page 195

6. ROTATIONS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Rotational Masses and Inertia
Topics:
Objectives:


page 196

d
dt
---- -


=

d
dt
-----

d
dt
-----


2
= =
T
t ( ) t ( ) t d

t ( ) t d t d

= =
t ( ) t ( ) t d

=
OR
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
equations of motion
t ( )
T t ( )
J
M
---------- =
(5)
where,
, , position, velocity and acceleration =
J
M
second mass moment of inertia of the body =
T torque applied to body =
, ,
T

J
M
=
J
M
I
xx
I
yy
+ =
J
T
I
xx
y
2
M d

=
I
yy
x
2
M d

=
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Note: The mass moment of inertia will be used when dealing with acceleration of a
mass. Later we will use the area moment of inertia for torsional springs.
page 197
Figure 6.1 Parallel axis theorem for shifting a mass moment of inertia
Figure 6.2 Parallel axis theorem for shifting a area moment of inertia
J
M
J
M

Mr
2
+ =
where,
J
M
mass moment about the new point =
J
M

mass moment about the center of mass =

M mass of the object =
r distance from the centroid to the new point =
J
A
J
A

Ar
2
+ =
where,
J
A
area moment about the new point =
J
A

area moment about the centroid =

A mass of the object =
r distance from the centroid to the new point =
Aside: If forces do not pass through the center of an object, it will rotate. If the object
is made of a homogeneous material, the area and volume centroids can be used as
the center. If the object is made of different materials then the center of mass should
be used for the center. If the gravity varies over the length of the (very long) object
then the center of gravity should be used.
page 198
I
xx
y
2
M d
4
4

y
2
2 5m ( ) y d
4
4

1.25Kgm
1 y
3
3
-----
4
4
= = =
The rectangular shape to the right is constrained to rotate about
point A. The total mass of the object is 10kg. The given
dimensions are in meters. Find the mass moment of inertia.
First find the density and calculate the moments of inertia about
the centroid.
4
5 -5
-4
-2.5
-1

10Kg
2 5m ( )2 4m ( )
-------------------------------- 0.125Kgm
2
= =
1.25Kgm
1 4m ( )
3
3
---------------
4m ( )
3
3
------------------


53.33Kgm
2
= =
I
yy
x
2
M d
5
5

x
2
2 4m ( ) x d
5
5

1Kgm
1 x
3
3
-----
5
5
= = =
1Kgm
1 5m ( )
3
3
---------------
5m ( )
3
3
------------------


83.33Kgm
2
= =
J
M
I
xx
I
yy
+ 53.33Kgm
2
83.33Kgm
2
+ 136.67Kgm
2
= = =
The centroid can now be shifted to the center of rotation using the parallel axis theorem.
J
M
J
M

Mr
2
+ 136.67Kgm
2
10Kg ( ) 2.5m ( )
2
1m ( )
2
+ ( ) + 209.2Kgm
2
= = =
page 199
Figure 6.3 A solid torsional spring
T
J
A
G
L
----------


=
L
T

T K
S
( ) =
(8)
(9)
Note: Remember to use radians for these calculations. In fact you are advised to use
radians for all calculations. Dont forget to set your calculator to radians also.
Note: This calculation uses the area moment of inertia.
page 200
Figure 6.4 A rotational spring example
Model the system above assuming that the center shaft is a torsional spring, and that a
torque is applied to the leftmost disk. Leave the results in state variable form.

J
M
1
J
M
2
K
s1
K
s2
K
s3
J
M
1

1
K
s2

1

2
( )
M

K
s2

1

2
( ) J
M
1

= =
+
J
M
2
K
s3

2
K
s2

2

1
( )
M

K
s2

2

1
( ) K
s3

2
J
M
2

= =
+
J
M
1

K
s2

1
K
s2

2
+ + =

1
=

K
s2
J
M
1
-----------

1
K
s2
J
M
1
--------

2
+ + =
(1)
(2)

K
s3
K
s2

J
M
2
---------------------------

2
K
s2
J
M
2
--------

1
+ =

2
=

K
s3
K
s2

J
M
2
---------------------------

2
K
s2
J
M
2
--------

1
+ =
(3)
(4)
d
dt
-----

2
0 1 0 0
K
s2
J
M
1
----------- 0
K
s2
J
M
1
-------- 0
0 0 0 1
K
s2
J
M
2
-------- 0
K
s3
K
s2

J
M
2
--------------------------- 0

2
0

0
0
+ =
page 201
Figure 6.5 The rotational damping equation
T K
d
=
T K
d

1

2
( ) =
page 202
Figure 6.6 A System Example
Model the system above assuming that the center shaft is a torsional spring, and that a
torque is applied to the leftmost disk. Leave the results in state variable form.

