Cyclone

Polar low over the Barents Sea on February 27, 1987

In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of close, circular flui motion rotating in the same irection as the
!arth
"1#"2#
$ %his is usually characteri&e by inwar s'iraling wins that rotate counter cloc(wise in the
)orthern *emis'here an cloc(wise in the Southern *emis'here of the !arth$
+arge,scale cyclonic circulations are almost always centre on areas of low atmos'heric 'ressure
"-#".#
$
%he largest low,'ressure systems are col,core 'olar cyclones an e/tratro'ical cyclones which lie on
the syno'tic scale$ 0arm,core cyclones such as tro'ical cyclones, mesocyclones, an 'olar lows lie
within the smaller mesoscale$ Subtro'ical cyclones are of intermeiate si&e$
"1#"2#
3yclones have also been
seen on other 'lanets outsie of the !arth, such as 4ars an )e'tune$
"7#"8#
3yclogenesis escribes the 'rocess of cyclone formation an intensification
"9#
$ !/tratro'ical cyclones
form as waves in large regions of enhance milatitue tem'erature contrasts calle baroclinic &ones$
%hese &ones contract to form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes an intensifies$ +ater in
their life cycle, cyclones occlue as col core systems$ 5 cyclone6s trac( is guie over the course of its
2 to 2 ay life cycle by the steering flow of the cancer or subtro'ical 7etstream$
0eather fronts se'arate two masses of air of ifferent ensities an are associate with the most
'rominent meteorological 'henomena$ 5ir masses se'arate by a front may iffer in tem'erature or
humiity$ Strong col fronts ty'ically feature narrow bans of thunerstorms an severe weather, an
may on occasion be 'recee by s8uall lines or ry lines$ %hey form west of the circulation center an
generally move from west to east$ 0arm fronts form east of the cyclone center an are usually 'recee
by stratiform 'reci'itation an fog$ %hey move 'olewar ahea of the cyclone 'ath$ 9cclue fronts
form late in the cyclone life cycle near the enter of the cyclone an often wra' aroun the storm center$
%ro'ical cyclogenesis escribes the 'rocess of evelo'ment of tro'ical cyclones$ %ro'ical cyclones form
ue to latent heat riven by significant thunerstorm activity, an are warm core$
"1:#
3yclones can
transition between e/tratro'ical, subtro'ical, an tro'ical 'hases uner the right conitions$
4esocyclones form as warm core cyclones over lan, an can lea to tornao formation$
"11#
0aters'outs
can also form from mesocyclones, but more often evelo' from environments of high instability an low
vertical win shear$
"12#
Structure
%here are a number of structural characteristics common to all cyclones$ 5s they are low 'ressure areas,
their center is the area of lowest atmos'heric 'ressure in the region, often (nown in mature tro'ical
cyclones as the eye$
"1-#
)ear the center, the 'ressure graient force ;from the 'ressure in the center of the
cyclone com'are to the 'ressure outsie the cyclone< an the 3oriolis force must be in an a''ro/imate
balance, or the cyclone woul colla'se on itself as a result of the ifference in 'ressure$
"1.#
%he win
flow aroun a large cyclone is countercloc(wise in the northern hemis'here an cloc(wise in the
southern hemis'here as a result of the 3oriolis effect$
"11#
;5n anticyclone, on the other han, rotates
cloc(wise in the northern hemis'here, an countercloc(wise in the southern hemis'here$<
[edit] Formation
%he initial e/tratro'ical low 'ressure area forms at the location of the re ot on the image$ It is usually
'er'enicular ;at a right angle to< the leaf,li(e clou formation seen on satellite uring the early stage of
cyclogenesis$ %he location of the a/is of the u''er level 7et stream is in light blue$
4ain articles= 3yclogenesis an %ro'ical cyclogenesis
3yclogenesis is the evelo'ment or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmos'here ;a low
'ressure area<$
"9#
3yclogenesis is an umbrella term for several ifferent 'rocesses, all of which result in
the evelo'ment of some sort of cyclone$ It can occur at various scales, from the microscale to the
syno'tic scale$ !/tratro'ical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts before occluing later in their
life cycle as col core cyclones$ %ro'ical cyclones form ue to latent heat riven by significant
thunerstorm activity, an are warm core$
"1:#
4esocyclones form as warm core cyclones over lan, an
can lea to tornao formation$
"11#
0aters'outs can also form from mesocyclones, but more often evelo'
from environments of high instability an low vertical win shear$
"12#
3yclogenesis is the o''osite of
cyclolysis, an has an anticyclonic ;high 'ressure system< e8uivalent which eals with the formation of
high 'ressure areas>5nticyclogenesis$
"12#
%he surface low has a variety of ways of forming$ %o'ogra'hy can force a surface low when ense low,
level high 'ressure system riges in east of a north,south mountain barrier$
"17#
4esoscale convective
systems can s'awn surface lows which are initially warm core$
"18#
%he isturbance can grow into a wave,
li(e formation along the front an the low will be 'ositione at the crest$ 5roun the low, flow will
become cyclonic, by efinition$ %his rotational flow will 'ush 'olar air e8uatorwar west of the low via
its trailing col front, an warmer air with 'ush 'olewar low via the warm front$ ?sually the col front
will move at a 8uic(er 'ace than the warm front an @catch u'A with it ue to the slow erosion of higher
ensity airmass locate out ahea of the cyclone an the higher ensity airmass swee'ing in behin the
cyclone, usually resulting in a narrowing warm sector$
"19#
5t this 'oint an occlue front forms where the
warm air mass is 'ushe u'wars into a trough of warm air aloft, which is also (nown as a trowal$
"2:#
%ro'ical cyclones form when the energy release by the conensation of moisture in rising air causes a
'ositive feebac( loo' over warm ocean waters$
"21#
%ro'ical cyclogenesis is the technical term escribing the evelo'ment an strengthening of a tro'ical
cyclone in the atmos'here$
"22#
%he mechanisms through which tro'ical cyclogenesis occurs are istinctly
ifferent from those through which mi,latitue cyclogenesis occurs$ %ro'ical cyclogenesis involves the
evelo'ment of a warm,core cyclone, ue to significant convection in a favorable atmos'heric
environment$ %here are si/ main re8uirements for tro'ical cyclogenesis= sufficiently warm sea surface
tem'eratures, atmos'heric instability, high humiity in the lower to mile levels of the tro'os'here,
enough 3oriolis force to evelo' a low 'ressure center, a 'ree/isting low level focus or isturbance, an
low vertical win shear$
"2-#
5n average of 82 tro'ical cyclones of tro'ical storm intensity form annually
worlwie, with .7 reaching hurricaneBty'hoon strength, an 2: becoming intense tro'ical cyclones ;at
least 3ategory - intensity on the Saffir,Sim'son *urricane Scale<$
"2.#
4esocyclones are believe to form when strong changes of win s'ee anBor irection with height
;Cwin shearC< sets 'arts of the lower 'art of the atmos'here s'inning in invisible tube,li(e rolls$ %he
convective u'raft of a thunerstorm is then thought to raw u' this s'inning air, tilting the rolls6
orientation u'war ;from 'arallel to the groun to 'er'enicular< an causing the entire u'raft to rotate
as a vertical column$ 4esocyclones are normally relatively locali&e= they lie between the syno'tic scale
;hunres of (ilometers< an microscale ;hunres of meters<$ Daar imagery is use to ientify these
features$
"21#
%he eye of the storm is usually calm an collecte$
[edit] Types
%here are si/ main ty'es of cyclones= Polar cyclones, Polar lows, !/tratro'ical cyclones, Subtro'ical
cyclones, %ro'ical cyclones, an 4esocyclones
[edit] Polar cyclone
4ain article= Polar cyclone
5 polar, sub-polar, or Arctic cyclone ;also (nown as a polar vortex<
"22#
is a vast area of low 'ressure
which strengthens in the winter an wea(ens in the summer$
"27#
5 'olar cyclone is a low 'ressure weather
system, usually s'anning 1,::: (ilometres ;22: mi< to 2,::: (ilometres ;1,2:: mi<, in which the air
circulates in a countercloc(wise irection in the northern hemis'here, an a cloc(wise irection in the
southern hemis'here$ In the )orthern *emis'here, the 'olar cyclone has two centers on average$ 9ne
center lies near Baffin Islan an the other over northeast Siberia$
"22#
In the southern hemis'here, it tens
to be locate near the ege of the Doss ice shelf near 12: west longitue$
"28#
0hen the 'olar vorte/ is
strong, westerly flow escens to the !arth6s surface$ 0hen the 'olar cyclone is wea(, significant col
outbrea(s occur$
"29#
[edit] Polar low
4ain article= Polar low
5 polar low is a small,scale, short,live atmos'heric low 'ressure system ;e'ression< that is foun
over the ocean areas 'olewar of the main 'olar front in both the )orthern an Southern *emis'heres$
%he systems usually have a hori&ontal length scale of less than 1,::: (ilometres ;22: mi< an e/ist for
no more than a cou'le of ays$ %hey are 'art of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems$ Polar
lows can be ifficult to etect using conventional weather re'orts an are a ha&ar to high,latitue
