DRILLING INTRODUCTION

Drilling is about equipment and methods commonly used or drilling !ells" especially do!n
to oil and gas reser#oirs$ %lso included are equipments and methods or securing the !ell and
preparing it or later use$ Using the !ell or production" including setting do!n production
tubing and equipment belong to production technology$ &eroration" ma'ing holes through
casing and into the reser#oir roc' around the !ell is here included in drilling (it is oten
considered part o production)$
SUBJECTS BEING TREATED
DRILLING &ROC*++ +urace equipment Derric'
,oisting equipment
Rotating (o drill string) equipment
-ud treatment and pumping equipment
Drilling mud .unctions / &roperties
Drill string Drill pipe Drill collars
-easuring equipment in the drill string
*quipment to loosen stuc' pipe
Do!n hole mud motor
Directional drilling equipment
Drill bits
0ell classiication 1ertical !ells De#iation !ells
,ori2ontal !ells
+ur#eying the !ell path
+*CURING T,* 0*LL Do!n hole pressures O#erburden (pressure)
,ori2ontal stresses racturing
&ore pressure
Upper and lo!er limits o !ell pressure
&ipes or securing !ell Conductor pipe casing liner
Cementing .unction o cement
&lacing o cement slurry3
Limits to cementing heights

&R*++UR*/CONTROL 4ic' 5lo!out 5O& 5lo! Out &re#enter construction
Reasons or 'ic's
4illing a 'ic' circulating out
3Cement slurry is cement po!der mi6ed !ith !ater" beore gelling and curing starts$
Figure 1 Sketch of a fixed patfor! "productio# patfor!$ a#d a !o%ea&e
patfor!' Note the differe#t pace!e#t( of the B)* a#d of the +ehead,
+hich i# &oth ca(e( i( paced direct- &eo+ the B)*'
DRI..ING *R)CESS
T-pe( of patfor!(
In order to drill a !ell t!o main types o platorms are in use" i6ed platorms and mo#eable
platorms$ % i6ed platorm is used only !hen production !ells are drilled or the purpose o
producing an oil or gas ield$ It is accordingly called a production platorm" its main purpose
is to recei#e the oil and gas produced" to separate the oil and gas" remo#e !ater" and in
general gi#e the treatment necessary or transport to land$ This type o platorm is
permanently mounted on the sea bottom and is dissembled !hen the production o the ield is
terminated$ %s a production platorm al!ays uses se#eral !ells the drill loor !ith the derric'
is mounted on s'ids (rails) or mo#ing around to drill all the planned !ells$ These production
!ells are closely spaced to some short distance belo! the sea bottom" !here they cur#e a!ay
in dierent directions" mainly to reach dierent parts o the reser#oir" or dierent reser#oirs"
but also to reduce the ris' that a ne! !ell is drilled into another !ell$
-o#able platorms are al!ays used !hen drilling test !ells$ These !ells are drilled and" i oil
or gas is ound" produced or a short time to see i there are suicient oil or gas present to start
producing the ield$ %ter!ards the test !ell is usually closed o by cement and all the metal
remo#ed to !ell belo! the sea bottom$ This is the !ellhead and the upper parts o the casing$
-o#able platorms may also be used to drill the production !ells or a i6ed production
platorm$ .or production o small ields !ith a short production time mo#able platorms may
7
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be used both or drilling and or production$ 0hen production ends they can be mo#ed to
another small ield" and so on$
+atellite !ells are also drilled rom mo#able platorms$ These !ells are production !ells !ith
its !ellhead on the sea bottom$ .rom the !ell head the produced oil and gas lo!s through a
single pipeline lying on the sea bottom" connecting the satellite !ell and a nearby i6ed
production platorm$
Surface e/uip!e#t 0 hoi(ti#g e/uip!e#t
.or traditional drilling a steel beam to!er (derric') is used" typically !ith a height around
9:m$ The derric' is mounted on the drill loor$ %ll equipment or handling" storing and
operating the drill string is in" on or abo#e the drill loor$ 5elo! the drill loor is the pump
loor" !here equipment or mi6ing" cleaning" storing and pumping o drilling mud is ound$
On i6ed platorms the !ellhead and saety equipment li'e the 5O& are also on or right belo!
the pump loor$ On shore there is a corresponding arrangement" but mud treating and
pumping equipment" and the !ellhead" are usually mounted directly on the ground$
Illustration:
2D 3D Enkel Kompleks Animasjon Simulering Foto Formel
x x x x
-o#eable platorms (or drill ships) are basically designed as the i6ed platorms" e6cept that
here the !ellhead and the 5O& are mounted on the sea bottom" belo! the loating platorm$
In this case the 5O& and the platorm abo#e it are connected by a riser" a pipe running rom
the top o the 5O& and up to the pump loor$ The connection bet!een the riser and the 5O&
is le6ible" allo!ing the platorm to mo#e some!hat !ithout bending the riser$
I the platorm drit o" !hich can happen due to bad !eather or errors in the na#igation
system" the riser can be disconnected rapidly rom the 5O& in such a !ay that the le6ible
connection and the riser are not damaged$ 5eore disconnection the 5O& !ill be acti#ated"
closing the !ell completely$ This possibility is the main reason the !ellhead and the 5O& are
mounted on the sea bottom !hen a mo#eable platorm or a drilling ship is used$
The drill string and other equipment are lited using bloc' and tac'le" mounted rom the top o
the derric'$ .rom the cable drum" mounted on the drill loor bet!een t!o o the derric' legs"
the line runs up to the cro!n bloc'" o#er the irst !heel and do!n to the running bloc' and up
again" repeating this ; to 9 times$ .inally the line runs do!n to the drill loor at the bottom o
one o the derric' legs" opposite the cable drum (this is to balance the orces acting on the
derric')$ ,ere the line is attached to a orce transducer" sho!ing the amount o line stretch$
This i6ed point is called the dead anchor$
The line rom the cable drum to the cro!n bloc' is al!ays the astest mo#ing part o the
!hole line" and is accordingly called the ast line$ The part o the line rom the cro!n bloc'
and do!n to the dead anchor is not mo#ing and is called the dead line$ The running bloc' is
carrying the equipment and is" !ith < to = !heels" hanging rom >: to >; lines$ 0ith no
riction present the load on the line !ould then be >?>: to >?>; o the total load carried by
@
hoisting$ The total load must include the !eight o the running bloc' itsel and other liting
equipment in addition to the drill string or any other equipment being lited$
*#en i the riction or each !heel is small (ball bearings)" the total riction !ill be signiicant
due to the large number o bloc' !heels" >: to >; all together$ 0ith = !heels in the running
bloc'" the load o the ast line !ill be around >?>: o the total load !hen hoisting up" signiy/
cantly larger than the >?>; e6pected !ith no riction$ In the dead line the load !ill be reduced
