- -.

~
-J
CHAPTER
13
Special Considerations
with Assessments
Mr. Thompson is in his second year of teaching physical sciences at a new high school in an urban
school district in the southeast. Due to increased science standards and course requirements for
graduation in his state, Mr. Thompson's science courses are flooded with students. However, many
of his students have little or no background in chemistry and physics or even general science.
Mr. Thompson has discovered that this situation is causing a number of different problems.
Many of his students complain that his classroom is not supportive for students with little science
eperience. They also complain that the math needed for his classes was not available to them.
!ome of them have complained that Mr. Thompson is not as helpful about the situation as he
should be. "ther students have asked for special test review and test preparation classes. #ight
before the first test, Mr. Thompson also had a number of students tell him that they had more test
aniety about his classroom tests than in any other course.
During and after the first test, Mr. Thompson became aware of a potentially even bigger
problem. $ number of students appeared to be copying each other's answers on the eam. %hen he
checks some of their scores, he finds that there are many similar answers.
&ase !tudy
'ntroduction
&lassroom (nvironment and $ssessments
&reating a )ositive (nvironment &lassroom
$ssessment (nvironment &lassroom
!tructure and &onditions !eating
$rrangements
Test )reparation and $ssessments
*ormal )reparatory )rograms
and $ssessments
Test )reparation $ctivities
CASE STUDY
Test $niety
$cademic Dishonesty and &lassroom.
$ssessments
&hapter !ummary
&ase !tudy (pilogue
&hapter $ctivities
+ey &oncepts
#eview ,uestions
!elf-$ssessment
#eferences
-- - -
277
..
./0 &H$)T(# 12
These problems leave Mr. Thompson with a number of questions. $mong th3m are the
following4
%hat can he do to provide a more positive classroom environment5
%hat can he do to be a more helpful teacher5
%hat can he do to make the test situations more positive5
How can he more effectively help students prepare for eams5 %hat
are some ways to decrease test aniety in students5
%hat should he do about academic cheating5
Introduction
This chapter analy6es a number of special issues and concerns about assessment admin-
istration and assessment practices. $ good part of these issues and concerns deal with
the relationship between the classroom environment and assessments. *or eample, the
first section of this chapter eamines the factors involved in creating a positive class-
room assessment environment. 'ncluded among these aspects are supportive teacher
behaviors, assessment practices, classroom physical conditions, and classroom seating
arrangements.
The second section of this chapter reviews a number of different problem areas
with classroom assessment practices. This section begins with an eamination of the
different methods of test preparation. (thical and unethical test preparation practices are
detailed. The net part contains the problem of test aniety. This section reviews the
research on test aniety and presents recommendations for dealing with test aniety.
The end of this chapter provides a critical analysis on the problems of academic cheat-
ing. This section eamines ways that teachers may combat cheating.
Classroom Environment and Assessments
&lassroom environment is the overall setting and contet in which all classroom
activities occur. 't include7 the social climate of the classroom, the physic411 features
of the room, the assessment situation and contet, and instructional activities of the
teacher. Therefore, classroom environment ranges from the educational to the
social to the physical features of a classroom.
&lassroom climate is a subcategory of classroom environment that focuses on the
emotional and social interactions in the classroom. (very organi6ation has its own
climate. 'n the classroom, the climate is largely determined by the social and psycho-
logical relationships between the teacher and the students 8#osenfeld, 1902:. This rela-
tionship gives each individual classroom its own atmosphere or personality. The
leading factor in developing these relationships is the teacher.
&lassroom assessment environment also is a subcategory of classroom environ-
ment. &lassroom assessment environment focuses on the background and contet
;
!pecial &onsiderations with $ssessments
./9
created for students during different assessment procedures 8!tiggins < &onklin, 199.:.
$s with classroom climate, the central factor is the teacher. There are a number of
aspects to consider about classroom environment and classroom assessment environ-
ment. The net section eamines these various aspects.
- --
&reating a )ositive (nvironment
The research on classroom environment and climate indicates that teacher immediacy
and responsiveness behaviors are important factors in students' perceptions of a sup-
portive classroom 8=ordan < Merkel, 199>:. Teacher immediacy and responsiveness
behaviors indicate that the teacher wants positive communications. These actions include
eye contact, smiling, physical proimity, encouraging questions, and praising students'
work. These teacher behaviors indicate an interest in immediate and active responding to
student needs. The more a teacher demonstrates these behaviors, the more positive the
students' views about the classroom will be.