o'erations, such as shi''ing an gas an oil 'latforms$ Polar lows have been referre to by many other
terms, such as 'olar mesoscale vorte/, 5rctic hurricane, 5rctic low, an col air e'ression$ %oay the
term is usually reserve for the more vigorous systems that have near,surface wins of at least 17 mBs$
"-:#
[edit] Extratropical
5 fictitious syno'tic chart of an e/tratro'ical cyclone affecting the ?E an Irelan$ %he blue arrows
between isobars inicate the irection of the win, while the C+C symbol enotes the centre of the ClowC$
)ote the occlue, col an warm frontal bounaries$
4ain article= !/tratro'ical cyclone
5n extratropical cyclone is a syno'tic scale low 'ressure weather system that has neither tro'ical nor
'olar characteristics, being connecte with fronts an hori&ontal graients in tem'erature an ew 'oint
otherwise (nown as Cbaroclinic &onesC$
"-1#
%he escri'tor Ce/tratro'icalC refers to the fact that this ty'e of cyclone generally occurs outsie of the
tro'ics, in the mile latitues of the 'lanet$ %hese systems may also be escribe as Cmi,latitue
cyclonesC ue to their area of formation, or C'ost,tro'ical cyclonesC where e/tratro'ical transition has
occurre,
"-1#"-2#
an are often escribe as Ce'ressionsC or ClowsC by weather forecasters an the general
'ublic$ %hese are the everyay 'henomena which along with anti,cyclones, rive the weather over much
of the !arth$
5lthough e/tratro'ical cyclones are almost always classifie as baroclinic since they form along &ones
of tem'erature an ew'oint graient within the westerlies, they can sometimes become barotro'ic late
in their life cycle when the tem'erature istribution aroun the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with
raius$
"--#
5n e/tratro'ical cyclone can transform into a subtro'ical storm, an from there into a tro'ical
cyclone, if it wells over warm waters an evelo's central convection, which warms its core$
"1:#
[edit] Subtropical
Subtro'ical Storm 5nrea in 2::7
4ain article= Subtro'ical cyclone
5 subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tro'ical cyclone an some
characteristics of an e/tratro'ical cyclone$ %hey can form between the e8uator an the 1:th 'arallel$
"-.#

5s early as the 191:s, meteorologists were unclear whether they shoul be characteri&e as tro'ical
cyclones or e/tratro'ical cyclones, an use terms such as 8uasi,tro'ical an semi,tro'ical to escribe
the cyclone hybris$
"-1#
By 1972, the )ational *urricane 3enter officially recogni&e this cyclone
category$
"-2#
Subtro'ical cyclones began to receive names off the official tro'ical cyclone list in the
5tlantic Basin in 2::2$
"-.#
%hey have broa win 'atterns with ma/imum sustaine wins locate farther
from the center than ty'ical tro'ical cyclones, an e/ist in areas of wea( to moerate tem'erature
graient$
"-.#
Since they form from initially e/tratro'ical cyclones which have coler tem'eratures aloft than normally
foun in the tro'ics, the sea surface tem'eratures re8uire for their formation are lower than the tro'ical
cyclone threshol by three egrees 3elsius, or five egrees Fahrenheit, lying aroun 2- egrees 3elsius$
"-7#
%his means that subtro'ical cyclones are more li(ely to form outsie the traitional bouns of the
hurricane season$ 5lthough subtro'ical storms rarely have hurricane,force wins, they may become
tro'ical in nature as their cores warm$
"-8#
[edit] Tropical
3yclone 3atarina, a rare South 5tlantic tro'ical cyclone viewe from the International S'ace Station on
4arch 22, 2::.
4ain article= %ro'ical cyclone
5 tropical cyclone is a storm system characteri&e by a low 'ressure center an numerous
thunerstorms that 'rouce strong wins an flooing rain$ 5 tro'ical cyclone fees on heat release
when moist air rises, resulting in conensation of water va'our containe in the moist air$ %hey are
fuele by a ifferent heat mechanism than other cyclonic winstorms such as nor6easters, !uro'ean
winstorms, an 'olar lows, leaing to their classification as Cwarm coreC storm systems$
"1:#
%he term Ctro'icalC refers to both the geogra'hic origin of these systems, which form almost e/clusively
in tro'ical regions of the globe, an their formation in 4aritime %ro'ical air masses$ %he term CcycloneC
refers to such storms6 cyclonic nature, with countercloc(wise rotation in the )orthern *emis'here an
cloc(wise rotation in the Southern *emis'here$ Fe'ening on their location an strength, tro'ical
cyclones are referre to by other names, such as hurricane, ty'hoon, tro'ical storm, cyclonic storm,
tro'ical e'ression, or sim'ly as a cyclone$ Generally s'ea(ing, a tro'ical cyclone is referre to as a
hurricane ;from the name of the ancient 3entral 5merican eity of win, *uracan< in the 5tlantic basin,
an a 3yclone in the Pacific$
"-9#
0hile tro'ical cyclones can 'rouce e/tremely 'owerful wins an torrential rain, they are also able to
'rouce high waves an amaging storm surge$
".:#
%hey evelo' over large boies of warm water,
".1#
an
lose their strength if they move over lan$
".2#
%his is the reason coastal regions can receive significant
amage from a tro'ical cyclone, while inlan regions are relatively safe from receiving strong wins$
*eavy rains, however, can 'rouce significant flooing inlan, an storm surges can 'rouce e/tensive
coastal flooing u' to .: (ilometres ;21 mi< from the coastline$ 5lthough their effects on human
'o'ulations can be evastating, tro'ical cyclones can also relieve rought conitions$
".-#
%hey also carry
heat an energy away from the tro'ics an trans'ort it towar tem'erate latitues, which ma(es them an
im'ortant 'art of the global atmos'heric circulation mechanism$ 5s a result, tro'ical cyclones hel' to
maintain e8uilibrium in the !arth6s tro'os'here$
4any tro'ical cyclones evelo' when the atmos'heric conitions aroun a wea( isturbance in the
atmos'here are favorable$ 9thers form when other ty'es of cyclones ac8uire tro'ical characteristics$
%ro'ical systems are then move by steering wins in the tro'os'hereG if the conitions remain
favorable, the tro'ical isturbance intensifies, an can even evelo' an eye$ 9n the other en of the
s'ectrum, if the conitions aroun the system eteriorate or the tro'ical cyclone ma(es lanfall, the
system wea(ens an eventually issi'ates$ 5 tro'ical cyclone can become e/tratro'ical as it moves
towar higher latitues if its energy source changes from heat release by conensation to ifferences in
tem'erature between air massesG
"1:#
From an o'erational stan'oint, a tro'ical cyclone is usually not
consiere to become subtro'ical uring its e/tratro'ical transition$
"..#
[edit] Mesoscale
5 mesocyclone from the Hreensburg, Eansas tornao inicate on Fo''ler weather raar$
4ain article= 4esocyclone
5 mesocyclone is a vorte/ of air, a''ro/imately 2$: (ilometres ;1$2 mi< to 1: (ilometres ;2$2 mi< in
iameter ;the mesoscale of meteorology<, within a convective storm$
".1#
5ir rises an rotates aroun a
vertical a/is, usually in the same irection as low 'ressure systems in both northern an southern
hemis'here$ %hey are most often cyclonic, that is, associate with a locali&e low,'ressure region within
a severe thunerstorm$
".2#
Such storms can feature strong surface wins an severe hail$ 4esocyclones
often occur together with u'rafts in su'ercells, where tornaoes may form$ 5bout 17:: mesocyclones
form annually across the ?nite States, but only half 'rouce tornaoes$
"11#
3yclones are not uni8ue to !arth$ 3yclonic storms are common on Iovian 'lanets, li(e the Small Far(
S'ot on )e'tune$ 5lso (nown as the 0i&ar6s !ye, it is about one thir the iameter of the Hreat Far(
S'ot$ It receive the name C0i&ar6s !yeC because it loo(s li(e an eye$ %his a''earance is cause by a
white clou in the mile of the 0i&ar6s !ye$
"8#
4ars has also e/hibite cyclonic storms$
"7#
Iovian
storms li(e the Hreat De S'ot are usually mista(enly name as giant hurricanes or cyclonic storms$
*owever, this is inaccurate, as the Hreat De S'ot is, in fact, the inverse 'henomenon, an anticyclone$
"
Tropical cyclone
*urricane Isabel ;2::-< as seen from orbit uring !/'eition 7 of the International S'ace Station$ %he
eye, eyewall an surrouning rainbans characteristic of tro'ical cyclones are clearly visible in this view
from s'ace$
5 tropical cyclone is a storm system characteri&e by a large low,'ressure center an numerous
thunerstorms that 'rouce strong wins an heavy rain$ %ro'ical cyclones fee on heat release when
moist air rises, resulting in conensation of water va'or containe in the moist air$ %hey are fuele by a
ifferent heat mechanism than other cyclonic winstorms such as nor6easters, !uro'ean winstorms, an
'olar lows, leaing to their classification as Cwarm coreC storm systems$ %ro'ical cyclones originate in
the olrums near the e8uator, about 1:J away from it$
%he term Ctro'icalC refers to both the geogra'hic origin of these systems, which form almost e/clusively
in tro'ical regions of the globe, an their formation in maritime tro'ical air masses$ %he term CcycloneC
refers to such storms6 cyclonic nature, with countercloc(wise rotation in the )orthern *emis'here an
cloc(wise rotation in the Southern *emis'here$ Fe'ening on its location an strength, a tro'ical
