Three dimensional CFD simulation and experimental study of power law uid

spreading on inclined plates

S. Haeri, S.H. Hashemabadi

Computational Fluid Dynamics Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Narmak, Tehran, 16846, Iran
A B S T R A C T A R T I C L E I N F O
Available online 27 May 2008
Keywords:
CFD
VOF
CICSAM
Film ow
Non-Newtonian
Inclined plate
The falling lm ow of a power law uid on inclined plates has been studied experimentally and a nite
volume code has been used to analyze the dynamics of ow numerically. CMC solution, as a power law uid,
with different concentrations (1.1%, 1.5% and 2%) has been selected as the operating uid. Inclined plates with
different inclination angles (0bb/2) and assorted surfaces (ceramics, aluminum and glass) were used to
study the effect of rheological properties, inclination and contact angle on the vital parameters. Simulation is
performed by a version of VOF family of algorithms, CICSAM, which is used to track the air-liquid interface.
Surface tension and contact angle effects are also considered in formulations. Extensive unsteady 3D
calculations are carried out to predict velocity of falling lm. Shape, width and thickness of lm are also
predicted and are compared with experimental results. Very good agreement between experimental data
and simulation prediction is observed.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Flow processes often involve the presence of free surfaces, the
tracking of which has signicant impact on the manufacturing and the
nal quality of the product. Examples abound, e.g., casting processes,
mold lling, thin lm processes, extrusion, coatings, spray deposition,
uid jetting devices in which material interfaces are present. The
hydrodynamics of thin lm ow of Newtonian liquids has been
extensively studied for several decades; see e.g. [1], only modest
attention has been devoted to gravity-driven lms of non-Newtonian
liquids. The owof non-Newtonian liquid is not often fully understood
in many processes and equipment units and so the designs are not
properly optimized.
Astarita et al. [2] measured the lm thickness of non-New-
tonian uids in fully developed laminar ow down inclined plates
for a range of ow rates and plate angles. Therien et al. [3]
measured the lm thickness for power law uids owing down
inclined plates and compared the results with an analytical
expression with good agreement. Sylvester et al. [4] compared
experimental and predicted lm thicknesses for power law uids
owing down a vertical wall in the laminar and wavy fully
developed regimes. CFD modeling of ows over inclined planes is a
difcult task owing to the presence of free surface. Although many
researchers studied this phenomenon numerically a full CFD
International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 35 (2008) 10411047
Communicated by W.J. Minkowycz.
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hashemabadi@iust.ac.ir (S.H. Hashemabadi).
approach is utilized less often. Flows down inclined planes were
numerically investigated in the work by Rahman et al. [5,6]. They
studied the free surface of a thin liquid lm in presence and
absence of gravitational body force by using a boundary-tted
coordinate system where the irregular free surface conformed to
one of the ow boundaries.
Several CFD methods have been developed in recent years with
the aim of simulating such complex ows. One such development
is the volume of uid (VOF) and level set methods to cope with the
presence of material interfaces and gaining increasing acceptance
by researchers although older algorithms like MAC [7] are still
receiving attention. The VOF was initiated since the early 1980's
due to Hirt and Nichols [8]. The level set method is a more recent
development dating back to Osher and Sethian [9]; see also
Sethian and Smereka [10] for a summary. Comparing these two
methods individually, each has its strength and limitations.
Recently, a combined VOF and level set has been developed [11].
Using these reliable numerical models and algorithms, one can
accurately calculate and study the ow behavior and phenomena,
and to gain considerable insight into the physics behind these.
These methods are recently employed to simulate lm ow of non-
Newtonian uids. Sutalo et al. [12] measured the lm thickness of
a power-law uid and predicted the results by CFX-4 code with a
version of VOF method including surface tension by CSF (Con-
tinuum Surface Force) method of Brackbill [13]. Miyara [14] used
MAC method to simulate the ow of wavy liquid lm down vertical
and inclined planes and the results showed good agreement with
experimental measurements. Dou et al. [15] used projection/level
set method to predict the shape of the front of lm including
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doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2008.04.003
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surface tension and contact angle effects. Ghosh et al. [16]
developed a numerical model based on the volume-of-uid
(VOF) method in sphericosymmetric geometry containing two
immiscible phases. In each case, the results indicate that the
numerical simulation successfully captures the essential physics,
even at small length and time scales.
All mentioned CFD studies are restricted to 2D simulation. In this
study a high resolution differencing scheme for capturing sharp uid-
uid interface based on normalized variable diagram (NVD) of
Leonard [17] devised by Ubbink [18] named CICSAM (Compressive
Interface Capturing Scheme for Arbitrary Meshes) is employed to
simulate lm ow of non-Newtonian uids. Results are compared
with experimental measurements and good agreement between them
is observed.
2. Experimental setup
The experimental setup consisted mainly of a plate with adjustable
angle of inclination which is shown in Fig. 1a. Image acquisition and
processing techniques were used to track the dynamic of uid lmand
effects of different parameters. Whereas the uid is highly viscous and
the velocity of the falling lmis very small an ordinary Canon EOS 400,
3fps, has been used in this work. After every run the plates were
thoroughly washed and dried to minimize the possibility of contact
angle changes. Also all experiments were carried out in controlled
ambient temperature (242 C). This setup was used to investigate the
effect of different parameters on dynamics of falling lm of a non-
Newtonian uid.
Food grade CMC solution with 1.1, 1.5 and 2 wt.% were prepared by
solving required amount of CMC in double distilled Tehran city water.
For better imaging 1% iodine solution was added to the prepared CMC
solution. Although CMC's power law parameters can be found in the
literatures [19,20] colored CMC apparent viscosity was measured by
PolyVisc Visco Star Series L and power-lawmodel has been ttedto the
experimental data. Surface tension was also measured in ambient
temperature (24 C) and a single static contact angle was measured by
the goniometry method and its variationwas neglected. Being far from
critical point and very minor changes in temperature corroborates the
assumption of constant surface tension which is used throughout this
paper. Table 1 summarizes measured properties of CMC solution used
in numerical simulations.
3. Problem formulation
3.1. Governing equations
Schematic representation of computational domain is depicted in
Fig. 1b. In volume of uid (VOF) frame work for two immiscible uids
ow, the continuity and momentum equations are respectively:
j u 0 1
Aqu
At
j quu jP j s qg f
r
: 2
The power law model proposed by Ostwald and de Waele [21] was
employed as a constitutive equation which in its general form can be
written as follows:
s kjD : Dj
n1
2
D 3
where
D
1
2
juju
y
_ _
; D : D

