1. Provide a brief history of prestressed concrete.

The concept of prestressed concrete appeared in 1888 when P.H. Jackson was granted the
first patent in the United States for prestressed concrete design. Jacksons idea was perfect, but
the technology of high strength steel that exhibited low relaxation characteristics was not yet
available. It was not until Eugene Freyssinet defined the need for these materials that prestressed
concrete could be used as a structural building material. Unfortunately, although Freyssinet, a
brilliant structural designer and bridge builder, lacked the teaching qualities necessary to
communicate his ideas to other engineers. It would take Gustave Magnel to write the first book
of design in prestressed concrete, communicating this idea to designers worldwide. Magnel
designed and built the legendary Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia, which revolutionized
prestressed concrete in America. Simultaneously, Urlich Finsterwalder, the German bridge
builder and designer, was revolutionizing the construction means and methods for prestressed
concrete bridges.

Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness intension. It
can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with
ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods)
are used to provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that balances
the tensile stress that the concrete compression member would otherwise experience due to a
bending load. Traditional reinforced concrete is based on the use of steel reinforcement
bars, rebars, inside poured concrete. Prestressing can be accomplished in three ways: pre-
tensioned concrete, and bonded or unbonded post-tensioned concrete.

2. Describe the principle of prestressed concrete. Your description should relate to
material characteristic and stress distribution both for an eccentric and non-
eccentric prestressing.

Principle of prestressed concrete are prestressing is a method for overcoming the
concrete's natural weakness in tension. In a prestressed concrete beam, steel tendons (generally
of very high tensile strength alloy steel) are stretched to introduce a pre-compressive force into
the member. The prestressing force offsets the tensile stress and eliminates the tensile strain
allowing the beam to resist further higher loading or to span longer distance.
Material characteristic:
1. The plasticity of concrete enables it to be moulded readily into different shapes,
whilst its relatively high fire resistance enables it to protect the steel reinforcement
embedded in it.
2. Upon hardening, concrete bonds firmly to steel reinforcement so that, when loads are
applied, the two act as though they are one. The tensile forces in any area are carried
by the reinforcement.
3. The compressive strength of the concrete is used to advantage by applying an
external compressive force to it which either keeps it permanently in compression
even when loads are applied to it during its service life (fully-prestressed) or limits
the value of any tensile stress which arises under load (partial prestressing).
4. Concrete provides an alkaline environment to steel embedded in it. This protects the
steel from rusting and, because concrete is relatively inert to chemicals other than
acids, it continues to do so for long periods of time in all but very hostile
environments.


Figure 1 : Internal and External Stresses in Member without Eccentricity


Figure 2 : Internal and External Stresses in Member with Eccentricity


3. What are the two kind of prestressing? Explain.

The normal method for applying prestress force to a concrete member is through the use
of steel tendons. There are two basic methods of arriving at the final prestressed member ;
Pretensioning, and Post-tensioning.

i. Pretensioning

Pretensioning can be defined as a method of prestressing concrete in which the tendons
are tensioned before the concrete is placed. This operation, which may be performed in a casting
yard, is basically a five-step process:

i. The tendons are placed in a prescribed pattern on the casting bed between two
anchorages. The tendons are then tensioned to a value not to exceed 94% of the specified
yield strength, but not greater than the lesser of 80% of the specified tensile strength of
the tendons and the maximum value recommended by the manufacturer of the
prestressing tendons or anchorages.
ii. If the concrete forms are not already in place, they may then be assembled around the
tendons.
iii. The concrete is then placed in the forms and allowed to cure. Proper quality control must
be exercised, and curing may accelerated with use of steam or other methods. The
concrete will bond to the tendons.
iv. When the concrete attains a prescribed strength, normally within 24 hours or less, the
tendons are cut at their anchorages. Since the tendons are now bonded to the concrete, as
they are cut from their anchorages the high prestress force must be transferred to the
concrete. As the high tensile force of the tendon creates a compressive force on the
concrete section, the concrete will tend to shorten slightly. The stresses that exits once the
tendons have been cut are often called the stresses at transfer. Since there is no external
load at this stage, the stresses at transfer include only those due to prestressing forces and
those due to the weight of the member.
v. The prestressed member is then removed from the forms and moved to a storage area so
that casting bed can be prepared for further use.

