Instrumentation and Control

INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION IN TPS
ET 08 313
CHAPTER 32
INSTRUMENTATION IN
THERMAL POWER STATION
32.1 INTRODUCTION
Thermal power stations employ a great number of equipment performing number of
complex processes. In order to have stable generating conditions, always a balance is
maintained, so that
Heat input =Electricity output + Losses.
But this balance is frequently disturbed due to
a). Grid troubles external to the process and machines.
b).Troubles in the process itself.
c). Troubles in the equipment.
During the unbalance condition, all the process variables deviate from their normal
values and thus creating the necessity for the following:
Instruments: To measure and indicate the amount of deviation.
Automatic control: to correct the deviation and bring back to normal condition.
Annunciation: To warn about the excessive deviation if any.
Protection: To isolate the equipment pr process from dangerous operating
conditions caused due to such excessive deviation.
Instrumentation helps us to operate the unit at higher parameters for the economic
reasons. Operator can monitor and operate all the equipment from a single place, which
makes efficient running of the plant.
32.2 SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS
As per the design of main and auxiliary equipment, the parameter values for efficient
and economic operation at determined load are specified. Considering all these points,
the instrument selection is influenced by the following factors:
ET 08 314
1) Range of measurement.
2) Required accuracy of measurement.
3) The form of final display.
4) Process media.
5) Cost.
6) Calibration and required facilities required/available.
7) Layout resistance.
8) Maintenance requirements/availability.
32.3 CONCEPT OF INSTRUMENTATION IN THERMAL POWER
STATION
The concept of instrumentation is:
a). Instruments should be independent for their working.
b).The total instrumentation should be interdependent to each other in assessing the
process conditions.
c). Instrumentation should be sufficient to provide adequate information to the operator
for
1. Cold start of the unit
2. Warm/hot start of the unit.
3. Shut down, both planned and emergency.
32.4 POWER STATION INSTRUMENTATION
For measuring the different process parameter, different type of instruments are used.
The interdependence and inter relations of the instrument readings play very significant
role in the stability and the efficiency of the heat balance.
32.4.1 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Accurate measurement of temperature is required to assess the material fatigue, heat
balance, heat transfer etc. Temperature measurement is to be made for many media
such as, water/steam, oil (fuel oil and lubricating oil), air, flue gas, metal temperature of
bearing babbits, turbine top and bottom, generator winding and cores, super heater tube
metal etc.
ET 08 315
Filled system thermometry such as mercury in glass, mercury in steel, vapour filled or
gas filled are used for local indication of temperature. Bimetallic thermometer can also
be used for local indication. The selection of thermometer depends upon the range of
the temperature to be measured. These instruments are available with electrical contacts
for setting up annunciation and protection system wherever required.
Resistance thermometers are of platinum and copper resistance type. The secondary
instruments used in conjunction are cross coil indicator or electronic bridges. These
instruments indicate temperature by measuring the nature of resistance, which changes
with the change in temperature. Resistance thermometers are generally used up to
300C.
Above 300C, thermocouples are used. In thermal power stations, Chromel-Alumel or
ChromelCopel is commonly used thermocouples, depending upon the temperature.
Iron-constantan is another thermocouple in use. The secondary instruments for
thermocouple sensors are pyrometric millivoltmeters or electronic potentiometer. Null
balance method is used for very accurate measurement of millivolt generated by
thermocouples sensing the process temperature. The electronic bridges and
potentiometers can be either indicators, or indicator cum recorders with
alarm/protection contacts and with remote transmission facilities.
32.4.2 PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
In thermal power stations, many media exists, such as steam/water, lubricating oil, fuel
oil, air, flue gases, hydrogen etc. the pressure ranges from 1 Kg/cm2(nearly) at
condenser to hydraulic test pressure of boiler.
For local indication of pressure and differential pressure, bourdon tube and diaphragm
type gauges or liquid manometers are used. Remote measurement of pressures is done
by transmitters, either electric/electronic or pneumatic coupled with a secondary
instrument indicator/recorder. Many varieties of transmitters are in use. In these
transmitters the mechanical movement of sensing elements such as bourdon, bellows,
diaphragm etc. due to the pressure causes an electrical property change such as current,
ET 08 316
voltage, resistance, capacitance, reluctance, inductance etc., which is utilized to
measure pressure through the secondary instrument.
32.4.3 LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Level measurement is generally carried out as differential pressure measurement. In
power stations, level measurement in open tanks such as, D.M. water storage and fuel
oil and lube oil tanks and in closed tanks such as deaerator, condenser hot well, boiler
drum and L.P. & H.P. heaters are to be made. Gauge glasses and floats are used for
local indication of levels and the transmitters are used for measuring the differential
pressure along with the secondary instruments for remote level measurements.
The measurement of boiler drum poses many problems because of varying pressures
and temperatures, which continuously change the density of media. Thus many
computation and corrections are necessary to be made in order to get correct levels.
Other problem area is the level measurement pertaining to solid media, such as the level
of the raw/pulverized coal bunkers and dust collectors hoppers. In these cases
continuous level measurement is not possible. However, fairly reliable and accurate
provisions are available to indicate the extreme levels on either direction (low or high).
The nucleonic level gauges or the capacitance and resistance type sensors serve these
areas very well.
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
ET 08 317
CHAPTER 33
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
33.1 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The measurement of pressure and vacuum is highly essential in continuous processing
industries. In many operations it is necessary to measure and control pressure of liquid
or gas to avoid any hazards. Hence pressure measurement is one of the most important
of all process measurement. Pressure can be defined as, the action of a force against
some opposing force; a force in the nature of a thrust, distributed over a surface; or a
force acting against a given surface within a closed container. In industrial practice,
the pressure measurement is either in terms of gauge pressure or in terms of absolute
pressure, are related as
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
33.2 PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICE
a). Manometers
Manometers are using water, mercury and other liquids of known density for low
pressure measurement. These are mostly used in laboratory for calibration purposes as
ET 08 318
these are the fundamental type of instruments. At site, these are mainly used for test
purposes, in the low range 0-1000 mm.
