Compounding

Noun+Noun
The most common type of word formation is the combination of two (or more) nouns in order to form
a resulting noun:
Noun + Noun = Noun
Examples: landmine, wallpaper, toothbrush
The first of the two compounds may be descriptie (i!e! tablecloth, a cloth with which to clean "or
cloth# tables), or both compounds may create a whole new meaning altogether (i!e railroad, which is
not a $road$ in the typical sense of the word!) %t is also possible to form words whose components are
e&ually important to or descriptie of its meaning, for example, a washer-dryer refers to an ob'ect
combining two functions!
There are, of course, many more different ways how compound nouns can be related to each other
and how their new meanings can best be explained grammatically! %n most cases, howeer, the
nature of these compounds is self(explanantory, and their meanings are &uite comprehensible een
for those who encounter them for the first time!
Note that compound nouns usually appear as two separate words, only those more commonly used,
those found in eery(day language, and usually compounds with no more than three syllables are
found as one word! )yphens (() between the segments of a compound noun are absolutely
exceptional! Examples:
windowsill (the sill attached under a window), shopwindow (a shop*s window), doorkey (a +ey for
the door), bookpage (a page in a boo+), silverspoon (a spoon made of siler), waterpipe (a pipe
that carries water), dockyard (a yard for doc+s), fireman (somebody who fights fire), wallpaper
($paper$ one glues to walls), Independence Day (anniersary of the ,eclaration of %ndependence),
office supply (goods for office use), water shortage (shortage of water), labour riot (employees
rioting), television set (a set for watching teleision), headache (an aching head), snowfall (snow
falling), answerphone (a phone that answers), air-conditioner (a machine conditioning air),
gunfight (a fight carried out with guns)
Verb+Noun
)ere erbs describe what is done with an ob'ect or what a sub'ect $does$, in short, a new noun is
formed, usually referring to something concrete, and the erb defines the action related to it:
-erb + Noun = Noun: draw + bridge = drawbridge!
. drawbridge is a bridge that can be inclined in order to allow ships to pass, or $drawn$! )ere, the
noun is the direct ob'ect!
hitman = a man who carries out $dirty 'obs$, or, who $hits$! )ere, the word as part of speech is the
sub'ect!
/esides that, both segments can be related in other ways, i!e! the noun may stand for a aderb of
place: walkway = people wal+ on the wal+way!
The usual rules apply to spelling! 0ore examples:
walkway (a way to wal+ on), divecenter (a place where one goes diing), runway (a strip of flat land
where aircraft start or land "$run$#), filter-paper (paper used for filtering li&uids or gases), driveway (a
road leading to a garage or a building), payday (the day one receies his or her salary), paycheck (a
chec+ used for the payment of wages or salaries),
Noun+d!ective
Nouns and ad'ecties can also be compounded in the opposite order:
Noun + .d'ectie = .d'ectie
Camera + shy = camera-shy (1hy in respect of appearing or spea+ing before cameras)!
%n this case, the resultant is an ad'ectie, while the noun explaines the ob'ectie!
.nother possibility is that the noun supports the ad'ectie, i!e! as an intensifier:
dirt-cheap = cheap as dirt2 paper-thin = thin as paper
Those rules do also apply to the lin+ing of nouns and participial ad'ecties:
"nglish-speaking2 soul-destroying2 frost-bitten
0ore common and shorter compounds appear as one word whereas those longer and less common
are lin+ed by a hyphen! 0ore examples of all subtypes:
waterproof (proof or resistant against water), seaworthy (a ship withstanding the dangers of the
sea), airworthy (an aircraft safely flyable), blameworthy (a person desering blame), bookworthy
(something worth being published), trustworthy (somebody who can be trusted), !et black (deep
blac+), footsore (haing a sore foot), heart-sick (a person suffering from heart disease), seasick
(being sic+ from the effects of a stormy sea), home-made (made priately at home), power-mad
(mad about or craing power), colour-blind (unable to discriminate colours other than blac+ and
white and grey),
d!ektive+Noun
.nother ma'or type of word formation is the compounding of .d'ecties and nouns:
.d'ectie + Noun = Noun:
brown + bear = brownbear
%n this case, the ad'ectie defines or describes the character of the noun ( a brownbear is a bear that
is brown)! %t is also possible, howeer, to lin+ the two segments and end up with a totally new word,
for example, yellowpress refers to newspapers speciali3ing in sensational news items! %f the
meaning of the compound does not immediately register through analysis of the segments, the latter
is the case! Then, only a loo+ in the dictionary will help!
These compounds usually appear as one word! Examples:
blackboard (a board to write on ertically attached to a wall), redneck (a 1outherner of poor social
bac+ground), yellowpress (see aboe), blueprint (prints of building plans, or detailes plans in
general), la#ybone (a la3y person), brownbear (see aboe), braveheart (somebody who*s brae),
wiseguy (a pretentious person who behaes as if he +nows more than others), hardcopy
(something in print), software (computer programmes), coldblood (a person deoid of feelings of
pity),
$ther Compounds
There are arious other types of compounds! . selection of which is shown below!
d!ective+d!ective
bitter-sweet% deaf-mute% aural-oral% nglo-&a'on
d!ective + (articiple
far-reaching% far fetched% narrow-minded% single-minded% high-climbing% low-yielding% red-
painted% bare-handed
Note: %t is as well possible to combine ad'ecties with participles not originating from erbs!
d!ective+Verb
to blackmail% to dryclean% to blackpaint% to whitewash
Noun+Verb
to proofread% to babysit% to brainstorm% to sightsee% to tape-record
(refi'es
%n contrast to compounding, affixation lin+s so(called prefixes and suffixes, which are not independent
words, to words of all types! The type of affix determines the effect the affixation will hae on the
word! )ere, we discuss supportie and opposing prefixes! They are used to express support for or
disapproal of whateer is expressed by the word they*re attached to!