to about >?>A o the total load$ .or hoisting do!n" or lo!ering a load" the situation is the
opposite" gi#ing a load o only >?>A o the total load in the ast line" !hile increasing the load
to >?>: in the dead line$ -easurements o the dead line load gi#es" as seen" a #alue that
depends upon !hether one is hoisting up and do!n$ To a lesser degree it also depends upon
the amount o line bet!een the t!o bloc's (more line i the running bloc' is lo!)$ The dead
line load thereore does not gi#e a good measure o the total load$ % more accurate
measurement o the total load (the hoo' load) is obtained by a load cell mounted belo! the
tra#eling bloc'$ 0hen drilling the orce moment o rotation at the top o the drill string is
also oten measured$ I this becomes too large the drill pipe can be t!isted o$ % typical drill
pipe can !ithstand about @: 'Nm ('iloNe!tonmeterB on a le#er reaching one meter
perpendicular out rom the drill pipe one can put about @ ton)$
.igure 7 +'etch o equipment on the pump and drill loors$ Cleaning equipment or
returned mud is not sho!n in detail$ -otors or mud pump" rotating table" and
hoisting drum (cable drum) are not sho!n$ 5O& is placed directly on the
!llhead (this must be a i6ed platorm)$
The hoisting equipment is capable o liting up to about @:: ton$ The line in the bloc' and
tac'le must thereore be able to ta'e a load o about >?>: o this !hen there is = !heels in the
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tra#eling bloc'" about @: ton$ % drill string !ill not !eigh this much" but a 5O& stac'" or
long sections o large casing strings can approach this load$
The cable drum is turned by" in most cases" an electrical motor" #ia reducing gears or 1/belts"
and a clutch$ The clutch disconnects the motor and the drum !hen the load is lo!ered$
&o!erul bra'es are then used$ During bra'ing o loads mo#ing do!n the potential energy in
the gra#ity ield is transormed to heat$ .or a load o @:: ton E @::: ::: N that is lo!ered at
a constant speed o > m?s the production o heat in the bra'e is gi#en byB
&o!er E .orce 6 speed E @::::: 'g 6 F$A> m?s 6 > m?s E 7F;@::: 0 E 7F;@ '0$
This is equi#alent to 7::: electric heaters at ull eect (><:: 0 each)" and this !ill boil >::
liter o !ater in >= seconds$ This large heat load must be carried a!ay rom the bra'e or they
!ill burn out in a short time$ This is done by pumping !ater through the bra'es$
It is at least t!o types o bra'es connected to the cable drum" one electromagnetic" and a
mechanical drum bra'e$ The electromagnetic bra'e is in principle a dynamo that is producing
a current !hen it is rotating$ -ost o the bra'ing energy (ca$ F:G) can be carried a!ay as a
current and used in big resistors$ %lternati#ely a massi#e rotor !here the current generated
heats the rotor$ The rotor is cooled by !ater pumped through it$ The bra'e po!er is regulated
by the magnetic ield in the stator" consisting o electromagnets around the rotor$ Regulating
the current (rom the platorms electric current system) through these electromagnets
regulates the magnetic ield in the stator$
.igure @ +'etch o the cable drum on the drill loor" !ith its electric motor and bra'e
system$ On the mechanical drum bra'e the bra'e ribbons are sho!n$ The
cooling system" !here !ater is pumped through the interior o the bra'e drum
and the interior o the electromagnetic bra'e" is not sho!n$ In reality there is a
gear system bet!een the motor and the line drum" also not sho!n$ This gear
system reduces the rotating speed o the motor to a slo!er speed" more
con#enient or the drum$ The electric po!er consumed by the motor is
commonly around >::: ,4 E =<: '0$
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.or a gi#en setting o the electromagnetic bra'e the bra'ing po!er (orce) is proportional !ith
the rate o rotation o the drum$ *#en i ull bra'ing po!er is used" the bra'ing orce rom the
electromagnetic bra'e !ill decrease to!ards 2ero !hen the drum is stopping$ .or slo!
lo!ering rates o equipment the mechanical bra'e thereore has to be used$ .or this bra'e the
bra'ing orce is appro6imately constant or a gi#en orce applied to the bra'ing ribbons"
independent o the drum rotating speed$ *#idently" or 'eeping the load rom mo#ing do!n at
all" only the mechanical bra'e is useul$ 5ut the mechanical bra'e cannot handle the bra'ing
po!er possible or the electromagnetic bra'e" thereore both bra'es are necessary$ The
problem is that the heat generated is only at the interace bet!een the bra'ing drum and the
bra'ing ribbons" and it is not possible to cool this interace suiciently rapidly rom the inside
o the drum$ The procedures or bra'ing is accordinglyB
/ .or lo!ering loads at relati#ely high speeds" use only electromagnetic bra'e$
/ .or lo!ering loads at relati#ely lo! speeds" also the mechanical bra'e must be used$
/ .or 'eeping the load at a i6ed position" only the mechanical bra'e can be used$
Surface e/uip!e#t 0 e/uip!e#t for rotati#g a#d ha#di#g dri (tri#g
During drilling the drill string is rotated either !ith the top dri#e" a motor coupled directly to
the top o the drill string" or !ith the rotating table$ The top o the rotating table is lush !ith
the drilling loor" it is circular and running on rollers to minimi2e riction$ It is turned by an
electric motor$ %s or hoisting the standard po!er o this motor is >::: ,4 E =<: '0$ Use
o the rotating table to turn the drill string is nearly outdated in the North +ea" but it can still
be used to turn the larger casing string i desir!ed (see the section about casings)$
The top o the drill string is connected to the bottom o the top dri#e motor that is hanging
rom the trunning bloc'$ Through this connection drill mud is pumped into the top o the drill
string by using a s!i#el" a connection that can rotate reely$ The mud pump is connected to
the s!i#el !ith a #ertical pipe (stand pipe) and a le6ible hose$ The heigth o the stand pipe
abo#e the drill loor is about >< meter" see .ig$ 7$
*ach o the drill pipes is about >: m long (@: ot)$ The irst time they are used they are Hoined
to the top o the string one by one" but later on only e#ery third Hoint is uncoupled as the drill
string is pulled out o the !ell$ 0hen not in use these sections o three drill pipes are stored
#ertically on the drill loor" see .ig$ ;$ +uch a section o three connected pipes is called a
stand$ It has a length o appro6imately @: meter$ In some o the tallest derric's a stand may
consist o our pipes (;: m)$ The ad#antage o this is that the number one has to connect up"
or deconnect Hoints during drilling and tripping" is reduced$
During drilling the drill string has to be pulled out o the !ell a number o times" or changing
equipments" possible repairs" changing the drill bit or the no22le si2e" or or setting a ne!