"ther teacher behaviors that may help produce a supportive classroom environ-
ment are4
1. Teachers who are sensitive as to when students need help and when they do not ..
Teachers who allow some individual freedom and choice by students
2. Teachers who actively strive to create a positive feeling between students
The ability to create a harmonious working atmosphere among students appears to
be especially important. ?roup activities, group pro@ects, and informal group assess-
ments may help in nurturing a supportive climate. !tudents who are used to working in
teams seem more likely to be supportive of each other. The research indicates a number
of teacher behaviors that can enhance a supportive classroom environment. The fol-
lowing is a list of some of these activities4
Factors Contributing to a Supportive Environment
1. $ teacher who uses a relaed and open manner in student interactions
.. $ teacher who promotes cooperation among students
2. $ teacher who encourages a free echange of ideas
>. $ teacher who clearly defines what is epected of students
7. $ teacher who consistently demonstrates a desire for students to succeed in class A.
$ teacher who provides useful feedback to students
/. $ teacher who moves around the classroom, interacting positively with students 0.
$ teacher who has positive epectations for student performance
Bnfortunately, research indicates that the environment in many classrooms tends to be
negative rather than supportive 8Myers < #occa, .CC1:. $ negative environment can cause a
number of problems with classroom assessments. 'n particular, test aniety, inappropriate behavior,
and negative self-efficacy can be increased in a negative classroom environment. There are a
number of classroom environment factors that can adversely affect your students4
.0C &H$)T(# 12
Factors Contributing to a Negative Environment
1. $ teacher who embarrasses students when they miss questions on a test or during
class discussion
.. $ teacher who makes disparaging remarks about students' performance on assess
ments 2. $ teacher who encourages competition among students on assessments >.
$ teacher who is overly intrusive or overly controlling in every aspect of student
behavior
7. $ teacher who inappropriately responds to students' requests.
&lassroom $ssessment (nvironment
&learly, certain aspects-positive or negative---can have an effect on the quality of
assessments in your classroom environment. $s previously stated, the way that each
individual classroom teacher interacts with students is the prime variable. !ome edu-
cators have focused more specifically on the factors that contribute to the classroom
assessment environment. #ecall that !tiggins and &onklin 8199.: defined the classroom
assessment environment as the contet created for students during different assessment
procedures. There are a number of aspects !iggins and &onklin discuss in developing a
positive classroom assessment environment. $mong these factors are the following4
1. $ variety of appropriate assessment methods closely linked to instruction ..
!electing assessments that have established quality
2. &learly defined epectations and positive perceptions of students
>. *air and consistent assessment policies in grading students
7. (ffective feedback after assessments
#esearch on classroom assessment environments indicates that the environment has an
impact on student achievement in the classroom 8Drookhart, 199/:. Eot surprisingly, classrooms
with a positive assessment environment tend to have better student achievement 8Drookhart,
199/:. The research also demonstrates that there is a reciprocal relationship between classroom
assessment environment and the factors of assessment perceptions, appropriate epectations,
effective feedback, and self-efficacy 8Drookhart < De F oge, 1999:. 'n positive assessment
environments, students appear to perceive assessments in a more favorable light. Teachers who
provide appropriate epectations and effective feedback generally bring about an increase in
achievement in their students. !tudent self-efficacy also should be influenced in a positive
manner with a positive assessment environment.
"n the other hand, there are certain areas of the classroom assessment environment that
may be beyond the teacher's control. &lass si6e can be a factor in this envi ronment. There is a
tendency for larger classes to have a somewhat less positive and supportive environment.
!choolwide or syste=11wide policies may have an effect on the assessment environment. *or
eample, increasing academic standards may have an
impact on the assessment environment. The actual physical layout of buildings or elass
!pecial &onsiderations with $ssessments
.01
rooms can also have an impact. The net section further eamines the physical structure
factors involved in the classroom assessment environment.
&lassroom !tructure and &onditions
The physical features and conditions of the classroom are an important part of the
assessment environment. #oom temperature, lighting, classroom design, and seating
arrangements can all have an impact on student achievement and the quality of assess-
ment practices. The following teacher application specifically addresses the physical
comfort and conditions of the classroom.