&upportive and opposing (refi'es )(refi'es of attitude*
pro = on the side of, supporting: pro(choice, pro(life, pro(mar+et, pro(libertarian2 added to: nouns,
ad'ecties of denomination!
anti = against, counteracting: anti(missile, anti(social, antibody, anti(abortion, anti(regulatory2 =
antagonistic: anti(hero, antichrist2 added to: nouns, aderbs, denominal ad'ecties!
counter = in opposition to: to counteract, counter(reolution, counter(example, counter(espionage,
counter(productie2 added to: erbs, abstract nouns, ad'ecties!
contra = contrasting, against: contraception, contraindicate, contraflow, contradistinction2 added to:
abstract nouns, erbs!
co = with, 'oint: cooperate, co(pilot, co(author, cooperation2 added to: nouns, erbs!
There are no firm spelling rules, but the usual guidelines will fit for suffixes (lenght, fre&uency of use)!
+eversative and deprivative (refi'es
These prefixes describe actions being reersed or of antonymic character!
un = to reerse action, to deprie of: to untie, to unpac+, to unhorse, to unscramble, to unloc+, to
unmas+, to unhouse2 added to: erbs!
de = reerse action, remoe something, depart or cause to depart from, remoe and undo what is
meant the second part of the formation: to decriminali3e, to deselect, to decontaminate, to debug, to
defrost, to delouse, to deplane, to detrain, to decamp, deforestation2 added to: erbs, abstract nouns!
dis = reersal of an action, remoal of something: to dis&ualify, to disinite, to disenfranchise, to
disarm, to disillusion, to disambiguate, discoloured, disconnected, discontent, dissatisfaction2 added
to: erbs, participles, nouns!
Negative (refi'es
. rough outline of negatie prefixes and their usage is gien below!
a = not, lac+ing in, not affected by, deoid of &uality: atheist, amoral (not sub'ect to moral standards),
asymmetry, apolitical, asexual2 added to: ad'ecties, nouns!
dis = not, absolute opposite of what is meant by the second element: disloyal, distrust, disagree,
disli+e, disfaour, disadantage2 added to: ad'ecties, abstract nouns, erbs!
un = not, the opposite of2 before words of french origin: in(, il((before l), im((before p), ir((before r)!
Note: These are the most commonly used prefixes of negation! Examples: unfair, unassuming,
unexpected, unproductie, insane, in'ustice, intolerance, impatience, imperfect, irregular, illegal,
incapable, illogical, improper, irreleant2 added to: ad'ecties, participles (only un()!
non = not, not regarded as: non(stop, non(interference, non(aggression, non(smo+er, non(drip
(paint), non(person, non(eent2 added to: arios types of words and expressions, mainly nouns and
erbs!
(e!orative (refi'es
4e'oratie prefixes are highly ealuatie in the negatie sense!
mis = wrong(ly), astray: mismanagement, mismarriage, to miscalculate, to misgoern, to mishandle,
misleading, misconduct, to misinform (inform wrongly2 whereas disinformation means the deliberate
spreading of false or distorted information)2 added to: erbs, abstract, participles!
mal = bad(ly), improper(ly): malpractice, malinformation, malnutrition, maltreatment, to malfunction,
malad'usted, malformed, malodorous2 added to: erbs, abstract nouns, participles, ad'ecties, but
only words of latin origin!
pseudo = false, imitation: pseudo(education,pseudo(intellectual, pseudo(science, pseudo(
Eli3abethan, pseudo(5othic2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties, also nouned ad'ecties!
crypto = concealed: crypto(fascist, crypto(6atholic,cryptography2 added to: nouns!
(refi'es of (lace ),ocative (refi'es*
7ocatie prefixes determine the place, or relatie place, or (relatie) direction, of action or ob'ects!
.lso, abstract nouns and processes or relations are determined in terms of locality! 4erhaps a loo+ at
the following will proide a clear picture:
ante = before (locally): antechamber, anteroom2 added to: nouns!
circum = around: circumnaigate, circumlocution, circumcision2 added to: erbs, nouns!
extra = outside, beyond: extramarital, extracurricular, extrasensory, extra(pay2 added to: ad'ectis,
nouns!
fore = in front, front part of: forefinger, fores+in, forecourt, forehead2 added to: nouns!
in = inside, into: also il(, im(, ir( ingathering, indoors, in(patient (not impatient)2 added to: participles,
nouns!
inter = between, in between: interracial, international, interdisciplinary, interrace2 added to: ad'ecties,
nouns!
intra = inside: intramural, intra(uterine, intraenous2 added to: ad'ecties!
mid = middle: midfield, mid(point, midway2 added to: nouns!
out = out of, outside: outdoor, out(patient, outloo+2 added to: nouns2 = to surpass: to outrun, to
outnumber, to outgrow, to outdistance, to outbid2 added to: erbs!