casing string$ &ulling the string out o the !ell and setting it do!n again is called tripping$
Tripping out !hen pulling the string out" and tripping in !hen setting it do!n again$ During
tripping drill mud is not pumped" and the drill string is not usually rotated$
9
.igure ; +'etch o systems or connecting pipes and handling and storing pipes or stands$
Guiding rail or the top dri#e 'eeps the top dri#e centered abo#e the !ell and
pre#ent rotation o the top dri#e motor$ This rail does not carry any !eigth" as the
!eigth o the top dri#e motor and the drill string is carried by the running bloc'
(!hich here is abo#e the dra!ing)$ ,oisting equipment and stand pipe !ith its
le6ible hose are not sho!n$ 0hen drilling deep !ells more than one hundred
stands may be stored on the drill loor" ar more than sho!n here$ Note that also
drill collars are stored as stands" see storage system as seen rom abo#e$
0hen drilling the drill string is elongated by the ollo!ing procedureB
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%ter drilling do!n until only the top connection o the drill string is abo#e the rotating table
(the drill loor)B

/ The drill string is hoisted up a short distance" liting the drill bit o the hole bottom$
Rotation and pumping o mud is stopped$
/ +teel !edges are put do!n in the hole in the rotating table" around the drill string and
belo! the top connection$ The running bloc' is slightly lo!ered" the !edges are
pushed do!n and compressed against the drill string" loc'ing it into place and carrying
the !hole drill string load$
/ The connection bet!een the drill string and the top dri#e no longer carries the a6ial
load and is disconnected$ On more ad#anced rigs this is done automatically$ The top
dri#e is hoisted up some!hat more than @: meter (i three pipe stands are used)$
/ ,ydraulic arms grab one pipe stand in the stand storage and mo#es it out belo! the
top dri#e$
/ Top dri#e is connected to this stand" and the bottom connection o this stand is
connected to the top connection o the pipe loc'ed by steel !edges in the rotating table
hole$ The drill string is no! elongated by one stand$
/ The drill string is lited suiciently to shit the !eight o the !hole drill string rom
the !edges to the top dri#e$ This lit and loosens the !edges" !hich are remo#ed$
/ &umping o drill mud and rotating o the drill string are started" and the drill string is
lo!ered until the drill bit settle on the !ell bottom and drilling is continued$
/ %ter drilling the length o the ne! stand (ca$ @: m) the top o the drill string is again
Hust abo#e the drill loor and the operations described abo#e is repeated$
The sequence o operations described abo#e gi#es that or e#ery @: meters drilled one must
undo one connection and ma'e t!o connections" also (in order to 'eep the disconnected drill
string rom alling) put do!n and remo#e !edges once$ I the rotating table is used to turn the
drill string" as !as al!ays the case beore the introduction o the top dri#e" this operation !as
considerably more time consuming$ In this case a special drill pipe called the 'elly had
al!ays to be at the top o the drill string$ The 'elly had either a square or a he6agonal outer
cross section" a corresponding hole in the rotating table orced the drill string around !hen the
table turned$ %s the length drilled or each addition o one drill pipe had to be the !hole drill
pipe length" the 'elly had to be longer bet!een its end connections than the longest drill pipe
in use$ To be on the sae side the 'elly !as usually around >< meters$
0hen elongating the drill string the 'elly had to be pulled completely out o the hole in order
to disconnect the 'elly rom the rest o the drill string$ %dding one ne! drill pipe and the
'elly on top o that required a heigth o 7< meters abo#e the drill loor" gi#ing no possibility
o adding more than one drill pipe at a time in the standard derric'$ This resulted in a
minimum o three disconnections" si6 connections" and putting do!n and remo#ing !edges
three times or each @: meters drilled$ In addition the square or he6agonal hole had to be
opened three times in order to get the drill string connections through$
During tripping some o the same operations are required" but since pumping mud and
rotating the drill string is not usually done" the top o the drill string does not need to be
connected to the top dri#e$ It is suicient !ith a simple hinged ring that can be loc'ed around
the drill string" belo! the connection at the top$ In this case one need to undo only one
connection (tripping up) or do only one connection (tripping do!n) or each stand remo#ed or
added to the drill string$ This is also the case !hen the rotating table is used during drilling"
as one does not need to use the 'elly during tripping" !hen the drill string is not rotated$
A
Surface e/uip!e#t 0 !ud !ixi#g a#d treat!e#t e/uip!e#t
5eore and during drilling mud is made by mi6ing the dierent components o the mud in
special mi6ing containers$ The resulting drilling mud is pumped to large storage tan's that
might ta'e hundreds o cubic meters$ &umping o mud bet!een tan's and to the high pressure
pumps used to pump mud do!n the drill string is done by lo! pressure centriugal pumps$
+ee .ig$ <" !here a simpliied #ersion o the mud treatment system is sho!n$
The mud usually contains small particles hea#ier than the liquid component o the mud can
support$ 5ut because such particles are #ery small they sin' slo!ly$ To a#oid settling o
particles on the bottom o storage tan's" rotors !ith paddles are 'ept rotating slo!ly in the
mud" around one rotation e#ery second (9: R&-)$ The resulting currents and eddies in the
mud 'eep the particles in suspension$
During drilling the mud is pumped do!n innside the drill string" out through the no22les in the
drill bit" and up through the annulus outside the drill string$ %t the top o the !ell the
returning mud lo!s out and do!n a channel to the shale sha'er !here drill cuttings are
remo#ed$ This is a slanted screen !hich is 'ept #ibrating" the mud lo!s do!n through the
small holes in the screen" !hile all solids larger than these holes slides do!n the screen and is
collected separately$ The roc' cuttings are cleaned and dumped at the drilling site" or
transported a!ay or disposal$ Gas being trapped in the mud as gas bubbles might also
disappear to the air in this process" as the mud is spread out rather thinly in the sha'ers$ Other
possible contaminations o the mud are oil and !ater rom the ormation" #ery ine particles
rom the drilling process" and salts and clay dissol#ed in the mud$ These cannot be remo#ed
by the sha'ers$
% e! o these contaminations can be remo#ed by urther treatment o the mud in a secondary
mud cleaning system" or instance in centriuges or hydrosyclones !hich is a orm o
centriuge !ithout any mo#ing" mechanical parts$ These" and other treatments" can remo#e
particles too small to be remo#ed by the sha'ers" including also gas and liquids inmiscible
!ith !ater (or !ater based mud)$ +eparate degassing units can also be used to remo#e gas$
5ut contaminations li'e dissol#ed clay" small oil drops and #ery small solid particles are
almost impossible to remo#e" mainly because such substances are part o the original mud
mi6ture$ Remo#ing these !ill also remo#e substances meant to be there$
The properties o the returning mud are contiunally monitored by the mud engineer ater
cleaning o the mud$ The main properties measured are density" #iscosity and ph #alue$ I
these properties ha#e mo#ed outside their desired range the mud can still be used by adding
substances that correct this$ .or instance" i the mud is too hea#y due to loss o !ater (or oil)
to the ormation" and?or adding o clay and?or #ery ine roc' particles rom the drilling
process" the mud can be made lighter by adding !ater (or oil)$ I this reduces the #iscosity
belo! its minimum desired #alue" 5entonite (clay) must also be added$ Other mud properties
might also need to be corrected by adding other substances$
This !ill increase the #olume o drilling mud" !hich might be no problem as more mud is
needed as the !ell is drilled deeper$ I" ho!e#er" the #olume o corrected mud increases aster
than the #olume o the !ell" some o the returned mud e#entually has to be remo#ed rom the
site$ *ither by cleaning o the !ater in the mud to an acceptable purity and dumping this" or
F
transporting the surplus mud to a place !here it can be treated and?or stored$ .or o/shore
drilling this !ould mean shipping the surplus mud to an on/shore site$
I correction o the returned mud goes on" the mud might e#entually reach a stage o
contamination o un!anted substances to such a degree that it cannot be corrected any more$
%ll o the mud then has to be dumped and ne! drilling mud mi6ed$
.igure < +'etch o the mud treatment system$ Units mar'ed by J&J are lo! pressure
pumps$ % hydrosyclone is one o se#eral possibilities or urther cleaning o the
mud$ Tan's mar'ed Jmud componentsJ contain the dierent substances needed to
mi6 mud$ +ome o these might be stored as dry po!der$
.rom the mud storage tan' mud is pumped !ith a lo! pressure pump to the main" high
pressure mud pump$ This is usually a piston pump !ith three single acting pistons$ 5ecause
o these three pistons this is called a tri/a6ial piston pump$ The operating principle is sho!n
in .ig$ 9$ The three pistons are dri#en by a common cran'shat" !ith a phase displacement o
>7: degrees in relation to each other$ This gi#es a ma6imum smooth mud lo! or pistons
dri#en by a cran' shat (or less than < pistons)$ The #ariation o the mud lo! is here >@$; G
((ma6$ lo! min$ lo!)?(ma6$ lo!))$ In order to reduce the #ariation in the #olume lo!
