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Simulation study of a two-level warehouse inventory replenishment system
Huq, Faizul; Cutright, Kenneth; Jones, Vernon; Hensler, Douglas A. International Journal of Physical Distribution &
Logistics Management 36.1 (2006): 51-65.
Abstract (summary)
This paper aims to discuss a simulation study for a multi-product, two-echelon inventory replenishment system. The paper compares a one- warehouse N-
retailer replenishment system to a two- warehouse, N-retailer system with cost per unit of distribution and delivery lead-times as the performance
measures. The purpose is to demonstrate that under specific circumstances a two warehouse N-retailer inventory replenishment system provides better
customer service without significant changes in the cost. Mathematical modeling and simulation methodology is used to test the performance of the
proposed two warehouse N-retailer system and statistical analysis is used to compare the performance of several scenarios. The two warehouse
replenishment system indeed reduces delivery lead-times, used as a measure of customer service, under specific conditions such as controllable freight
costs.
Headnote
Abstract
Purpose - This paper aims to discuss a simulation study for a multi-product, two-echelon inventory replenishment system. The paper compares a one-
warehouse N-retailer replenishment system to a two- warehouse, N-retailer system with cost per unit of distribution and delivery lead-times as the
performance measures. The purpose is to demonstrate that under specific circumstances a two warehouse N-retailer inventory replenishment system
provides better customer service without significant changes in the cost.
Design/methodology/approach - Mathematical modeling and simulation methodology is used to test the performance of the proposed two warehouse N-
retailer system and statistical analysis is used to compare the performance of several scenarios.
Findings - The two warehouse replenishment system indeed reduces delivery lead-times, used as a measure of customer service, under specific conditions
such as controllable freight costs.
Research limitations/implications - Caution should be exercised when interpreting these findings as the historical data used was from a single source. The
paper did not investigate the effects of variable shipping costs from the manufacturing plant, warehouse and retailer. Future research could also consider
multiple second level warehouses .
Practical implications - The findings provide a persuasive argument for manufacturers struggling with performance issues and channel relationships.
Moreover, in addition to contributing to efficiency of distribution, two level systems can also enhance ability to adapt to local market conditions and to
unexpected demand variations.
Originality/value - The model examined in this paper addressed a specific case for one company. While freight costs and warehousing costs will vary across
companies, the cost represented here may be used as a gauge for evaluating systems with cost structures in the vicinity of those for the company
represented in this paper. Additionally, the model is amenable to substitution of other firms' cost structures.
Keywords Distribution and inventory management, Warehousing, Distribution systems, Simulation Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Establishing sales branches at remote locations has long been a practice of manufacturers. The primary reason is proximity to customers and the ability to
more rapidly respond to their target market. This practice has gained tremendous momentum in recent years for several reasons. First, it became a popular
response to the shift in distribution channels. Building regional distribution centers has helped retail giants such as Wal-Mart significantly improve
performance and has contributed to the increase in power of such retailers, helping Wal-Mart become the World's largest corporation in terms of sales
(Rugman and Girod, 2003). Manufacturers have found that building regional warehouses may provide a means for their survival and future growth in the
struggle over channel relationships. Second, sales branches and regional warehouses have become necessary as US firms rapidly expand internationally,
especially when they are unable to locate a local distributor in a foreign market. Regional warehouses not only contribute to the efficiency in physical
distribution of US made products, but also enhance the ability to adapt to local market conditions, especially unexpected demand variations. Finally, the
emergence of e-commerce has dramatically changed the landscape of retailing and distribution channels. It has opened the door to direct selling for
manufacturers and created powerful retail giants such as Amazon.com. Never before has it been so apparent that efficiency in logistics may lead to a great
competitive advantage.
When establishing a regional warehouse (creating a two-level distribution system to support retail customers) the key is whether the manufacturer can
actually enhance the service level without incurring additional cost. Much of the recent literature surrounding supply chain management research supports
the development of normative tools and a modeling language to analyze supply chain decisions (van der Zee and van der Vorst, 2005). Cachon (2001) used
supermodular games to evaluate vendor and suppler decisions in two-echelon supply chain with multiple retailers. Schuster (1987) developed a logistics
simulation to study distribution costs resulting from forward warehouse operations. Keifer and Novack (1999) did an empirical analysis of warehouse
measurement systems in the context of supply chain implementation. Despite the increasing use of regional warehousing, little research has been done to
address the effectiveness and efficiency of this approach in improving customer service in terms of the simultaneous reduction of delivery lead-times and
distribution costs. This study addresses the issue via a simulation model and provides a justification for two level warehouse distribution systems. Although
no research has specifically addressed this issue, researchers have examined multi-echelon manufacturing systems or multi-location distribution systems
that involve wholesalers. An examination of multi-echelon inventory systems found that multi-echelon systems that maintain low inventories achieve
similar performance results to single-level systems, which suggests that multiple level distribution systems may be useful in improving supply chain
performance in the area of customer service (Muckstadt and Thomas, 1980).
