angle to the sluices has 30
bays of equal width.
The main canal is 100 km long and irrigates 0.5 million ha. The Lower
Ganga Canal has a discharge capacity of 156 m3/s. It was completed in 1879. It
serves the districts ofMainpuri, Etah, Farrukhabad, Etawah, Kanpur, Fatehpur
The Ganges
29

and Allahabad in central U.P. These canal systems are irrigating a large area of
the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. But, of course, there are still large tracts of culturable
area which do not have irrigation facilities.
The LGC system has 1,060 km of main canal and branches and 5,015 km
of distributaries. In fact UGC and LGC form a single system. A considerable
proportion of channel comprised in the lower system belonged originally to the
upper and a supply of water is regularly passed from the later to the former.
Viewed in this light, the Ganga canals form the largest irrigation system in the
world. The length of the channel, contained in it, is no less than 12,240 km and
it irrigates an area of the size of one million ha.

7.1.3. EAST GANGA CANAL PROJECT
The East Ganga Canal Project envisages the utilization of surplus water
of the Ganga River during the Monsoon season from the existing Barrage at
BhimgodaHaridwar for providing irrigation to 105,000 ha of paddy crop,
mainly in the Bijnor district (99.64 thousand ha), the Haridwar district (360 ha),
and the Moradabad district (5,000 ha). The gross command area of the project is
3.01 lakh ha, out of which 2.33 lakh ha is cultivated. The proposed intensity of
irrigation in Kharif is 45% which will produce an additional amount of 36.0
lakh quintals of paddy crop.
Before introduction of this project, the area was being irrigated by
perennial supplies and by the Upper Ganga and Lower Ganga Canals. The
original project was planned in the year 1976 for an estimated cost of Rs. 48.46
crore and the construction work was started in the year 1980-81.
The soil in the command of the East Ganga canal is generally light loam,
except in northern areas of the Malin-Chhoya, Chhoya-Ban, Ban-Ganga and
Ganga-Kho doabsfalling in the Najibabad, Kiratpur and Kotwali blocks. The
loamy soil in most of the blocks is highly suitable for rice cultivation and
similar soils in the MirzapurandSaharanpur districts produce bumper harvests of
The Ganges
30

paddy. Irrigation can develop easily as soon as water is made available in
abundance. At present the existing sources of irrigation in the Bijnor district are
mainly the state tube wells, private tube wells and a small canal system called
the Bijnor canal group.
The East Ganga Canal command has monsoonal climate. Monsoon
generally starts in the last week of June and lasts up to September. The mean
annual precipitation atBijnor is 1,073 mm. About 90% of the total annual
rainfall is received during June to September and the rest 10% in the remaining
months. The winter rains are insufficient to meet the water requirement of crops
in the area and there is always a need for irrigation water to grow Rabi crops.
Uncertain irregular rain causes floods in the area.

7.2 MADHYA GANGA CANAL

The Madhya Ganga Canal takes off from the Ganga at the Raoli Barrage,
about 11 km east of Bijnor in the U.P. state. Raoli Barrage, completed in 1994,
is 583 m long; the normal water level of the pond is 221.5 m. The capacity at
the head of this 115 km long canal is 234 m3/s and its distributaries are 1466
The Ganges
31

km long. The usage of water is:Anupshar branch 25.5 cumec, Lakhaoti Branch
63 cumec, Upper Ganga Canal 58 cumec, Parallel Mat Feeder 74 cumec, and
losses 13.5 cumec. Madhya Ganga Canalprovides irrigation to paddy crop in
114,000 ha as well as augments supply to the UGC system. The Lakhoti branch
canal takes off at chainage 82 km from the MadhyaGanga Canal. Its discharge
at the head is 63 cume and it is 74 km long. Minors from this canal provide
irrigation over about 192,000 ha land in Neem-Kali Doab in Aligarhand
Bulandshahar Districts.
Rivers in many parts of India carry enormous water during rainy season
which can be used for irrigation for Paddy and to recharge ground water
aquifers. This gave rise to the concept of Monsoon canals. Several such canals
have been planned and constructed, viz., (i) the Eastern Ganga Canal (ii) the
Madhya Ganga Canal, and (iii) the ParallelLower Ganga Canal. These canals
are examples of conjunctive use of water.