e#en more the pump outlet is oten connected to a pulse damper" see the igure$ This is a
container !here a piston or a rubber membrane 'eep the mud at the same pressure as a large
#olume o a compressed gas (nitrogen)$ The elastisity o this gas reduces the #ariations in
pressure and lo! rate$
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.igure 9 Tria6ial mud pump !ith pulse damper$
Note that the pistons ha#e a smaller diameter than the cylinders" the pistons are then
commonly called JplungersJ instead o JpistonsJ$ The pressure seals around each plunger are
mounted in such a !ay that it reduces the possibility that solid particles in the mud are trapped
bet!een the plunger and the liner$ I this happens the suraces might be suiciently scratched
to destroy the integriety o the seal$ 5oth the plunger and the liner can then be replaced$ The
cylinder !all !ill ne#er be scratched !ith this design" because there is ne#er a close contact
bet!een the plungers and the cylinder !alls$
% mud pump is commonly equipped !ith ; < sets o plungers !ith liners" each set !ith
dierent diameters o the plungers and the liners$ The range o plunger diameters can or
instance be <$<" 9$:" 9$<" =$: and =$< inches$ .or a gi#en ma6imum orce F rom the
cran'shat against each plunger" the ma6imum pressure P
P
the pump is able to deli#er is gi#en
by this orce di#ided by the cross section area A o the plungerB P
P
E F?A$ 5y changing to a
smaller plunger the pump can deli#er a higher pressure" as the pressure is in#ersely
proportional to A" or to the square o the plunger diameter D$ 5ut then the #olume rate
deli#ered by the pump is reduced" as this is proportional to A" or to D
7
$
The #olume rate Q can be calculated !hen the number n o rotations per time unit o the
cran'shat is 'no!n" in addition to the piston area A E (?;)D
7
" and the stro'e L (the distance
each piston mo#es bac' and orth)$ +ince each piston displaces a mud #olume equal to the
stro'e length times the piston cross section once or e#ery completed rotation o the cran'
shat" three pistons gi#eB
K E @
v
(?;)D
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The parameter
v
is the #olume eiciency" its #alue is around :$F=$ It is due to the ollo!ingB
/ 0hen the plunger mo#es bac' and the cylinder is illed by the lo! pressure pump" the
pressure in the cylinder is lo!" do!n to atmospheric pressure$
/ 0hen the plunger mo#es or!ard" into the cylinder" the mud must be compressed until
the pressure in the cylinder is at least equal to the pressure in the stand pipe (the pipe
connected to the pump outlet) beore the outlet #al#e in the cylinder can open and the
mud can start lo!ing out o the cylinder" see .ig$ 9$ This pump outlet pressure can be
se#eral hundred bars$ *#en i liquids usually are considered incompressible" this is
only an appro6imation$ The mud compressibility and the relation bet!een the plunger
and cylinder diameter !ill determine this contribution$
/ The cylinder !ill e6pand slightly due to the increased pressure !hen the piston mo#es
into the cylinder$ This additional #olume has to be illed beore mud lo!s out$ The
elasticity o the cylinder !all material and the geometry o the cylinder !ill determine
this contribution (Ioungs modulus o elasticity" cylinder diameter and !all thic'ness)$
/ In addition to this there are small #olumes in the outlet and inlet #al#es that ha#e to be
illed beore mud start to lo! out o the cylinder$ The speciic design o these #al#es
!ill determine this contribution$
>>
&UL+D*-&*R*R
/ %ll this requires the piston to mo#e a small distance into the cylinder beore any mud
is pushed out" around @ G o the stro'e length$ *ecti#e stro'e length is then about
:$F= (F= G) o the total stro'e$ This number is the #olume eiciency
v
o the pump$
1olume eiciency ob#iously changes !ith the !or'ing pressure o the pump" also !ith the
plunger diameter chosen (a smaller plunger diameter has a relati#ely larger #olume o mud to
compress)$ .or simplicity a i6ed a#erage #alue is commonly used" or instance the #alue
:$F=$
.rom the abo#e the #olume eiciency o a speciic pump situation can be estimated$ -ud has
typically a #olume compressibility o C
V
E >:
/F
&a
/>
E >:
/;
bar
/>
$ .or a typical pump cylinder
o inner diameter AJ (inches) and length o >@J rom the end o the liner to the end o the
cylinder" the #olume o this part is V E (?;)D
7
L E (?;)A
7
>@ E 9<@$;< cubic inches$ %n
increase P o pressure rom : to 7:: bar (P E 7:: bar) requires a #olume decrease o V E
C
V
VP E >:
/;
9<@$;<37:: E >@$:9F cubic inches$ % plunger !ith stro'e length L and
diameter D
6
E 9J has to mo#e a distance L E V?((?;)D
6
7
) E>@$:9F?((?;)9
7
) E :$;97J in
order to co#er this #olume$ 0ith a stro'e length L E >7J his is L?L E :$;97?>7 E :$:@A<" so
in this case the compressibility o the mud gi#es a #olume eiciency o
v
E > :$:@A< E
:$F9>< all by itsel$ In addition to this there is the #olume increase o the cylinder due to the
elasticity o the steel in the cylinder !alls" and other eects$
.or a typical mud pump !ith a plunger diameter o = inches" a stro'e length o >: inches" and
or >7: rotations o the cran' shat each minute" the #olume lo! rate isB
Q E
v
@(?;)D
7
Ln E :$F=3@(?;)=
7
>:3>7: E >@;@A=$F cubic inches?min E 77:7$7 l?min
1olume lo! rate o mud is usually measured in liters per minute$ +ince an inch is equal to
:$:7<; m" a cubic inch !ill be equal to (:$:7<;)
@
cubic meter$ +ince > m
@
is equal to >:::
liter" the irst result (in cubic inches?min) should be multiplied by (:$:7<;)
@
>::: E :$7<;
@
E
:$:>9@A= in order to get the result in liters per minute" as sho!n abo#e$ .or po!er
calculations it is simplest to use true +I/units" !hich or #olume lo! is cubic meters per
second$ The result abo#e (77:7$7 l?min) must then be di#ided by 9::::" 9: or the number o
seconds in one minute" and >::: or the number o liters in one cubic meter$ This gi#es Q E
:$:@9=: m
@
?sec$
.or calculating the ma6imum pump pressure in this case one could rom the 'no!n torque
deli#ered to the cran' shat calculate the orce on each plunger$ Di#iding this !ith the
plunger cross section area !ould gi#e the pressure$ 5ut it is simpler to use po!er
considerations (po!er is !or' (energy) per time unit)$ The total po!er transmission
eiciency rom the input electric po!er
E
E

used by the motor to the hydraulic po!er

H
E

deli#ered to the mud lo! rom the pump must then be 'no!n$ ,ydraulic po!er in liquid
lo! is gi#en by pressure P multiplied by #olume lo! rate Q$ The total po!er transmission
eiciency is typically around :$9 to :$=" and or a typical mud pump motor o >::: '0
electric po!er this gi#es" !ith E :$9B
,ydraulic po!er E P
P
Q E 3*lectric po!er E :$93>::: '0 E 9:: '0
.or the tria6ial mud pump used as an e6ample abo#e this gi#esB
>7
P
P
E (3*lectric po!er)?Q E (9::3>::: 0)?:$:@9= m
@
?sec E>9 @;F ::: N?m
7
E >9@$;F bar
Note that !e no! obtain the pressure in the +I/unit &ascal (E N?m
7
)" !hich !e change to bar
at the #ery end$ Note also that in the calculations po!er" !hen gi#en in '0" has to be
changed to the true +I/unit 0 (0att)$ %s stated beore this type o po!er calculation is oten
used to ind the system output" here the output is pressure$ Remember that the rule here is
that all parameter units must be changed to true +I/units in actual calculations" unnecessary
correcting actors are then a#oided$
It is al!ays possible to get a smaller #olume lo! than the ma6imum calculated or any gi#en
plunger diameter by reducing the rotating rate o the motor$ 5ut in this case the po!er