Deuermeyer and Schwarz (1981) used a model to approximate one- warehouse-N-identical-retailer systems to determine where system inventory should
be held. In their study the warehouse and retailers follow (Q, r) inventory replenishment policies. An examination of the fill-rate maximizing position of a
fixed quantity of safety stock between the warehouse and retailers found that the best policies involve very small warehouse on-hand inventories
(Schwarz et al., 1985). Similar results were found when minimizing backorders subject to a constraint on average system-wide inventory (Badinelli and
Schwarz, 1988).
Schwarz (1989) later suggested that the optimal policy for any one stocking point in a multi-echelon inventory system depends to some extent upon the
cost constraints and policies imposed upon it by the other stocking points in the system. This study examined N-identical retailers supplying normally
distributed demand, using a periodic review demand-replenishment system to examine the value of warehouse risk pooling in high service-level systems.
The study also looked at the alternative where the retailers act independently to order the product from the plant or use an intermediate warehouse to
distribute product. Schwarz concluded that the pipeline inventory costs significantly influence the overall value of using the warehouse. This is exemplified
in automotive parts distribution systems.
Multi-level distribution systems, though not specifically initiated by manufacturers, are found in practice and frequently modeled in the management science
literature. Rau et al. (2003) developed an inventory model for a multi-echelon supply chain environment dealing with the movement of inventory through
the supply chain based on the creation of inventory stock policies. These polices included setting base stocks, ordering policies, stock out policies,
inventory holding costs, and other inventory management policies. However, little is known about the service-level performance of such systems.
Bergmann (1990) stated that the customer service aspects of inventories are not easy to handle using traditional methods of analysis, causing many model
builders to ignore them. Bergmann used computer simulation to look at the interactions of a firm with the customers. The simulation looked at rules firms
apply to inventory management that avoid the loss of customers due to stock outs while simultaneously incurring low costs.
Greis (1994) has also attempted to focus on the service issue, focusing primarily on assessing service level targets in production and inventory planning.
The research suggests that establishing service level targets consistent with the firm's strategic orientation must be done in consideration with both the
characteristics of the demand process and the capacities of the production and inventory system. Greis also uses service reliability curves as a tool for
estimating the premium above unit costs that must be paid to provide a designated service level.
In line with Bergmann's and Greis' efforts, we consider improving service levels as a major benefit of using a regional warehouse between the retail stores
and the manufacturing plant. Built on the results of previous research, our simulation model examines the system service and cost levels as a function of
the presence of a warehouse, warehouse stock levels, and the demand level. System performance is measured by distribution costs and customer delivery
times. Specifically, this paper presents a manufacturer-initiated warehouse system which involves a two-echelon inventory system. The system consists of
a number of lower-echelon facilities (retail stores) which fill customer demand while acting as customers to a single upper-echelon facility (manufacturing
plant). Our examination focuses on both costs incurred in the system and the service levels. In short, in this paper we develop a cost model for a two-level,
multi-product, one-plant, one- warehouse, and N-retailer inventory replenishment system. The unit cost, along with delivery lead-times are used to
compare the performance of the plant-retailer replenishment system with or without a second-level warehouse. The simulation model uses the one-
warehouse N-retailer inventory replenishment system as a benchmark and historical data from this system is used to estimate the demand distribution
parameters.
The rest of this paper is structured as follows. We first specify the two-level warehouse inventory model and then describe the experimental design and
report the simulation results. After presenting the simulation results, we discuss our findings and propose directions for future research.