Manometers are of the following type
U tube manometer
U tube with one end sealed
Cistern manometer
Industrial type high pressure manometer
Inclined tube manometer
b). Diaphragms
Diaphragms are used to measure low to high pressure. These elements have greatly helped
in remote measurement and control of pressures even of very low range (0-4 mm WC).The
simplest form of these elements is the single diaphragm instrument. In this a thin plate of
circular shape is fixed firmly round its edges. On applying pressure to one side greater than
the one existing on the other, the diaphragm deflects away from the higher pressure side,
the maximum deflection occurring at the centre.
c). Capsules
A capsule is made of two circular diaphragm joined at the edges. The specific
application of these capsule gauges is boiler draft measurement. Capsules filled with
liquid The capsule is filled by a non compressible liquid (most common is silicon oil) in
the inside space.
d). Bellows
Bellows are the substitute for multi stack diaphragms because of their simplicity and
cheap manufacturing cost. A thin walled tube is taken and formed into corrugated shape
by special hydraulic pressure.
e). Bourdon tube gauge
These are used to measure pressures from medium to high ranges. Their application is
limited to measure gauge pressure only. In a bourdon tube, a C shaped, hollow
spring tube is closed and sealed at one end. The opposite end is securely sealed and
bonded to the socket, the threaded connection means. When the pressure medium (such
ET 08 319
as air, oil, or water) enters the tube through the socket, the pressure differential from the
inside to the outside causes the tube to move. The direction of this movement is
determined by the curvature of the tubing, with the inside radius being slightly shorter
than the outside radius. A specific amount of pressure causes the C shape to open up,
or stretch, a specific distance. When the pressure is removed, the spring nature of the
tube material returns the tube to its original shape and the tip to its original position
relative to the socket. Bourdon tube gauges are in use from the range 0- 0.5 Kg/cm2 to
6,000 Kg/cm2 and even higher ranges occasionally. The practical range for each type is
listed below
Helical bourdon - 0-05 Kg/cm2 up to 0.6000 Kg/cm2
C type bourdon - up to 700 Kg/cm2
Flat spiral bourdon - low ranges up to 0-70 Kg/cm2
33.3 SPECIAL APPLICATION GAUGES
a). Oxygen gauges
A gauge used for oxygen service should be marked oxygen-use no oil. Testing of
oxygen gauges must be done with alcohol, oil free air or nitrogen, since oil and oxygen
form an explosive combination.
b). Higher pressure gauges
These have ranges up to 2 kilo bar (typical). The design of high pressure gauge must
incorporate safety measures. A rupture in high pressure gauge can explode pushing the
glass outward, which may harm personnel.
c). Standard test gauge
These units have a large dial size usually 8 to 10. This large dial size increases the
accuracy in reading. Gauges are chosen so that the full process pressure is about 70% of
span of the gauge.
d). Workshop test gauges
These are secondary calibrated gauges. This type of gauge has lower accuracy than the
standard test gauge. The accuracy of these units is +/- %.
ET 08 320
e). Gauges with alarm contacts
These types of gauges give alarm when the pressure reaches a set level. The gauge has
a pressure setting needle. This needle can be set at any value on the dial of the gauge.
The needle has a projection, where contacts will be made. When the pressure reaches
the set value then the gauge pointer touches the projection on the setting needle. The
pointer and setting needle behave like an open switch till the set time is reached.
f). Digital pressure gauge
Digital pressure gauges working with integral or remote pressure sensing transducers
are now becoming more easily available and usually of a very high accuracy. This
means of course that these can be used for calibration purposes or for efficiency
monitoring.
g). Draught gauges
Draught gauges are used extensively throughout the power station to measure air and
gas pressure through the boiler and mills. The draught gauge is basically a diaphragm
pressure gauge with an elongated scale.
33.4 PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS
Transmitter is an integral part of the field instrumentation. It is important that the field
process parameters are transmitted error free to the central control room with the help
of proper telemetry systems. The transmitters used in the process may vary depending
on the type of sensor, services for which used and many other parameters. The selection
of transmitter for the various purposes is done on various factors. Transmitter is a
device that responds to a measurement variable and converts that input into a
standardized transmission signal. All the transmitters use current as output signal, as it
is not affected by wire impedance and noise as are voltage signals when transmitted
over long distances.
ET 08 321
33.4.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSMITTERS
1) Smart and intelligent type
Smart transmitter is a transmitter in which a microprocessor system is used to correct
non linearity errors of the primary sensors through interpolation of calibration data held
in memory, or to compensate for the effect of secondary influences on the primary
sensor by incorporating a secondary sensor adjacent to the primary sensor and
interpolating stored calibration data for both the primary and secondary sensors.
Smart features
a. Linearization, characterization and correction of the primary sensor characteristics.
b. Inclusion of control functions and other algorithms.
c. Expressions of the measurement in engineering units.
Intelligent features
a. Adjustment of span and zero.
b. Adjustment of damping, time constant or response time.
c. Diagnostic routines and status information.
2) Force balance transmitters
In force balance transmitters the measurement that produces a force tense to move the
top of the force bar. This tiny motion, acting through levers, moves the ferrite disc
closer to the transformer, changing its output. This change the amplitude output of the
oscillator, which is rectified and then amplified to generate a DC mA transmitter signal.
This output signal is fed back through the voice coil on the armature of the force motor,
which is in series with the output terminals. When this feedback moment is equal to the
moment created by the measurement force F2, the force bar is again in its original
position and the amplifier signal stabilizes.
3) Motion balance transmitter
In a motion balance transmitter the process measurement produces motion against a
calibration spring, resulting in a change of position corresponding to a change in the
process variable. This position is detected by a transducer. The output of the transducer
is amplified and electric feedback signal is used to stabilize the amplifier.
ET 08 322
4) Capacitance type
Process pressure transmitted through isolating diaphragm and silicon oil filled fluid to a
sensing diaphragm in centre of the differential pressure cell. The sensing diaphragm
deflects in response to differential pressure. The position of the sensing diaphragm is
detected by capacitor plates on both sides of the sensing diaphragm.
5) Strain gauge type
In this type the sensing element of the transmitter consists of the beam and diaphragm
assembly with the thin film strain gauge bridge circuit located on the bending wheel.