oer = aboe, outer: to oerthrow, to oershadow, oercoat2 added to: erbs, nouns2 = excessie:
oeremphasis, oerenthusiasm, oer(anxious, to oercharge, to oerfish2 added to: nouns, erbs!
retro = bac+wards, reflexie: to retroflex, to retroroc+et, to retro'ect2 added to: erbs!
sub = below, beneath: subway, subsoil, subconcious2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties2 = secondary,
lesser in ran+: sub(editor, subdean, subleader, sub(climax2 added to: nouns2 = subordinate part of:
subcommittee, sub(plot, sublet, subtitle2 added to: nouns2 = below the norm: subhuman, sub3ero,
substandard2 added to: ad'ecties, nouns! = to exchange: to substitute2 added to: erbs!
super = aboe: superstructure, superimpose, superterrestrial2 added to: nouns, erbs, ad'ecties2 =
beyond the norm: superhuman, superman, supergun, superstar2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties2 =
excessie, excessiely: superconformity, superconfidence, supersensitie, superabundant,
supercritical2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties!
supra = aboe: supranational, supramundane2 added to: ad'ecties!
sur = aboe: surtax, surcharge, surtitle2 nouns, erbs!
tele = at a distance: telecommunication, teleision2 added to: nouns, erbs!
trans = across: transatlantic, transnational, transsexual2 added to: ad'ecties, geographical names!
ultra = beyond, excessiely, extremely: ultra(iolet, ultra(sonic, ultra(modest, ultra(thin, ultra(modern,
ultra(orthodox2 added to: ad'ecties!
under = below: underground, undercarriage, underclothes2 added to: nouns2 = too little2 undercharge,
underpay, undercoo+, underalue: added to: erbs2 = subordinate: under(secretary, underclass,
underling2 added to: nouns!
.dditional locatie prefixes: 4repositions determining direction, both locatiely and figuratiely
applied: to bypass, to upgrade, to downsi3e, to undergo, to oersee!
(refi'es of &i#e% Degree and &tatus
These prefixes determine mostly nouns, and are self(explanatory to a large extent:
arch = highest, worst, chief: archbishop, arch(rial, archangel, archdu+e, arch(enemy2 added to:
nouns!
macro = large: macrocosm, macro(economics2 added to: nouns!
micro = small: microtransmitter, micro(computer, microsurgery, micro(economics2 added to: nouns!
mega = ery large: megastar, megastore2 added to: nouns!
mini = small: miniseries, minibrea+, minicab, minis+irt2 added to: nouns!
oer8under = too much8too little: to oercoo+, to underheat2 added to: any erb of action!
hyper = extremely: hypercritical2 added to: ad'ecties!
co = 'oint: co(founder, co(presenter2 added to: nouns, erbs!
pro = deputy: procounsul, pro(ice(chancellor2 added to: nouns of latin origin!
ice = deputy: ice president2 added to: latin words!
(refi'es of -ime and $rder
These prefixes determine time and order, their meanings and usage are gien below!
ante = before: antenatal, antedate2 added to: ad'ecties!
ex = former: ex(wife, ex(president2 human nouns!
fore = before: to foresee, to foretell, foregone2 added to: erbs, participles, nouns!
mid = middle: mid(afternoon, midwinter, midnight2 added to: nouns denoting points or periods of time!
neo = new, recent form of, reied: neo(colonialism, neo(conseratie, neo(fascist2 added to: abstract
nouns, ad'ecties!
post = after: post(war, post(modernism, post(structuralist2 added to: nouns denoting time, abstract
nouns, ad'ecties denoting periods of time!
pre = before, pre(arranged before the time8period of: prepay, pre(existing, predate, preiew,
preschool, pre(war, pre(marital2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties!
re = again, bac+: reprint, reapply, renew, re(ealuate, resettlement2 added to: erbs, abstract nouns!
.s for the English prefix re(, note that it appears as an English prefix in words that contrast with
borrowings from 9rench or 7atin! $:e($ means to repeat the actions denoted by the erb it is added
to2 howeer, if such formation then begins $re$, it might be neccesary to distinguish between the
formation and other erbs spelled ali+e: to re(coer = to proide with a new coer, but to recoer = to
recuperate2 to re(fuse = to insert new fuse, but to refuse = to re'ect carrying out an action! )ere,
hypheni3ed spelling denotes a word formation!
(refi'es of Number
Numeral prefixes the amount, &uantity, or scope!
mono = single, one: monotheism, monorail, monoplane, monotonous2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties!
uni = one: unidirectional, unidimensional, unilateral2 added to: ad'ecties, nouns!
poly = many: polysyllabic, polytheism, polygraph2 added to: ad'ecties, nouns!
multi = many: multi(faith, multinational, multimillionaire, multi(racial2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties!
semi = half, partly: semicircle, semi(automatic, semi(conscious, semi(official2 added to: nouns,
ad'ecties!
demi = half, partly: demisemi&uaer, demigod2 added to:nouns in most cases!
hemi = half: hemisphere, hemistich2 added to: nouns!
bi = two, double: bifocal, bilingual, bilateral2 added to: ad'ecties!
di = two, double: dipole, dioxide2 added to: nouns!
duo, du = two, double: duologue, duplex2 added to: nouns!
tri = three, triple: tripartite, triangle, triennial2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties!