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32

8. POLLUTION SOURCES
Major point sources of pollution in river Ganga are discharge of
untreated/partially treated sewage from- -urban- centres- discharge from open
drains carries sewage, -industrial wastewater, returned storm water discharge
from major tributaries discharge of untreated/partially treated/treated
wastewater from industrial units.
Municipal Sewage
Drains
Industries

8.1 POLLUTING INDUSTRIES
8.1.1. INTRODUCTION
One of the functions entrusted to Central pollution control board under
National Ganga River Basin Authority Project is inventorization, monitoring
and surveillance of pollution load discharging into river Ganga. While assessing
the industrial pollution load it is understood that the assessment of pollution
load in the tributaries namely Ramganga and Kali (E) is an imperative
prerequisite. Thus the assessment of pollution load of Kali and Ramganga is
added along with main stem of Ganga. An attempt has been made in this
publication is to collect, collate and dessiminate the information from the data
of concerned State Pollution Control Boards which are located on the banks of
main stem of River Ganga. These are: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand and West Benga

8.1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL UNITS WITH
RESPECT TO PRODUCTS
Industrial units are classified in following sectors.
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33

Chemicals: which mainly include fertilizer, petro-chemical ,
pesticides and pharmaceuticals.
Distillery
Dairy, Food & Beverage
Pulp and Paper
Sugar
Tannery
Textile, Bleaching & Dyeing
Other (Cement, Slaughter house, Ordinance, Packaging &
printing, Paint, Electronics& Electrical, Thermal, Kattha kachh,
Electroplating, Metallurgical, automobile etc.
There are 764 industries in the main stem of Ganga and referred
tributaries Kali (E) and Ramganga. Out of which 687 industrial units are in
Uttar Pradesh followed by 42 in Uttarakhand. Sector wise distribution of
industrial units is given in figure. It is observed from the figure that number
wise tan neries are dominant industries followed by sugar, pulp & paper and
Textile, dyeing and bleach.
Total water consumption in the industries is 1123 MLD and waste water
generation is 501 MLD. Uttar Pradesh is the dominating states with respect to
The Ganges
34

water consumption (62 % of total water consumed) and wastewater generation
(45% of total wastewater generated) followed by Uttarakhand
Refer ANNEXURE II State wise status of industrial unit, water
consumption and wastewater generation

State wise water consumptionStatewise wastewater generation
On Close examination to the table andfigure it can be observed that :
Wastewater generation is nearly 45% in terms of total water
consumption.
In terms of water consumption industries in Uttar Pradesh consumes
maximum water followed by Uttarakhand and West Bengal. But
wastewater generation with respect to water consumption is enhanced in
Uttarakhand and West Bengal.

Refer ANNEXURE III - For Status of sector specific industrial water
consumption and wastewater generation

8.2 DRAINS
Drains are the channels which are either man made or available in the system
naturally to carry storm water to its disposal point which can be either a river or
a lake/pond or sea. However, in absence of sewerage systems, drains are turned
into open sewers to carry storm water and sewage.
*DRAINS DISCHARGING WASTEWATER TO RIVER GANGA
There are 138 drains and discharging 6087 MLDof wastewater. In Uttrakhand
14 nos. of drains are discharging 440 MLD of industrial and domestic
wastewater directly/indirectly to river Ganga. Uttar Pradesh discharges 3289
MLD of industrial and domestic wastewater through 45 drains. 25 no. of drains
identified in state of Bihar discharging 579 MLD of wastewater to river Ganga.
The Ganges
35

1779 MLD of wastewater discharges to river Ganga through 54 drains in West
Bengal.


8.3 SEWAGE GENERATION
There are 36 Class I cities and 14 Class II towns along the mainstream of
Ganga. Status of wastewater generation and treatment capacity in these urban
centres along Ganga River is summarized in table

Table indicates that there are fifty cities (Class I & Class II) discharging
2723.3 MLD wastewater out of which 1208.8 MLD has the treatment capacities
i.e 44 %. The contribution of class I cities is 96 % of total wastewater
generation and the treatment capacity is almost 99 % of the total treatment
capacity.