B
1
B
2
J
M
1
J
M
2
K
s1
K
s2
K
s3
J
M
1

1
B
1

K
s2

1

2
( )
M

K
s2

1

2
( ) B
1

J
M
1

= =
+
J
M
2
K
s3

2
B
2

K
s2

2

1
( )
M

K
s2

2

1
( ) B
2

K
s3

2
J
M
2

= =
+
J
M
1

B
1

K
s2

1
K
s2

2
+ + =

1
=

B
1
J
M
1
---------

1
K
s2
J
M
1
-----------

1
K
s2
J
M
1
--------

2

J
M
1
-------- + + + =
(1)
(2)

B
2
J
M
2
---------

K
s3
K
s2

J
M
2
---------------------------

2
K
s2
J
M
2
--------

1
+ + =

2
=

B
2
J
M
2
---------

2
K
s3
K
s2

J
M
2
---------------------------

2
K
s2
J
M
2
--------

1
+ + =
(3)
(4)
d
dt
-----

2
0 1 0 0
K
s2
J
M
1
-----------
B
1
J
M
1
---------
K
s2
J
M
1
-------- 0
0 0 0 1
K
s2
J
M
2
-------- 0
K
s3
K
s2

J
M
2
---------------------------
B
2
J
M
2
---------

2
0

J
M
1
--------
0
0
+ =
page 203
6.3 Motor Models
6.3.1 Basic Brushed DC Motors
In a DC motor there is normally a set of coils on the rotor that turn inside a stator
populated with permanent magnets. Figure 6.7 shows a simplified model of a motor. The
magnetics provide a permanent magnetic field for the rotor to push against. When current
is run through the wire loop it creates a magnetic field.
Figure 6.7 A Simplified Rotor
The power is delivered to the rotor using a commutator and brushes, as shown in
Figure 6.8. In the figure the power is supplied to the rotor through graphite brushes rub-
bing against the commutator. The commutator is split so that every half revolution the
polarity of the voltage on the rotor, and the induced magnetic field reverses to push against
the permanent magnets.
I
I
magnetic
axis of
rotation

field
page 204
Figure 6.8 A Split Ring Commutator
The direction of rotation will be determined by the polarity of the applied voltage,
and the speed is proportional to the voltage. A feedback controller is used with these
motors to provide motor positioning and velocity control.
These motors are losing popularity to brushless motors. The brushes are subject to
wear, which increases maintenance costs. In addition, the use of brushes increases resis-
tance, and lowers the motors efficiency.
motor
split commutator
brushes
motor
split commutator
brushes
shaft
shaft
Top
Front
V+ V-
power
supply
page 205
Figure 6.9 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) For Control
ASIDE: The controller to drive a servo motor normally uses a Pulse Width Modulated
(PWM) signal. As shown below the signal produces an effective voltage that is rela-
tive to the time that the signal is on. The percentage of time that the signal is on is
called the duty cycle. When the voltage is on all the time the effective voltage deliv-
ered is the maximum voltage. So, if the voltage is only on half the time, the effective
voltage is half the maximum voltage. This method is popular because it can pro-
duce a variable effective voltage efficiently. The frequency of these waves is nor-
mally above 20KHz, above the range of human hearing.
V
max
0
t
V
eff
50
100
---------V
max
=
50% duty cycle
V
max
0
t
V
eff
20
100
---------V
max
=
20% duty cycle
V
max
0
t
V
eff
100
100
---------V
max
=
100% duty cycle
V
max
0
t
V
eff
0
100
---------V
max
=
0% duty cycle
page 206
Figure 6.10 PWM Unidirectional Motor Control Circuit
ASIDE: A PWM signal can be used to drive a motor with the circuit shown below. The
PWM signal switches the NPN transistor, thus switching power to the motor. In this
case the voltage polarity on the motor will always be the same direction, so the
motor may only turn in one direction.
signal
source
V+
com
power
supply
V+
V-
DC motor
page 207
Figure 6.11 PWM Bidirectional Motor Control Circuit
ASIDE: When a motor is to be con-
trolled with PWM in two directions
the H-bridge circuit (shown below)
is a popular choice. These can be
built with individual components, or
purchased as integrated circuits for
smaller motors. To turn the motor in
one direction the PWM signal is
applied to the Va inputs, while the
Vb inputs are held low. In this
arrangement the positive voltage is
at the left side of the motor. To
reverse the direction the PWM sig-
nal is applied to the Vb inputs, while
the Va inputs are held low. This
applies the positive voltage to the
right side of the motor.
+Vs
-Vs
Va
Va
Vb
Vb
d
dt
-----