The ceramic material is deposited on the back to provide electrical insulation for the
bridge elements. The four strain gauges is vacuum deposited on to the insulating
material and connected into a Wheatstone bridge circuit. A displacement in the sensing
diaphragm is transmitted to the beam assembly. A change in pressure causes the
sensing diaphragm to deflect and thereby bending the beam. This changes the strain
resistance and is then converted into 4-20 mA signals.
6) Inductive type (LVDT)
It comprises of the transformer having a primary supplied from a low voltage AC
source and two secondary windings electrically equal and would be adjacent to each
other. When the core is symmetrically placed with the electrical centre of the
transformer the voltages E1 and E2 are equal. Thus the output becomes 0 as they are
connected in series opposition. When the pressure is applied, the core moves towards a
side more voltage is induced in the winding nearer the present core position as
compared to the other winding and there exist a net voltage
proportional to the pressure applied.
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL LEVEL MEASUREMENT
ET 08 323
CHAPTER 34
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
34.1 LEVEL MEASUREMENT
In power station applications, level can be defined as the height of liquid or solid
media above or below a reference line, usually the base. Levels, below the reference
line may also be required in dynamic condition, such as for boiler drum etc. If the
dimensions of a vessel are known then the volume or mass of its contents can be
determined by measuring the level. There are three main reasons viz safety, economy,
and monitoring for making level measurements of solid particles or liquid level.
34.2 METHODS OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT
1) DIRECT METHODS
Dipsticks
It is simply a calibrated scale inserted into the liquid until the zero of scale hits the
bottom of the tank, the level is then read directly off the scale. For accuracy, the
base of stick is usually coated in metal and the stick is inserted in the vessel
perfectly vertically.
Hook Gauge
When the level of liquid in an open tank is read off a dipstick, it is difficult to read
accurately because it is difficult to focus ones eyes on the same level as the liquid
due to parallax. In this case, a hook gauge type can be used. It consists simply of a
wire cord of corrosion resisting alloy, such as gun metal or stainless steel, about 4
diameter, bent into a U shape with one arm longer than the other. The shorter arm
is pointed with a 60 taper, while the longer one is attached to a slider, having a
vernier. The hook is then pushed below the surface liquid and gradually raised until
the point it just about to break through the surface. It can then be clamped and level
read from the scale.
ET 08 324
Sight Glass
The sight glass is very useful as a simple arrangement wherein a section of the
liquid is brought outside the vessel and displayed alongside a main scale. If the
diameter of the bore of the sight glass is not small enough to introduce errors due
to capillary action, the liquid will stand at the same level in the sight glass and the
vessel, provided the top of the sight glass is subjected to the same pressure as the
top of the vessel. It can be used for open or closed vessels.
Water gauge with closed circuit television (CCTV) remote display
The water gauge works on the principle that different substances have different
refractive indexes i.e. they bend light by different degrees. The gauge is a vertical
tube of triangular or wedge cross- section. Two faces of the three sides are made up
of glass and mica divided up into small compartments. Illumination is projected
through the gauge and the light is bent by the medium. The degree of bend depends
on whether the medium is water or steam. Because of the prismatic arrangement
either the water windows or steam windows are illuminated. Thus the level of
water in the drum can be determined.
Floats and liquid displacement
The use of a float enables the level of liquid to be measured when direct viewing is
impracticable. The float material may be of hollow metal, a plastic material, or
moulded rubber. The size and shape will vary with different designs, but in general
they are made to reduce to a minimum the possibility of dirt or any other matter
building up on the top. Calibration will be for one liquid only, because different
liquid densities will cause the float to sink to different depths.
Float and counter weight type
This method consists simply of a large area float connected by a chain type or
cable to a counter weight which passes in front of a scale and acts as an index. If
the surface of the liquid under measurement is turbulent, a guide will have to be set
up to stop the float moving around in the tank and causing errors.
ET 08 325
Rigid arm float
By attaching the float to a pivoted arm, the total energy available can be increased
due to the moment of force of the buoyance factor acting on the float at a distance
from the pivot point. A rigid arm has the advantage of being completely self-
contained and may be fitted to open or closed tanks in virtually any position.
Liquid displacer system
This gauge, embodying a displacer, relies on Archimedes principle for its
operation. The displacer is a long hollow cylinder loaded to remain partially
submerged, and is suspended in the liquid in the vessel or in an adjacent small
diameter chamber connected to the vessel. The apparent weight of the displacer
will decrease as the level of the liquid rises. The change in apparent weight can be
interpreted in terms of levels and scale can be calibrated accordingly.
Head pressure measurement system
These systems use the principle that a column of liquid will exert a pressure whose
value depends only on the height of liquid, density of liquid and acceleration due to
gravity and is totally independent of the cross-sectional area of the column. If the
density of the liquid remains constant then the height of liquid above a datum
(tapping) point is directly proportional to the pressure measured at that datum
point. Thus a pressure measuring device can be used suitably scaled in units of
level.
Measurement of liquid level in open vessels
The static pressure at a chosen point of measurement (datum line), will vary
directly with the head of liquid above it, it can be seen that this pressure can be
measured and the gauge calibrated directly in head of liquid. The tapping point is
always taken above the sediment level.
Measurement of liquid level in closed vessels
In the closed vessels, the operating pressure is different from the atmospheric
pressure. In these cases, it is necessary to see that the same conditions exist on the
ET 08 326
reference side of the indicator as inside the container, so the reference limb is fed
back into the top of the vessel.
2) INDIRECT METHODS
Electrical/electronic methods of level measurement and control
Electrical methods for level measurement are very useful as generally there is
minimum limitation on transmission distances between transducer and display or
control devices. Their speed of response is often better than pneumatic systems and
they are very useful when measuring the level of vessels containing solids.
Ultrasonic methods
A. The ultrasonic level switch:
This system detects ultrasonic sound at a diaphragm of the receiver and converts
it into the electrical energy. This, in turn, is fed into the input of a high gain
amplifier which feeds it to the transmitting sensor. Here the electrical energy is
converted into ultrasonic energy once again and radiated from the diaphragm of
the transmitter. If the transmitter and receiver diaphragms are facing each other,
and there is no solid body in their path, then energy will be picked up by the
receiver, again amplified and fed to the transmitter forming a closed loop. Once
established, if an object appears in the beam, losses are introduced into the
system and the signal will cease. Hence rise of liquid or solid level up to the
beam can initiate an alarm or a switch. The device can not be used for
continuous measurements.
