I

ALSO FROM FREE PRESS/SIMON & SCHUSTER

The Elements of Style:
A Practica! Encyclopedia of Interior Architectural Details
from 1485 to the Present
Edited by Stephen Calloway and Elizabeth Cromley
J
I
THE

,
OF
,
A Practical Encyclopedia of the Decorative Arts
from the Renaissance to the Present

General Editor Noel Riley

Consulting Editor Patricia Bayer
FREE PRESS
NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SVDNEY SINGAPQRE
FREE PRESS
ADivision o Simon &sehuster Ine.
1230 Avenue 01 the Americas
N8\'1 York. NY 10020
Copyright 2003 by OclOpus
Publishing Group lid.
AH rights reserved. ineluding the right
al reproduetion in \'Jhole or in part in
any lorm.
First published in Great Britain in 2003
by Mitehell Beazley. an imprint o(
Oclopus Publishing Group Ud.
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For informalion about special
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please contact Simon & Schuster
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Printed and bound in China by
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1 3 5 7 9 lO 8 6 4 2
library 01 Congress Cataloging-in-
Publication Data is available.
ISBN 0-7432-2229-6
Commissiooing Editor:
Mar!< Fletcher
Managing Editor:
Hannah BarnesMurphy
Executive Art Editor:
Christie Cooper
Copy Editors:
Mary seon. Penny Warren. Theresa
Bebbington
Editorial Assistant:
Caroline Oyas
Designer:
John Round, Lovelock & Co.
Picture Research Manager:
Giulia Hetherington
Picture Research Team:
Jenny faithful. Maria Gibbs. Claire
Gouldstone. Sophle Hartley. Sarah
Jenkins. Anna Kobryn, Helen Stallion.
Jo Walton
Production:
Angela Couchman, Gary Hayes
Indexer:
Hilary Bird
Set in Palatino and Helvetica Neue
Condensed
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Introduction 126 Introduction 80
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Foreword 8
Furnilure 14 Furniture 44 Furniture 84 Furniture 130
Pottery 20 Ceramics 62 Ceramics 100 Ceramics 160
Glass 26 Glass 66 Glass 108 Glass 176
Silver and Metall'lork 30 Silver and Metalwork 70 Silver and Metalwork 114 Silver and Metalwork 188
Textiles 38 Textiles and Wallpaper 76 Textiles and Wallpaper 122 Textiles and Wallpaper202

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Introduetion 21 o
Furniture 214
Ceramies 228
Glass 234
Silver and Metall'lork 242
Textiles 244
Wallpaper 248
Introduetion 250
Furniture 254
Ceramies 262
Glass 266
Metall'lork 268
Textiles and Wallpaper 270
Introduetion 274 Introduetion 298 Introduetion 330
Furnilure 278 Furniture 302 Furniture 334
Ceramies 286 Ceramies 314 Ceramies 62
Glass 288 Glass 318 Glass 342
Silver and Metall'lork 290 Silver and Metall'lork 322 Silver and Metalwork 344
Textiles and Wallpaper 294 Textiles and Wallpaper 326 Textiles 348
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Introduetion 350 Introduetion 378 Introduetion 420 Introduetion 450 Introduetion 482
Furniture 354 Furniture 382 Furniture 424 Furniture 454 Furniture 486
Ceramies 360 Ceramies 396 Ceramies 434 Ceramies 462 Ceramies 494
Glass 364 Glass 402 Glass 438 Glass 464 Glass 496
Silver and Metalwork 368 Silver and Metalwork 41 O Silver and Metalwork 442 Metalwork 466 Silver and Metalwork 498
Textiles 372 Textiles 412 Textiles 444 Fashion and Textiles 468 Textiles and Rugs 500
Mass-Produeed Wares Industrial Design 416 Plasties and Applianees 446 Industrial Design 474 Industrial Design 502
and Industrial Design 376
Lighting 418
APPENDICES
Contributor Biographies 506
Sourees 508