K
2
JR
------


+ V
s
K
JR
------


T
load
J
M
------------ =
where,
the angular velocity of the motor =
K the motor speed constant =
J
M
the moment of inertia of the motor and attached loads =
R the resistance of the motor coils =
T
load
a torque applied to a motor shaft =
page 208
Figure 6.12 Model of a permanent magnet DC motor
Figure 6.13 Torque speed curve for a permanent magnet DC motor

ss
T
voltage/current increases
page 209
Figure 6.14 Motor speed curve and the derived differential equation
rpm
2400
0.5s
d
dt
---- -

m

m
K
2
J
M
R
----------



+ V
s
K
J
M
R
----------


T
load
J
M
------------ =
The steady-state velocity can be used to find the value of K.
0 ( ) 2400
rot
min
---------


K
2
J
M
R
----------



+ 15V
K
J
M
R
----------


0 ( ) =
2400
rot
min
---------
1min
60s
-------------
2rad
1rot
----------------


K ( ) 15V =
K
15V
120rads
1
----------------------------- 39.8 10
3

Vs
rad
--------- = =
The time constant can be used to find the remaining parameters.
K
2
J
M
R
----------
1
0.5s
---------- 2s
1
= =

m
' V
s
50.3V
1
s
2
rad
m
2s
1
50505Kg
1
m
2
T
load
=
(1)

m
'
m
=
(2)
d
dt
-----

m

m
2s
1
+ V
s
50.3V
1
s
2
rad ( )
T
load
19.8 10
6
Kgm
2
------------------------------------------ =
R 40 =
J
39.8 10
3

Vs
rad
---------


2
40 ( ) 2s
1
( )
--------------------------------------------- 0.198005
-4
10 19.8 10
6
Kgm
2
= = =
page 210
6.4 Tachometers
6.4.1 Angular Displacement
6.4.1.1 - Potentiometers
Potentiometers measure the angular position of a shaft using a variable resistor. A
potentiometer is shown in Figure 6.15. The potentiometer is resistor, normally made with
a thin film of resistive material. A wiper can be moved along the surface of the resistive
film. As the wiper moves toward one end there will be a change in resistance proportional
to the distance moved. If a voltage is applied across the resistor, the voltage at the wiper
interpolate the voltages at the ends of the resistor.
Figure 6.15 A Potentiometer
The potentiometer in Figure 6.16 is being used as a voltage divider. As the wiper
rotates the output voltage will be proportional to the angle of rotation.
schematic
physical
resistive
wiper
film
V
1
V
2
V
w
V
1
V
w
V
2
page 211
Figure 6.16 A Potentiometer as a Voltage Divider
Potentiometers are popular because they are inexpensive, and dont require special
signal conditioners. But, they have limited accuracy, normally in the range of 1% and they
are subject to mechanical wear.
Potentiometers measure absolute position, and they are calibrated by rotating them
in their mounting brackets, and then tightening them in place. The range of rotation is nor-
mally limited to less than 360 degrees or multiples of 360 degrees. Some potentiometers
can rotate without limits, and the wiper will jump from one end of the resistor to the other.
Faults in potentiometers can be detected by designing the potentiometer to never
reach the ends of the range of motion. If an output voltage from the potentiometer ever
reaches either end of the range, then a problem has occurred, and the machine can be shut
down. Two examples of problems that might cause this are wires that fall off, or the poten-
tiometer rotates in its mounting.
6.4.2 Encoders
Encoders use rotating disks with optical windows, as shown in Figure 6.17. The
encoder contains an optical disk with fine windows etched into it. Light from emitters
passes through the openings in the disk to detectors. As the encoder shaft is rotated, the
light beams are broken. The encoder shown here is a quadrature encode, and it will be dis-
cussed later.
V
2
V
1
V
out
V
out
V
2
V
1
( )