B. Liquid phase type:
Pulses of ultrasonic energy are directed upwards, through the liquid, to the
surface of the liquid. These pulses rebound from the surface back to a receiver
which may be a component part of the pulse transmitter. Level variations are
very accurately measured by detecting the time interval taken for the waves to
travel to the surface and back again to the receiver.
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL FLOW MEASUREMENT
ET 08 327
CHAPTER 35
FLOW MEASUREMENT
The rate of flow is of primary importance. In thermal power plant, fluid low is either as
a flow in a pipe or conduit or, in the case of liquids only, as a flow in an open channel.
35.1 RATE OF FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
35.1.1 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS
These instruments measure the differential pressure across a throttling device. This
differential pressure is proportional to the square of the fluid flow. These instruments
can be classified as
a). Concentric Orifice plate:
It makes an abrupt change in the cross- sectional area of fluid stream flowing in a pipe.
This involves a circular metal plate with a central hole or orifice concentric with the
circumference of the plate. It is fixed between the pipe flanges and is located by the
flange bolts. The orifice is then concentric with the internal bore of the pipe. So, it
creates a differential pressure, which in turn is a measure of fluid flow. In orifice plate,
permanent pressure drop occurs, which is unwanted at some places. There is a variety
of pressure tapping locations or connections for obtaining the differential pressure.
D and D/2 taps (radius or throat taps)
The upstream pressure tapping is taken at one pipe diameter D, upstream from the
face of the orifice and the downstream pressure tapping is taken at one half pipe
diameter, D/2, downstream from the orifice face, approximately the vena contracta
position.
Corner taps
Corner tapings are taken via holes cut obliquely through a flange or boss on the
pipe, bringing the inside openings in the holes adjacent to the orifice positions.
Plate taps
The holes are actually bored in the orifice plate itself each hole communicating
with one face.
Flange taps
ET 08 328
These are situated 1 from the upstream and 1 from the downstream face of the
orifice plate, with the tappings bored through the flanges.
Pipe taps
These may be 2 pipe diameters upstream and 8 diameters downstream from the
upstream face of the orifice plate.
b). Venturi tube:
In venture tube, pressure loss is not permanent. So it is used where pressure loss is
important. There are virtually three sections to the tube; the inlet or upstream cone, the
throat, and the outlet or downstream cone. The inlet cone tapers down from the pipe
area to the throat section of smaller area to produce the necessary velocity and pressure
change. The outlet cone expands from the throat to the pipe area. Pressure tappings are
taken at the inlet entrance to the cone, and at the throat. The tappings enable the
pressure to be average before transmission to the measuring instrument. B.S. 1042
specifies conical angles between 5 and 15 for the outlet cone, the design of which has
an influence on efficiency in terms of pressure loss. Venturi tube is used, where orifice
plate can not be used, as its cost is very high as compared to orifice plate.
c). Flow nozzles:
The nozzle falls between the venturi tube and the orifice plate as a means of flow
measurement. It approximates to a venturi tube with the curved form of approach,
giving a gradual change of sectional area and has the same order of discharge
coefficient. But the absence of a downstream expansion cone brings the pressure loss
into the same region as that for an orifice plate. It is cheaper than venturi tube, and at
high velocity flows its use in place of an orifice plate may be necessary. A feature of
the nozzle is that its graduated profile renders it useful where fluids with suspended
matter are encountered.
d). Pitot tube:
Pitot tube measures the difference between dynamic pressure and the static pressure. It
is a tube with holes, facing the flow direction and 90 to the flow direction. The holes
facing the flow direction, gives the dynamic pressure. And the hole which is 90 to the
flow direction, gives static pressure, as at this point velocity is zero. The one end of
ET 08 329
tube is connected to a pressure measuring instrument of the diaphragm type suitable for
measuring relatively small differential pressure. Its cost is very less as compared to
other differential pressure measuring devices. It is used for the large diameter pipes
such as circulating water pipes, where the use of orifice is very costly. It is also useful
for determining actual velocity profile.
35.1.2 VARIABLE AREA FLOW METERS
In the variable area flow meters, pressure remains constant while there is a change in
area. Consider a vertical tube of conical shape, the area gradually expanding from the
bottom to the top. In the tube, a fluid is flowing in an upward direction, and in it is
placed a disc, free to move, so that it acts as a sort of float in the fluid. A change in flow
will cause the pressure drop, so the disc moves up or down the tube adjusting the area
of the orifice (due to the conical shape of the tube) until the pressure drop is at the
original value, when the forces are again in equilibrium. The position of the float in the
tube is then a measure of the rate of flow. Variable area flow meters are of following
types-
1) Glass type
2) Metal tube type
35.1.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS
A very thin disc of an electrically conducting liquid moving with a velocity V along a
pipe of internal diameter d. an external magnet system directs a magnetic field of
strength H across the section of the pipe so that it acts at right angles to the direction of
motion of the disc. Now, by Faradays law of induction, when an electrical conductor
of length L moves through a magnetic field of strength H at a velocity V in a direction
at right angles both to the magnetic field and its length, an e.m.f. is generated of value
E= KHLV
Where,
K = a constant.
Since Q = VA
E= CQ
Where, C = a constant
ET 08 330
Thus, provided we can physically measure E, a very simple means of determining the
flow rate of liquids in pipes is available.
35.1.4 ULTRASONIC FLOW METER
It has two diagonally opposite transducers. The signal transmitted by one transducer is
received by the other transducer. Both transmitters act as sender as well as receiver at
the same instant. The time difference is measured between the receiving signals by both
the transducers, which in turn proportional to the flow. It is placed around the periphery of
the pipe externally.
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
ET 08 331
CHAPTER 36
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
36.1 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Temperature and heat flow are related qualitatively by second law of thermo dynamics. I.e.
Heat flows on its own accord from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature. (That two bodies in intimate contact are at same temperature only if there is
no heat flow between them).
Zeroth law:
If two bodies in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then all three are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. Temperature measurement is required to work out the energy
balances, energy transfers, and for safety reasons of plant equipment &personnel.