Class-changing and converting (refi'es
The prefixes a(, be(, en( and em( hae the primary effect to change the class (or type) of words, or, to
conert!
a = added to erbs in order to form predicatie ad'ecties (no synonymical explaination possible):
afloat (. ships that*s floating is afloat), aloft (.n aircraft airborne is aloft)!
be = added to nouns in order to form transitie erbs: to besiege (To surround to force into
surrender), to beguile (To charm), to bewitch (To put a magic spell on)2 = added to ad'ecties in order
to form transitie erbs: to becalm (To calm or to ma+e calm), to belittle (To ma+e something or
somebody seem unimportant or of lesser alue), to befoul (To ma+e foul or dirty2 to contaminate)2 =
added to erbs in order to form transitie erbs, and, at the same time, as an intensifying force for
erbs: to beda33le (To bring someone into da33lement), to becry (To bitterly cry about), to besmear
(To ma+e dirty), to bewail (To mourn, or express sorrow oer), to bespatter (To coer with spots of
dirt), to bespea+ (To gie eidence of)2 = added to nouns in order to form participial ad'ecties:
bespectacled (;earing spectacles), beribboned (;earing ribbons), bewigged (;earing a wig),
besotted ()opelessly in loe with sb!, but only in reference to men "women are infatuated#)!
en as well as em( (before b,p), to form erbs from nouns and ad'ecties2 added to nouns in order to
form intransitie erbs meaning $put oneself onto or into$: to enlist (to enter or cause to enter armed
forces2 to obtain help, support etc!), to enroll (to become or ma+e so! a member of st!), to embar+ (to
board a ship or plane)2 = added to nouns in order to form transitie erbs meaning $put in$: to encode
(To translate into coded language), to endanger (To put into danger), to ensnare (To catch in trap)2 =
added to nouns in order to form transitie erbs meaning $ma+e into$: to enslae (To ma+e a slae
out of), to ennoble (To ma+e a noble out of)2 = added to ad'ecties in order to form transitie erbs
meaning $ma+e$: to enlarge (to increase si3e), to enrich (to ma+e richer), to ensure (to ma+e sure), to
embitter (to cause bitterness for)!
$ther (refi'es
)ere is a selection of other possible prefixes that wouldn*t fit into either of the preious categories!
)ae a loo+ at them and they*ll immediately register!
auto = self: autobiography, autopilot, auto(suggestion, autograph, automobile2 added to: nouns!
bio = abbreiation of biology an biological: biodegradable, biofeedbac+, biodiersity2 added to: nouns,
ad'ecties!
eco = abbreiation of ecology and ecological: ecosystem, eco(tourism2 added to: nouns!
euro = also Euro = abbreiation of Europe and European: Eurocurrencies, Eurosceptic, Europhile2
added to: nouns, ad'ecties!
para = ancillary: paramilitary, paramedic, paralegal2 added to: nouns, ad'ecties2 = beyond the scope
of: paranormal, parapsychology2 added to: ad'ecties, nouns!
self = self: self(motiating, self(inflicted, self(denial, self(satisfaction2 added to: particles, nouns!
pan = all, worldwide: pan(.frican, pan(1laism2 added to: ad'ecties and nouns denoting origin or
nationality!
proto = first, original: prototype2 added to: nouns!
+ecent Coinages of prefi'ed words
)ere is a both complementary and concluding selection of current word formations, clarifying the
importance of word formations in today*s English:
anti(choice, bicultural, co(presenter, counter(culture, deselect, difunctional, disinest, eco(tourism,
Eurosceptic, ex(directory, gigabyte, hypertext, interface, intra(uterine, macrobiotic, maxiseries,
megastar, microsurgery, minibrea+, multimedia, neo(colonialism, non(proliferation, pan(.frican,
paramedic, postmodernism, preschooler, proactie, reflag, retrofire, supergun, ungreen, unisex, up(
mar+et
Note that the usual rule of hypheni3ing formations of more than three syllables is not followed in
eery case2 the respectie formation has already become receied standard, constituting an
independant word!
&uffi'es
Verb &uffi'es
)ere, suffixes, which fulfill the function of forming erbs from other word classes, are defined and
explained!
(ify = to ma+e, to cause: to simplify, to beautify, to classify, to personify, to countrify, to ladify, to
prettify, to 9renchify2 added to: nouns (i!e! beauty) and ad'ecties (i!e! pretty) in order to form (mainly)
transitie erbs!
(i3e = also (ise = to ma+e, to treat in the way of: to scandali3e, to ciili3e, to organi3e, to circulari3e, to
mesmeri3e, to .mericani3e, to familiari3e, to legali3e, to nationali3e, to soberi3e, to patroni3e, to
materiali3e, to populari3e, to prioriti3e, to priati3e2 added to: ad'ecties and nouns of romanic origin,
but also proper names in order to form mainly transitie erbs! Note that to apologi3e, to botani3e, to
sympathi3e are not word formations in that respect, because the remaining stem wouldn*t be an
independent English word if $(i3e$ were ta+en away!