Teacher $pplication
&lassroom !tructure and &onditions for $ssessments
. 's the classroom temperature comfortable during assessments5
. 's the lighting appropriate for students5
. 's the room well ventilated5
. $re there any unnecessary distractions, such as too much noise during assessments5 . $re
the seating arrangements comfortable5
. $re computers, lab equipment, and other instructional devices arranged in an appro
priate manner to match the students' needs during assessments5
. Does the design and upkeep of the classroom make it an inviting place for students to
take assessments5
$ physically uncomfortable environment can be a distraction to students during
assessments. Goud noise levels, high temperatures, and poor ventilation almost certainly
reduce performance. $..'l uncomfortable environment can result in incorrect or unreliable
levels of achievement among students. 'n addition to these factors, there are a number of
issues concerning seating arrangements. The net section reviews these 'ssues.
!eating $rrangements
Many studies have indicated that when students are allowed to choose their own seats in
a classroom, there is a noticeable effect on achievement during formal and informal
assessments 8Gevine, "'Eeal, < McDonald, 190CH %ulf, 19/A:. !tudents who choose to
sit nearest to the teacher tead to have higher rates of achievementH students who choose
to sit far from the teacher tend to have lower rates of achievement. However, when
students are assigned seats, this effect essentially disappears, with no significant
relationship between seat assignment and achievement. $ similar pattern can be seen
with class participation on informal assessments. 'f allowed to choose their own seats,
students who sit near the teacher will participate more in class discussions and on infor -
mal assessments requiring student participation.
.0.
,.
&H$)T(# 12
$nother aspect about seating arrangements is t..'1e issue of organi6ing classroom seating
during assessments. There are three standard patterns4
1. #ow seating refers to the traditional seating of four or five rows with desks one
behind another.
.. &ircular seating 8or semicircular seating) consists of some type of circular
arrangement with all desks having a clear view of the teacher.
2. &luster seating refers to groups of students seated at large tables.
"ne recent survey of +-7 classroom seating arrangements found that approi-
mately /7 percent of elementary school classrooms use some form of cluster seating
8)atton, !nell, +night, < ?erken, .CC1:. The primary grades are more likely than later
grades to use cluster seating. $ccording to the researchers, these findings are in marked
contrast to previous surveys in this area that indicated that row seating was the predom-
inant pattern in elementary classrooms through the 190Cs.
The ma@or reason for the change is the idea that cooperative learning and group
assessment activities are fostered by cluster seating arrangements. )atton and colleagues
8.CC1: state that many teachers believe that cluster seating helps foster cooperative
learning and that cooperative learning helps foster student achievement. However, the
authors note that previous research does not clearly indicate that these beliefs are sup-
ported.
$chievement levels on classroom assessments do not appear to be any greater
with cluster seating than with other forms of seating. $s previously indicated, assigned
seating arrangements do not appear to have any effect on student achievement. The
research is more straightforward about the issue of off-task behaviors. $ number of
studies of +
1. students indicate that row seating, not cluster seating, decreases off-task behaviors
and increases on-task behaviors 8$elrod, Hall, < Tams, 19/9H 3eldall, Morris,
Faughan, < Eg, 1901H 3eldall < Gam, 190/:. 'n these studies, seating in rows markedly
reduced off-task behavior when compared with cluster seating. !eating in rows, versus
clusters, produced noticeable increases in on-task behaviors.
There may be an increase in student participation when a circularIhorseshoe seat-
ing arrangement is used rather than row seating 8#osenfeld, Gambert, < Dlack, 1907:.
&ircular seating arrangements may enhance instruction and informal assessments that
focus on group discussion and student participation. $gain, participation with this seat-
ing arrangement appears to be primarily influenced by whether students choose their
seats or are assigned seats.
!o what's a teacher to do about choosing seating arrangements5 )apalia 819/A:
makes an important point about classroom seating4 Eo one seating arrangement is going
to work all the time. *or some activities row seating may be better, whereas with other
activities it may be better to use either cluster or circular seating. )apalia's review states
that the following activities may be best performed with the three ma@or seating
arrangements4
H
Instruction, Assessments, and Seating Arrangements
1. &luster !eating. Tutoring, peer teaching, peer assessments, use of self-instruc
tional materials, and cooperative grouping according to interests and activities
J
!pecial &onsiderations with $ssessments
.02
.. #ow !eating. 'ntroduction of new material, formal assessments, independent
work, and audiovisual presentations
2. &ircular !eating. Teacher mobility, eye contact, interpersonal communication,
and game playing
)erhaps the best advice is to change seating arrangements based on the preceding activities.
#ather than rely on only one type of seating, altering your seating arrangements based on your
assessment and instructional activities may enhance the classroom environment.