i;j1
D
ij
_
2
_
_
_
_
1=2
:
This model is applicable in a specic range of shear rates and
generates unphysical values where shear rate is very small so it is
necessary to bound it between an upper and lower limit. In this study
these values are set to minimum and maximum apparent viscosities
measured by the viscometer.
Surface tension creates a pressure jump across the interface and in
equilibrium its gradient must be equal to extra body force inserted in
Nomenclature
Co Courant number, t/(x
cell
/v
uid
)
d Position vector connecting two cell centers
F Face Flux, u
f
x
Weighting factor
f Body force vector
g Gravitational acceleration vector
k Consistency index
n Power-Law index
n Normal Vector
P Pressure
Q Flow rate
R
0
Inlet pipe radius
t Time
u Velocity vector
u Inlet velocity
V Film velocity magnitude
W Film width
x Film length at any time and length along x-coordinate
z Length along z-coordinate
Greek symbols
Indicator function
Weighting factor
Film thickness
Shear rate tensor
Inclination
Apparent viscosity
Contact angle
Density
Surface tension
Stress tensor
Superscripts
Dimensionless variable
- Mean variable
~ Normalized variable
Transpose
Subscripts
air Air
A Acceptor cell
C Central cell
CBC Convection Boundedness Criteria
D Donor cell
DW Downwind cell
F Face value
i Interface
inv Inviscid
pl Power law
s Static
sl Solid-Liquid
t Tangential
w Wall
UQ Ultimate Quickest
x Variable calculated at x
1042 S. Haeri, S.H. Hashemabadi / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 35 (2008) 10411047
momentum equation. The momentum equation is written for the
whole domain but this force manifests itself only at interface by giving
the transitional area a nite thickness the discontinuous pressure
jump can be calculated [13]:
f
r
r j
ja
jjaj
_ _ _ _
ja : 4
A transport equation for indicator function is also added to the
system of equations which takes the following form:
Aa
At
u ja 0 5
where equals one for points inside non-Newtonian uid and equals
zero for outside points. In order to model the two uid as a continuum
by using Eq. (1) through Eq. (3) the indicator function should be
continuous and differentiable over the hole domain this restriction is
even more stringent for calculation of curvature to calculate f