(en = to ma+e, to ma+e become: to strengthen, to blac+en, to dar+en, to deepen, to harden, to
shorten, to widen, to deafen, to sadden2 added to: nouns and ad'ecties in order to form transitie
erbs meaning: $to ma+e something into whateer the ad'ectie or noun determines$! Note that
sometimes the ad'ectie (i!e! blac+) can become a transitie erb itself without being suffixed: to
blac+! 9or differences in meaning see the dictionary! 1ometimes the meaning of the original ad'ectie
and the formation may differ: fast (as &uic+) and to fasten (as to engage i!e! a seatbelt)! There are
some further exceptions to this rule: poor ( to impoerish (to ma+e poor)! Note that this word
formation is only possible on ad'ecties and nouns that end with a consonant! .ll others undergo that
word formation (.d'ectie becoming a noun) without changing or being added to at all: free ( to free!
(ate = to add or proide with: to chlorinate, to dehydrate, to urinate, to entilate2 added to: nouns in
order to form both transitie and intransitie erbs meaning: $to add to something whateer is
expressed by the original noun$2 or, $to perform or carry out actions obiously meant by the original
noun$!
6onsult your dictionary to be in the picture of what these erb suffixes mean!
d!ective &uffi'es
(able (also (ible on words of 7atin or 9rench origin) ( words ending (able hae to meaning $that can or
deseres to be (ed$ (in which $(ed$ stands for any past participle)2 or, $that is able to do this$2 or,
that can be done with it: brea+able, eatable, exchangeable, pitiable, readable, reliable, aailable,
ob'ectionable, treasonable, +nowledgeable, agreeable, forgettable, unthin+able, intelligible,
responsible, audible2 added to: chiefly erbs of action! Note that certain combinations li+e
demonstrable (to demonstrate), separable (to separate) or any one based on erbs ending (ate,
retain only the stem of the base erb instead of the whole erb! -erbs ending (y change into (i2 that,
howeer, does not affect the choice of (able s! (ible, which is solely determined by the erb*s origin!
4lease beware that these forms are often used with negatie prefixes: unthin+able! .lso, it is possible
to ma+e a noun out of such ad'ecti: The reliable (;hat can be relied on)!
(al (also (ial) ( meaning $of the nature of$, $belonging to$: natural, occasional, educational, coastal,
tidal, accidental, managerial, musical, criminal, editorial, proisional, continental2 added to: nouns in
order to form primarily non(comparable ad'ecties! Note: continual, corporal, indiidual, royal etc! are
not word formations in the English sense2 howeer, they resemble the principles explained aboe!
(an (also (ian) ( meaning $in the tradition of$, $coming from$, $of the nature of$: .frican, %ndian,
Eli3abethan, -ictorian, republican2 added to: chiefly proper names, geographical names, well(+now
personal names (4ersons defining eras, ideas, or ideologies)!
(ed ( haing, haing been proided with, or haing been $(ed$ (while (ed stands for the past participle
of any erb): booted, spurred, cultured, landed, moneyed, talented, wooded, earthed, fashioned, one(
eyed, balconied2 added to: nouns or noun phrases in order to form participial ad'ecties! This word
formation is often used in combination with other ad'ecties, aderbs or nouns: old(fashioned, newly(
bought, wire(fenced, gold(laced, middle(si3ed, well(mannered, pig( headed! Note that combinations
of aderbs and deriatie (word formations ending (ed) are not always hypheni3ed: cheerfully
minded, highly(priced!
(en = being made or composed of (0aterials): wooden, woollen, leaden, earthen2 added to: nouns
denoting materials! Note that sometimes the noun itself forms the ad'ectie (i!e! iron door), or both
the word formation and the noun ma+e sufficient ad'ecties: lead pipes or leaden roof!
(ese = coming from, being of the nature of2 6hinese, 0ilanese, 4ortuguese2 added to: 1ome
geographic names of foreign nature! This also denotes indiiduals (besides groups)!
(es&ue = after the manner of (artists especially): :embrandtes&ue, pictures&ue (methaphorical,
picture( li+e)2 added to: 4roper names, nouns denoting stylistic or art(li+e deices (a pictures&ue
language)!
(fold = so many times: twofold, tenfold, manyfold2 added to: numerals higher than one2 $many$!
(ful = being full of, haing the nature of, giing: cheerful, doubtful, powerful, careful, resentful, mindful,
useful, helpful, spoonful2 added to: chiefly abstract nouns!
(ic = of the nature of: energetic, emphatic, systematic, comic, domestic, laconic, phonetic, tragic,
.rabic, aristocratic, dramatic, Napoleonic2 added to: nouns, proper names!
(ical = of the nature of: biological, economical, comical, historical2 added to: nouns, proper names! $(
ical$ is more collo&uial and less scientific than $(ic$2 but beware that sometimes meanings differ:
economic (dealing with the economy) as different to economical (as less wasteful)!
(ing = something experienced li+e !!! (erbs)2 ama3ing, amusing, da33ling, trifling, shoc+ing2 added to:
erbs! The resulting word formation is identical with the present participle of the base erb2 howeer,
here it is an ad'ectie!
(ish = of the nature of: 1wedish, feerish, youngish, childish, seenish added to: geographical names,
ad'ecties, nouns, numerals denoting time or age (fiish = around fie2 thirtyish = about <= years of
age)!
(less = deoid of: careless, harmless, restless, borderless, merciless2 added to: nouns (antonym of
(ful)!
(li+e = of the nature of, behaing li+e: childli+e, gentlemanli+e, godli+e2 added to: nouns!