Two-level warehouse inventory model
The model considered in this paper is similar to the one developed by Ehrhardt et al. (1981). In our model we propose an additional regional warehouse,
which provides improved service levels (Figure 1). Independent demand, Q^sub r^, from retailers who need to replenish their stocks, are filled by a single
warehouse following a (Q^sub w^, ^sup r^w) replenishment policy. Q^sub w^ and r^sub w^ are integer multiples of Q^sub r^. The warehouse is
supplied from a manufacturing plant (assumed to have an unlimited supply) after a lead-time, L^sub y^,. The retailers receive their orders from the
warehouse after a lead-time, Ln provided the warehouse has sufficient on-hand inventory. If the warehouse inventory is not sufficient, the entire retailer
order is instead filled from the manufacturing plant with a lead-time, L^sub p^. Backorders are not allowed. Thus, the lead-time retailers experience is
either Lr or Lp, depending on inventory levels at the warehouse. Lead-times L^sub w^ , L^sub r^ and
L^sub p ^are stochastic and assumed to follow a Poisson distribution. Consequently, the service level performance of the system depends upon stock levels
at the warehouse. It is assumed that there are no losses to items kept in inventory due to deterioration, obsolescence, or pilferage. Inventory on hand at
the end of a given period is the inventory from the previous period plus any replenishment that arrives, less demand in the given period. Inventory on
hand cannot be negative, since backorders are not allowed.
Retailer demand
Demand by the retailers is determined by:
* when an order is placed; and
* what is ordered.
The time-between-orders demand distribution is based on historical records. The items-ordered demand
distribution is based on the same data. For any order, any or all of the items might be ordered, depending on
the item demand distribution.
Cost structure
The objective is to minimize the cost per unit. This is accomplished by minimizing equation (1). We test
different policies and compare their performance using unit cost, as one of the performance measures.
Service levels
Service levels are measured as the average lead-time from receipt of order to delivery to the retailer. The average lead-
time to retailers from the regional warehouse are less than average lead-times from the plant. The lead-times include
the order processing time and transit times.
Stock levels
Two stocking levels with different replenishment triggers are considered. The lower level sets a standard ordering
quantity for the products. The reorder point is a variable condition x^sub i^, such that when the inventory on hand for
any product is less than the quantity of the product ordered, a replenishment order is implemented; if x^sub i^ <
Q^sub i^, order Q^sub i^. In order to prevent back-orders, which are not allowed, the unfilled warehouse order is
filled from the plant. The higher stocking level has identical ordering quantities but a different trigger for implementing
the replenishment order. Reorder levels are set for each product. A periodic review is made every 5 days to determine if
the reorder point has been reached. Since no backorders are allowed, any incoming order which cannot be filled from
the warehouse stock is filled from the plant stock and incurs a higher freight cost.
The replenishment quantities for products are the standard order quantities less any inventory at the warehouse. The replenishment orders are increased
above the standard order quantities if the initial replenishment order is less than a full truck. If the initial replenishment order is more than a full truck, the
order is decreased to be within truck limits.
Case description
The wholesale warehouse system used in the study distributes three products, A, B, and C, which constitutes over 90 percent of its operations. The
company is a manufacturer of plastic containers, such as milk cartons, and operates with one warehouse at the plant. This system is studied with and
without the second-level warehouse. The following data were obtained from this company:
F^sub 1^ Freight cost from plant to warehouse [maximum of 190,000 square feet: $1,500]
^sub 1A^ Freight cost for product A from plant to retail store: $120
^sub 1B^ Freight cost for product B from plant to retail store: $45
^sub 1C^ Freight cost for product C from plant to retail store: $45
^sub 2A^ Freight cost for product A from warehouse to retail store: $60
^sub 2B^ Freight cost for product B from warehouse to retail store: $22.50
^sub 2C^ Freight cost for product C from warehouse to retail store: $22.50
SF^sub A^ Square feet in product A: 8000
SF^sub B^ Square feet in product B: 3000
SF^sub C^ Square feet in product C: 3000
W^sub HA^ Warehouse cost of handling a unit of product A: $10
W^sub HB^ Warehouse cost of handling a unit of product B: $2
W^sub HC^ Warehouse cost of handling a unit of product C: $2
W^sub PA^ Period storage cost for product A per unit: $7.50
W^sub PB^ Period storage cost for product B per unit: $2.00
W^sub PC^ Period storage cost for product C per unit: $2.00
These cost figures are calculated from the inventory planning sheet presented in Table I. Two stocking levels for the three products A, B, and C, are
considered. The lower stocking level triggers an order quantity of 20, 25, and 5 for A, B, and C, respectively, with a variable reorder point. At the higher
stocking level, the order quantities are the same, except that the reorder point is set at 5,5 and 1 for products A, B, and C, respectively. A periodic review
interval of 5 days is set to study the performance of the system with or without a regional warehouse.
Design of experiment
The performance measure is expected cost per square foot for the various scenarios.
The experimental factors are:
* with and without a regional warehouse (two levels);
* order quantities, Q and order point, r, for the warehouse (two levels); and
* historical demand and a 10 percent change in demand (three levels).