Selection is based on:
a. The accuracy required
b. The range of temperature
c. Properties of process medium
d. Catalytic phenomena of the sensing element on measuring media
e. The lay out conditions
f. Facilities available for the calibration of the instrument.
brass/ invar
nickel/nickel
Bi-metal T/M
mercury-39to+600
alchohol -80to+70
tolvene-80to+100
liquidinglass
mercuryupto+600
vapour pressureT/M
liquidinsteel
FilledsystemT/M
local remote
temperaturemeasurement
ET 08 332
36.2 THERMAL EXPANSION OF TESTING BODIES
On application of heat, testing bodies either in the form of solids, liquids or gases, expand
almost proportional to the rise of temperature and this principle is utilized in various
thermometer.
a). Expansion of solids
The expansion of solids is utilized by means of bimetallic strip to measure temperatures.
Two or more layers of metallic alloy having different coefficients of thermal expansions
are coiled in the form of spiral, helical or multiple helical, depending upon the range of
temperature. One end of coil is fixed on to the bulb to be used as a test body and the other
end free to move carrying the pointer over a scale calibrated in degrees.
b). Expansion of liquids
Change in volume of a liquid b the application of heat enclosed in a test body is utilized to
measure the quantity of temperature. The liquids normally used are mercury and
hydrocarbons such as ethyl alcohol, for the low temperature, methylene for medium range
temperature, tetra hydro naphthalene (tetralene) for higher temperature.
c). Expansion of gases
The change in pressure of the gases filled in the bulb at constant volume, on changes in
temperature is utilized as means of measurement of the temperature. The system works on
the gas law, PV=RT. Therefore the pressure of the gas is proportional to the temperature.
d). Expansion of vapour
This works on the basis principle that all enclosed liquids at a given temperature will
create a definite vapour pressure if the liquid is only partially filled. This vapour
pressure increases with temperature and this property is utilized for measurement. A
sensing bulb containing liquid such as alcohol or toluene is connected to the capillary
and the bourdon tube. When heated, the liquid vapourises, the vapour pressure being
transmitted to the bourdon tube and causing a deflection calibrated in terms of
temperature.
36.3 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
36.3.1 THERMOCOUPLES
Thermocouple consists of two wires of suitable materials which are joined together at
one end by twisting together and then joining the tips by brazing or welding. There is
some combination of wires for thermocouples:
ET 08 333
a). Iron-constantan
Type J
Range up to 760C
Composition of constantan, has got bright appearance and non-magnetic. Iron-
constantan has the highest e.m.f. for a given temperature.
b). Chromel alumel
Type K
Range up to 1260C
Composition:
Chromel: Ni; 89%, Cr; 9.8%, Fe; 1%, cobalt; 0.2%. Dull appearance, nonmagnetic
Alumel: Ni; 94.5%, Al; 2%, Mn; 2.5%, S; 1%. Glossy surface and slightly magnetic
The chief disadvantage of this couple is that both wires are prone to damage by
sulphurous gases which are likely in the vicinity of boiler plant.
c). Copper constantan
Type T
Range -180C to +370C
Cu-60%, Ni-40%. It is a stable couple resistant to both oxidizing and reducing
atmosphere but needs protection from acidic vapour.
d). Chromel copel
Type E
Range 0-870C
e). Platinum-Rhodium-platinum
Range 0-1480C with 10% rhodium type S and with 13% rhodium type R.
Selection of thermocouple wire size and length
It is suggested to select a smaller gauge wire where sensitivity is desired and heavier
size wire is preferred for longer life and higher temperature application. The length also
should be sufficient to minimize the effect of conduction. Insufficient insertion causes
low reading.
36.3.2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
There is a change of electrical resistance of a wire with temperature due to increase in
molecular activity caused by heat. Resistance thermometer utilizes this property and the
ET 08 334
temperature measurements are conveniently made by the change of resistance of
suitable metals of known characteristics. The materials selected are having two types of
characteristics:
1. Having positive temperature coefficient of resistance i.e. increase of resistance
with temperature: called resistance thermometers or resistance temperature
detectors (R.T.D.).
2. Negative temperature coefficient i.e. decreases of resistance with increase of
temperature, called Thermisrors. The resistance change is given by the formula
Rt = R0 (1+a T)
Where,
Rt= the resistance of the element at t C in ohms.
R0= the resistance of the element at 0C in ohms.
a = the temperature co-efficient of resistance in ohms/ohm/C.
Three types of resistance thermometer are available, asa)
Nickel Resistance Thermometer
Its characteristics are not linear throughout the range but are frequently used to its
specific resistance and less cost. The specific resistance is 6.38 micro ohm-cm, and
temperature coefficient 0.0066 ohm/ohm (C)
b) Copper Resistance Thermometer
It has got a linear characteristics, specific resistance of copper is very less of the order
of 1.56 micro ohm-cm. temperature coefficient of copper resistance thermometer is
0.00425 ohm/ohm (C)
c) Platinum Resistance Thermometers
Though costly, platinum is more suitable either copper or nickel. Its usage is restricted
to jobs that cannot be properly handled by the other two types of thermometers. Its
specific resistance is 9.38 micro ohm-cm and temperature coefficient is 0.00385 ohm/
ohm C
ET 08 335
Advantages of resistance thermometer over thermocouples
1) Thermocouples require that the reference junction temperature should be maintained
constant or a suitable compensation is to be applied. It is very difficult to maintain the
reference junction temperature constant since it is in the instrument, which have
significant heat dissipation. Also compensation cannot be practically provided
perfectly. But resistance thermometer, the measurement of temperature is absolute
measurement, and no reference is required.
2) Resistance thermometers have greater sensitivity because the change of resistance
per C is much larger hence is more easily measured than the microscopic change of
voltage per C in thermocouple.
36.3.3 INTENSITY OF TOTAL RADIATION
This method employs the Steffan Boltzmann law of radiant energy, which states that
the intensity of radiant energy emitted from the surface of a body increases
proportionately to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body.
a). Optical Pyrometers
The radiant energy is measured by photometric comparison of the relative brightness of
the object of unknown temperature with a source of standard brightness such as the
tungsten filament of an electric lamp.
b). Radiation Pyrometer
It measures the intensity of a monochromatic beam of the visible light radiated by a hot
body.
The radiation pyrometer is ideally suited for-
1) When very high temperatures are involved, temperature beyond the practical range
for thermocouple measurement.