(ly = of the nature of, periodic recurrence: cowardly, +ingly, earthly, monthly, daily2 added to: nouns,
denotions of time! This is not to be confused with the formation of aderbs, which happens when (ly
is added to an ad'ectie!
(some = productie of: burdensome, fearsome, &uarrelsome, troublesome, tiresome, lonesome2
added to: nouns,erbs,ad'ecties! %t is highly adisable to consult a dictionary before forming your
own combinations!
(ward = in the direction of: upward, eastward, onward, heaenward, homeward, landward, bac+ward,
forward (as from fore)2 added to: locatie aderbs!
(y = of the nature of: funny, rusty, smelly, sleepy, choosy, bony, nery, headachy, second(classy,
catchy, stic+y fishy, flimsy (derobitary: fishy character)2 added to: eery concrete noun, some erbs!
&uffi'es of concrete nouns
Noun suffixes will form nouns from eery type of word!
(ant (as well as (ent) = who 8 that carries out, agentie and instrumental: informant, claimant, solent,
inhabitant, disinfectant, serant2 added to: erbs! 6onsult your dictionary when in doubt!
(er = also (or in words of latin origin: serer, dreamer, cleaner, recorder2 added to: erbs! 6onsult your
dictionary when in doubt! These often denote person following their profession: ba+er, boo+seller2 =
deice or ob'ect fulfilling the tas+ of: container, loc+er, boiler, mower2 added to: erbs! = ob'ect,
agency or means performing the tas+ of: fixer(upper, do(gooder2 added to: erbal phrases
(erb+aderb)2 = denotion of origin of persons: 1outherner, 7ondoner2 added to: geographical names!
(ing = agentie: the wor+ing (a definite article is mandatory)2 added to: erbs2 = actiity: swimming,
gardening, manufacturing2 added to: erbs2 = result: building, clothing, painting2 added to: erbs! The
result is either a gerund or a participle, according to the context!
(ee = passie, affected by: employee, interiewee, teachee, trustee, eacuee2 added to: erbs! The
resulting noun must denote a person!
(ed = passie, affected by: the unemployed2 added to: erbs! The resulting noun must denote a
person! >se a definite article!
(eer = denoting the person carrying out a certain action: auctioneer, sloganeer, olunteer2 added to:
nouns, erbs!
(ery = also (ry = a location or place where to (!!!): brewery, ba+ery2 added to: erbs of action2 = oerall
term for arious but similiar ob'ects: machinery, weaponry2 added to: nouns!
(ist = person following the befiefs of: communist, fascist, royalist2 conerted from: abstract nouns
ending (ism or added to certain ad'ecties (royal)2 = person practising science or art, trade or
profession: archaeologist, iolinist, tobacconist, dentist2 added to: concrete nouns or conerted from
abstract nouns! = person haing the characteristics of8 thin+ing in terms of: racist, sexist, egoist,
antagonist2 added to: certain nouns! 6onsult dictionary!
bstract Nouns
)ere are some ways to form abstract nouns from arious word classes!
(age = an aggregate or collectity: acreage, mileage, pac+age, oltage2 added to: nouns denoting
units of measurement, erbs li+e to pac+2 = function or condition: bondage, orphanage, peerage,
shortage2 added to: certain nouns, ad'ectie $short$2 = action: brea+age, drainage, stoppage2 added
to: erbs of action! 6onsult your dictionary2 = fee or charge: postage, percentage2 added to: certain
nouns2 = abode or residence: hermitage, orphanage, icarage, heritage!
(al = the eent of an action: approal, arrial, denial, recital, refusal, reial, trial, bestowal, betrothal,
renewal, upheaal, withdrawal, deferral, dismissal, betrayal2 added to: erbs of action of :omanic
origin!
(ation = also (ion = state, action: exploration, ob'ection, authori3ation2 added to: erbs of action2 =
institution: organi3ation2 addes to: erbs!
(dom = ran+ or condition: du+edom, earldom, stardom, martyrdom, saagedom boredom, freedom,
wisdom2 added to: nouns, certain erbs and ad'ecties2 = domain or realm: +ingdom, christendom2
added to: names denoting religious domain or titles of heads of state2 = a group of persons
collectiely, or $the ways of !!!$: 6hristendom, schoolmasterdom, officialdom2 added to: certain nouns
and ad'ecties!
(ship = state or condition: authorship, membership, scholarship, hardship, fellowship, friendship,
hardship2 added to: nouns denoting &ualities of a person, certain ad'ecties2 = s+ill or art:
salesmanship, craftsmanship, wor+manship2 added to: nouns of profession2 = action: censorship2
added to: erbs2 = ?thers of concrete meaning: scholarship, township2 added to: nouns!
(cy = state of condition: accuracy, constancy, normalcy, ban+ruptcy, decency, truancy2 added to:
ad'ecties2 = state or incumbency of: lieutenancy, presidency, captaincy, colonelcy, chaplaincy2 added
to: nouns retaining to ran+ or office!
(ry also (ery (as for words of only one syllable) = action or condition: pedantry, rialry, drudgery,
foolery, slaery2 added to: nouns of personal &ualities or conditions2 = science, occupation, trade:
chemistry, dentistry, coo+ery2 added to: professions2 = colony of animals or plants2 swannery, pinery2
= collectiity of persons2 %rishry, peasantry, yeomanry, citi3enry, snobbery2 = collectiity of things:
croc+ery, 'ewelry, summitry2 = wor+place of !!! (profession)2 place to !!! (action): ba+ery,brewery,
fishery, pottery, refinery2 added to: names of profession2 erbs of action2 = abode of one or more
persons: deanery, nunnery, nursery2 added to: names of professions!