deli#ered by the motor also decreases$ This !ill thereore not increase the ma6imum pump
pressure$ It is important to note that e#en i one intends to use the mud pump at a lo!er rate
o rotation than possible" the ma6imum pressure still must be calculated as sho!n abo#e"
using the ma6imum rate o rotation n (ma6imum #olume lo!) and the ma6imum gi#en
po!er o the motor$
The only possibility o increasing the pressure abo#e the pressure calculated abo#e" is to
change the plungers (and the liners) to ones !ith a smaller diameter$ The only change in the
calculations abo#e is then the plunger diameter D$ 5y using the proportionality bet!een the
#olume lo! and the square o the plunger diameter" the ma6imum #olume lo! and pressure
or the ne! plunger diameter D
new
can be ound byB
Q
new
E (D
new
?D)
7
Q P
new
E (D?D
new
)
7
P
I one in the e6ample abo#e changes to a plunger !ith diameter <$< J (inches)" one obtains
Q
new
E (<$<?=)
7
Q E :$9>=@<377:7$7 l?min E >@<F$< l?min" and P
new
E (=?<$<)
7
P E
>$9>FA3>9@$;F bar E 79;$A7 bar$
% common problem is to choose a plunger diameter that !ill gi#e at least the desired pump
pressure" at the same time gi#e the largest #olume rate possible !ith this pressure$ I one or
instance has decided that a pump pressure o P
new
E 7:: bar is suicient" !hat is the plunger
diameter D
new
that should be chosen or the e6ample pump used abo#eL %ssuming that the
calculations or one speciic plunger diameter D ha#e already been done" as abo#e or =J" the
*q$ () or P
new
is sol#ed !ith respect to D
new
B
@7F $ 9 F:;> $ : =
7::
;F $ >9@
= = = = =
new
new
P
P
D D
J
% plunger !ith this diameter !ould gi#e e6actly 7:: bar$ 5ut !e ha#e to chose bet!een
e6isting plungers$ 0e cannot chose a plunger diameter larger than 9$@7FJ because this !ould
gi#e a pressure smaller than 7:: bar$ The allo!able plunger closest to the calculated diameter
is here 9J$ 5y using *q$ () abo#e this inally gi#esB
Q
new
E (D
new
?D)
7
Q E (9?=)
7
77:7$7 E >9>=$F l?min
P
new
E (D?D
new
)
7
P E (=?9)
7
>9@$;F E 777$<7 bar
This is the best !e can do !ith this speciic pump" i it must be able to deli#er at least 7:: bar
in output pressure" the largest #olume lo! rate it can deli#er is >9>=$F l?min$ I !e need
more than this" the only solution is to get another mud pump that can !or' in parallell !ith
>@
the irst pump" increasing the total lo! rate$ I !e get another pump o the same type" the
ma6imum output pressure is still 777$<7 bar" but the ma6imum lo! rate is no! @7@<$A l?min$
Note that !e can al!ays put pumps in parallell" increasing the total lo! rate$ .or some types
o pumps" or instance centriugal pumps (compressor)" the output pressure can be increased
by connecting pumps in series" the outlet o one pump is connected to the inlet o the ne6t
pump$ This is not possible !ith the piston pumps used as mud pumps$ Connecting these in
series !ill not increase the output pressure" and it !ill o course not increase the output lo!
rate$ +o this is ne#er done$ I se#eral mud pumps are used they are al!ays connected in
parallell" and each o the pumps must then be set up to deli#er the required mud pressure$
Drii#g !ud
+torage" pumping and cleaning o used drilling mud is described in the ormer sections$ The
composition o drilling mud has become increasingly comple6 as more demands ha#e been
made upon it$ In the #ery beginning o the history o !ell drilling they Hust pumped do!n
resh !ater to !ash the cuttings out o the !ell$ It !as disco#ered that !ith clay present"
dissol#ing in the resh !ater" the cuttings !ere transported to the surace more eiciently due
to the increased #iscosity o the !ater$
%s !ell !ere drilled deeper it !as disco#ered that they oten needed a hea#ier mud in order to
a#oid collapse o the !ell$ This problem !as sol#ed by mi6ing ine ground" hea#y minerals
into the !ater$ % hea#y mineral is an ad#antage" because less is needed$ ,o!e#er" because
the mineral grains are hea#y compared to the liquid they !ill sin'$ The sin'ing speed v is
determined by the !eigth o the grain in the mud di#ided by its cross section" gi#ing
r v
m
) ? > (
" !here
m
and is the mud and particle densities and r is the grain radius
(the paranthesis is the buoyancy actor" see section MM)$ This sho!s that the smaller the
grains are" the slo!er they !ill sin'$ The diameter o the !eight material grains are usually in
the range >: >:: m (:$:> :$> mm)$
.inally" by also adding some oil the basic drilling mud !as created$ The oil lubricated the
equipment" and also strongly reduced the loss o mud into any porous ormations$
In principle any clay and any stable mineral can be used to increase the #iscosity and the
density o !ater" but the oil industry is mainly using a clay called 5entonite" and a hea#y
mineral called 5aryte or this$ The reasons or this are mainly due to cost and the desire too
use additi#es that change only one property o the mudB
/ 5entonite is the clay type that gi#es the largest #iscosity increase o !ater or a gi#en
amount o clay$ Only up to =$<G (by !eigth) o 5entonite is needed or obtaining any
#iscosity desired" up to <: c&$ %dding 5entonite thereore do not increase the mud
density #ery much$
/ 5aryte is stable in !ater and a quite hea#y mineral !ith a density o ;7@: 'g?m
@
" and it
is not too hard" !hich !ould gi#e unnecessary abrasi#e !ear o equipment$
/ 5y not needing too much o both these substances transport and storage e6penses are
reduced$
/ 5oth substances are not too e6pensi#e$ Other clay types are generally much cheaper"
but then one !ould need considerably more clay" increasing the mud density to a much
larger degree$ Other minerals than 5aryte or !eight material ha#e been considered"
>;
or instance Illumenite" but these are either more e6pensi#e" or being more abrasi#e" or
ha#ing other undesired properties$
Note that using additi#es that mainly change one property o the mud is rather important$ .or
instance" ma'ing a light" high #iscosity mud !ould be impossible i a large amount o clay
!as needed$ One the other hand" ma'ing a hea#y" lo! #iscosity mud !ould be diicult i a
light mineral !as used to increase density$ % light mineral !ould require more mass and ar
more #olume o !eight material than 5aryte in order to ma'e a mud o a gi#en density$ The
#olume o !eight material must be considerably less than the total #olume o mud" this
se#erely restricts the density o mud possible to obtain !ith a light mineral$
One o the largest problems !ith the irst resh !ater mud !as that it could s!ell and dissol#e
clay in the ground$ This increased the mud #iscosity" but !orse" it could ma'e the !alls o the
!ell unstable$ This problem can be a#oided or reduced by using salt !ater or oil as the main
mud component in stead o resh !ater$ +alt in the !ater reduces its ability to dissol#e clay"
and oil does not dissol#e clay at all$ The main problem !ith this is increasing the mud
#iscosity to the desired #alue" as also 5entonite is not readily dissol#ed$ It !as ound to be
possible by irst treating 5entonite !ith resh !ater" then mi6ing the !et 5entonite into the oil
or the salt !ater$ The 5entonite then could stay dissol#ed$ The minimum amount o !ater
required to 'eep the 5entonite dissol#ed in oil is about 9G$ %lso or other reasons it !as
ound necessary to add !ater to oil mud" usually quite salt to a#oid dissol#ing clay in the
ormation (this !ater is not the resh !ater used to dissol#e 5entonite" but additional !ater to
carry other substances)$