Test )reparation and $ssessments
)opham 8190/: coined the term high-stakes testing to refer to school districts where
ma@or educational decisions are based on standardi6ed test scores. As noted before, there
is considerable controversy about the use of high-stakes testing. Many educators believe
that such testing may improve test scores but without a corresponding gain in learning
8&annell, 1900H !hepard, 199CH !hepard < Dougherty, 1991:.
High-stakes testing has produced some other troubling educational problems. "ne
such problem is the etensive time spent in preparation for taking the tests. %eeks and
even months in some cases may be devoted to test preparation. "ne elementary school
that ' am familiar with spent an entire year preparing for the standardi6ed assessments.
The school was on a state watch list for low test scores and had one year to bring up its
scores to the mandated level or be placed under direct state control. $lthough the school
succeeded in meeting the mandated score, it devoted the entire year to test-taking skills
and test preparation for this standardi6ed test. 't is perhaps the most etreme form of
Kteaching to the content of the testK about which ' personally know.
!mith 81991: studied various types of state test preparation programs. These pro-
grams included test-taking skills, ehortations by the faculty, teaching content known to
be covered by the test, teaching to the test, stress inoculation, practicing parallel tests
items, and cheating.
Teaching test-taking skills, such as limiting guessing and answering the easy
questions first, is clearly ethical. However, some of the other test preparation aspects are
clearly not ethical. *or instance, it is clearly unethical to teach the test items directly,
either through teaching to a previous or a current version of the test. )arallel forms,
provided by the publisher for actual practice by students, is an ethical practice, although
a somewhat questionable teaching practice. 'n effect, practice tests and practice test
eercises are acceptable, but they are not really what teaching and learning are all about.
&heating by teachers or administrators is clearly unethical.
'n their survey of high-stakes testing, !hepard and Dougherty 81991: found that A
percent of teachers believed that changing incorrect answers to correct ones on answer
documents occurred in their school. The study reported that 0 percent of teachers
indicated that students who might have trouble on the test were encouraged to be absent
on the day of testing. $dditional findings indicated that .2 percent of teachers believed
that hints to correct answers were given and that 10 percent believed that questions were
rephrased to help students in their school.
.
.0> &H$)T(# 12
Th3se types of teacher behaviors are considered unethical by the ma@or professional
educational and psychological associations. !uch practices compromise the integrity of the tests
and call into question the entire assessment and educational process.
* onnal )reparatory )rograms and $ssessments
$ number of companies claim that they can produce a.significant increase in students'
scores with formal preparatory classes and programs. Messick 8190.: presented evidence
that coaching and preparatory programs were able to substantially improve !$T scores.
"n the other hand, in his review of the effects of preparatory programs, &unningham
8190A: stated that short-term courses result in only modest improvements in assessment
scores. &unningham did acknowledge, however, that intensive training may produce
greater increases in scores. &unningham also pointed out that the scores on mathematics
tests were more likely to be improved than other areas. This finding appears to be
consistent with other research.
'n the teacher application section that follows, a number of veteran teachers were
asked to provide their views on test preparation programs and how they use standardi6ed
assessment scores.
Teacher $pplication
Fiews on Test )reparation and on Bsing Test !cores
' use a testing and instructional program called !coring High to prepare students for the &om-
prehensive Test of Dasic !kills 8&TD!:. ' use it so children can test in a fonnat like the &TD!. '
also use this program as a review. ' check the results of the &TD! to see if modifications are
needed for students who are having trouble. Dut ' do not use them to put Lthe studentsM into levels.
' teach whole-class instructionH ' do not track. ' think that these types of tests are only one
indicator. !ome children cannot test well but do well otherwise. ' think tracking and labeling can
have a real negative impact if La child isM placed in a low group.-Linda Parer, t!irdgrade teac!er
' do not do any special preparation for the &omprehensive Test of Dasic !kills. Bnless everyone
does it, it would be unfair.-Eanry "!ompson, t!ird-grade teac!er
$s a school, we do a test item analysis of our standardi6ed achievement scores. "ur whole faculty
senate looks at strengths and weaknesses. %e go to work on the #eanesses.-Nanr$ %o!een, &irst-
grade teac!er
' use a standardi6ed achievement scores only when another indicator, such as classroom per -
fonnance, observations, verbal or nonverbal ability, would indicate a need to use them. Fery high
or very low achievers would be checked. ' think my own classroom measures are more helpful.