cyclone is referre to by names such as urricane, typoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical
depression, an sim'ly cyclone$
0hile tro'ical cyclones can 'rouce e/tremely 'owerful wins an torrential rain, they are also able to
'rouce high waves an amaging storm surge as well as s'awning tornaoes$ %hey evelo' over large
boies of warm water, an lose their strength if they move over lan$ %his is why coastal regions can
receive significant amage from a tro'ical cyclone, while inlan regions are relatively safe from
receiving strong wins$ *eavy rains, however, can 'rouce significant flooing inlan, an storm surges
can 'rouce e/tensive coastal flooing u' to .: (ilometres ;21 mi< from the coastline$ 5lthough their
effects on human 'o'ulations can be evastating, tro'ical cyclones can also relieve rought conitions$
%hey also carry heat an energy away from the tro'ics an trans'ort it towar tem'erate latitues, which
ma(es them an im'ortant 'art of the global atmos'heric circulation mechanism$ 5s a result, tro'ical
cyclones hel' to maintain e8uilibrium in the !arth6s tro'os'here, an to maintain a relatively stable an
warm tem'erature worlwie$
4any tro'ical cyclones evelo' when the atmos'heric conitions aroun a wea( isturbance in the
atmos'here are favorable$ %he bac(groun environment is moulate by climatological cycles an
'atterns such as the 4aen,Iulian oscillation, !l )iKo,Southern 9scillation, an the 5tlantic
multiecaal oscillation$ 9thers form when other ty'es of cyclones ac8uire tro'ical characteristics$
%ro'ical systems are then move by steering wins in the tro'os'hereG if the conitions remain
favorable, the tro'ical isturbance intensifies, an can even evelo' an eye$ 9n the other en of the
s'ectrum, if the conitions aroun the system eteriorate or the tro'ical cyclone ma(es lanfall, the
system wea(ens an eventually issi'ates$ It is not 'ossible to artificially inuce the issi'ation of these
systems with current technology$
Pysical structure
See also= !ye ;cyclone<
Structure of a tro'ical cyclone
5ll tro'ical cyclones are areas of low atmos'heric 'ressure near the !arth6s surface$ %he 'ressures
recore at the centers of tro'ical cyclones are among the lowest that occur on !arth6s surface at sea
level$
"1#
%ro'ical cyclones are characteri&e an riven by the release of large amounts of latent heat of
conensation, which occurs when moist air is carrie u'wars an its water va'or conenses$ %his heat
is istribute vertically aroun the center of the storm$ %hus, at any given altitue ;e/ce't close to the
surface, where water tem'erature ictates air tem'erature< the environment insie the cyclone is warmer
than its outer surrounings$
"2#
Eye and center
5 strong tro'ical cyclone will harbor an area of sin(ing air at the center of circulation$ If this area is
strong enough, it can evelo' into a large CeyeC$ 0eather in the eye is normally calm an free of clous,
although the sea may be e/tremely violent$
"-#
%he eye is normally circular in sha'e, an may range in
si&e from - (ilometres ;1$9 mi< to -7: (ilometres ;2-: mi< in iameter$
".#"1#
Intense, mature tro'ical
cyclones can sometimes e/hibit an outwar curving of the eyewall6s to', ma(ing it resemble a football
staiumG this 'henomenon is thus sometimes referre to as the stadium effect$
"2#
%here are other features that either surroun the eye, or cover it$ %he central ense overcast is the
concentrate area of strong thunerstorm activity near the center of a tro'ical cycloneG
"7#
in wea(er
tro'ical cyclones, the 3F9 may cover the center com'letely$
"8#
%he eyewall is a circle of strong
thunerstorms that surrouns the eyeG here is where the greatest win s'ees are foun, where clous
reach the highest, an 'reci'itation is the heaviest$ %he heaviest win amage occurs where a tro'ical
cyclone6s eyewall 'asses over lan$
"-#
!yewall re'lacement cycles occur naturally in intense tro'ical
cyclones$ 0hen cyclones reach 'ea( intensity they usually have an eyewall an raius of ma/imum
wins that contract to a very small si&e, aroun 1: (ilometres ;2$2 mi< to 21 (ilometres ;12 mi<$ 9uter
rainbans can organi&e into an outer ring of thunerstorms that slowly moves inwar an robs the inner
eyewall of its neee moisture an angular momentum$ 0hen the inner eyewall wea(ens, the tro'ical
cyclone wea(ens ;in other wors, the ma/imum sustaine wins wea(en an the central 'ressure rises$<
%he outer eyewall re'laces the inner one com'letely at the en of the cycle$ %he storm can be of the
same intensity as it was 'reviously or even stronger after the eyewall re'lacement cycle finishes$ %he
storm may strengthen again as it buils a new outer ring for the ne/t eyewall re'lacement$
"9#
Si!e
9ne measure of the si&e of a tro'ical cyclone is etermine by measuring the istance from its center of
circulation to its outermost close isobar, also (nown as its D93I$ If the raius is less than two egrees
of latitue or 222 (ilometres ;1-8 mi<, then the cyclone is Cvery smallC or a CmigetC$ 5 raius between
- an 2 latitue egrees or --- (ilometres ;2:7 mi< to 222 (ilometres ;.1. mi< are consiere Caverage,
si&eC$ CLery largeC tro'ical cyclones have a raius of greater than 8 egrees or 888 (ilometres ;112 mi<$
"1:#
?se of this measure has ob7ectively etermine that tro'ical cyclones in the northwest Pacific 9cean
are the largest on earth on average, with 5tlantic tro'ical cyclones roughly half their si&e$
"11#
9ther
methos of etermining a tro'ical cyclone6s si&e inclue measuring the raius of gale force wins an
measuring the raius at which its relative vorticity fiel ecreases to 1M1:
N1
s
N1
from its center$
"12#"1-#
Mecanics
%ro'ical cyclones form when the energy release by the conensation of moisture in rising air causes a
'ositive feebac( loo' over warm ocean waters$
"1.#
5 tro'ical cyclone6s 'rimary energy source is the release of the heat of conensation from water va'or
conensing at high altitues, with solar heating being the initial source for eva'oration$ %herefore, a
tro'ical cyclone can be visuali&e as a giant vertical heat engine su''orte by mechanics riven by
'hysical forces such as the rotation an gravity of the !arth$
"11#
In another way, tro'ical cyclones coul
be viewe as a s'ecial ty'e of mesoscale convective com'le/, which continues to evelo' over a vast
source of relative warmth an moisture$ 3onensation leas to higher win s'ees, as a tiny fraction of
the release energy is converte into mechanical energyG
"12#
the faster wins an lower 'ressure
associate with them in turn cause increase surface eva'oration an thus even more conensation$
4uch of the release energy rives u'rafts that increase the height of the storm clous, s'eeing u'
conensation$
"17#
%his 'ositive feebac( loo' continues for as long as conitions are favorable for
tro'ical cyclone evelo'ment$ Factors such as a continue lac( of e8uilibrium in air mass istribution
woul also give su''orting energy to the cyclone$ %he rotation of the !arth causes the system to s'in, an
effect (nown as the 3oriolis effect, giving it a cyclonic characteristic an affecting the tra7ectory of the
storm$
"18#"19#
0hat 'rimarily istinguishes tro'ical cyclones from other meteorological 'henomena is ee' convection
as a riving force$
"2:#
Because convection is strongest in a tro'ical climate, it efines the initial omain of
the tro'ical cyclone$ By contrast, mi,latitue cyclones raw their energy mostly from 're,e/isting
hori&ontal tem'erature graients in the atmos'here$
"2:#
%o continue to rive its heat engine, a tro'ical
cyclone must remain over warm water, which 'rovies the neee atmos'heric moisture to (ee' the
'ositive feebac( loo' running$ 0hen a tro'ical cyclone 'asses over lan, it is cut off from its heat
source an its strength iminishes ra'ily$
"21#
3hart is'laying the ro' in surface tem'erature in the Hulf of 4e/ico as *urricanes Eatrina an Dita
'asse over
%he 'assage of a tro'ical cyclone over the ocean can cause the u''er layers of the ocean to cool
substantially, which can influence subse8uent cyclone evelo'ment$ 3ooling is 'rimarily cause by
u'welling of col water from ee'er in the ocean because of the win$ %he cooler water causes the
storm to wea(en$ %his is a negative feebac( 'rocess that causes the storms to wea(en over sea because
of their own effects$ 5itional cooling may come in the form of col water from falling rainro's ;this
is because the atmos'here is cooler at higher altitues<$ 3lou cover may also 'lay a role in cooling the
ocean, by shieling the ocean surface from irect sunlight before an slightly after the storm 'assage$
5ll these effects can combine to 'rouce a ramatic ro' in sea surface tem'erature over a large area in
7ust a few ays$
"22#
Scientists at the ?S )ational 3enter for 5tmos'heric Desearch estimate that a tro'ical cyclone releases
heat energy at the rate of 1: to 2:: e/a7oules ;1:
18
I< 'er ay,
"17#
e8uivalent to about 1 P0 ;1:
11
watt<$
%his rate of energy release is e8uivalent to 7: times the worl energy consum'tion of humans an 2::
times the worlwie electrical generating ca'acity, or to e/'loing a 1:,megaton nuclear bomb every
2: minutes$