,
needing to be twice differentiable [13,22]. A possible way is to give the
transitional area between two uids a small nite thickness so 0b
i
b1
is dened in transitional area. Density and dynamic viscosity are
dened as mean values in cells with both uids present (air and non-
Newtonian uid) by utilizing the indicator function as follow:
q aq
pl
1 a q
air
6
A aA
pl
1 a A
air
: 7
3.2. Boundary conditions
A xed velocity with parabolic distribution is implemented on the
inlet as is depicted in Fig. 1b.
Zero gradient is assumed for all ow properties for outlet
boundary condition. All other boundaries are implemented as wall
boundaries meaning no slip condition for velocity and it is enough
to set a zero gradient boundary condition for indicator function [13].
Although this is not the case in experimental setup, low velocity of
liquid and insignicant impact of air around the falling lm
corroborates this assumption. Wall adhesion of non-Newtonian
uid on the inclined plate is considered by addition of contact angle
effects and consequently dening the unit normal to the interface as
follows [13]:
n n
w
cosh n
t
sinh: 8
A value of =90 reduces this formulation to zero gradient and
b90 means that the uid wets the wall.
3.3. Discretisation
The computational domain (Fig. 1b) is discretised by about 500,000
hexahedron and wedge shape nodes. Initial stages of calculation is very
sensitive to mesh and time step size due to splash of liquid against the
plate. So an optimization between process time (time step size) and
memory usage (mesh size) need to be performed. This is overcome by
dividing the computational domain into different zones and meshing
each zone with appropriate resolution to guaranty Courant number less
than one (Cob1) with a minimumtolerable time step size of 0.001 s and
temporal discretisation is implemented implicitly. Although this
method causes numerical diffusion in the direction of ow [23] it is
Fig. 1. a) Simple schematic of experimental setup b) Schematic representation of 3D computational domain (left) and cross section at inlet (right).
Table 1
Rheometry and tensiometry analysis of CMC solutions
Concentration
(%weight)
Consistency
index (Pas
n
)
Power-law
index
Surface tension
(N/m)
Contact angle ()

1.1 5.051 0.462 0.07876 29.9 NA NA
1.5 11.007 0.5294 0.08189 31.5 44.5 58.5
2 28.966 0.5427 0.08532 35.5 NA NA

Glass Surface,

Ceramic surface,

Aluminum surface, NA: Not available.
1043 S. Haeri, S.H. Hashemabadi / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 35 (2008) 10411047
toleratedover the more computationallyexpensive secondorder Crank
Nicholson method. Convection term in momentum equation is
discretised with a High Resolution (HR) differencing scheme proposed
by Jasak [24] based on Normalized Variable Diagram (NVD) [17]. In this
method face value of velocity magnitude is calculated by:
u
f

u
D
u
D
b0 or u
D
N1
f
x
u
D
1 f
x
u
A
b
m
b u
D
b1
1
u
D
b
m
1 f
x

_ _
u
D

u
D
b
m
1 f
x
u
A
0b u
D
bb
m
_

_
9
where
u
D
1
u
A
u
D
2 ju
D
d
:
A and D subscripts are determined by direction of ow:
if F
f
z0 ZD C&A DW
if F
f
V0 ZD DW&A C:

m
is a prescribed constant, 0b
m
b0.5, with recommended value
of 0.1, f
x
is differencing weighting factor and is set to a constant value
of 0.5 in this study. Diffusive ux terms in momentum equation are
divided to orthogonal and non-orthogonal terms. The non-orthogonal
terms can be calculated by previous time step values and corrected in
an internal loop, however due to computational expense of this
method and because the non-orthogonality of meshes is small and
time step size is also small with respect to other time scales of the
system no correction is executed in solution algorithm.
Indicator function needs to be smoothed in order to calculate the
curvature and consequently f