Glossary 51 O
Index 523
Aeknowledgments 541
-----
Foreword
8
T
he aim of this book - to present in digested form the
majar styles in the decorative arts over a five
hlUldred-year period - is an ambitious one. lt might
appear foolhardy to attempt to cover such a huge
sweep, embracing continental Europe as \VeU as Britain
and Arnerica from the Renaissance to the Postmodem
era, but the value of the project lies in its breadth,
tracking the ebbs and flows of design and the man)'
cross-currents cf influence in the main disciplines cf
interior decoratian - furniturc, ceramies, glass,
metalwork, and textiles. TIle book is a practical guide to
design movements, with the focus on the form and
decoratian - the shapes and ornamental matiEs - that
distinguish one style from another. In tracing this path
through changes in fashion and taste, the nurture and
development of technigues, the inspiration of materials,
and the influence of designers who hamessed aH the
other factoes to make their impact. the text and the
illustrations are of egual importance.
TIle Elelllellfs o/Desigll is a sequel to Tite Elemwfs 01
ShJle which, over the twelve years of its existence, has
proved itself to be an invaluable reference for period
architectural style and details in Britain and The United
States. Where Tite Elelllents 01 Style was concemed with
the fixtures and accessories of domestic buildings, Tite
Elemellts 01 Desigll looks at the furnishings and
decoration inside them. Combined ,.... ith the archi-
tecture, these create a period's visual impact.
lo covering both earlier and later periods we are able
to show how consistently the past informs what follows
in design, and yet it can still emerge with a fresh face.
For example, eaTl)' 19th-cenhlry ! eoclassicism echoes
the Baroque in its light-dark contrasts and grandeur of
intention; the ghosts of 18th-century Rococo naturalism
live on in 1890s Art Nouveau, and the clean-lined
elegance of the Biedermeier style re-surfaces in 1920s
Art Oeco. sometimes, in the hands of the exceptionally
gifted, new design appears dazzling in its originality.
Scratch the surface, however, and period influence will
almost always reveal itself. The search for novell)' is
constant throughout design history and, particularly
since the 19th century, changing tastes have been
directed as much by the steering wheel of conunerce as
by the impulse to keep up with the Joneses. In the 17th
and 18th centuries, new ideas in the decorative arts
were spread far and wide by engraved books of designs
and patterns, while hom the 19th century onwards,
major exhibitions have also played a significant part in
the commercial dissemination of innovative designo
V\'e have purposely given ernphasis to 20th-centu.ry
styles - too often treated in isolation from earlier periods.
rhe time-scales expand as the book progresses, so that
the first few chapters deal with long stretches of a
dominating style - Baroque or Neoclassicism, for
example - while the 20th-century dlapters cover twenty-
or even ten-year periods.

Much of the focus in earlier chapters is on royal oc

aristocratic examples: th.is is inevitable since these
invariably represented the cutting edge of style in their
time; peopIe lovver clown the social scale generall),
acquired watered-down versiolls, often somewhat latero
Even in more recent periods, the style gurus have
tended to appeal at first te an lite whase startlingly up-
to-the-minute possessions eventually become the must-
haves of the masses. Thus sorne of Que illustrations mal'
appear modem, even many decades later: in their time
they were distinctly avant garde.
While individuals may favour one style of decorative
art over another, an lffiderstanding of the periods befare
and after, of the materials and technical developments
that made thern passible, and a knO\'vledge of the
designers and their inspiration, provides the vital
context far inforrned choice.
In such a digest of design style as this, sorne objects
wiII appear ugly, preposterously overblown, of
exaggerated proportion, or irnpractical, while others
will enchant ,vith their beauty, tickle vth their wit, or
appeal for their unabashed usefulness. Williarn Morris's
powerful dictum, "Have nothing in your house that you
do not know to be useful or believe to be beautifL"
leaves sorne room for subjectivity. For every user of this
book there are likely to be favourite periods or styles: "1
couId live \Nith that" or "1 would not give it house-
room" are frequently heard responses to the more

,
.