"17#"2-#
0hile the most obvious motion of clous is towar the center, tro'ical cyclones also evelo' an u''er,
level ;high,altitue< outwar flow of clous$ %hese originate from air that has release its moisture an
is e/'elle at high altitue through the CchimneyC of the storm engine$
"11#
%his outflow 'rouces high,
thin cirrus clous that s'iral away from the center$ %he clous are thin enough for the sun to be visible
through them$ %hese high cirrus clous may be the first signs of an a''roaching tro'ical cyclone$
"2.#
Ma"or basins and related warnin# centers
%here are si/ Degional S'eciali&e 4eteorological 3enters ;DS43s< worlwie$ %hese organi&ations
are esignate by the 0orl 4eteorological 9rgani&ation an are res'onsible for trac(ing an issuing
bulletins, warnings, an avisories about tro'ical cyclones in their esignate areas of res'onsibility$
5itionally, there are si/ %ro'ical 3yclone 0arning 3enters ;%303s< that 'rovie information to
smaller regions$
"22#
%he DS43s an %303s are not the only organi&ations that 'rovie information
about tro'ical cyclones to the 'ublic$ %he Ioint %y'hoon 0arning 3enter ;I%03< issues avisories in all
basins e/ce't the )orthern 5tlantic for the 'ur'oses of the ?nite States Hovernment$
"27#
%he Phili''ine
5tmos'heric, Heo'hysical an 5stronomical Services 5ministration ;P5H5S5< issues avisories an
names for tro'ical cyclones that a''roach the Phili''ines in the )orthwestern Pacific to 'rotect the life
an 'ro'erty of its citi&ens$
"28#
%he 3anaian *urricane 3enter ;3*3< issues avisories on hurricanes
an their remnants for 3anaian citi&ens when they affect 3anaa$
"29#
9n 22 4arch 2::., 3yclone 3atarina became the first recore South 5tlantic cyclone an subse8uently
struc( southern Bra&il with wins e8uivalent to 3ategory 2 on the Saffir,Sim'son *urricane Scale$ 5s
the cyclone forme outsie the authority of another warning center, Bra&ilian meteorologists initially
treate the system as an e/tratro'ical cyclone, although subse8uently classifie it as tro'ical$
"-:#
Formation
4ain article= %ro'ical cyclogenesis
4a' of the cumulative trac(s of all tro'ical cyclones uring the 1981O2::1 time 'erio$ %he Pacific
9cean west of the International Fate +ine sees more tro'ical cyclones than any other basin, while there
is almost no activity in the 5tlantic 9cean south of the !8uator$

0orlwie, tro'ical cyclone activity 'ea(s in late summer, when the ifference between tem'eratures
aloft an sea surface tem'eratures is the greatest$ *owever, each 'articular basin has its own seasonal
'atterns$ 9n a worlwie scale, 4ay is the least active month, while Se'tember is the most active whilst
)ovember is the only month with all the tro'ical cyclone basins active$
"-1#
Times
In the )orthern 5tlantic 9cean, a istinct hurricane season occurs from Iune 1 to )ovember -:, shar'ly
'ea(ing from late 5ugust through Se'tember$
"-1#
%he statistical 'ea( of the 5tlantic hurricane season is
1: Se'tember$ %he )ortheast Pacific 9cean has a broaer 'erio of activity, but in a similar time frame
to the 5tlantic$
"-2#
%he )orthwest Pacific sees tro'ical cyclones year,roun, with a minimum in February
an 4arch an a 'ea( in early Se'tember$ In the )orth Inian basin, storms are most common from
5'ril to Fecember, with 'ea(s in 4ay an )ovember$
"-1#
In the Southern *emis'here, the tro'ical
cyclone year begins on Iuly 1 an runs all year roun an encom'asses the tro'ical cyclone seasons
which run from )ovember 1 until the en of 5'ril with 'ea(s in mi,February to early 4arch$
"-1#"--#
Factors
0aves in the trae wins in the 5tlantic 9cean>areas of converging wins that move along the same
trac( as the 'revailing win>create instabilities in the atmos'here that may lea to the formation of
hurricanes$
%he formation of tro'ical cyclones is the to'ic of e/tensive ongoing research an is still not fully
unerstoo$
"-1#
0hile si/ factors a''ear to be generally necessary, tro'ical cyclones may occasionally
form without meeting all of the following conitions$ In most situations, water tem'eratures of at least
22$1 J3 ;79$7 JF< are neee own to a e'th of at least 1: m ;12: ft<G
"-2#
waters of this tem'erature
cause the overlying atmos'here to be unstable enough to sustain convection an thunerstorms$
"-7#

5nother factor is ra'i cooling with height, which allows the release of the heat of conensation that
'owers a tro'ical cyclone$
"-2#
*igh humiity is neee, es'ecially in the lower,to,mi tro'os'hereG when
there is a great eal of moisture in the atmos'here, conitions are more favorable for isturbances to
evelo'$
"-2#
+ow amounts of win shear are neee, as high shear is isru'tive to the storm6s circulation$
"-2#
%ro'ical cyclones generally nee to form more than 111 (m ;-.1 mi< or 1 egrees of latitue away
from the e8uator, allowing the 3oriolis effect to eflect wins blowing towars the low 'ressure center
an creating a circulation$
"-2#
+astly, a formative tro'ical cyclone nees a 're,e/isting system of
isturbe weather, although without a circulation no cyclonic evelo'ment will ta(e 'lace$
"-2#
$ocations
4ost tro'ical cyclones form in a worlwie ban of thunerstorm activity calle by several names= the
Intertro'ical Front ;I%F<, the Intertro'ical 3onvergence Pone ;I%3P<, or the monsoon trough$
"-8#"-9#".:#

5nother im'ortant source of atmos'heric instability is foun in tro'ical waves, which cause about 81Q
of intense tro'ical cyclones in the 5tlantic ocean, an become most of the tro'ical cyclones in the
!astern Pacific basin$
".1#".2#".-#
%ro'ical cyclones move westwar when e8uatorwar of the subtro'ical rige, intensifying as they move$
4ost of these systems form between 1: an -: egrees away of the e8uator, an 87Q form no farther
away than 2: egrees of latitue, north or south$
"..#".1#
Because the 3oriolis effect initiates an maintains
tro'ical cyclone rotation, tro'ical cyclones rarely form or move within about 1 egrees of the e8uator,
where the 3oriolis effect is wea(est$
"..#
*owever, it is 'ossible for tro'ical cyclones to form within this
bounary as %ro'ical Storm Lamei i in 2::1 an 3yclone 5gni in 2::.$
".2#".7#
Movement and trac%
Steerin# winds
See also= Prevailing wins
5lthough tro'ical cyclones are large systems generating enormous energy, their movements over the
!arth6s surface are controlle by large,scale wins>the streams in the !arth6s atmos'here$ %he 'ath of
motion is referre to as a tro'ical cyclone6s track an has been analogi&e by Fr$ )eil Fran(, former
irector of the )ational *urricane 3enter, to Cleaves carrie along by a streamC$
".8#
%ro'ical systems, while generally locate e8uatorwar of the 2:th 'arallel, are steere 'rimarily
westwar by the east,to,west wins on the e8uatorwar sie of the subtro'ical rige>a 'ersistent high
'ressure area over the worl6s oceans$
".8#
In the tro'ical )orth 5tlantic an )ortheast Pacific oceans,
trae wins>another name for the westwar,moving win currents>steer tro'ical waves westwar
from the 5frican coast an towars the 3aribbean Sea, )orth 5merica, an ultimately into the central
Pacific ocean before the waves am'en out$
".2#
%hese waves are the 'recursors to many tro'ical cyclones
within this region$
".1#
In the Inian 9cean an 0estern Pacific ;both north an south of the e8uator<,
tro'ical cyclogenesis is strongly influence by the seasonal movement of the Intertro'ical 3onvergence
Pone an the monsoon trough, rather than by easterly waves$
".:#
%ro'ical cyclones can also be steere by
other systems, such as other low 'ressure systems, high 'ressure systems, warm fronts, an col fronts$
Coriolis e&&ect
Infrare image of a 'owerful southern hemis'here cyclone, 4onica, near 'ea( intensity, showing
cloc(wise rotation ue to the 3oriolis effect
%he !arth6s rotation im'arts an acceleration (nown as the Coriolis effect, Coriolis acceleration, or
collo8uially, Coriolis force$ %his acceleration causes cyclonic systems to turn towars the 'oles in the
absence of strong steering currents$
".9#
%he 'olewar 'ortion of a tro'ical cyclone contains easterly
wins, an the 3oriolis effect 'ulls them slightly more 'olewar$ %he westerly wins on the
e8uatorwar 'ortion of the cyclone 'ull slightly towars the e8uator, but, because the 3oriolis effect
wea(ens towar the e8uator, the net rag on the cyclone is 'olewar$ %hus, tro'ical cyclones in the
)orthern *emis'here usually turn north ;before being blown east<, an tro'ical cyclones in the Southern
*emis'here usually turn south ;before being blown east< when no other effects counteract the 3oriolis
effect$
"19#
%he 3oriolis effect also initiates cyclonic rotation, but it is not the riving force that brings this rotation
to high s'ees O that force is the heat of conensation$
"17#
'nteraction wit te mid-latitude westerlies
See also= 0esterlies
Storm trac( of %y'hoon Io(e, showing recurvature off the Ia'anese coast in 2::2
0hen a tro'ical cyclone crosses the subtro'ical rige a/is, its general trac( aroun the high,'ressure
area is eflecte significantly by wins moving towars the general low,'ressure area to its north$ 0hen
the cyclone trac( becomes strongly 'olewar with an easterly com'onent, the cyclone has begun
recurvature.