8.3.1. STATE WISE WASTEWATER GENERATION IN CLASS
I CITIES ARE AS FOLLOWS:
Uttrakhand generated 39.6 MLD about 27 % of total wastewater
generation.
Uttar Pradesh has seven cities but generates 873.9 MLD i.e 34 % of total
wastewater generation.
The Ganges
36

With respect to Bihar, wastewater generation from 4 cities 376.5 MLD i.e
14 % of total wastewater generation. The major city is Patna which
generates 249.2 MLD i.e 66 % of total wastewater generation in the state
of Bihar.
The state of West Bengal generates 1311 MLD i.e 50 % and major city is
Kolkata i.e 47 % almost half of waste water generation in the state of
West Bengal. Next to Kolkata, the city of Haora generates significant
amount of wastewater generates 136.2 MLD i.e 10 %.

8.3.2. STATE WISE WASTEWATER TREATMENT
CAPACITY IN CLASS I CITIES ARE AS FOLLOWS:
It is observed that in the state of Uttar Pradesh, wastewater treatment
capacity is 53 % of total wastewater generation of the state.
In case of Bihar, it is 44 % of total waste water generation.
With respect to West Bengal, the treatment capacity is 42 % of the
wastewater generation.
Refer ANNEXURE IV- For sewage generation of Class-I cities in Ganga
river

8.3.3. SEWAGE GENERATION OF CLASS-II TOWNS IN
GANGA RIVER
Close examination of table reveals following observations:
122 MLD of sewage generated from 14 class-II towns and treatment
capacity was 16.4 MLD i.e (13.44 %).
In Uttrakhand, total sewage generation was21.7 MLD whereas treatment
capacity was 6.3 MLD (29.03 %).
In Uttar Pradesh, 07 number of class IItowns generates 63.5 MLD of
sewage and total treatment capacity 8.5 MLD viz 12.75 %.
The Ganges
37

Sewage generation from Mughalsarai (25 %) and Ghazipur (17 %) was
maximum in comparison to other class IItowns of Uttar Pradesh.
04 no. of class IItowns of Bihar generates 30.7 MLD of sewage
whereas treatment capacity was 2 MLD (6.5 %).
In West Bengal, Ranaghat was the only class-II town discharging 06
MLD of sewage.
Refer ANNEXURE V Sewage generation of class-I towns in ganga river

8.4 STATUS OF WATER QUALITY OF RIVER GANGA
8.4.1. WATER QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK
In order to assess water quality of river Ganga, the Central Pollution Control
Board has set up 57 water quality monitoring stations on the main stem of river
Ganga, in association with State Pollution Control Boards of Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal.The salient featuresof monitoring
locations is presented in table


8.4.2. WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
The core water quality parameters studied are temperature, pH,
conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
nitrate, nitrite, total coliforms (TC), and faecal coliforms (FC). Besides, several
other location-specific parameters are also studied. Generally, state pollution
control boards assist in sampling and analysis of water quality data, while the
CPCB undertakes scrutiny, processing, and storage of data, along with the
analysis of data for interpretation and preparation of action plans. The
monitoring is undertaken either on monthly or yearly basis.
The Ganges
38

8.4.3. WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF RIVER GANGA
The monitoring results obtained during 2011 under National Water
Quality Monitoring Programme reflect that organic matter and bacterial
population of faecal origin continue to dominate the pollution problem in River
Ganga. The major water quality concerns as revealed from the monitoring
results are pathogenic pollution as reflected through indicators i.e. Total
Coliforms (TC) & Faecal Coliform (FC), organic matter as reflected through
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and salinity as reflected through
conductivity. The observed range of water quality parameters river Ganga for
the year 2011 along with summary for the year 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006,
2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 is given in Table
Refer ANNEXURE VI - Table for water quality assessment of river Ganga

The River Ganga suffers from myriad problems, most significant ones
being the lean flow during dry season. Discharge of untreated and/or partially
treated sewage and industrial wastewater into the river is a key issue. Diversion
of river water through Upper and Lower Ganga canals, leaving virtually very
little flow in the main river stream makes dilution difficult even for the treated
sewage.
In Uttar Pradesh, there is need of treatment of sewage and availability of
proper conveyance system for sewage. River Ganga also needs minimum
ecological flow for its survival in the stretch of Uttar Pradesh. Since a river is a
living eco-system and therefore ultimate goal should be to protect the
functioning of the river eco-system.
Major Tribuatries of river Ganga namely Ramganga and Kali-East need
immediate attention as they carry industrial and domestic pollution load of
Uttrakhand and Uttar Pradesh.
Major industrial sector namely, Tannery, Sugar & Distillery, Pulp and
Paper mills contributes significant pollution load to river Ganga and its
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tribuatries. There is immediate need of firm environment surveillance in order
to check their compliance with environmental standards.
It is pertinent to mention that incessant discharge of treated sewage (BOD
level of 30 mg/l) cannot bring the river water to bathing quality level in lean
season, even if sewage get 100% treatment. Therefore, it is neccesary that
minimum flow throughout theyear is maintained to support eco-system of river
and aquatic life. Itwould be advisable to createmore water storage facility for
Ganga riverine system and release water inthe lean period to effectively
maintain minimum flow in the river.


