2) Where furnace atmosphere is detrimental to thermocouple and cause erratic
measurement and short life.
3) Where for other reasons, it is impractical to contact the material whose temperature
is to be measured.
ET 08 336
36.3.4 CHANGE OF STATES OF TESTING BODIES
For pure chemical elements or compounds change of state viz. from solid to liquid to
gaseous etc. takes place at a fixed temperature and this property thus gives a method to
measure the temperature.
a) Fusion Method
Fusion of different metals takes place at different temperature. Pyrometric cones are
made for different temperature and are placed inside the furnace which will indicate the
temperature when the rated fusion temperature is attained.
b) Vaporization Method
Vaporization temperature of different volatile liquid is different. This property is
utilized to measure the temperature.
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL SWAS
ET 08 337
CHAPTER-37
STEAM WATER ANALYSING SYSTEM
37.1 SWAS
To minimise the generating cost and to have rapid development of power, the unit sizes
in India have grown from 30MW to 500MW in short span of time. This led to
considerably increased in length of last stage blades. In 500MW blades have grown to
as large as82.5cms creating more possibilities for salt depositions and deposits of this
kind cause:
Unbalance of rotating mass producing vibration problems
Stress corrosion leading to cracking
Loss of aerodynamic efficiency
Thus purity standards of steam which transports impurities in turbine have become very
stringent and the chemical control have to be exercised to limit the impurities in PPb
level.
LOCATION OF PRINCIPLE SAMPLING & DOZING POINTS
ET 08 338
37.2 PARAMETERS BEING MEASURED &THEIR IMPORTANCE
pH potential of hydrogen ions.
Conductivity
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved hydrogen
Silica
sodium
37.3 SENSORS PRINCIPLES
pH electro chemical
Sodium electro chemical
Hydrazine electro chemical
Dissolved O
2
conductometric method galvano metric method
Silica molybdenum blue method
37.4 pH MEASUREMENT
The measurement of H+ ions concentration in a test solution is made by measuring
the potential developed in a electrochemical cell.
The cell consists of a measuring electrode a reference electrode, both immersed in
the test solution.
Measuring electrode (glass electrode) is pH sensitive and its potential is
proportional to the pH of the solution. (I.e. the pH of both the liquids which are in
contact with both side surfaces of the of the glass membrane).
37.4.1 IMPORTANCE OF PH MEASUREMENT
pH is maintained on the alkaline side at above 8.8 to 9.5 to prevent the acidic attacks on
the system tubes & pipes. Ph also gives indication about the leakage of acids forming
contaminants into the system.
37.5 CONDUCTIVITY
Conductance is a measure of the ability of a substance to pass current.
It is reciprocal of impedance, unit = siemen
ET 08 339
1 siemen = I /z = 1 / ohm(previously called as mho)
Practical unit in industry is micro siemen / cm.(ms/cm)
The exchange of electrons between +ve and ve electrodes causes the flow of
current through the solution
The magnitude of the current is measure of impurities in the solution.
A.C.voltage is supplied to the measuring cell to avoid the polarization problems.
37.6 DISSOLVED O
2
Dissolved o
2
is measured to help the operator to take timely corrective action to
prevent oxidative corrosion in boiler parts.
Modern high pr. Boilers require feed water with less than 0.005 mg o
2
/ ltr to
prevent oxidative corrosion.
ET 08 340
37.7 SILICA
Molybdenum blue calorimetric method.
Analyzing cycle takes 12 minutes and consists two over lapping sequences.
Measurement of chemical blank:
Ammonium molybdate solution, sulfuric acid, and reduction solution are
simultaneously added in the mixing vessel to detect any possible silica traces in the
reagents. This solution is diluted with sample to a suitable volume and emptied in to the
measuring cuvette.
Actual silica determination:
The reagents are added in normal order. Sample,ammonium molybdate solution and
sulfuric acid added and stirred for five minutes. The reduction solution added and
stirred for 5 minutes. This solution emptied in to measuring cuvette. Reduction
solution: ANSA( Amino naphtha sulphonic acid)
ET 08 341
Silica measurement system
37.8 SODIUM
Purpose: high sodium concentration in high pressure boiler system can result in
stress corrosion.
Measurement in steam to detect excessive carry-over.
Measurement in condensate to detect condenser leakage.
In make up water after the cat ion and mixed bed exchange column to detect resin
exhaustion.
Electrochemical cell: consisting of a sodium responsive glass electrode and a
calomel reference electrode to measure the concentration of sodium in the steam /
water cycle.
Glass electrode is made from lithium alumino silicate glass.
Sodium measurement is more sensitive than conductivity to detect condenser
leakage.
Condenser leak adds specific corrosives such as sodium hydroxide,sodium
chloride.
sodium hydroxide leads to turbine shaft scaling and corrosion.
Sodium chloride leads to turbine blades corrosion.
ET 08 342
37.8.1 SODIUM MEASURING POINTS/INTERPRETATIONS
Steam : to detect excessive carry over.
Condensate : to detect condenser leakage.
Makeup water after the cation and mixed bed exchange columns- to detect resin
exhaustion.
Target value: Na below 2 ppb.
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL TSI
ET 08 343
CHAPTER-38
TURBINE SUPERVISORY INSTRUMENTS
38.1 T.S.I. NEED
Operating machines in t.p.s is in tons with small clearance required to achieve high
plant efficiency.
Large masses of static & rotating metal in turbine are continually subjected to
stress and wear during normal load conditions. These become critical during run-
up & shut-down.
To safeguard the life of machine.
It is essential to monitor the metal temperature, vibration, eccentricity, expansion,
clearance between static and moving parts.
Correct interpretation of the information provided allows the plant to be run up and
loaded in the minimum time consistent with safe operation.
Optimum conditions for a given installation are determined by careful analysis of
data obtained during commissioning.
These instruments are best and an aid toward intelligent turbine operation.
120 measurements are required for complete monitoring of turbine.