"1:#
5 ty'hoon moving through the Pacific 9cean towars 5sia, for e/am'le, will recurve
offshore of Ia'an to the north, an then to the northeast, if the ty'hoon encounters southwesterly wins
;blowing northeastwar< aroun a low,'ressure system 'assing over 3hina or Siberia$ 4any tro'ical
cyclones are eventually force towar the northeast by e/tratro'ical cyclones in this manner, which
move from west to east to the north of the subtro'ical rige$ 5n e/am'le of a tro'ical cyclone in
recurvature was %y'hoon Io(e in 2::2, which too( a similar tra7ectory$
"11#
$and&all
See also= +ist of notable tro'ical cyclones an ?nusual areas of tro'ical cyclone formation
9fficially, landfall is when a storm6s center ;the center of its circulation, not its ege< crosses the
coastline$
"12#
Storm conitions may be e/'erience on the coast an inlan hours before lanfallG in fact,
a tro'ical cyclone can launch its strongest wins over lan, yet not ma(e lanfallG if this occurs, then it is
sai that the storm mae a direct hit on the coast$
"12#
5s a result of the narrowness of this efinition, the
lanfall area e/'eriences half of a lan,boun storm by the time the actual lanfall occurs$ For
emergency 're'areness, actions shoul be time from when a certain win s'ee or intensity of rainfall
will reach lan, not from when lanfall will occur$
"12#
Multiple storm interaction
4ain article= Fu7iwhara effect
0hen two cyclones a''roach one another, their centers will begin orbiting cyclonically about a 'oint
between the two systems$ %he two vortices will be attracte to each other, an eventually s'iral into the
center 'oint an merge$ 0hen the two vortices are of une8ual si&e, the larger vorte/ will ten to
ominate the interaction, an the smaller vorte/ will orbit aroun it$ %his 'henomenon is calle the
Fu7iwhara effect, after Sa(uhei Fu7iwhara$
"1-#
(issipation
Factors
%ro'ical Storm Fran(lin, an e/am'le of a strongly sheare tro'ical cyclone in the 5tlantic Basin uring
2::1
5 tro'ical cyclone can cease to have tro'ical characteristics through several ifferent ways$ 9ne such
way is if it moves over lan, thus e'riving it of the warm water it nees to 'ower itself, 8uic(ly losing
strength$
"1.#
4ost strong storms lose their strength very ra'ily after lanfall an become isorgani&e
areas of low 'ressure within a ay or two, or evolve into e/tratro'ical cyclones$ 0hile there is a chance
a tro'ical cyclone coul regenerate if it manage to get bac( over o'en warm water, if it remains over
mountains for even a short time, wea(ening will accelerate$
"11#
4any storm fatalities occur in
mountainous terrain, as the ying storm unleashes torrential rainfall,
"12#
leaing to ealy floos an
muslies, similar to those that ha''ene with *urricane 4itch in 1998$
"17#
5itionally, issi'ation can
occur if a storm remains in the same area of ocean for too long, mi/ing the u''er 2: metres ;2:: ft< of
water, ro''ing sea surface tem'eratures more than 1 J3 ;9 JF<$
"18#
0ithout warm surface water, the
storm cannot survive$
"19#
5 tro'ical cyclone can issi'ate when it moves over waters significantly below 22$1 J3 ;79$7 JF<$ %his
will cause the storm to lose its tro'ical characteristics ;i$e$ thunerstorms near the center an warm core<
an become a remnant low 'ressure area, which can 'ersist for several ays$ %his is the main issi'ation
mechanism in the )ortheast Pacific ocean$
"2:#
0ea(ening or issi'ation can occur if it e/'eriences
vertical win shear, causing the convection an heat engine to move away from the centerG this normally
ceases evelo'ment of a tro'ical cyclone$
"21#
5itionally, its interaction with the main belt of the
0esterlies, by means of merging with a nearby frontal &one, can cause tro'ical cyclones to evolve into
e/tratro'ical cyclones$ %his transition can ta(e 1O- ays$
"22#
!ven after a tro'ical cyclone is sai to be
e/tratro'ical or issi'ate, it can still have tro'ical storm force ;or occasionally hurricaneBty'hoon force<
wins an ro' several inches of rainfall$ In the Pacific ocean an 5tlantic ocean, such tro'ical,erive
cyclones of higher latitues can be violent an may occasionally remain at hurricane or ty'hoon,force
win s'ees when they reach the west coast of )orth 5merica$ %hese 'henomena can also affect
!uro'e, where they are (nown as European windstormsG *urricane Iris6s e/tratro'ical remnants are an
e/am'le of such a winstorm from 1991$
"2-#
5itionally, a cyclone can merge with another area of low
'ressure, becoming a larger area of low 'ressure$ %his can strengthen the resultant system, although it
may no longer be a tro'ical cyclone$
"21#
Stuies in the 2:::s have given rise to the hy'othesis that large
amounts of ust reuce the strength of tro'ical cyclones$
"2.#
Arti&icial dissipation
In the 192:s an 197:s, the ?nite States government attem'te to wea(en hurricanes through Pro7ect
Stormfury by seeing selecte storms with silver ioie$ It was thought that the seeing woul cause
su'ercoole water in the outer rainbans to free&e, causing the inner eyewall to colla'se an thus
reucing the wins$
"21#
%he wins of *urricane Febbie>a hurricane seee in Pro7ect Stormfury>
ro''e as much as -1Q, but Febbie regaine its strength after each of two seeing forays$
"22#
In an
earlier e'isoe in 19.7, isaster struc( when a hurricane east of Iac(sonville, Floria 'rom'tly change
its course after being seee, an smashe into Savannah, Heorgia$
"27#
Because there was so much
uncertainty about the behavior of these storms, the feeral government woul not a''rove seeing
o'erations unless the hurricane ha a less than 1:Q chance of ma(ing lanfall within .8 hours, greatly
reucing the number of 'ossible test storms$ %he 'ro7ect was ro''e after it was iscovere that
eyewall re'lacement cycles occur naturally in strong hurricanes, casting oubt on the result of the earlier
attem'ts$ %oay, it is (nown that silver ioie seeing is not li(ely to have an effect because the amount
of su'ercoole water in the rainbans of a tro'ical cyclone is too low$
"28#
9ther a''roaches have been suggeste over time, incluing cooling the water uner a tro'ical cyclone
by towing icebergs into the tro'ical oceans$
"29#
9ther ieas range from covering the ocean in a substance
that inhibits eva'oration,
"7:#
ro''ing large 8uantities of ice into the eye at very early stages of
evelo'ment ;so that the latent heat is absorbe by the ice, instea of being converte to (inetic energy
that woul fee the 'ositive feebac( loo'<,
"29#
or blasting the cyclone a'art with nuclear wea'ons$
"12#

Pro7ect 3irrus even involve throwing ry ice on a cyclone$
"71#
%hese a''roaches all suffer from one flaw
above many others= tro'ical cyclones are sim'ly too large an short,live for any of the wea(ening
techni8ues to be 'ractical$
"72#
E&&ects
%he aftermath of *urricane Eatrina in Hulf'ort, 4ississi''i$
4ain article= !ffects of tro'ical cyclones
%ro'ical cyclones out at sea cause large waves, heavy rain, an high wins, isru'ting international
shi''ing an, at times, causing shi'wrec(s$
"7-#
%ro'ical cyclones stir u' water, leaving a cool wa(e
behin them, which causes the region to be less favourable for subse8uent tro'ical cyclones$
"22#
9n lan,
strong wins can amage or estroy vehicles, builings, briges, an other outsie ob7ects, turning loose
ebris into ealy flying 'ro7ectiles$ %he storm surge, or the increase in sea level ue to the cyclone, is
ty'ically the worst effect from lanfalling tro'ical cyclones, historically resulting in 9:Q of tro'ical
cyclone eaths$
"7.#
%he broa rotation of a lanfalling tro'ical cyclone, an vertical win shear at its
'eri'hery, s'awns tornaoes$ %ornaoes can also be s'awne as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which
'ersist until lanfall$
"71#
9ver the 'ast two centuries, tro'ical cyclones have been res'onsible for the eaths of about 1$9 million
'eo'le worlwie$ +arge areas of staning water cause by flooing lea to infection, as well as
contributing to mos8uito,borne illnesses$ 3rowe evacuees in shelters increase the ris( of isease