These three factors yield a total of 12 combinations. Three combinations were eliminated because they were not meaningful (changes in Q, r when
warehouse is not present). Table II lists the factors and levels.
The costs for scenarios 1, 2, and 7 are calculated using equation (4A) since the warehouse does not exist and all shipments to retailers are made directly
from the plant. The scenarios are presented in Table III.
Simulation
The complexity of the model, given that demand is a function of two distributions, makes the computation of a truly optimal policy difficult. Simulation
provides a means of overcoming this difficulty. Schwarz et al. (1985) used simulation to examine a similar system with a single stock item to maximize
system fill-rate subject to a constraint in system safety stock.
Others have seen the need for simulation to analyze inventory problems:
The gap between theory and practice (in inventory problems) does not seem to have been appreciably diminished. This is due to the fact that advanced
models have often been developed in a theoretical vacuum, far from real-world situations in which their decision rules have to operate. Simulation allows
the possibility of analyzing which decision rules work best - also in situations where analytical results cannot be deduced. Simulation makes it possible to
construct models with a greater degree of similarity between the model and reality. At the same time, the use of simulation models gives the user a deeper
insight into relations which have a considerable impact on the mode of operation and inventory control systems (Alstrom and Madsen, 1992).
SLAM II [11] was used to conduct the simulation analysis. Since the system under study is non-terminating, steady state results were collected for data
analysis. In the absence of a statistical procedure to do this, it is suggested that initial observations be thrown away as long as they seem to increase or
decrease steadily (Law and Kelton, 1982). Theoretically, before steady state is reached, the mean first difference between successive daily averages of
inventory, costs, etc., should be positive, and that mean first differences should converge to zero at the steady state. This can be statistically verified by
performing a t-test. Analysis of the simulation output showed that steady state is reached after 150 time periods. Sixteen runs of 150 time periods were
performed for each trial. Results from the first run were not used in the analysis, which resulted in 15 runs of 150 time periods for each scenario. Each run
contained from 80 to 120 orders. Average square foot costs and delivery times for each run were therefore averages of 80 + observations. The central limit
theorem can be used to establish that these averages are normally distributed.
Data analysis and results
SPSSPC + Version 5.0 was used for the data analysis. The output data is summarized and presented in Table IV and summary data is used in the statistical
analysis. Table V provides a summary of the costs.
The EXAMINE procedure was used to examine the data prior to analysis. All points identified as extremes or outliers were verified as correct data points.
The Levene statistic, a test for homogeneity of variance, indicated a significant difference between the variances of cost and changes in demand and of cost
as grouped by the presence of the warehouse and order levels. These results suggest that the assumption of equal variances among populations is
unrealistic.
The ONE-WAY Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) procedure is used to compare the means of independent samples and draw conclusions about the populations
from which they were selected. The Null hypothesis assumes that the means are all equal. Rejection of the null hypothesis would indicate that at least one
of the means is different. Table VI lists the ONE-WAY ANOVA results. The Levene statistic was again run with the ONE-WAY analysis which reconfirmed the
lack of homogeneity of variance. The Duncan procedure indicated there was a significant difference between the higher stock level and the group of lower
stock levels when there is no warehouse. Similar results were indicated by the Bonferroni multiple comparison test. Since the ONE-WAY ANOVA test uses
the assumption of equal variances, the results are not conclusive.
Since non-parametric tests make minimal assumptions about the underlying distribution, the NPAR Tests in SPSSPC + were used to test for a difference
among the group means. The MANN-WHITNEY indicated a significant difference between the two stock levels; lower stock level and higher stock level, when
there is no warehouse. The same test noted no significant difference when comparing the lower stock level and with no warehouse. The Kruskal-Wallis (K-
W) test also indicated a significant difference between the stock levels and with no warehouse. The K-W also indicated a significant difference between the
cost levels regardless of whether a warehouse was present or not. see Tables VI and VII for the results summary. The summary results from Table VII are
shown graphically in Figure 2.
Conclusions
This study compared a one level (plant) and multiple retailer inventory replenishment system with a two level ( warehouse) and multiple retailer
replenishment system using cost per unit of distribution and delivery lead-time as performance measures. It was found that the distribution costs do not
vary significantly between the one and two level systems while a two level system does significantly lower delivery lead-times. This finding is reasonable
since cost of freight is not controlled by the manufacturer and is market driven. Thus, under conditions of low reorder levels and assuming that the
company's freight costs are market driven and thus static, a higher service level can be achieved under a two level warehouse replenishment system with
no additional cost. We find that the service performance of the system is sensitive to the reorder level, which is also intuitively reasonable.