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9. GANGA ACTION PLAN (GAP)
Inertia in taking action to reduce the level of pollution stemmed
largely from a widespread belief that the Ganga, as a holy river, had the ability
to purify all that came into contact with it. Although there is some scientific
evidence for the Ganga rivers high capacity to assimilate (i.e. biodegrade) a
large level of organic waste input, including pathogens, but no river can sustain
its self-purifying power with this kind of over-use, misuse and abuse of its
waters.
The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) originated from the personal intervention
and interest of our late Prime Minister Mrs Indira Gandhi who had directed the
Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, now Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to do a comprehensive survey of the situation
in 1979. CPCB published two comprehensive reports which formed the base for
GAP in Oct 1984 but was not presented to the nation formally due to
assassination of Smt Indira Gandhi.
In Feb 1985, the Central Ganga Authority (CGA) with the PM as
Chairman was formed, with an initial budget of Rs 350 crore to administer the
cleaning of the Ganga and to restore it to pristine condition by our late PM Sh
Rajiv Gandhi. In June 1985, the Ganga Project Directorate (GPD) was
established as a wing of the Department of Environment. GAP was launched on
June 14, 1986 by Sh Rajiv Gandhi at Varanasi.

9.1. FAILURE OF THE GAP
The Ganga Action Plan launched in 1986 by the Government of India has
not achieved any success despite expenditure of approximately 2,000 crore
rupees. Even though the government claims that the schemes under the
Ganga Action Plan have been successful, ground realities tell a different
story. The failure of the GAP is evident but corrective action is lacking. GAP
has been dubbed variously as Ganga Inaction Plan, Pumps and Pipes scheme, a
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Colossal FailureMedia report that there are GAPING HOLES in GAP
and its a shocking tale of official apathy and corruption ... All the money has
gone down the drain, People are quick to offer their opinion of why GAP has
been doomed to failure. Mismanagement, corruption, and incompetence all rank
high on the lists of accusations.
While launching the GAP, our late PM Rajiv Gandhi said:
The purity of the Ganga has never been in doubt. Yet we have allowed
the pollution of this river which is the symbol of our spirituality. The felling of
trees has caused severe floods, and silt and mud now flow into the Ganga
making the river shallow so that boats can not ply in it as they did before.
Sewage and pollution from cities, industries and factories and dead animals are
also being thrown into the Ganga. From now on, we shall put a stop to this. We
shall see that the waters of the Ganga become clean once again.
The Ganga Action Plan is not just a government plan. It has not been
prepared for the PWD or government officials alone. It is a plan for all the
people of India; one in which they can come forward and participate. It is upto
us to clean the whole of Ganga and refrain from polluting it.
This programme, starting at Varanasi here today will reach out to
every corner of our land and to all our rivers. In the years to come, not only the
Ganga, but all our rivers will be clean and pure as they were thousands of years
ago.
Unfortunately, the statements/promises made by the late PM have been
proven untrue. The expectations of the people have been belied and dazed to the
ground.
The GAP I was extended as GAP II from 1993 onwards covering 4 major
tributaries of Ganga, namely, Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar and Mahananda. The
program was further broad-based in 1995 with the inclusion of other rivers and
renamed as National River Conservation Plan (NRCP). Ganga could not be
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cleaned but 34 other rivers have been taken up for cleaning with the same failed
model of GAP.
Various explanations abound as does speculation and apportionment of
the blame for this failure. In the last 21 years, leadership and staff of GAP have
come and gone, often without any vision and commitment. There have been
reviews and monitoring from time to time at different levels but the problems
identified were never addressed and the decisions taken were never enforced.
The lower level officials most often were unfamiliar with the work done by
previous groups.
GAP needs a critical examination, a thorough review and a complete
overhaul. It has become so infamous and stale that it needs to be done away
with completely. A new plan with a fresh name, more real and practical
objectives, concrete action plans is needed to restore the health of the river
Ganga. A committed, visionary, dynamic and practical man needs to be given
the charge of cleaning and restoring the ecological health of river Ganga.
Serious and honest efforts are needed. Casual approach and cosmetic efforts
will only worsen the condition of river Ganga.