Necessary information under normal operating conditions are obtained by
following instruments.
a. shaft eccentricity
b. vibration
c. axial shift/thrust position of rotor
d. differential expansion
e. casing overall expansion
f. speed
g. control valve servo motor position
h. speed gear position
i. seal interference
j. steam temperature differentials/
k. turbine metal temperature differentials
l. load limiting gear position
ET 08 344
38.2 GENERAL EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION OVERVIEW
TSI is a modular system of distributed digital special function modules designed to
perform specific signal monitoring and analysis tasks. The TSI has a three level
architecture of components:
1. Sensors, including mounting hardware, amplifiers, cable.
2. Analysis Modules, for the various sensor types.
3. Data Display and Management, display screens and file share.
Level 1, Sensors
Sensors and transducers from select manufacturers to cover a wide range of TSI
applications. Each sensor is chosen under extreme engineering scrutiny to meet the
bandwidth, precision, EMI/RFI defense, and environmental conditions of the
application. Further, all prospective new sensors are though roughly tested in lab before
system use.
Available sensor and transmitter types include:
Eddy Current Vibration Probe
Eddy Current Thrust Position Probe
Eddy Current Eccentricity Probe
Eddy Current Differential Expansion Probe
Key Phase Magnetic Probe
Active Pulse Speed Probe
Torsional Vibration Monitoring Probe
Thermocouples
RTD
Pressure Transmitters
Case Expansion Transmitters
Level 2, Analysis Modules
In order to properly digitally sample and process sensor signals, LCC utilizes multiple
analysis modules which correspond to both sensor types and TSI functions.
Each Analysis Module is a slave drop on the system communications RS-485 network.
Each module is polled by the Data Display and Management Computer which serves as
a host/master.
ET 08 345
In most installations it is advantageous to locate the Analysis Modules at central
locations near the turbines.
This reduces both field run wiring and EMI/RFI susceptibility, and has the further
benefit of requiring only a single shielded twisted-pair network cable to the Data
Display and Management Computer located in an operator control room.
Available Analysis Modules include:
2-Channel Vibration with Key Phase and 1-Channel Thrust
2-Channel Eccentricity
2-Channel Torsional Vibration
2-of-3 Auctioned Digital Speed Monitor with Over Speed and Zero Speed
Detection
Multi-channel General Analog Inputs (4-20 mA, 0-5 V, 0-10V)
Multi-channel Thermocouple Inputs (J, K, S, T)
Multi-channel RTD Inputs
Multi-channel Combination Input Modules
Multi-channel General Analog Outputs (4-20 mA, 0-5 V, 0-10V)
Level 3, Data Display and Management Computer
The Data Display and Management Computer is a single piece panel mount color
graphics touch screen unit which operates a menu-driven program of multi-page data
displays.
The use of the color graphics touch screen as a Human-Machine Interface (HMI)
enhances the ease of data access and operator comprehension, and further allows
analyzer functions.
ET 08 346
38.3 ANALYSIS MODULE ENCLOSURES
System Analysis Modules may be installed in one or more enclosures either at the
turbine rail or in an electronics room. Optimizing the layout often depends upon these
application factors:
Is this a retrofit project using existing wiring?
Is this a new unit installation?
Is the turbine floor an extreme RFI/EMI environment?
4. Is the turbine floor an extreme temperature environment?
TSI assists with evaluating each application and recommending equipment layouts to
optimize performance and cost objectives.
38.4 VIBRATION VELOCITY MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Vibration : Back and forth motion of machinery parts under influence of oscillatory
forces caused by the dynamically unbalanced masses in the system. Causes of
vibration:
ET 08 347
1. Unbalance
2. Misalignment
3. Abnormal bearing clearance
4. Bend in shaft
5. Magnetic unbalance in generator
6. Fracture (due to out of balance change)
7. Slow of balance due to corrosion, erosion, deposits, bends etc.
8. Self excited shaft vibration like steam pulsation, oil pulsation etc.
9. Mechanical looseness in pedestal for coupling, bearing etc.
VIBRATION MEASURING SYSTEM PROVIDES
1. Remote digital/analogue indication of vibration level.
2. Continuous recording of parameter senses by different detector.
3. Annunciation in case of excessive vibrations beyond the safe limit.
38.5 MEASURING SYSTEM:
1. BY VELOCITY TRANSDUCER
2. BY ACCELEROMETERS.
38.5.1 VIBRATION SENSOR:
ET 08 348
38.5.2 ACCELROMETER
38.6 ECCENTRICITY
It is the measurement of rotor bow at rotor slow roll shaft eccentricity plays very
important role as part of TSI. Eccentricity is measured while the turbine is on slow roll
(1 to 240 rpm) to detect the peak-to-peak motion of the shaft.
CAUSES OF ECCENTRICITY
1. Fixed mechanical bow
2. Temporary thermal bow
3. Gravity bow
ET 08 349
The bow must be minimized prior to operation of a large machine train to prevent
vibration and possible machine damage, caused by rotating parts of the rotor assembly
contacting stationary parts of the machine case. This contact of rotating and stationary
parts is referred to as radial rub occurrence.
During normal machine operation, the rotor assembly is constantly rotating at high
speed. This high-speed rotation equalizes the effects of gravity and thermal forces
acting on the rotor assembly.
However, as soon as the rotor assembly comes to rest, these forces no longer apply
equally to all sides of the assembly. With the rotor assembly in a stationary position,
gravity acts upon the rotor causing the center to bow
ET 08 350
Thermal forces act on a rotor assembly when the rotor is shut down from its operating
condition. In a shutdown condition, heat is trapped in the upper machine casing,
creating a thermal differential across the assembly (for example, the top of the rotor
assembly becomes hotter than the bottom)., This temperature differential causes the
rotor assembly to bow towards the greater heat source (upwards in this case).
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL DCS
ET 08 351
CHAPTER 39
DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM
39.1 A TYPICAL DCS CONFIGURATION
DCS stands for 'distributed control system'. The term 'distributed' means that several
processors are operating together. This is usually achieved by dedicating tasks to
different machines. It does not necessarily mean that the separate computers are
physically located in different areas of the plant. Figure 8.1 shows how a typical system
may be arranged. The following notes relate to individual parts of that system. In
practice, each manufacturer will usually offer some variant of the system shown in this
diagram, and the relevant description should be consulted, but the comments made here
are general ones which may help to identify points which should be considered and
discussed when a new or refurbished system is being considered.