5aryte" e#en i li'e most minerals it preer !etting by !ater rather than oil" is !etted by oil i
it is dry !hen mi6ed into oil$ Thus" both !ater based mud and oil based mud consist o a
mi6ture o !ater and oil" usually also including 5aryte and dissol#ed 5entonite$ The main
dierence is in ho! the oil and !ater are distributed$ %s oil and !ater are immiscible they
cannot dissol#e in each other" one o these liquids (phases) has to e6ist as drops in the other$
In !ater based mud there is more !ater than oil" and the oil is ound as drops in the
continuous !ater phase$ In oil based mud there usually is more oil than !ater" and the !ater
is ound as drops in the continuous oil phase$ The deining actor is !hether oil or !ater is
the continuous phase" not the relati#e amount o oil and !ater$ It is possible to ma'e mud
!ith more !ater than oil" but !here the !ater e6ist as drops in the oil$ The oil is then the
continuous phase and the mud is an oil based mud e#en i there is less oil than !ater$
In both cases the 5aryte and the 5entonite are mainly ound in the continuous phase$ This is a
requirement or the #iscosity builder (5entonite)" as the o#erall #iscosity o the mi6ture is
mainly determined by the #iscosity o the continuous phase$ *#en i the liquid ound as drops
should ha#e an ininitely high #iscosity (li'e solid particles)" it !ould not increase the o#erall
#iscosity o the mud #ery much$
% more complete list o possible additi#es in the mud and the reason they are used is sho!n
belo!$ +olid additi#es are usually supplied ground to a po!der$ The si2es o the po!der
grains may be important or the unction o the additi#e$
.UNCTION %DDITI1*
/ Density" gi#ing desired pressure in 5aryte mineral !ith density ;7@: 'g?m
@
$
><
the !ell Generally a mud density larger than or !ater is
required$ %ny substance added in order to
increase mud density is called !eigth material"
al!ays ground to a po!der$
/ Cleaning hole bottom !hen drilling No additi#es" no22les gi#e high speed Hets that
!ash a!ay cuttings$
/ Carrying cuttings up the !ell +ubstances that increases #iscosity and gi#e gel
properties$ The most common are 5entonite
(clay)" density 79:: 'g?m
@
" and polymers$
/ 4eep cuttings in suspension (not sin'ing) +ubstances that gi#e gel properties" li'e polymers
!hen pumping is stopped and 5entonite$
/ Cool and clean the drill bit No additi#es" the main mud phase (!ater or oil)
gi#es suicient cooling i Hets rom the no22les
and splashbac' rom the hole bottom clean the
drill bit$
/ Deposit a mud ca'e on the hole !all in Light minerals ground to grains still suiciently
order to stop mud rom lo!ing into the large to plug pore entrances and thereby stop
pore system in the ormation (reser#oir) smaller grains (!eight material) rom entering$
Not necessarily required" as the oil drops in !ater
mud" or !ater drops in oil mud" also gi#e this
unction$
/ +tabili2ing the hole !all +alt and other substances that pre#ent ormation
s!elling and dissol#ing" mainly o clay and shale$
/ Lubricating the drill string Oil" added i !ater based mud is used$
/ &re#ent corrosion o equipment Dierent corrosion inhibitors$
/ &re#ent bacterial gro!th in the !ell +ubstances that pre#ent this gro!th$
/ &re#ent chemical reactions bet!een Dierent substances" also" the cement can or
mud and cement !hen cementing has to be treated in order to a#oid this$
/ Transmit mud pulse signals -ud should be ree o gas bubbles and larger
particles" these scatter pressure pulses and
strongly reduces the strength and quality o the
signals$
/ Deli#er hydraulic energy to equipment %n ad#antage !ith as small and sot particles as
possible in the mud in order to reduce abrasi#e
!ear o do!nhole mud motors" turbines"
hydraulic actuators" and other types o
equipments$
/ Optimal distribution o !ater and oil Tensides (soapli'e substances) added$ These
(si2e o drops) should be 'ept stable accumulate at the interace bet!een oil and !ater
and stabili2e the si2e o drops$
/ -a'e separation o cuttings and gas This is easier i mud has a lo! #iscosity" reduce
>9
rom mud easier (at the surace) clay (polymer) content i possible$ %dding
suractants and delocculants (to collapse oam) is
also useul$
In traditional drilling the mud pressure in the !ell is larger than the pore pressure in the
ormation" but smaller than the racture pressure$ 0hen drilling in porous and permeable
ormations the mud !ill start to lo! rom the !ell and into the pores !here the pressure is
lo!er$ This gi#es loss o mud" but e#en !orse in hydrocarbon reser#oirs" the grains o the
!eight material are suiciently small to be carried into the pores$ There they can get stuc' in
narro! openings and bloc' these or hydrocarbon lo! into the !ell !hen the !ell is put into
production$ %s a result the permeability o the reser#oir roc' can be strongly reduced close to
the !ell$ This 2one o mud in#asion is called the damaged 2one$
In !ater based mud the drops o oil are in general too large (N :$>mm) to enter the pore
openings in the hole !alls" as these are in the range :$>mm and do!n!ards$ Due to interace
tension" trying to 'eep these drops spherical" the oil drops are not squee2ed into the smaller
pores$ The oil stays at the hole !all" bloc'ing the pore entrances$ This strongly reduces the
lo! o mud into the reser#oir$ %lso" e#en i the lo! o the !ater component o the mud is
not completely stopped" the solid particles in the mud" mainly the !eight material and also to
some degree the clay" may be bloc'ed$ This build up a semi/solid layer o mud particles" ar
more concentrated than in the original mud$ This is called the mud ca'e$ It is not unusual
that the mud penetrates up to and e#en arther than hal a meter into the ormation$ This can
greatly reduce the production potential o the !ell$ The rate o production !ill be lo!er" and
more oil or gas !ill be let in the reser#oir !hen the rate drop to such a lo! #alue that urther
production is uneconomical$
Dri (tri#g 0 dri pipe( a#d dri coar(
The drill string consists mainly o drill pipes and drill collars that are connected !ith conical
threads$ The drill bit at the bottom o the string is also connected !ith the standard conical
threads$ 5oth types o pipes are produced in lenghts o appro6omately @:O (eet)" or >: m$
These conical threads ha#e three main ad#antagesB
/ Only a e! turns o the threads are needed to ma'e up the connection" thus the time
used to connect up to a thousand couplings in one o the modern !ells is considerably
less than i straight threads had been used$
/ 0hen thightened the male threads are compressed against the emale threads" ma'ing
a quite solid connection !ithout any looseness$ This is important or a drill string that
is required to stand a lot o beating$
/ %s the threads are compressed against each other" the threads gi#e a better protection
against lea'age than straight threads$ 5ut as the top o the threads is rounded" !hile
the bottom is not" there is a lea'age channel" see .ig$ F$ To ensure no lea'age in the
coupling the threads must be co#ered !ith gHengepasta" illing all openings bet!een
the threads$
To a#oid ha#ing the threads as the !ea'est point in the upper section !ith drill pipes"
couplings are !elded to the drill pipes at each end" one !ith male threads and the other !ith
emale$ In the drill string the end !ith male threads are al!ays oriented do!n!ards" e6ept or
the drill bit$ These couplings ha#e a larger !all thic'ness than the drill pipes" and are more
>=
resistant to pressure" stretch and bending than the pipe bet!een the couplings$ 5ut not or