This analysis is based upon two implicit assumptions. The first assumption is that warehouse is geographically closer
to the retail location than is the plant. This is supported by the actual cost structure supplied by the company. The
second assumption is that the proportion of time that the warehouse is out of stock is small, resulting in shorter lead-
times from the warehouse. This is offset by the fact that if the warehouse is even one unit shy of the order, the
entire order is filled from the manufacturing plant.
The simulation demonstrates that under conditions of low stocking levels, the average unit cost of operating a two
level system is not significantly different from the one level system (Table VII). This does not hold for high stocking
levels which can be attributed to higher warehouse storage costs (Figure 2). However, as one would expect,
implementation of a two level system does significantly reduce delivery lead-times (Figure 2). Provided order levels
are not high, a higher service level can also be achieved without appreciable increase in costs (see also Figure 2).
At higher order levels, the extra cost of holding the inventory offsets the improved service level in a two level
warehouse system. Accordingly, the replenishment of stock levels should be implemented only when warehouse
inventory levels cannot meet immediate orders. The lack of a significant difference in performance with demand
variation indicates that the system is not affected by a ten per cent change in nominal demand. This indifference to
demand variation provides additional support for a two level warehouse system at lower reorder levels.
In any model which examines the addition of warehouses outside the plant, there is an inherent trade-off between
freight and warehousing costs. The model examined in this paper addressed a specific case for one company. While freight costs and warehousing costs will
vary across companies, the cost represented here may be used as a gauge for evaluating systems with cost structures in the vicinity of those for the
company represented in this paper. Additionally, the model is amenable to substitution of other firms' cost structures.
Given the small variation in the distribution costs between one level and two level warehouse replenishment systems and the potential for improving
service levels, the results lend support for a two level inventory system. Indeed, it provides a persuasive argument for manufacturers struggling with
performance issues and channel relationships. Moreover, in addition to contributing to efficiency of distribution, two level systems can also enhance ability
to adapt to local market conditions and to unexpected demand variations. However, caution should be exercised when interpreting these findings as the
historical data used was from a single source. Further research should investigate the effects of variable shipping costs from the manufacturing plant,
warehouse and retailer. Future research could also consider multiple second level warehouses . Additionally, exploration of the relationship between
distribution costs, replenishment heuristics and customer service is of interest.
Sidebar
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References
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Further reading
Lu, L. and Posner, M.E. (1994), "Approximation procedures for the one- warehouse multi-retailer system", Management Science, Vol. 40 No. 10, pp. 1305-
16.
McGavin, E.J., Schwarz, L.B. and Ward, J.E. (1993), "Two-interval inventory-allocation policies in a one- warehouse N-identical-retailer distributor system",
Management Science, Vol. 39 No. 9, pp. 1092-107.
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Trunick, P. A. (1999), "The truth about location", Transportation and Distribution, Vol. 40 No. 10.
AuthorAffiliation
Faizul Huq and Kenneth Outright
Department of Management Systems, College of Business, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
Indexing (details)
Cite
Subject Simulation;
Studies;
Comparative analysis;
Warehousing;
Inventory management;
Retailing industry;
Distribution channels
Classification 9130: Experiment/theoretical treatment
5160: Transportation management
5330: Inventory management
8390: Retailing industry
Title Simulation study of a two-level warehouse inventory replenishment system
Author Huq, Faizul; Cutright, Kenneth; Jones, Vernon; Hensler, Douglas A
Publication title International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management
Volume 36
Issue 1
Pages 51-65
Number of pages 15
Publication year 2006
Publication date 2006
Year 2006
Publisher Emerald Group Publishing, Limited
Place of publication Bradford
Country of publication United Kingdom
Publication subject Transportation--Trucks And Trucking
ISSN 09600035
Source type Scholarly Journals
Language of publication English
Document type Feature
Document feature Diagrams;Equations;Tables;Graphs;References
ProQuest document ID 232594687
Document URL http://search.proquest.com/docview/232594687?accountid=39958
Copyright Copyright Emerald Group Publishing, Limited 2006
Last updated 2014-05-24
Database ProQuest Central
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Vernon Jones
Haskayne School of Business, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada, and
Douglas A. Hensler
Sid Craig College of Business, California State University at Fresno, Fresno, California, USA
AuthorAffiliation
Corresponding author
Faizul Huq can be contacted at: ahuq@msn.com; huq@ohio.edu
Copyright Emerald Group Publishing, Limited 2006
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