'ro'agation$
"72#
%ro'ical cyclones significantly interru't infrastructure, leaing to 'ower outages, brige
estruction, an the ham'ering of reconstruction efforts$
"72#"77#
5lthough cyclones ta(e an enormous toll in lives an 'ersonal 'ro'erty, they may be im'ortant factors
in the 'reci'itation regimes of 'laces they im'act, as they may bring much,neee 'reci'itation to
otherwise ry regions$
"78#
%ro'ical cyclones also hel' maintain the global heat balance by moving warm,
moist tro'ical air to the mile latitues an 'olar regions$
"79#
%he storm surge an wins of hurricanes
may be estructive to human,mae structures, but they also stir u' the waters of coastal estuaries, which
are ty'ically im'ortant fish breeing locales$ %ro'ical cyclone estruction s'urs reevelo'ment, greatly
increasing local 'ro'erty values$
"8:#
)bservation and &orecastin#
Sunset view of *urricane Isiore6s rainbans 'hotogra'he at 7,::: feet ;2,1:: m<
Intense tro'ical cyclones 'ose a 'articular observation challenge, as they are a angerous oceanic
'henomenon, an weather stations, being relatively s'arse, are rarely available on the site of the storm
itself$ Surface observations are generally available only if the storm is 'assing over an islan or a coastal
area, or if there is a nearby shi'$ ?sually, real,time measurements are ta(en in the 'eri'hery of the
cyclone, where conitions are less catastro'hic an its true strength cannot be evaluate$ For this reason,
there are teams of meteorologists that move into the 'ath of tro'ical cyclones to hel' evaluate their
strength at the 'oint of lanfall$
"81#
%ro'ical cyclones far from lan are trac(e by weather satellites ca'turing visible an infrare images
from s'ace, usually at half,hour to 8uarter,hour intervals$ 5s a storm a''roaches lan, it can be observe
by lan,base Fo''ler raar$ Daar 'lays a crucial role aroun lanfall by showing a storm6s location
an intensity every several minutes$
"82#
In,situ measurements, in real,time, can be ta(en by sening s'ecially e8ui''e reconnaissance flights
into the cyclone$ In the 5tlantic basin, these flights are regularly flown by ?nite States government
hurricane hunters$
"8-#
%he aircraft use are 03,1-: *ercules an 0P,-F 9rions, both four,engine
turbo'ro' cargo aircraft$ %hese aircraft fly irectly into the cyclone an ta(e irect an remote,sensing
measurements$ %he aircraft also launch HPS ro'sones insie the cyclone$ %hese sones measure
tem'erature, humiity, 'ressure, an es'ecially wins between flight level an the ocean6s surface$ 5
new era in hurricane observation began when a remotely 'ilote 5erosone, a small rone aircraft, was
flown through %ro'ical Storm 9'helia as it 'asse Lirginia6s !astern Shore uring the 2::1 hurricane
season$ 5 similar mission was also com'lete successfully in the western Pacific ocean$ %his
emonstrate a new way to 'robe the storms at low altitues that human 'ilots selom are$
"8.#
Forecastin#
See also= %ro'ical cyclone trac( forecasting, %ro'ical cyclone 'reiction moel, an %ro'ical cyclone
rainfall forecasting
Because of the forces that affect tro'ical cyclone trac(s, accurate trac( 'reictions e'en on
etermining the 'osition an strength of high, an low,'ressure areas, an 'reicting how those areas
will change uring the life of a tro'ical system$ %he ee' layer mean flow, or average win through the
e'th of the tro'os'here, is consiere the best tool in etermining trac( irection an s'ee$ If storms
are significantly sheare, use of win s'ee measurements at a lower altitue, such as at the 7:: hPa
'ressure surface ;-,::: metresB9,8:: feet above sea level< will 'rouce better 'reictions$ %ro'ical
forecasters also consier smoothing out short,term wobbles of the storm as it allows them to etermine a
more accurate long,term tra7ectory$
"81#
*igh,s'ee com'uters an so'histicate simulation software
allow forecasters to 'rouce com'uter moels that 'reict tro'ical cyclone trac(s base on the future
'osition an strength of high, an low,'ressure systems$ 3ombining forecast moels with increase
unerstaning of the forces that act on tro'ical cyclones, as well as with a wealth of ata from !arth,
orbiting satellites an other sensors, scientists have increase the accuracy of trac( forecasts over recent
ecaes$
"82#
*owever, scientists are less s(illful at 'reicting the intensity of tro'ical cyclones$
"87#
%he
lac( of im'rovement in intensity forecasting is attribute to the com'le/ity of tro'ical systems an an
incom'lete unerstaning of factors that affect their evelo'ment$
Classi&ications* terminolo#y* and namin#
'ntensity classi&ications
4ain article= %ro'ical cyclone scales
%hree tro'ical cyclones at ifferent stages of evelo'ment$ %he wea(est ;left< emonstrates only the
most basic circular sha'e$ 5 stronger storm ;to' right< emonstrates s'iral baning an increase
centrali&ation, while the strongest ;lower right< has evelo'e an eye$
%ro'ical cyclones are classifie into three main grou's, base on intensity= tro'ical e'ressions, tro'ical
storms, an a thir grou' of more intense storms, whose name e'ens on the region$ For e/am'le, if a
tro'ical storm in the )orthwestern Pacific reaches hurricane,strength wins on the Beaufort scale, it is
referre to as a typhoonG if a tro'ical storm 'asses the same benchmar( in the )ortheast Pacific Basin, or
in the 5tlantic, it is calle a hurricane$
"12#
)either ChurricaneC nor Cty'hoonC is use in either the
Southern *emis'here or the Inian 9cean$ In these basins, storms of tro'ical nature are referre as
sim'ly CcyclonesC$
5itionally, as inicate in the table below, each basin uses a se'arate system of terminology, ma(ing
com'arisons between ifferent basins ifficult$ In the Pacific 9cean, hurricanes from the 3entral )orth
Pacific sometimes cross the International Fate +ine into the )orthwest Pacific, becoming ty'hoons
;such as *urricaneB%y'hoon Io(e in 2::2<G on rare occasions, the reverse will occur$
"88#
It shoul also be
note that ty'hoons with sustaine wins greater than 27 metres 'er secon ;1-: (n< or 11: miles 'er
hour ;2.: (mBh< are calle Super Typhoons by the Ioint %y'hoon 0arning 3enter$
"89#
[edit] Tropical depression
5 tropical depression is an organi&e system of clous an thunerstorms with a efine, close
surface circulation an ma/imum sustaine wins of less than 17 metres 'er secon ;-- (n< or -9 miles
'er hour ;2- (mBh<$ It has no eye an oes not ty'ically have the organi&ation or the s'iral sha'e of more
'owerful storms$ *owever, it is alreay a low,'ressure system, hence the name Ce'ressionC$
"11#
%he
'ractice of the Phili''ines is to name tro'ical e'ressions from their own naming convention when the
e'ressions are within the Phili''ines6 area of res'onsibility$
"9:#
[edit] Tropical storm
5 tropical storm is an organi&e system of strong thunerstorms with a efine surface circulation an
ma/imum sustaine wins between 17 metres 'er secon ;-- (n< ;-9 miles 'er hour ;2- (mBh<< an
-2 metres 'er secon ;22 (n< ;7- miles 'er hour ;117 (mBh<<$ 5t this 'oint, the istinctive cyclonic
sha'e starts to evelo', although an eye is not usually 'resent$ Hovernment weather services, other than
the Phili''ines, first assign names to systems that reach this intensity ;thus the term named storm<$
"11#
[edit] +urricane or typoon
5 urricane or typoon ;sometimes sim'ly referre to as a tro'ical cyclone, as o''ose to a e'ression
or storm< is a system with sustaine wins of at least -- metres 'er secon ;2. (n< or 7. miles 'er hour
;119 (mBh<$
"11#
5 cyclone of this intensity tens to evelo' an eye, an area of relative calm ;an lowest
atmos'heric 'ressure< at the center of circulation$ %he eye is often visible in satellite images as a small,
circular, clou,free s'ot$ Surrouning the eye is the eyewall, an area about 12 (ilometres ;9$9 mi< to
8: (ilometres ;1: mi< wie in which the strongest thunerstorms an wins circulate aroun the storm6s
center$ 4a/imum sustaine wins in the strongest tro'ical cyclones have been estimate at about