extreme manifestations of any style. And as we show

how these period styles carne into being within the
domestic setting, we are bound to illustrate sorne of the
more striking, original, and often grand examples that
inspired a particular look.
While nat intended specifically as a guide to
collectabIes, this book, through its analysis of period
design, is an important reference tool for collectors as
well as today's designers and decorators, and students
of art histary. A clear lUlderstanding of the details of
form and decoration is an essential broad-spectrwn
frame,vork, whatever an individual's particular
enthusiasm or artistic calling may be.
Each chapter covers a separate design style,
beginning with a general introduction and continuing
in an established sequence - furniture, ceramics, glass,
metalwork, al}d textiles. Within these sections the focus
varies according to the impact of different countries,
groups, or technologies. We have included a glossary of
terms for quick reference and, for those interested in
design sources, a list of the contemporary pattem books
and other style guides mentioned throughout the text.
Noel Riley
9
----,
Renaissance
Design in the 15th and 16th centuries was dominated by the concept
of imitating the art of the ancient world. This imitation was combined
with new technical discoveries in glassmaking; in ceramics, with
the introduction of tin-glazed earthenwares; and in textile production.
Renaissance humanists, in arevival of the principies espoused by the
Greek philosopher Aristotle, argued that avirtuous ruler should display
magnificence through his expenditure on works of art, which would in
turn enhance his reputation.
Left: l/lis slrikillg cflskct ofsi/'t'r-
gilt, fflpis IfI:ll/i, fllld rock crystflf
plflqut'S ,'flS mnde for Cardillal
Afl?"Ssnlldro Fflnu'Se, 15_/3--61.
to hold Ilis mre mmmscriplS.
TI//! pieCl' l/'flS possibly dl'5igllcd
b.1/ Fmll((':;co Snllliati. wlllJ'Se debt
to i\ficllelnllgeio is c1mr ill tlu.'
distrilllltiOI/ mili complex
armllgelllt'111 of 11", figl/res.
8aStilllO Sbnrri (d.1563) <I'as
rl"Spollsible for tfu! meta1<l'Ork fllld
Giomlllli Berllflrdi (l.J96-1553)
for tlle ellgm,'tYf mytllOlogicfI/
SCt'lIes. Ht 49cmh91.i1l.
Opposite: Vittorc Cnrpaccio's
((.1450-J520) Drcam ofSaint
Ursula (detnilJ. 1.J95. depicts nll
Itflliflll il/terior Witll fI four-poster
/Jed. simply f"misIJed wil/I the
fllTllifrlre plnced ngaillsl the wnll.
bl/! SIIO'l'illg tIJe prillcipnllypes
fOl/lld ill al1 il//erior of tltis date,
illcludilliS n Clssone (c!lt'st).
Sculpt1/res lUcre plnced Olla lile
doors, ns her'. (/lid 0/1 shelves.
A
s the princes rapidly gained control Qver the Halian
city-states and established their dynastic
succession, they lIsed art as a statement cf their weaJth,
their gencrosity, 'll1d their pasinan. TIley erected great
Illonuments lnd buildings, cncouraged artists to come to
their courts through their patronage, and set up ne\\'
manufachlres of luxury goods.
At first the study Df classical monUlllents led to the
copying of specific ornaments sueh as scrolling foliage,
5wags, garlands, putti, llld particularly the candelabrum
motif. This ast \Vas a fonn of vertical foliage emerging
fram l V1se or candlestand. Donatello (1386-1466)
played 'with various combinations of these classical
designs in his Cal/toria, or singing galJery (1433-9), for
Florence Cathedral. By the end of the 15th century they
were used by almost aH artists and applied in a variety of
combinations for the decoration of interiors, fumitllre,
ceramics, glass, and metalwork.
In Venice, contact with the Islamic counhies encollr-
aged another form of dccoration. Geometric or interIacc
pattems, sometimes using highly stylized foliage motifs,
created flat patterns of ornament partieularly suitable for
book binding, metalwork, and textiles. Pattem books of
these Moresque motifs appeared in Venice in the 1520s;
and in 1530 Francesco Pellegrino published his highly
influential book, La Fle/lr de In 5ellce de POllrtraictllre.
As architects began to analyze the buildings being
excavated in Rome, they understood more fully the
principIes of c1assical designo The two approaches of
understanding and emulation led to the concept of
al1'nlltica (in the spirit of the ancient world). Bramante
I ~ 4 4 - 1 5 1 4 and Raphael (1483-1520) designed the
fac;ades and the arrangement of domestic palaces in
Rome follO\ving detailed analysis of Roman treatises on
architecture, most importantly that by Vitruvius. TI1CY
created a perfcct harmony and balance in designs for
buildings such as Bramante's Palazzo Caprini, c.151O, or
the Palazzo Brancone dell' Aguila by Raphael (befare
1520); bllildings werc based an c1assical proportion and
the repetition of similar W1itS.
Pollery 20
Textiles 38
Glass 26
Furnilure 14
ltalian 14
The European Courts 16
Silver and Melalwork 30
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1 Desigll afta Peril10 del \laga, ROIl1<!. 530. drpielilIg Ile (filldelabrlllll