9.2. OBJECTIVE OF GAP
The objectives of the GAP were broad: to abate pollution and improve
water quality, to conserve biodiversity and develop an integrated river basin
management approach, to conduct comprehensive research to further these
objectives, and to gain experience for implementing similar river clean up
programs in other polluted rivers in India. A plan of action was developed in
order to achieve these objectives, those actions that addressed the major, direct
causes of pollution in the Ganga were identified as core sector schemes,
and those that address indirect sources or sources deemed to be direct but of a
lower impact were called non-core sector. Core sector schemes included the
interception and diversion of domestic wastewater including the construction
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and rehabilitation of sewers and pump houses, while non-core sector schemes
consisted of the installation of crematoria, river front development and aesthetic
improvement, implementation of low cost sanitation systems, and
miscellaneous activities such as water quality monitoring, research
programmes, and identification and management of waste from grossly
polluting industries.
At the time of launching, the main objective of GAP was to improve the
water quality of Ganga to acceptable standards by preventing the pollution
load reaching the river. However, as decided in a meeting of the Monitoring
Committee in June 1987 under the Chairmanship of Prof MG K Menon, then
Member, Planning Commission, the objective of GAP was recast as restoring
the river water quality to the 'Bathing Class' standard which is as follows:
BOD 3 mg/l max.TO 5 mg/l min.
Total Coliform MPN 10,000/100 ml
Faecal Coliform MPN25000/100 ML

Source: Report of the Committee constituted to recommend
measures for improvement in GAP, Mar 1999, MOE&F

It is obvious from the above tables that total coliform and faecal coliform
levels were diluted by the Committee headed by Prof MGK Menon. The two
different standards, one set by MGK Menon Committee for GAP and the
other by CPCB, an agency which operates under MOE&F, are
contradictory. Even the relaxed diluted standards have not been achieved and
the microbial pollution at the bathing ghats even in the towns where GAP I
has been implemented is of the order of MPN 10
6
/100 ml.


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A proper understanding of the standards set by the CPCB will help to set
the correct objectives for the GAP. The classification of the river water
quality by the CPCB has been done on the basis of the designated best use to
which the river water is put to at various stretches. The designated best use
classification of the CPCB is as follows:
Refer ANNEXURE VII Designated best use of classification of the CPCB

9.3. GANGA ACTION PLAN PHASE-1
The Ganga Project Directorate, Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Govt. of India had identified 34 industries in UP under Ganga Action Plan
Phase1 in 1985-86. The status of Pollution Control System installed in the
industries is as following:-

1. Industries which have installed ETP 19
2. Industries which have installed ETP but are lying
closed
9
3. Industries which are lying closed for many years 6
Total 34

The Central Pollution Control Board has identified another list of 83
industries located in UP which are discharging their effluent directly into River
Ganga in addition to the 34 industries identified under Ganga Action Plan I.
The latest status of effluent treatment plant in these 83 industries is as following
:-
1. Industries which are complying the standards 59
2. Industries which are lying closed 24
Total 83

9.4. RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
A limited number of research projects were undertaken with thrust on
scheme specific and site specific projects, the results of which could be
gainfully employed in the implementation and efficacy of the GAP. Research
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studies were, therefore, carried out in identified thrust areas like pollution
monitoring, bio-diversity, bio-conservation, cost- effective innovative
technologies, impact assessment, control of bacterial pollution etc.

9.5. ECOLOGY
To restore the ecological health and biological wealth of the river,
projects on bio- monitoring and bio-conservation by having indicator species
approach were initiated in the Himalayan segment, mahaseer followed by otters
and crocodiles from Hardwar to Kanpur, major carps from Kanpur to Varanasi
and dolphins in the stretch of Bihar have been identified as indicator species for
these studies. Scientists of Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna University, Garhwal,
Jivaji University, Gwalior, Central Inland Capture Fisheries research Institute,
Barrackpur and Patna University are involved in carrying out the bio-
monitoring and bio-conservation studies.

