Lecture 4

Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

(IV) (IV)
(chapter 9)
Understand physical meanings of sinusoidal (ac) (ac) signals
Understand the meaning of rms value of sinusoidal (ac) (ac)
signals
Understand phasor concepts and be able to perform a
phasor transform and an inverse phasor transform
Learning goals
phasor transform and an inverse phasor transform
Be able to transform a circuit with a sinusoidal source
into frequency domain using phasor concepts
Know how to apply circuit analysis methods to solve a
circuit in frequency domain
Be able to analyze circuits containing ideal transformer/
linear transformers using phasor method
Mutual Inductance
Passing a current through a coil of wire will create a
magnetic field and induce a voltage across the windings.
core
magnetic
field lines
windings (N = 5.5 turns in this diagram) magnetic flux,

i(t)
+ v(t) -
A current, i(t) is
passed through
the windings
A voltage, v(t) is
induced across the
windings
Passing a current through a coil of wire will create a
magnetic field and induce a voltage across the windings.
Also recall the following relationships:
N = number of turns
= magnetic flux (in Webers, Wb)
= flux linkage
Mutual Inductance
= flux linkage
and = N = Li , where L = inductance in Henries, H
The voltage induced across the windings is directly
proportional to the rate of change (derivative) of the
current. The constant of proportionality is inductance, L.
d d(Li)
v
dt dt

= =
di
v L
dt
=
Note: L is sometimes referred to as self-inductance.
When two inductors are close to one another their magnetic
fields interact. This effect is referred to as mutual inductance
i(t)
+
+
A voltage is induced
across inductor L2
0A
v(t)
-
-
across inductor L2
due to the magnetic
field lines from
inductor L1.
Inductor
L1
Inductor
L2
Magnetic field from L
1
to L
2
The magnetic field from inductor L
1
interacts with inductor
L
2
and induces a voltage V
2
across L
2
.
Define M
21
= the mutual inductance effect on L
2
due to
L
1
(in Henries)
i
1
V
1

+
i
2
= 0
V
2

+
L
1
L
2
i
1
V
1

_
V
2

_
M
21

L
1
L
2

1
1 1
di
V L
dt
=
1
2 21
di
V M
dt
=
We know that
similarly
(voltage across L
1
due to self inductance:
called self-induced voltage)
(voltage across L
2
due to mutual inductance:
called mutually induced voltage)
Magnetic field from L
2
to L
1
The magnetic field from inductor L
2
interacts with inductor
L
1
and induces a voltage V
1
across L
1
.
Define M
12
= the mutual inductance effect on L
1
due to
L
2
(in Henries)
i
2
V
1

+
i
1
= 0
V
2

+
L
1
L
2

We know that
similarly
i
2
V
1

_
V
2

_
M
12

L
1
L
2

2
2 2
di
V L
dt
=
2
1 12
di
V M
dt
=
(voltage across L
2
due to self inductance:
called self-induced voltage)
(voltage across L
1
due to mutual inductance:
called mutually induced voltage)
Mutual Inductance
The mutual inductance effect is actually the same in
either direction, so we define M = mutual inductance
where
M = M
12
= M
21
Using the passive sign convention, the self-induced
voltage is a voltage drop in the direction of the current
If a voltage is induced on one coil due to the magnetic
field of another coil, what is the polarity of the induced
voltage? It depends on the way the coils are wound in
relation to the reference direction of coil currents.
voltage is a voltage drop in the direction of the current
producing the voltage
Mutual Inductance
Dot Convention: The current entering the dotted
terminal of one inductor causes a positive voltage at
the dotted terminal of the other inductor.
(The terms dotted terminal could both be replaced by
undotted terminal.)
If the current ENTERS the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference
polarity of the mutual voltage in the second coil is POSITIVE at the
dotted terminal of the second coil.
If the current LEAVES the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference
polarity of the mutual voltage in the second coil is NEGATIVE at the
dotted terminal of the second coil
Mutual Inductance
1
2
di
v M
dt
=
2
1
di
v M
dt
=
1
2
di
v M
dt
= 2
1
di
v M
dt
=
Mutual Inductance
Example: (dot convention) Determine the voltages
V
1
(t) and V
2
(t) in each case below.
10cos(500t) mA V
1

+
_
3H 4H V
2

+
_
Circuit 1:
_
2H
_
Circuit 2:
10cos(500t) mA V
1

+
_
2H
3H 4H V
2

+
_
Coupling Coefficient
A coupling coefficient, k, is used to indicate how strong
a coupling effect exists between two inductors. k is
defined as follows:
1 2
M
k
L L
=

0 < k < 1
k = 0 indicates no coupling
k = 1 indicates maximum coupling
1 Perfect Coupling
0.5 Loosly Coupling
0.5 Tightly Coupling
k
k
k
=
<
>
Coils in Series
The total inductance of two coupled coils in series depend on the placement
of the dotted ends of the coils. The mutual inductances may add or subtract.
a) Series-aiding connection.
L=L
1
+L
2
+2M
b) Series-opposing connection.
L=L
1
+L
2
-2M
Frequency-Domain Analysis
a) Time-domain circuit
b) Frequency-domain circuit
V
1
I
1
I
2
jL
1
jL
2
jM
V
2
1 2
1 1 1 1
2 1
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 2
2 1 2 2 2
TimeDomain
FrequencyDomain
( )
( )
di di
v i R L M
dt dt
di di
v i R L M
dt dt
V R j L I j MI
V j MI R j L I