81 metres 'er secon ;121 (n< or 191 miles 'er hour ;-1. (mBh<$
"91#
)ri#in o& storm terms
%ai'ei 1:1 enures a ty'hoon in 2::1
%he wor typhoon, which is use toay in the )orthwest Pacific, may be erive from ?ru, Persian an
5rabic fn ;RSTUV<, which in turn originates from Hree( tuphn ;WXYZ[<, a monster in Hree(
mythology res'onsible for hot wins$
"9.#
%he relate Portuguese wor tufo, use in Portuguese for
ty'hoons, is also erive from Hree( tuphn$
"91#
5nother theory is that it may have come from the
3hinese wor CafengC ;CaifungC in 3antonese< ; O literally big wins<$
"citation needed#
%he wor hurricane, use in the )orth 5tlantic an )ortheast Pacific, is erive from the name of a
native 3aribbean 5merinian storm go, *uracan, via S'anish hurac!n$
"92#
;*uracan is also the source
of the wor "rcan, another wor for the !uro'ean winstorm$ %hese events shoul not be confuse$<
*uracan became the S'anish term for hurricanes$
,amin#
4ain articles= %ro'ical cyclone naming an +ists of tro'ical cyclone names
Storms reaching tro'ical storm strength were initially given names to eliminate confusion when there are
multi'le systems in any iniviual basin at the same time, which assists in warning 'eo'le of the coming
storm$
"97#
In most cases, a tro'ical cyclone retains its name throughout its lifeG however, uner s'ecial
circumstances, tro'ical cyclones may be rename while active$ %hese names are ta(en from lists that
vary from region to region an are usually rafte a few years ahea of time$ %he lists are ecie on,
e'ening on the regions, either by committees of the 0orl 4eteorological 9rgani&ation ;calle
'rimarily to iscuss many other issues<, or by national weather offices involve in the forecasting of the
storms$ !ach year, the names of 'articularly estructive storms ;if there are any< are CretireC an new
names are chosen to ta(e their 'lace$
,otable tropical cyclones
4ain articles= +ist of notable tro'ical cyclones, +ist of 5tlantic hurricanes, an +ist of Pacific hurricanes
%ro'ical cyclones that cause e/treme estruction are rare, although when they occur, they can cause
great amounts of amage or thousans of fatalities$ %he 197: Bhola cyclone is the ealiest tro'ical
cyclone on recor, (illing more than -::,::: 'eo'le
"98#
an 'otentially as many as 1 million
"99#
after
stri(ing the ensely 'o'ulate Hanges Felta region of Banglaesh on 1- )ovember 197:$ Its 'owerful
storm surge was res'onsible for the high eath toll$
"98#
%he )orth Inian cyclone basin has historically
been the ealiest basin$
"72#"1::#
!lsewhere, %y'hoon )ina (ille nearly 1::,::: in 3hina in 1971 ue to a
1::,year floo that cause 22 ams incluing the Ban8iao Fam to fail$
"1:1#
%he Hreat *urricane of 178:
is the ealiest 5tlantic hurricane on recor, (illing about 22,::: 'eo'le in the +esser 5ntilles$
"1:2#
5
tro'ical cyclone oes nee not be 'articularly strong to cause memorable amage, 'rimarily if the eaths
are from rainfall or muslies$ %ro'ical Storm %helma in )ovember 1991 (ille thousans in the
Phili''ines,
"1:-#
while in 1982, the unname tro'ical e'ression that eventually became *urricane Paul
(ille aroun 1,::: 'eo'le in 3entral 5merica$
"1:.#
*urricane Eatrina is estimate as the costliest tro'ical cyclone worlwie,
"1:1#
causing \81$2 billion in
'ro'erty amage ;2::8 ?SF<
"1:2#
with overall amage estimates e/ceeing \1:: billion ;2::1 ?SF<$
"1:1#

Eatrina (ille at least 1,8-2 'eo'le after stri(ing +ouisiana an 4ississi''i as a ma7or hurricane in
5ugust 2::1$
"1:2#
*urricane 5nrew is the secon most estructive tro'ical cyclone in ?$S history, with
amages totaling \.:$7 billion ;2::8 ?SF<, an with amage costs at \-1$1 billion ;2::8 ?SF<,
*urricane I(e is the thir most estructive tro'ical cyclone in ?$S history$ %he Halveston *urricane of
19:: is the ealiest natural isaster in the ?nite States, (illing an estimate 2,::: to 12,::: 'eo'le in
Halveston, %e/as$
"1:7#
*urricane 4itch cause more than 1:, ::: fatalities in +atin 5merica$ *urricane
Ini(i in 1992 was the most 'owerful storm to stri(e *awaii in recore history, hitting Eauai as a
3ategory . hurricane, (illing si/ 'eo'le, an causing ?$S$ \- billion in amage$
"1:8#
9ther estructive
!astern Pacific hurricanes inclue Pauline an Eenna, both causing severe amage after stri(ing 4e/ico
as ma7or hurricanes$
"1:9#"11:#
In 4arch 2::., 3yclone Hafilo struc( northeastern 4aagascar as a 'owerful
cyclone, (illing 7., affecting more than 2::,:::, an becoming the worst cyclone to affect the nation for
more than 2: years$
"111#
%he relative si&es of %y'hoon %i', 3yclone %racy, an the 3ontiguous ?nite States
%he most intense storm on recor was %y'hoon %i' in the northwestern Pacific 9cean in 1979, which
reache a minimum 'ressure of 87: mbar ;21$29 in*g< an ma/imum sustaine win s'ees of
121 (nots ;81 mBs< or 19: miles 'er hour ;-1: (mBh<$
"112#
%i', however, oes not solely hol the recor
for fastest sustaine wins in a cyclone$ %y'hoon Eeith in the Pacific an *urricanes 3amille an 5llen
in the )orth 5tlantic currently share this recor with %i'$
"11-#
3amille was the only storm to actually
stri(e lan while at that intensity, ma(ing it, with 121 (nots ;81 mBs< or 19: miles 'er hour ;-1: (mBh<
sustaine wins an 18- (nots ;9. mBs< or 21: miles 'er hour ;-.: (mBh< gusts, the strongest tro'ical
cyclone on recor at lanfall$
"11.#
%y'hoon )ancy in 1921 ha recore win s'ees of 181 (nots
;91 mBs< or 211 miles 'er hour ;-.2 (mBh<, but recent research inicates that win s'ees from the
19.:s to the 192:s were gauge too high, an this is no longer consiere the storm with the highest
win s'ees on recor$
"91#
Similarly, a surface,level gust cause by %y'hoon Pa(a on Huam was
recore at 2:1 (nots ;1:1 mBs< or 2-1 miles 'er hour ;-78 (mBh<$ *a it been confirme, it woul be
the strongest non,tornaic win ever recore on the !arth6s surface, but the reaing ha to be iscare
since the anemometer was amage by the storm$
"111#
In aition to being the most intense tro'ical cyclone on recor, %i' was the largest cyclone on recor,
with tro'ical storm,force wins 2,17: (ilometres ;1,-1: mi< in iameter$ %he smallest storm on recor,
%ro'ical Storm 4arco, forme uring 9ctober 2::8, an mae lanfall in Leracru&$
"112#
*urricane Iohn is the longest,lasting tro'ical cyclone on recor, lasting -1 ays in 199.$ Before the
avent of satellite imagery in 1921, however, many tro'ical cyclones were unerestimate in their
urations$
"117#
Iohn is the secon longest,trac(e tro'ical cyclone in the )orthern *emis'here on recor,
behin %y'hoon 9'helia of 192:, which ha a 'ath of 8,1:: miles ;12,1:: (m<$ Deliable ata for
Southern *emis'here cyclones is unavailable$
"118#
Can#es due to El ,i-o-Soutern )scillation
See also= !l )iKo,Southern 9scillation
4ost tro'ical cyclones form on the sie of the subtro'ical rige closer to the e8uator, then move
'olewar 'ast the rige a/is before recurving into the main belt of the 0esterlies$
"119#
0hen the
subtro'ical rige 'osition shifts ue to !l )ino, so will the 'referre tro'ical cyclone trac(s$ 5reas west
of Ia'an an Eorea ten to e/'erience much fewer Se'tember,)ovember tro'ical cyclone im'acts
uring !l )iKo an neutral years$ Furing !l )iKo years, the brea( in the subtro'ical rige tens to lie
near 1-:J! which woul favor the Ia'anese archi'elago$
"12:#
Furing !l )iKo years, Huam6s chance of a
tro'ical cyclone im'act is one,thir of the long term average$
"121#
%he tro'ical 5tlantic ocean e/'eriences
e'resse activity ue to increase vertical win shear across the region uring !l )iKo years$
"122#

Furing +a )iKa years, the formation of tro'ical cyclones, along with the subtro'ical rige 'osition,
shifts westwar across the western Pacific ocean, which increases the lanfall threat to 3hina$
"12:#
$on#-term activity trends
5tlantic 4ultiecaal 3ycle since 191:, using accumulate cyclone energy ;53!<
5tlantic 4ultiecaal 9scillation %imeseries, 1812O2::8
See also= 5tlantic hurricane reanalysis
0hile the number of storms in the 5tlantic has increase since 1991, there is no obvious global trenG