, Brackbill used a B-spline as an inter-

polation function to smooth the indicator function and this method is
used in this study. Face values of indicator function transport equation
are calculated by a high resolution differencing scheme of Ubbink [18],
specially devisedfor arbitrary meshes. This scheme actually introduces a
blending factor base on the angle between the interface and direction of
motionfor predictionof normalizedface values of CICSAM, using Hyper-
C [17] and ULTIMATEQUICKEST [25] differencing schemes:
a
f
g
f
a
fCBC
1 g
f
a
fUQ
; g
f
min k
g
cos 2x
f
_ _
1
2
; 1
_ _
10
where k

is a constant greater than zero to control the dominance of

different schemes with recommended value of 1.
f
is the angle
between unit vector in direction of gradient of and unit vector
connecting two cell centers.
Fig. 2. Shape of falling lm on different surfaces and with different ow rates.
1044 S. Haeri, S.H. Hashemabadi / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 35 (2008) 10411047
3.4. Numerical simulation schemes and procedure
The governing equations in the previous section form a big coupled
system. The code used in this research is the open source CFD code
OpenFOAM freely available through internet. OpenFOAM is primarily
designed for problems in continuum mechanics using the tensorial
approach and object oriented techniques [26]. OpenFOAM provides a
fundamental platform to write new solvers for different problems as
long as the problem can be written in tensorial partial differential
equation forms. In this research, the oweld is solved by the adaption
of the original free owsolver for incompressible non-Newtonian uid.
For pressure-velocity coupling in NavierStokes equation, many
schemes exist, such as SIMPLE and PISO. PISO scheme is used in this
simulation.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Film shape
Most important parameter, in low ow rates that inuence the
shape of the falling lm is the contact angle. Fig. 2a and b illustrates
experimental and numerical results for 1.1% CMC uid falling lm
shape on inclined glass plate. The owrate has changed but the falling
lm has preserved its elliptic shape and the error of numerical
prediction is negligible. Inclination as is predictable inuences the
falling lm shape. By changing the inclination, just the ratio between
major and minor axis of the surrounding ellipse changes but the
elliptic shape is preserved. Changing contact angle also affects the lm
shape. Very small contact angle i.e. Fig. 2c gives the liquid an elliptic
shape meaning that the liquid accumulates in the middle of lm. In
medium contact angles a balance between dispersion and falling
maintains which gives the lm a rounded rectangular shape (Fig. 2d).
Increasing contact angle means less attraction between liquid and
inclined plate which causes the liquid to reach the front of the lm
sooner and creates a baseball bat shape (Fig. 2e).
Fig. 3a shows the velocity proles on a line 1 mm above y=0 plane
(Fig. 1b), which the non-Newtonian lm ows, from the center of the
inlet pipe along the center-line of the lm. The steepness of the curves
at the beginning is a result of sudden decrease in velocity gradient. The
shear-thinning non-Newtonian uid (nb1) exhibits big changes in
velocity when it exits the inlet pipe as a result of gravity acting on the
uid which translates to high shear rate () and lower apparent
viscosity. As soon as the uid reaches the plane the value begins to
decrease and consequently the uid thickens resulting in dramatic
velocity decrease in rst 1 cmof the lmlength. After this, the velocity
decreases less which can again be related to decrease in shear rate but
with a lower rate compared to the lminitial length, as result of shear-
thinning behavior of the uid. A sharp velocity decrease followed by a
velocity promotion in the lm front (Illustrated in the Fig. 3a with a
dashed closed circle) is a result of surface tension and adhesion forces.
In aluminum case a high uid-solid contact angle means weak
wetability of liquid which let the surface tension forces act on the
liquid front resisting gravitational force from extending the lm. This
causes high shear rate values that in turn reduce the viscosity due to
shear thinning property of uid and the velocity increases conse-
quently. Fig. 3b depicts the velocity prole on glass inclined plate
(=30) for different ow rates. As is evident from this gure the
velocity changes are more rapidly in higher ow rate so the lm is
particularly prone to instabilities in higher ow rates and higher
contact angles. Instabilities in the lm front are very important
specially in coating processes where this can result in dry-spots.
4.2. Thickness of the falling lm
Fig. 4a illustrates the falling lm thickness variations with time. The
numerical results shows, the lmthickness has a descending trend with
respect to time which is a result of dispersion of uid over the surface.
This phenomenon continues till the ow reaches a steady velocity.
The non-Newtonian lm thickness in this study can be correlated
experimentally with following equation [27,28]:
P
d
x