torque loading$ In order to get a really solid connection the torgue used !hen ma'ing up the
connections almost induce yielding in the threads$ %s threads stand ar less torque than a
solid pipe !all" the connections are the !ea' point or torque loading$ 0hen the drill string is
rotated" the torque must not e6ceed the ma'e up torque or the connections$ This is
appro6imately hal the torque tolerated by the pipe !alls$ 5ut as !ill be seen later on this is
usually no restriction upon the loading o the drill pipe$
5OR*R8R
1*4TR8R
.igur F Conical threads or connecting drill pipes" drill collars" and equipments in the
drill string$ 5eore connections are made up" the threads are co#ered by a paste
that ills any opening bet!een threads and ma'ing the connection lea'/proo$
The thic'er !alls o the connections o the drill pipes gi#e a considerably larger outer
diameter o the connections than the rest o the drill pipe" as sho!n in earlier igures$ %lso"
the inner diameter o the connections are usually some!hat smaller than or the pipe$ The
larger outer diameter o the connections protects the drill pipe against !ear" as it is mainly the
connections that are in contact !ith the hole !all" sliding and rotating against it$ %nd due to
the thic'er !all the connections stand more !ear than the drill pipe bet!een them$ %lso" the
outer surace o the connections can be co#ered !ith a more !ear resistent material" or the
steel at the surace being tempered to a greater hardness$ This is cheaper than treating the
!hole length o drill pipe$
0hen handling the drill pipe" especially !ith tools that can scratch the surace" it should
al!ays be at the connections" !here it stands more abuse$ +cratches" !ear and other damages
>A
on the drill pipe surace !ill reduce considerably its ability to !ithstand the loading it is
subHected to during drilling$ *#en i handled careully" the drilling process !ill gi#e suicient
!ear to require adaption to this in time$ This is done by using three classes o drill pipe"
determined by the amount o !ear$ Ne!" undamaged drill pipe belongs to class I$ The drill
pipes are regularly inspected or damage !hen the drill string is tripped out o the !ell$ There
is a set o clearly deined types and degrees o damages to loo' or" i the actual !ear e6ceed
this the pipe is degraded to premium class$ No!" there is another set o more serious damages
to loo' or !hen inspecting the pipe$ I the !ear e6ceed these the pipe is degraded to class II"
and so on$ The ne6t lo!er class is class III" but i the pipe gets this classiication it is not used
any more in the North +ea$
During drilling the drill string can be subHected to a !ide range o mechanical loading$ .or
instance" drilling a deep !ell gi#es a much larger loading than drilling a shallo! !ell$ The
actual calculation o these loadings is presented in the ne6t section$ 5ut the rather ob#ious
result is that or drilling the shallo! !ell a class II drill pipe can saely be used" !hile the
deep !ell require a much stronger drill pipe$ In order to co#er all the dierent loading
situation" a !ide range o drill pipes is a#ailable$
/ The outer diameter o the drill pipe" rom around @J to 9J" in increments o :$<J
/ .or each diameter there is t!o or three dierent !all thic'nesses a#ailable
/ .our dierent steel qualities are used or all types o drill pipes" called *" M" G and +"
also denoted *=<" MF<" G>:<" and +>@<$ The numbers gi#e the yield limit in >:::
psi$
/ .or each drill pipe three or our dierent connections are a#ailable$
This gi#es about 7:: dierent types o drill pipes to chose rom$ In addition there is the three
dierent !ear classes or each type$ This gi#es the driller the possible choice o 9:: dierent
drill pipes$ The types actually a#ailable on any gi#en drill rigg is o course ar less$ &roper
planning !ould ensure that the types best itted to the !or' intended or the rig is present" and
still suiciently strong ater !ear degradation" at least to premium class$ Drill pipes usually
used in the North +ea are ;$<J" <J and <$<J" oten o high steel quality$ .or these large drill
pipe diameters the mass per length unit" including the connections" is around @: 'g?m$
%s mentioned beore the connections are !elded on to the drill pipe$ &robably in order to
minimi2e the si2e o the connections (and get some standardi2ation) the connections are all
made rom the same high steel quality" !ith a strength (yield limit) o >7:"::: psi" mid!ay
bet!een the t!o top steel qualities used in drill pipes (G and +)$ 5ut this requires hea#ier
connections or the higher steel qualities o drill pipe in order to match the increased pipe
strength$ The !eight o a gi#en si2e (diameter and !all thic'ness) o drill pipe thereore
increases !ith steel quality" not because the pipe itsel is hea#ier" but because the connections
are$ Note that the density o steel is almost independent o its quality$ .or any gi#en outer
diameter the pipe !eight per length unit (bet!een the end connections) can thereore be used
as a measure o the !all thic'ness" independent o the steel quality$ This is also usually done$
5ut remember that this is only a !ay to classiy the pipe" it is useless or actual calculations o
drill string !eight because it does not include the !eight o the connections$ *6amples o
tables !ith drill string data is gi#en in the ne6t section$
The main unction o the drill collars is to supply !eight to the drill bit (0O5)$ In order to
a#oid long pipe sections under compression" the drill collars can ha#e outer diameters
approaching that o the !ell$ The resulting narro! space bet!een the hole !alls and the drill
collars cannot then be made e#en narro!er !ith e#en larger diameter connections$ This
>F
!ould gi#e a serious restriction or the return lo! o drilling mud up the !ell$ There is then
no need or !elded on connections$ ,ere the conical threads are machined into the end o the
pipe" as sho!n in .ig$ F$ In this case the connections are the !ea' points" both or pressure"
a6ial load (stretch or compression) and torque$ 5ut due to the much larger !all thic'ness
usually ound on drill collars as compared to drill pipes" the drill collar connections are still
considerably stronger than the drill pipe$
%lso" the drill collars are at the bottom o the drill string" !here pressure loading" a6ial orces
and torque are considerably less than at the top o the string" !here the drill pipes are ound$
Due to this it is generally assumed that the static load is largest at the top o the drill string"
and that drill collar connections !ill not ail due to static loads$ 5ut dynamic loads (shoc's
and #ibrations) may be ar larger at the bottom o the string than at the top$ In act" quite
oten !hen the drill string ails" it is a drill collar connection that brea's$ One o the greatest
impro#ements in present day drilling is the possibility to monitor do!nhole #ibrations and
change drilling parameters" usually rate o rotation (R&-) and !eight on bit (0O5) in such a
!ay that these #ibrations are reduced to sae le#els$
.or !ells in the North +ea drill collars !ith outer diameters rom 9J to >;J can be used" !ith
mass rom A= 'g?m to =<: 'g?m$ *ach si2e is produced !ith a number o !all thic'nesses" or
inner diameters$ .or instance" drill collars !ith outer diameter o AJ are a#ailable !ith ele#en
dierent inner diameters" rom >$<J to ;J" in increments o :$7<J$ In practice" or the mud
lo! rates oten used" the inner diameter should not be less than @J" this !ould increase lo!