the annual number of tro'ical cyclones worlwie remains about 87 ] 1:$ *owever, the ability of
climatologists to ma(e long,term ata analysis in certain basins is limite by the lac( of reliable
historical ata in some basins, 'rimarily in the Southern *emis'here$
"12-#
In s'ite of that, there is some
evience that the intensity of hurricanes is increasing$ Eerry !manuel state, CDecors of hurricane
activity worlwie show an u'swing of both the ma/imum win s'ee in an the uration of hurricanes$
%he energy release by the average hurricane ;again consiering all hurricanes worlwie< seems to
have increase by aroun 7:Q in the 'ast -: years or so, corres'oning to about a 11Q increase in the
ma/imum win s'ee an a 2:Q increase in storm lifetime$C
"12.#
5tlantic storms are becoming more estructive financially, since five of the ten most e/'ensive storms in
?nite States history have occurre since 199:$ 5ccoring to the 0orl 4eteorological 9rgani&ation,
@recent increase in societal im'act from tro'ical cyclones has largely been cause by rising
concentrations of 'o'ulation an infrastructure in coastal regions$A
"121#
Piel(e et al. ;2::8< normali&e
mainlan ?$S$ hurricane amage from 19::O2::1 to 2::1 values an foun no remaining tren of
increasing absolute amage$ %he 197:s an 198:s were notable because of the e/tremely low amounts
of amage com'are to other ecaes$ %he ecae 1992O2::1 was the secon most amaging among
the 'ast 11 ecaes, with only the ecae 1922O19-1 sur'assing its costs$ %he most amaging single
storm is the 1922 4iami hurricane, with \117 billion of normali&e amage$
"122#
9ften in 'art because of the threat of hurricanes, many coastal regions ha s'arse 'o'ulation between
ma7or 'orts until the avent of automobile tourismG therefore, the most severe 'ortions of hurricanes
stri(ing the coast may have gone unmeasure in some instances$ %he combine effects of shi'
estruction an remote lanfall severely limit the number of intense hurricanes in the official recor
before the era of hurricane reconnaissance aircraft an satellite meteorology$ 5lthough the recor shows
a istinct increase in the number an strength of intense hurricanes, therefore, e/'erts regar the early
ata as sus'ect$
"127#
%he number an strength of 5tlantic hurricanes may unergo a 1:O7: year cycle, also (nown as the
5tlantic 4ultiecaal 9scillation$ )yberg et al. reconstructe 5tlantic ma7or hurricane activity bac( to
the early 18th century an foun five 'erios averaging -O1 ma7or hurricanes 'er year an lasting .:O
2: years, an si/ other averaging 1$1O2$1 ma7or hurricanes 'er year an lasting 1:O2: years$ %hese
'erios are associate with the 5tlantic multiecaal oscillation$ %hroughout, a ecaal oscillation
relate to solar irraiance was res'onsible for enhancingBam'ening the number of ma7or hurricanes by
1O2 'er year$
"128#
5lthough more common since 1991, few above,normal hurricane seasons occurre uring 197:O9.$
"129#

Festructive hurricanes struc( fre8uently from 1922O2:, incluing many ma7or )ew !nglan hurricanes$
%wenty,one 5tlantic tro'ical storms forme in 19--, a recor only recently e/ceee in 2::1, which
saw 28 storms$ %ro'ical hurricanes occurre infre8uently uring the seasons of 19::O21G however, many
intense storms forme uring 187:O99$ Furing the 1887 season, 19 tro'ical storms forme, of which a
recor . occurre after 1 )ovember an 11 strengthene into hurricanes$ Few hurricanes occurre in the
18.:s to 182:sG however, many struc( in the early 19th century, incluing a 1821 storm that mae a
irect hit on )ew ^or( 3ity$ Some historical weather e/'erts say these storms may have been as high as
3ategory . in strength$
"1-:#
%hese active hurricane seasons 'reate satellite coverage of the 5tlantic basin$ Before the satellite era
began in 192:, tro'ical storms or hurricanes went unetecte unless a reconnaissance aircraft
encountere one, a shi' re'orte a voyage through the storm, or a storm hit lan in a 'o'ulate area$
"127#

%he official recor, therefore, coul miss storms in which no shi' e/'erience gale,force wins,
recogni&e it as a tro'ical storm ;as o''ose to a high,latitue e/tra,tro'ical cyclone, a tro'ical wave, or
a brief s8uall<, returne to 'ort, an re'orte the e/'erience$
Pro/y recors base on 'aleotem'estological research have reveale that ma7or hurricane activity along
the Hulf of 4e/ico coast varies on timescales of centuries to millennia$
"1-1#"1-2#
Few ma7or hurricanes
struc( the Hulf coast uring -:::O1.:: B3 an again uring the most recent millennium$ %hese
8uiescent intervals were se'arate by a hy'eractive 'erio uring 1.:: B3 an 1::: 5F, when the Hulf
coast was struc( fre8uently by catastro'hic hurricanes an their lanfall 'robabilities increase by -O1
times$ %his millennial,scale variability has been attribute to long,term shifts in the 'osition of the
5&ores *igh,
"1-2#
which may also be lin(e to changes in the strength of the )orth 5tlantic 9scillation$
"1--#
5ccoring to the 5&ores *igh hy'othesis, an anti,'hase 'attern is e/'ecte to e/ist between the Hulf of
4e/ico coast an the 5tlantic coast$ Furing the 8uiescent 'erios, a more northeasterly 'osition of the
5&ores *igh woul result in more hurricanes being steere towars the 5tlantic coast$ Furing the
hy'eractive 'erio, more hurricanes were steere towars the Hulf coast as the 5&ores *igh was shifte
to a more southwesterly 'osition near the 3aribbean$ Such a is'lacement of the 5&ores *igh is
consistent with 'aleoclimatic evience that shows an abru't onset of a rier climate in *aiti aroun -2::
1.
3 years BP,
"1-.#
an a change towars more humi conitions in the Hreat Plains uring the late,
*olocene as more moisture was 'um'e u' the 4ississi''i Lalley through the Hulf coast$ Preliminary
ata from the northern 5tlantic coast seem to su''ort the 5&ores *igh hy'othesis$ 5 -:::,year 'ro/y
recor from a coastal la(e in 3a'e 3o suggests that hurricane activity increase significantly uring the
'ast 1::O1::: years, 7ust as the Hulf coast was ami a 8uiescent 'erio of the last millennium$
.lobal warmin#
See also= !ffects of global warming
%he ?$S$ )ational 9ceanic an 5tmos'heric 5ministration Heo'hysical Flui Fynamics +aboratory
'erforme a simulation to etermine if there is a statistical tren in the fre8uency or strength of tro'ical
cyclones over time$ %he simulation conclue Cthe strongest hurricanes in the 'resent climate may be
u'stage by even more intense hurricanes over the ne/t century as the earth6s climate is warme by
increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmos'hereC$
"1-1#
In an article in #ature, Eerry !manuel state that 'otential hurricane estructiveness, a measure
combining hurricane strength, uration, an fre8uency, Cis highly correlate with tro'ical sea surface
tem'erature, reflecting well,ocumente climate signals, incluing multiecaal oscillations in the
)orth 5tlantic an )orth Pacific, an global warmingC$ !manuel 'reicte Ca substantial increase in
hurricane,relate losses in the twenty,first centuryC$
"1-2#
In more recent wor( 'ublishe by !manuel ;in
the 4arch 2::8 issue of the $ulletin of the %merican &eteorolo'ical Society<, he states that new climate
moeling ata inicates @global warming shoul reuce the global fre8uency of hurricanes$A
"1-7#
%he new
wor( suggests that, even in a ramatically warming worl, hurricane fre8uency an intensity may not
substantially rise uring the ne/t two centuries$
"1-8#
Similarly, P$I$ 0ebster an others 'ublishe an article in Science e/amining the Cchanges in tro'ical
cyclone number, uration, an intensityC over the 'ast -1 years, the 'erio when satellite ata has been
available$ %heir main fining was although the number of cyclones ecrease throughout the 'lanet
e/cluing the north 5tlantic 9cean, there was a great increase in the number an 'ro'ortion of very
strong cyclones$
"1-9#
/elated cyclone types
Subtro'ical Storm Hustav in 2::2
See also= 3yclone, !/tratro'ical cyclone, an Subtro'ical cyclone