9.6. WATER QUALITY MONITORING (WQM)
In order to evaluate the results of implementation of the pollution
abatement schemes under GAP, water quality monitoring in the state of UP,
Bihar and WB is being carried out regularly at 27 monitoring stations with the
help of reputed research institutes and universities. The selection of monitoring
stations and the results are reviewed by experts from time to time. Amendments
in WQM are provided by incorporating need based modifications.

9.7. IMPACT ON RIVER WATER
Under GAP I, only about 35% of the total sewage generated presently in
towns along the river has been tackled. On the other hand, the facilities created
to tackle the targeted pollution load are not being maintained properly in States
like UP and Bihar. Therefore, the impact of the completed works is not fully
visible.
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However, with the implementation of GAP, the water quality of Ganga
has shown improvement over the pre-GAP period quality in terms of both BOD
& DO, two important parameters to assess the river water quality. The pre and
post-GAP (1986) data are shown below:
Despite the problems of O&M in UP and Bihar, the improvement in
river water quality can be attributed to diversion of large quantities of sewage
in towns like Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi for irrigating the farmlands.
Although the river water quality along Kanpur and Varanasi has improved
significantly, it still does not meet the prescribed standard of BOD of 3 mg/l.
This is mainly because:
Only 160 out of 425 mld at Kanpur and about 100 out of 160 mld of
sewage at Varanasi has been taken up for interception and diversion under
GAP I.
The river stretch from Farrukhabad to Varanasi in general and
Kanpur in particular is critical in terms of the availability of the desired
minimum flow for dilution purpose.
The quality of river water quality monitoring leaves much to be desired.
There is lack of transparency and professionalism in this effort.

Impact on health
The efficacy of the schemes taken up under GAP in the towns of
Varanasi and Nabadweep was evaluated for the effects on the health of the
people particularly those who were directly affected by Ganga water. All India
Institute of Hygiene and Public Health (AIIHPH), Kolkata alongwith NEERI,
Nagpur carried out studies in these towns. The studies revealed that as the
projects under GAP were being completed, there was a decreasing trend in the
incidence of water borne diseases. However, in case of sewage farm workers
handling untreated sewage, there was prevalence of diahorrea, helminthic
infection, skin diseases and respiratory tract infection.
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9.8. EVALUATION OF GAP
On the direction of Planning Commission, a cost-benefit analysis of GAP
was initiated under the leadership of Prof Anil Markandaya of Harvard
Institute of International Development, in collaboration with local institutes
viz., Institute of Economic Growth, New Delhi, ITRC, Lucknow, AIIHPH,
Kolkata. Funding for the study was provided by the government of UK.

9.9. RECOMMENDATIONS
A white Paper on the status of Ganga and GAP.
A compliance status report of Ganga related court cases.
The agenda notes of the NRCA should be documented and assessed.
R&D projects should be assessed for their relevance and usefulness.
Water quality monitoring system needs to be revamped.
Ganga Dialogues should be held involving those who were
involved in the planning and execution of GAP, religious institutions,
NGOs and others.
A Ganga Restoration Plan with an independent institutional
mechanism, a full time Ganga Restoration Authority like National
Highway Authority to carry out the clearly defined goals in a definite time
frame.
The focus should be on visual pollution. The river should be made
visually clean and the riverfront should be beautified.
Governments should take preventive measures first which do not
require funds.
A Ganga Restoration Fund should be constituted.
River bed farming, poaching of turtles, dolphins and fishing should be
banned.
No more colonization of Ganga land for urbanization and
industrialization should be allowed.
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Additional resources should be generated by charging the Ganga users,
through sand mining etc.
Army should be involved in cleaning the river in Cantonment stretches.
River Regulation Zone on the lines of CRZ. 200 m of coastal land
wherever possible should be allocated for afforestation.
Government sponsored pollution-Kumbha/Ardha-Kumbha should be
stopped.
Self-purifying power of the river should be ascertained. The mysterious
X factor should be isolated.
People should be warned that the river water is not worth aachman and
bathing.
Can we not clean Ganga and We demand a clean Ganga campaigns
should be launched.