= + +
= + +
= + +
= + +
1 21 2 2 2 2 2
2 12 1 1 1 1 1
I Z I Z I Z V
I Z I Z I Z V
M L
M L
r r r r
r r r r
+ + =
+ + =
OR
Determine the voltage V
0
Example:
Hint: apply mesh-current method in frequency domain to
derive phasor currents I
1
and I
2
+
-
Z
M12
I
2
-
+
Z
M21
I
1
Answer:
Need to define values and polarities of the induced
voltages resulted from mesh currents I
1
and I
2
:
Since I
1
and I
2
enters the coils at the dotted terminals, the
induced voltages are positives at the dotted terminals as
shown in figure
Z
M12
I
2
Z
M21
I
1
+
-
Z
M12
I
2
-
+
Z
M21
I
1
Z
M12
I
2
Z
M21
I
1
Mesh 1: j6 = (4 + j8)I
1
+ jI
2
Mesh 2: 0 = (10 + j5)I
2
+ jI
1
Solve 2 equations to get I
2
= 6/(j100) V
2
=10I
2
Solve equation system using matrix
Transformer
A transformer is a device that is based on magnetic coupling.
It is used in both communication and power circuits
In communication, the transformer is used to match
impedances and eliminate DC signals from portions of the
system
In power circuits, transformer is used to establish AC voltage In power circuits, transformer is used to establish AC voltage
levels that facilitate the transmission, distribution and
consumption of electrical power.
Need to analyze sinusoidal steady-state behavior of the
linear transformer
Linear Transformer
- A transformer is generally a four-terminal device comprising two or more
magnetically coupled coils.
- The transformer is called LINEAR if the coils are wound on magnetically
linear material.
- For a LINEAR TRANSFORMER flux is proportional to current in the
windings.
- Resistances R
1
and R
2
account for losses in the coils.
- The coils are named as PRIMARY and SECONDARY.
Linear Transformer
R
1
: the resistance of the primary winding
R
2
: the resistance of the secondary winding
L
1
: the self-inductance of the primary winding
L
2
: the self-inductance of the secondary winding
M: the mutual inductance
Z
S
: the internal impedance of the source
Z
L
: the load impedance connected to the secondary winding
Analysis of Linear Transformer
where where
The impedance Z
S
of the internal source voltage is:
The impedance at the terminals of the source voltage is:
The source sees a load impedance that is a modified version of Z
L
:
REFLECTED IMPEDANCE Z
R
- Z
R
is the equivalent impedance of the secondary coil
and load impedance reflected to the primary coil
- Z
R
is depends on the existence of M solely
- If Z
L
is expressed in rectangular form, then
Reflected Impedance
- It is clear that the self-impedance of the secondary circuit
is reflected into the primary circuit by a scaling factor
Determine the phasor currents I
1
and I
2
Example:
Hint: apply mesh-current method in frequency
domain to derive phasor currents I
1
and I
2
Mesh 1:
Mesh 2:
Answer:
+
-
+
-
j3I
1
j3I
2
1 2 2
2 1 1
Mesh 1 12 60 =(5+j2+j6-j3 2)I 6I 3I
Mesh 2 0=(j6-j4)I 6I 3I
j j
j j
+
+
+
-
j3I
1
Phasor Diagram
Phasors are complex numbers, so they can be graphically
represented in the complex plane as a vector.
KVL and KCL are additions/ subtractions of phasor, so this
can be graphically represented by vector addition.
A diagram of the phasor currents and voltage may give
further insight into the behavior of the circuit
A phasor diagram shows the magnitude and phase angle
of each phasor quantity in the complex number plane
Phase angles are measured counterclockwise from the
positive real axis, and magnitude are measured from the
origin of the axes.
A graphic representation of phasors
A complex number (-7 - j3) = 7.62 -156.80
Resistor: so both and will the same phase;
their phasors will always point to the same direction
V I R V I

= == =

Phasor Diagram/ Resistor

m
I

e
R
0
V

Inductor: ; so leads by 90 V j L I V I

= == =
o
m
I

Phasor Diagram/ Inductor

e
R
0
V

90
o
Phasor Diagram/ Capacitor
Capacitor: so leads by ; 90 I j CV I V

= == =
o
m
I

90
o
e
R
0
V

I
90
Note: voltage and current each have their own set of axes
(since they have different units), but they are often shown on
the same axes together to illustrate the phase relationships.
I

S
V

C
V

R
V

+
same for all elements :
S R C
V V V
I
I




= + = + = + = +
Example:
This gives us the phasor diagram of KVL
I
S
V

R
V

C
V

S
V

leads by ; ; 90
R C R C
I
V I R V V V
j C

= = = = = = = =
o
If we assume that the phase angle of the voltage V
m
is
zero, we can then draw the current phasors for each of the
components: By Kirchhoffs current law, the sum of I
R
, I
L
, I
C
must equal the source current I
S
.
Answer:
- These phasors are shown in the figure
- Dotted line is the source current
phasor I
S
that must be at an angle of 45
more positive than I
R
Length of I
R
= 3V
m
R = 1/3