Pretensioning members are usually manufactured at a casting yard or plant that is some what
removed from the job site where the members will eventually be used. In this case, they are
usually delivered to the job site ready to be set in place. Sometimes, a casting yard may be
built on the job site to decrease transportation costs.


Figure 3 : Pretensioned Member


ii. Post-tensioning

May be defined as a method of prestressing concrete in which the tendons are tensioned
after the concrete has cured. The operation is commonly a six-step process:

i. Concrete forms are assembled with flexible tubes placed in the forms and held at
specified locations.
ii. Concrete is then placed in the forms and allowed to cure to a prescribed strength.
iii. Tendons are placed in the tubes. In some systems, a complete tendon assembly is placed
in the forms prior to the placing of concrete.
iv. The tendons are tensioned by jacking against an anchorage device or end plate that, in
some cases, has been previously embedded in the end of the member. The anchorage
device will incorporate some method for gripping the tendon and holding the load.
v. If the tendons are to be bonded, the space in the tubes around the tendons may be grouted
using a pumped grout. Some members use unbounded tendons.
vi. The end anchorages may be covered with a protective coating.

Although post-tensioning is sometimes performed in a plant away from the project, it is most
often done at the job site, particularly for units too large to be shipped assembled or for unusual
application (Figure 4).


Figure 4 : Post-tensioned Member




4. What are then important benefits of prestressed concrete.

i. Smaller Section Sizes
Since PSC uses the whole concrete section, the second moment of area is bigger and so
the section is stiffer:



ii. Smaller Deflections
The larger second moment of area greatly reduces deflections for a given section size.

iii. Increased Spans
The smaller section size reduces self weight. Hence a given section can span further with
prestressed concrete than it can with ordinary reinforced concrete.

iv. Durability
Since the entire section remains in compression, no cracking of the concrete can occur
and hence there is little penetration of the cover. This greatly improves the long-term
durability of structures, especially bridges and also means that concrete tanks can be
made as watertight as steel tanks, with far greater durability.







5. List the reasons for losses in prestressing force transfer.

Losses in Pre Tensioning

During the process of anchoring, the stressed tendon tends to slip before the full grip is
established, thus losing some of its imposed strain or in other words, induced stress. This
is known as loss due to anchorage draw -in.
From the time the tendons are anchored until transfer of prestressing force to the
concrete, the tendons are held between prestressing force to the concrete, the tendons are
held between the two abutments at a constant length. The stretched tendon during this
time interval will lose some of its induced stress due to the phenomenon known as
relaxation of steel.
As soon as the tendons are cut, the stretched tendons tend to go back to their original
state, but are prevented from doing so by the interfacial bond developed between the
concrete and the tendons.
The concrete will therefore be subjected to a compressive force, which results in an
instantaneous shortening of the member. Since the tendons are bonded to the concrete,
they will lose an equal amount of deformation, meaning a reduction of induced stress.
This is known as loss due to elastic deformation.
Subsequent to the transfer of prestress, concrete keeps on shrinking due to the loss of free
water and continues shortening under sustained stress, thus resulting in a loss of tension
in the embedded tendon. These are known as loss due to shrinkage and loss due to creep
respectively.
Also, loss due to relaxation of steel continues.

Losses in Post-Tensioning

Friction loss
Creep of the concrete
The tendons are contained inside ducts, and the hydraulic jack is held directly against the
member. During stressing operation, the tendons tend to get straightened and slide against
the duct, thus resulting in the development of a frictional resistance. As a result, the stress
in the tendon at a distance away from the jacking end will be smaller than that indicated
by the pressure gauge mounted on the jack. This is known as loss due to friction.
With regard to elastic shortening, there will be no loss of the prestress gauge records the
applied stress after the shortening has taken place.
However, if they are tensioned one after another in sequence, all tendons, except the last
one, will lose stress due to elastic shortening of concrete caused by forces in the
subsequent tendons.
Once the stressed tendons are anchored, the time-dependent losses caused by shrinkage
and creep of concrete and relaxation of steel begin.