(ness = state or condition: foolishness, narrow(mindedness, willingness, happiness, drun+enness,
carelessness, usefulness2 added to: ad'ecties and participles descriptie of personal ways, or
conditions2 or of charac( teristicals of things2 must be of germanic origin!
(ility, (ity, (ty = state or condition: ability, stability, simplicity, anity, cruelty readability, isibility,
comicality2 added to: ad'ecties of latin or french origin2 or, ad'ecties of English origin ending (able or
(ible!
(ment = action or result of action: ac+nowledgement, argument, fulfilment, shipment, treatment,
emban+ment, embodiment, employment, endowment, enlightenment, endorsement, paement,
settlement, shipment, bewilderment, refreshment2 added to: erbs of action! Note: 1ome of these
formations are passie in meaning: bewilderment = state of being bewildered!
dverb &uffi'es
.derb suffixes are, li+e most of the other ones, class(changing! Note that some ad'ecties (li+e
friendly) cannot be conerted into an aderb2 when needed to be applied as such, an inserted
paraphrase is neccesary!
(ly = in that way! (ly is the standard way to form ad'ecties: easy ( easily2 important ( importantly2 and
so on! (ly is added to: ad'ecties not ending (ly, phrases (matter(of(factly, full(heartedly, cold(
bloodedly)! %t is also added to some neologisms: transbroomstic+ally! .s for the aforesaid: friendly ( in
a friendly manner (this applies to all ad'ecties ending (ly)!
(wise = in terms of !!!, as far as !!! is8are concerned: cloc+wise, notewise, moneywise2 added to:
nouns!
( ways = in the manner of: sideways, lengthways2 added to: nouns!
.derbs determine the nature of erbs (action or state) and of ad'ecties (characteristics), whereas
ad'ecties determine the nature of nouns (things or persons)!
+ecent Coinages )&uffi'es*
/elow is a selection of current word formation using suffixes:
microwaeable, actional, gentrification, yuppiedom, finger(dried, faxee, leaderene, bagger, bimbette,
additie(free, +issogram, wrin+lie, gentrigy, networ+ing, wimpish, ableism, surialist, recyclability,
confrontie, priati3e, ecomanie, user(friendliness, returni+, retrophilia
Conversion
6onersion is the process or shifting a word into a different word class without adding an affix (that
would usually be called $deriation$)! Next, we*ll discuss how to form nouns denoting actions out of
actional erbs!
Verbs of action into nouns
The rule: a erb becomes a noun: to swim (@ a swim! 1pelling does not change, neither is anything
added!
The erb giing rise to this word formation must denote an action: to swim, to wal+, to run, to read!
The resulting noun denotes a single action, a specific instance ($% had a good read$), instead of the
action or actiity as such: $% li+e running$ would be correct, if the actiity as such were to be
considered! There are, howeer, some exceptions (wor+ = wor+ing as such)!
Examples:
to go for a wal+, a long run, in the long run (long(term), a good stay, wor+ (denoting the act of wor+ing
as such), disli+e, doubt, to be in the +now (to +now2 only such use), laugh, offer, bore (person or thing
that bores), rebel, snea+, drin+ (what someone drin+s), find, re'ect, cure, polish, wrap, dump (where
something is dumped), haunt, stop
Concrete Nouns into Verbs
)ere, %*ll demonstrate a widely used possibility to employ erbal expressions instead of nominal ones!
6oncrete nouns, usually denoting things, are conerted into erbs meaning something related to the
noun, as an action! This definition might sound abstract and weird, but the following examples will
ma+e the point clear:
The companys head&uarters really dwarf the other buildings (to dwarf st! = to ma+e st! loo+ small
in comparison)! 0any driers regularly floor the pedal when driing this road (to floor the pedal = to
press it so that it reaches the floor of a car)! The satellite failed to deorbit (to deorbit = to leae its
path round the earth and return)! %t is necessary to balance ones accounts (to balance = to arrange
something "i!e! an account# so that things (expenditures8deposits) are in balance)!
?ther examples: to Aerox (to copy), to fax, to phone, to screen, to water, to fan, to litter, to bridge, to
lin+, to cap, to bottle, to %,!
.ll of the resulting erbs are transitie!
d!ectives into Verbs
%t is also possible, to form erbs from ad'ecties without altering the word:
The rule: an ad'ectie becomes a erb: faint ( to faint (to become faint), idle ( to idle (to become idle),
slim ( to slim (to become slim), calm ( to calm (to ma+e calm), clean ( to clean (to ma+e clean),
smooth ( to smooth (to ma+e smooth)!
.pplications: They consulted a shrin+ to smooth things out! ;hile suffering for more than two years,
he gradually slimmed!
Note that participial ad'ecties (coloured, bro+en) may not be conerted into erbs in this manner!
:ather, youll need to reconert these participles into erbs: to colour, to brea+!
:emember that some ad'ecties change their form in order to become erbs: low ( to lower, wide ( to
widen, wea+ ( to wea+en, strong ( to strengthen, broad ( to broaden, smart ( to smarten, easy ( to
ease!