The standardi6ed tests take up too much time. ' would rather use the time for class room
instruction.-'ebecca (ueen, second-grade teac!er
.
!pecial &onsiderations with $ssessments
.07
"n some of these tests ' think that students are tested on materials that have never been covered in
class. +eep in mind that learning outcomes vary from school system to school system, from
county to county, and from state to state. 't is unfair to assume that a standardi6ed test or a national
eam can take all this into account.--S!eila Leac!, si)t!-grade teac!er
%e use these types of tests to chart student progress and the weaknesses of each child. %e pass the
information along to the net teacher to see what skills are weak. That way she will know what
needs to be worked on. 't cuts wasted time for the net teacher.-Mary 'ussell,&irst-grade teac!er
$s indicated in these statements, individual teachers have a number of different
ideas about test preparation programs and how to use test results. !ome teachers and
schools use formal test preparation programsH others believe that such programs are
either inherently unfair to certain students or an inappropriate instructional practice.
Test Preparation Activities
Teaching test-taking skills and teaching how to deal with the stress or aniety about tests
are appropriate activities for teachers. Test-taking skills include three separate areas4 time
management, practicing with different test formats, and identifying the important
information in items.
"ime management on tests helps stBdents plan how much they can devote to each
part of the test. "ne recommendation is that stBdents read through the test and answer
the items that they are sure about during this first read. During the second read, they
should then deal with the items that they are uncertain about on the first read. This helps
students manage the remaining time on the test and allows them to focus on the questions
that pose problems for them.
Practicing #it! di&&erent item &ormats allows students to understand some of the
differences between different types of assessments. *or eample, practicing with certain
item formats, such as multiple-choice items, may enable stBdents to select the correct
answer by the process of elimination. $nother important aspect of using different formats
help stBdents with completing computeri6ed answer sheets. Many stBdents have
problems with following directions and responding on Kbubble sheets.K )racticing how to
actBally answer items from a test booklet with a bubble sheet may help stBdents achieve
at a higher rate.
Identi&$ing important in&ormation in items involves ensuring that stBdents can
select the essential parts of the test questions and can effectively respond to the questions.
*or eample, in responding to an essay question, the stBdents are able to identify what is
the central underlying theme to the question. !tudents can eliminate certain parts of their
responses and focus on @ust the essentials. *igure 12.1 shows some recommendations
from one state department of education on how to prepare for standardi6ed assessments.
Eumerous programs and state websites now eist for preparing stBdents for stan-
dardi6ed formal assessments. This proliferation shows the effects of high-stakes testing
...
@
.0A
'''
&H$)T(# 12
Point/Counterpoint: Extensive Test Preparation
Point
!upporters of etensive test preparation point out that standardi6ed assessments in
public schools appear to be here to stay. The issue is how best to deal with them. !chool
systems are forced by the public and government agencies to administer these testsH
therefore, school systems must do their best in providing students with an equal
opportunity in taking the tests. *or eample, supporters of test preparation programs
claim that intensive programs can level the playing field for children from low-income,
minority, or second-language backgrounds. These children often are not provided with
the type of educational support offered to mainstream children. Dy training students in
test-taking strategies, in different testing formats, and in using practice tests, school
districts are providing a service rather than a disservice to these students. They are
offering a way to cope with an otherwise difficult situation. !ome supporters of test
preparation believe that these practices should be integrated into the regular curriculum.
Dy using test preparation as part of regular instruction, school systems can maimi6e
the support that they provide to students. Therefore, all students will have an equal
opportunity to do well on these tests.
Counterpoint
"pponents of etensive test preparation state that the practice simply puts the cart before the
horse. The goal of assessment is to support instruction. (tensive test preparation does @ust the
opposite4 'nstruction ends up supporting assessment. The time spent on test preparation is far
better spent on direct instruction. "pponents claim that test preparation programs are
simply teaching to whatever is the current version of standardi6ed tests. Eo real teaching and
no real learning is completed in this situation. $s soon as the test is over, the test preparation
skills are forgotten. &ritics of standardi6ed assessment also state that etensive test preparation
can be very epensive as
well as time consuming. %ealthier school systems and students may be able to afford the
courses, whereas the less well off cannot afford the programs. The end result may be that the
wealthier school systems will do even better, while poorer school systems will be even more
worse off. (tensive test preparation simply may reinforce already eisting disparities between
school systems.
on B.!. education. "ne result of the increase in high-stakes testing appears to be a cor-
responding increase in test aniety.