0:0769
Re
x
We
x
Fr
x
_ _
0:3207
0:1VRe
x
We
x
=Fr
x
b100
0:0966
Re
x
We
x
Fr
x
_ _
0:2780
100VRe
x
We
x
=Fr
x
V5 10
3
_

_
11
where thedimensionless groups Reynolds, Webber andFroude numbers
are respectively:
Re
x

qu
2n
x
n
m
; We
x

qu
2
x
r
sl
; Fr
x

u
2
xgcos/
:
Fig. 4b shows lm thickness calculated from the experimental
correlation (Eq. (11)) and thickness predicted fromthe CFDsimulation.
Good agreement between experimental and simulation data is evident
from this gure. Average error in calculating lm thickness is 15%.
4.3. Falling lm velocity
Fig. 5a shows comparison of experimental results with the area
averaged dimensionless velocity of front versus dimensionless time
for different plates. The velocity has been nondimensionalized by the
Fig. 3. The velocity proles on the center-line of the lm after 15 s a)
:
Q =11 ccpm,
=30, 1.5% CMC, b)Glass, =30, 1.1% CMC, =29.9.
1045 S. Haeri, S.H. Hashemabadi / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 35 (2008) 10411047
velocity of the corresponding fully developed inviscid uid at the
same length and ow time has also been nondimensionalized in the
same manner:
v
inv

2gxcos/
_
; t
inv

2x
gcos/

:
The dimensionless velocity changes on aluminum surface shows
the biggest error of 15% which can be related to variable contact angle
on this surface that varies between 55 and 65 and is not taken into
account in this study. Fig. 5b shows the same plot for different ow
rates and illustrates very good agreement between the experimental
data and predicted simulation values.
4.4. Film width
In early stages of lmow the width of lm grows as the thickness
of it decreases. Fluid expands on the surface until equilibrium
between surface tension and wall adhesion forces is established.
This phenomenon can be related to shear thinning properties of uid
as described in Section 41 but the uid accumulates in the width of
lm instead to reach the front of lm which results in a decelerating
expanding nature. This continues until accumulation in both direc-
tions comes to equilibriumand a steady speed is reached. Fig. 6 shows
the changes of dimensionless width versus dimensionless time which
are nondimensionalized by length of lm and time for corresponding
inviscid uid to reach the same length respectively. As noted before,
the maximum error occurs in case of owover aluminum plate due to
simplication of variable contact angle to a single constant one. Except
from 50% maximum error in case of aluminum plate other errors do
not exceed a maximum value of 15%.
5. Conclusion
In this study spreading of a non-Newtonian uid that obeys power
law model on inclined plate is studied numerically and experimen-
tally. Film shape, lm width and time dependent velocity prole for
falling lm have been reported experimentally. The image acquisition
and processing techniques has been used for experimental analysis of
falling lmand nally have beenproposed an empirical correlation for
lm thickness as a function of non-dimensional numbers (Reynolds,
Webber and Froude). Three dimensional CFD model has been
developed to simulate the spreading of liquid on inclined plate. In
volume of uid (VOF) frame work for two immiscible uids ow (air
and non-Newtonian uid), the continuity and momentum equations
are solved with appropriate boundary condition. Convection terms in
momentum equation is discretised with a High Resolution (HR)
differencing scheme based on Normalized Variable Diagram (NVD).
The simulation results illustrate good agreement with devised
correlation. With constant contact angle assumption, the CFD
predictions show further deviation with experimental works in
spreading of uid on aluminum plate, but in other cases, glass and
ceramic, the maximum error is 15%. Some stability issues in front of
lm development are also discussed and falling lm velocity and
Fig. 4. a) Variation of lm thickness on glass plate with time (=30, 1.5% CMC, 11 ccpm) b) Comparison of lm thickness from simulation and experimental measurements.
1046 S. Haeri, S.H. Hashemabadi / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 35 (2008) 10411047
maximum lm width are compared to experimental measurements
and good agreement between results is observed.
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Fig. 6. Comparison of lm width for different experimental and simulation runs.
Fig. 5. Comparison of experimental and numerical time dependent dimensionless
velocity a) Different surfaces, =30, 1.5% CMC, 11ccpm b) Different ow rates, =30,
1.1% CMC, =29.9.
1047 S. Haeri, S.H. Hashemabadi / International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 35 (2008) 10411047