$ther .ordclasses
There are still some other ways to change word classes without changing spelling, adding or
remoing parts:
.derb into -erb: They tried to out him!
.uxiliary into Noun: That course is a must for someone li+e you!
6on'unctions into Nouns: ,on*t gie me any ifs or buts!
.derbs84repositions into Nouns: % haen*t yet learned the ins and outs of the business!
-erb plus .derb into Noun: % don*t hae the +now(how!
4articiples8.derbs into .d'ecties: The meeting had &uite an up(cheering effect on the trustees! The
theory is that humans, who are after all only 'umped(up animals, !!!
-erbs8.derbs into Nouns: These animals emit a chemical come(hither from their sweat glands when
they are in mood for mating! The building could by all means be considered a run(down!
4refix into Nouns: This may be a de facto presidency! They gae him all the pros and cons! /ut he*ll
hae to accept that he*s not one of the co(es!
.uxiliary plus -erb and .derb plus -erb: . constant refrain from has(been and neer(were
'ournalists is that inestigatie 'ournalism is dead!
.d'ectie into noun (B): the liing, the dead, the faithful! This type of word formation can be applied to
any ad'ectie denoting the characteristics or &ualities of a person! %t is inariably used with a definite
article and stands for both singular and plural (no plural s)!
.d'ectie into noun (C): a local, the regulars! )ere, ad'ecties denoting the characteristics of persons
within a gien context are conerted into nouns denoting these persons! . local is somebody being
natie to or liing in the geographical area or region concerned! :egular has a special meaning:
%t refers to a restaurants, a stores, or some other merchandi3es customers who happen to
fre&uent it on a regular basis: The shop was crowded with regulars! The locals showed contempt for
the newcomers!
6onersions into nouns based on arious word classes, especially on sentences and subordinate(
clauses: 1ome local hae(nots complained about being associated with do(no(gooders! The goings(
on in the country made the president(to(be rethin+ his ta+ing(care(of(business(approach! .n auxiliary
army of notorious do(gooders milled about town, pretending to proide help(to(help(oneself to the
not(so(well(off, or, as they called them, the less(fortunate! The dowdy and apologetic %*m(a(serant(
of(the(proletariat loo+ has gone for good!
$ther .ord /ormations
6oncluding, here is an offer of complementary word formations that cannot sensibly be grouped
within the context of the preious sections!
0ack-formation
/ac+(formation is the process of deriing words by dropping what is thought to be a suffix or
(occasionally) a prefix! %t applies chiefly to the coining of erbs from nouns!
Examples: abled (disabled), to explete (expletie), to enthuse (enthusiasm), to liase (liason)2 to burgle
(burglary), to edit (edition, editor), to peddle (peddler), to scaange (scaanger), to sculpt (sculptor,
sculpture), to swindle (swindler, the swindle)2 to air(condition (air(conditioning), to baby(sit (baby(
sitter), to brainstorm (brainstorming), to brainwash (brainwashing), to browbeat (browbeating), to dry(
clean (dry(cleaner), to house(hunt (house hunter), to sightsee (sightseeing), to tape(record (tape(
recorder)2 to articulate (articulate (a), articulation), to assassinate (assassination), to coeducate (co(
education), to demarcate (demarcation), to emote (emotion), to intuit (intuition), to legislate
(legislation), to marinate (marination), to orate (orination), to accinate (accination), to acation
(acation), to aluate (aluation)2 to diagnose (diagnosis), to la3e (la3y), to reminisce (reminiscene),
to statistic (statistics), to teleise (teleision)!
Clipping
6lipping is a shortening of a word by the omission of one or more syllables!
Examples: bi+e (bicycle), decaf (decaffeinated coffee), fan (fanatic), exam (examination), phone
(telephone), fax (facsimile), fridge (refridgerator), hyper (hyperactie), intercom (intercommunication
system), lab (laboratory), medic (medical student8doctor), memo (memorandum), mi+e (microphone),
moie (moing picture), photo (photograph), pub (public house), 3oo (3oological gardens), maths
(mathematics)!
cronyms
.cronyms are another abreiatory deice! The usually resulting word class is that of a noun: E6>
(European 6urrency >nit), scuba (self(contained underwater breathing apparatus), email (electronic
mail)!
0lends
/lends are also used for abreiatory purposes! )ere, two or more complementing components
constitute the basis for the resultant! These components are omitted of one or more syllables before
compounded to the blend!
Examples: bit binary+digit, camcorder camera+recorder, contraception contrasting+conception, geep
goat+sheep, glitterati glitter+literaty, modem modular+demodulator, motel motor+hotel, smog
smo+e+fog, transistor transfer+resistor!
1iscellaneous
?nomatopoeia ( words felt to be suggestie of the sounds they refer to: bubble, burp, clatter, hiss,
mutter, splash!
;ords form proper names: bowdleri3e, boycott, breille, caesarean,lynch,pasteuri3e, platonic, sadist,
sandwich!
0oement(depictie: to slier, to scamper, to s+edaddle!
Combination of ./
%t is always highly useful to combine the possibilties of word formation!
Examples: unforgettable (4refix and 1uffix), irredoability (4refix and 1uffix), to unhorse (4refix and
6onersion), re(organi3ation (4refix and Noun(1uffix)!