ET 08 352
39.2 THE CENTRAL SYSTEM CABINETS
Located near the centre of Figure 8.1 are the cabinets which house the processors that
execute the control functions. These cubicles also contain the attendant interface and
input/output (I/O) cards and the necessary power supply units (PSUs). The latter will
usually be duplicated or triplicated, with automatic changeover from one to another in
the event of the first failing. (This automatic changeover is often referred to as 'diode
auctioneering' because silicon diodes are used to feed power from each unit onto a
common bus-main. In the event of the operational power-supply unit failing, its diode
prevents a power reversal while the back-up power unit takes over.) At this time it is
important that the system should raise an alarm to warn that a PSU failure has occurred.
Otherwise the DCS will continue to operate with a diminished power-supply reserve
and any further failure could have serious consequences. Clearly, the DCS cannot
operate continuously from batteries alone. A reliable and stable source of power will
therefore need to be available (usually ll0V or 240V AC)
39.3 TERMINATION AND MARSHALLING
It is important to understand that the grouping of inputs and outputs on the I/O cards
does not always correspond with the grouping of signals into multipair cables, which is
dictated by the physical arrangement of equipment on the plant. While it is sensible to
avoid mixing different control systems (e.g. feed water control and combustion control)
onto a single card, the signals associated with a single system will not necessarily all be
carried in the same cable. The result is that a certain degree of crossconnection or
'marshalling' is always required. Well-designed systems will provide adequate facilities
for neatly marshalling the signal connections, but this inevitably requires that the
identification of signal connections and their location in the cable system is known at
an early stage of the contract. The later this problem is resolved, the more complex and
untidy the system will become. Complexity and untidiness can be dangerous because it
can lead to mistakes occurring during commissioning or afterwards.
39.4 OPERATOR WORKSTATIONS
The operator workstations consist of screens on which plant information can be
observed, plus keyboards, trackballs or 'mouse' devices allowing the operator to send
commands to the system. They also comprise printers for operational records, logging
ET 08 353
of events (such as start-up of a pump), or alarms. Some systems also provide plotters
(one use of plotters is to detect the possible stalling of an axial-flow fan, as described in
Chapter 3). The screens can be ordinary cathode-ray tube types as used with personal
computers, or they may be large-screen plasma displays or projection systems. The
selection of the type of screen depends on the operational requirements, but will
ultimately be determined by the available budget. Critical ergonomic factors affect the
optimum design of the workstations, and great care must be exercised to ensure that the
plant can be operated safely under all conceivable modes of failure, and that no
computer-assisted errors can occur due to the operator being confused by the
information presented to him or her. An important consideration is the screen update
time. This is the time between the occurrence of an event and its appearance on the
screen. As system loading is increased, this time can become extended, but the operator
will need to be made aware of each event as soon as possible after it occurs, so that
corrective action can be taken. An update time of 1 s is barely adequate to deal with
fast-moving events, but it can be quite difficult to achieve.
39.5 CABLING
The cables linking transmitters and actuators to the control system will be installed in
areas where they may be exposed to impact from passing vehicles or falling objects. In
addition, they may be subject to movement of the structure. For these reasons, cables
should be adequately protected and well supported. It is common practice in some
countries to use steel-wire armoured cable to provide protection, but if adequate
mechanical support and protection is provided by other means (such as cable trays)
there is anargument in favour of using cheaper, unarmoured cable, even in the most
severe plant environments. Often, a boiler is actually suspended from a steel frame to
allow it to expand and contract as it heats. The movement between objects on the boiler
front and a fixed reference point can be quite considerable and unless this effect is
considered, the cable can be damaged.
39.6 EQUIPMENT SELECTION AND ENVIRONMENT
Although modern gas-fired plant naturally tends to be clean in comparison with its
coal-fired equivalents, any power-station environment still presents a severe test for
electronic systems. The control-system designer has to deal with the problems of
ET 08 354
operating low-voltage, potentially interference- prone, electronic equipment in close
proximity to electrical plant operating at 11 kV and above, with all its attendant
switchgear and transformers. The situation is exacerbated when considerations of safe
operation in hazardous environments are brought into the picture. It becomes even
worse when considering the dust, dirt and vibration that are significant factors in
practical power-plant environments. Naturally, the latter problems (dust and dirt)
become particularly acute in coal-fired plant. The success of a control system depends
on the designer understanding and addressing these factors. To assist in this process the
following chapter provides an outline of good equipment design and installation
practices. Because the subject covers so many different disciplines, the chapter is
divided into three sections:
Mechanical factors: the ground rules for providing good facilities for control and
instrumentation equipment.
Electromagnetic compatibility: guidelines for minimising the risk of maloperation
caused by interference.
Physical environmental considerations: dealing with dust, dirt, vibration and
hazardous atmospheres.
These matters must be understood and judiciously applied when an installation is being
planned, but doing this involves considerable interplay with the civil and mechanical-
engineering disciplines, and appropriate action must therefore be taken at a very early
stage in the design and construction phases of the plant. In a new plant, given diligence
and understanding on the part of all the disciplines involved, one can hope to achieve
this goal. But in the case of a refurbishment project the task becomes much more
difficult, because here one is dealing with a plant whose construction is already
complete. In this case the control-system designer must work with what already exists.
In the end it may come to a matter of fighting a ditch-by-ditch battle, eventually
retreating to the last principle--the one that must never be sacrificed--which is to obtain
an installation that is safe to operate and maintain.
ET 08 355
39.7 RELIABILITY OF SYSTEMS
Because of the large numbers of electronic components that are manufactured, and
because component manufacturers keep good records of failure rates etc., it is fairly
easy to obtain statistical information on reliability that will provide a good indication of
the predicted reliability for any given system. In practical terms, what really matters is
the length of time for which a system will be capable of remaining in operation over the
course of a year or over its operational lifetime. This is governed by both the reliability
of the equipment and the speed with which repairs can be effected. For example, it
would be theoretically possible to construct a very reliable system by arranging for all
functions to be performed by a few very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuits
connected together without the use of plug-and-socket connectors. Because VLSI
devices are inherently reliable and because connectors are a source of failure such a
system would offer a very high level of reliability. Unfortunately, it would be very
difficult to repair if it did fail.
ET 08 356

Instrumentation and Control

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Instrumentation and Control

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION IN TPS

You might also like