w

max
-----------


V
1
+ =

max

w
page 212
Figure 6.17 An Encoder Disk
There are two fundamental types of encoders; absolute and incremental. An abso-
lute encoder will measure the position of the shaft for a single rotation. The same shaft
angle will always produce the same reading. The output is normally a binary or grey code
number. An incremental (or relative) encoder will output two pulses that can be used to
determine displacement. Logic circuits or software is used to determine the direction of
rotation, and count pulses to determine the displacement. The velocity can be determined
by measuring the time between pulses.
Encoder disks are shown in Figure 6.18. The absolute encoder has two rings, the
outer ring is the most significant digit of the encoder, the inner ring is the least significant
digit. The relative encoder has two rings, with one ring rotated a few degrees ahead of the
other, but otherwise the same. Both rings detect position to a quarter of the disk. To add
accuracy to the absolute encoder more rings must be added to the disk, and more emitters
and detectors. To add accuracy to the relative encoder we only need to add more windows
to the existing two rings. Typical encoders will have from 2 to thousands of windows per
ring.
light
emitters
light
detectors
Shaft rotates
Note: this type of encoder is
commonly used in com-
puter mice with a roller
ball.
page 213
Figure 6.18 Encoder Disks
When using absolute encoders, the position during a single rotation is measured
directly. If the encoder rotates multiple times then the total number of rotations must be
counted separately.
When using a relative encoder, the distance of rotation is determined by counting
the pulses from one of the rings. If the encoder only rotates in one direction then a simple
count of pulses from one ring will determine the total distance. If the encoder can rotate
both directions a second ring must be used to determine when to subtract pulses. The
quadrature scheme, using two rings, is shown in Figure 6.19. The signals are set up so that
one is out of phase with the other. Notice that for different directions of rotation, input B
either leads or lags A.
relative encoder
absolute encoder
(quadrature)
sensors read across
a single radial line
page 214
Figure 6.19 Quadrature Encoders
Interfaces for encoders are commonly available for PLCs and as purchased units.
Newer PLCs will also allow two normal inputs to be used to decode encoder inputs.
Quad input A
Quad Input B
total displacement can be determined
Quad input A
Quad Input B
Note the change
as direction
is reversed
by adding/subtracting pulse counts
(direction determines add/subtract)
Note: To determine direction we can do a simple check. If both are off or on, the first to
change state determines direction. Consider a point in the graphs above where both
A and B are off. If A is the first input to turn on the encoder is rotating clockwise. If
B is the first to turn on the rotation is counterclockwise.
clockwise rotation
counterclockwise rotation
Aside: A circuit (or program) can be built for this circuit using an up/down counter. If
the positive edge of input A is used to trigger the clock, and input B is used to drive
the up/down count, the counter will keep track of the encoder position.
page 215
Normally absolute and relative encoders require a calibration phase when a con-
troller is turned on. This normally involves moving an axis until it reaches a logical sensor
that marks the end of the range. The end of range is then used as the zero position.
Machines using encoders, and other relative sensors, are noticeable in that they normally
move to some extreme position before use.
6.4.2.1 - Tachometers
Tachometers measure the velocity of a rotating shaft. A common technique is to
mount a magnet to a rotating shaft. When the magnetic moves past a stationary pick-up
coil, current is induced. For each rotation of the shaft there is a pulse in the coil, as shown
in Figure 6.20. When the time between the pulses is measured the period for one rotation
can be found, and the frequency calculated. This technique often requires some signal
conditioning circuitry.
Figure 6.20 A Magnetic Tachometer
Another common technique uses a simple permanent magnet DC generator (note:
you can also use a small DC motor). The generator is hooked to the rotating shaft. The
rotation of a shaft will induce a voltage proportional to the angular velocity. This tech-
nique will introduce some drag into the system, and is used where efficiency is not an
issue.
Both of these techniques are common, and inexpensive.
rotating
shaft
magnet
pickup
coil
Vout
Vout
t
1/f
page 216
6.5 Examples
6.6 Summary
6.7 References and Bibliography
6.8 Problems
6.9 Challenge Problems