resistance dramatically$ In order to a#oid e6cessi#e lo! resistance o the return mud lo!"
the outer diameter o the drill collars should be at least >$<J less than or the drill bit in use"
preerably at least 7J less (the drill bit diameter gi#es the diameter o the hole)$
0ith this restriction o the outer diameter the !eight o the drill collars can be increased by
reducing the inner diameter$ 5ut or inner diameters already considerably less than the outer
diameter this does not help much$ .or instance" or the AJ drill collar" the !eight increases
only rom 7>A$A 'g?m to 77F$= 'g?m !hen inner diameter is decreased rom @J to 7$<J$ This
is a !eight increase o only <G" !hile the lo! resistance increases by >;:G or a lo! rate o
7::: l?min$
The usual classiication o drill collars is by outer diameter (in inches) and the mass per unit
length (or instance 'g?m)$ .rom standard tables the inner diameter can then be ound$ In this
case" !here there are no connections !ith larger diameters" the nominal !eight is also the
actual !eight including the connections$
In addition to standard drill pipes and drill collars there is also a#ailable hea#y !eight drill
pipes" !ith a !eight some!here in bet!een drill pipes and collars$ These ha#e larger
diameter connections" and an outside oten shaped li'e an elongated spiral$
The drill pipe does not stand a6ial compression #ery !ell" it !ill buc'le and be easily t!isted
o and destroyed i drilling is perormed !ith a6ial compression$ The drill pipe should under
all circumstances be in a6ial tension$ The drill collars" !ith their much larger !all thic'ness
stand a6ial compression much better$ %ll the do!n!ard orce on the drill bit should thereore
be supplied by the lo!er part o the drill collars" as a possible rule o thumb the lo!er 7?@ o
the drill collars should be resting their !eight upon the drill bit" !hile the rest o the drill
string" the upper >?@ o the drill collars and the !hole drill pipe section should be hanging
rom the top dri#e and thus be in tension$
7:
Depending upon the type and si2e o the drill bit the recommended 0O5 is around < to 9:
tons (<: 9:: 'N)$ This means that a suiciently large drill collar section !ould !eigh (in
the drilling mud actually used)" around =$< to F: tons$ I or instance a AJ outer diameter" @J
inner diameter (mass 7>A$A 'g?m) is used" the length o the drill collar section should at least
be rom ;> to ;F< m long (or a mud density o >7:: 'g?m
@
)$ Note that this is a minimum
length" this section can #ery !ell be longer" at least or saety reasons$ %lso" ;> m is a bit
short" so in this case drill collars !ith a smaller outer diameter !ould probably be used$
Usually" the range o drill collar section length is rom <: to 7:: m$ The drill bit requiring
0O5 E 9:: 'N is probably a large diameter bit" or instance 79J$ The large diameter hole
then allo!s or much hea#ier drill collars" !here a lenght o 7:: m !ould gi#e 9:: 'N$
%s a typical !ell in the North +ea may easily be se#eral 'ilometers" by ar the largest part o
the drill string !ill be the drill pipe section$
.igure >: Centrali2er" seen rom belo! and rom the side" as mounted on the drill collar
section$ Usually" the centrali2er !ould ha#e more slots (9 A slots)$
% e! places along the drill collar section" usually at least three" centrali2ers are mounted$
These ha#e an outer diameter close to the hole diameter and 'eep the drill collar section
centered in the hole" pre#enting it rom Humping around in the !ell$ The e6cact placements o
these is important or steering o the drill bit" this is discussed in a later section$ These
centrali2ers ha#e slanted slots machined into their outer surace" allo!ing the return drilling
mud lo! up the annulus to lo! reely" see .ig$ >:$
Dri (tri#g 0 e/uip!e#t i# the (tri#g
%lmost all o the equipment that is used in the drill string is mounted in in the section !ith
drill collars" or the ollo!ing reasonsB
/ .or measuring equipment it is most useul to do mesurements close to the drill bit" in
the section o the !ell being presently drilled$ This gi#es the earliest possible !arning
o any changes o the drilling conditions$
/ -echanical equipment has in most cases unctions related to the drill bit and must be
close to it$
7>
/ %ll the equipment must be mounted innside hea#y !all pipes to be protected" these
pipes are called the housing o the equipment$ These pipes must be suiciently strong
to stand the loads the drill string is subHected to during drilling$ %t the same time there
must be a channel innside the pipe !here the drilling mud can lo! do!n to!ards the
drill bit$ In most cases the eqipment cannot ha#e an outer diameter larger than the drill
collars$ -a'ing equipment suiciently small to it innside pipes o the same diameter
as the drill pipes is at present #ery diicult" i not impossible$
*quipment housing is preerably more or less o the same dimensions as the drill collars" and
!ith the same type o connections$ This ensures that they can be mounted directly in the drill
collar section" Hust as the drill collars$ The lo!er part o the drill string" the drill collars"
measuring and communication equipment (mud pulses)" mechanical equipment" and the drill
bit" is called the bottom hole assembly" oten abbre#iated to 5,%$
5,%
.igure >> +c'etch o drill string !ith its 5,% section sho!n in more detail$ &ossible
placement o dierent equipment is indicated$ %ll the equipment units (e6ept
or the drill bit) are sho!n strongly compressed in the a6ial direction$
The equipment in the string can be di#ided into i#e groupsB
> *quipment or steering o the drill bit" especially important !hen drilling along
reser#oirs (hori2ontal !ells) or around hindrances$
7 Do!nhole motor and po!er transmission or rotating the drill bit" and
e#entually motors or other equipments$ In most cases the do!nhole motor is a
mud motor" this is a long rod shaped li'e a cor' scre! that is orced to rotate
77
TO&
DRI1*
+*4+DON
-*D
5OR*R8R
+*4+DON
-*D
1*4TR8R
5OR*4RON*
D%R .OR C +LC L8+
.%+T4D8RT 5OR*+TR*NG
-CL*UT+TIR OG
D%T%L%GRING
+L%--OTOR
+TIRING %1 5OR*R*TNING
+T8T OG 1I5R%+DON+D*-&*R
5OR*+TR*NG 5,%
+T%5LI+%TOR
+T%5LI+%TOR
+T%5LI+%TOR
!ithin its housing as the do!n!ard lo! o drilling mud goes through the
motor$
7@