motij combinen miOI pl/Hi, fropIJies, alld otha all'antica heme:=,.
2 Tire desiglls by COl"llelis Flors SUe/1 as l/lis, t!lIgral'ed by HiaollYll1l1s
Cock in AIl/wcrp. 1556, o/ tI enrloue/le ofmiliS, IlYlIlphs, aun satyrs IIIIl
strnpwork /1'(1111(', tuc/"(' 1111 importan/ SOllrce for I/orlllcm decon/live arls.
3 Ormvillg of 1111 ecc1esiasfic in Jlis study by Lorell:o LoHo (C.1480-
1556), C.1530. Note lile collectioll ojal/tique lIIeda!s DIl tlle tab/e mld the
shel,'cs %bjects.
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Raphael's decoration of Bramante's loggetta in the
Vanean, c.1516-17, irnitated the paintings of Roman
interiors, first known t Renaissance artists through the
discovery of Nero's Domus Aurea. This gave the term
"grotesque" to such paintings, fram the belief that they
had been created for underground grottoes. Grotesque
Drnament incorporated mythological animals - fauns,
and satyrs - masks, which were joined together and
framed with bands and garlands. Thus it had the
advantage over the candelabrum motif in that it ''''as not
limited to a vertical axis but could be used over any size
Dr type of surface.
In 1519 Raphael praised the concept of lIlalliera
(style); thirty years later the painter, architect, and
biographer Giorgio Vasari (1511-74), v.,rriting in his Lives
01 fIle Artists (1550), singled it out as an essential ngre-
dient of the art of his day. Elegance and sophistication
combined with virtuosity gave 16th-century art its
superiority, 50 they believed, over previous generations,
even the Romans. They described Giulio Romano
(c.1499-1546), Raphael's most famous pupil, as not only
equalling but surpassing the ancients in his imagination
and skil!. In the same way, Michelangelo (1475-1564)
broke the rules Df classical architecture and sculpture in
new and varied ways. The effect on design was to
emphasize the novel and the unusual, and to create
complex patterns Df dense, intricate subject matter.
These characteristics constitute ,,,,'hat is generally known
as Mannerism. The audience for whom these works
were intended understood the rules that had been
broken and adrnired the sophisticated skill with which
the artists had carried out their ambitions.
The overwhelming acceptance of Italian Renaissance
concepts throughout Europe can to sorne extent be
explaned by the need felt by princes and rulers to
express the concept of personal rule through reference
to the classics, which was incorporated into the
medieval framework that relied sDlely on authority
from God. These concepts, first stated in Italy, were
developed by the humanist teachers and writers of the
15th and 16th century throughout Europe. The speed
with which these ideas were taken up depended on
political and economic considerations as well as the
ambitions of the different rulers, but by the middle of
the 16th century the revival of classical antiquity was
generally accepted as part of the established repertory of
4
designo Printed designs disseminated these ideas;
without the discovery of the printing press, designs
could not have spread so quiekly. In addition, there was
a nehvork of interseeting paths aeross Europe, as the
result of changing political boundaries, movements
neeessitated by war, or shifting allianees because of
religion. Trade routes aeted as another means of
spreading ideas of fasruon and taste. The homogeneity
of Renaissance design was a result of the acceptanee of
a classical voeabulary. lts variety stems from the fusion
of those ideas with an indigenous tradition.
Franee was Olle of the first countries to adopt Italian
Renaissance ides. After his triumphal progress to, and
conquest of, Naples in 1495, Charles VIII brought
twenty-two Italian craftsmen back to Franee. His
successor Francis J, who was determined to be a true
humanist prince, invited Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519),
Benvenuto Cellini 0500-71), Francesco Primaticcio
(150+-70), and Rosso Fiorentino (1495-1540) to his eaurt
at Fontainebleau. He also bought numerous paintings
and seulptures from the greatest artists in Italy. The
deeoration of Fontainebleau (exeeuted by Primatieeio
and Rasso behveen 1530 and 15-17) introdueed Halian
eleganee and diversity to Franee. Moreover, in the long
gallery, Galerie Fram;ois J, a new form of ornament \Vas
introdueed. The frames to the paintings were conceived
as three-dimcnsional bands wlth curved,
scrolls which carne to be known as strapwork. Deriving
from Italian cartouche borders, this nevv style of
decoration was taken up by every designer in the
second half of the century. In the Netherlands, designers
such as Cornelis Floris (1514-75), Cornelis Bos (acti\'e
1540-54), and Cornelis Matsys (active 1531-60)
developed a form of imaginative grotesque work of
figures captured in metalwork bands. Hans Vredeman
de Vries' highly suecessful publications, rcprintcd by his
son, ensured that strapwork remained part of the
decorative vocabulary of the northem eountries - lhe
1 etherlands, Gerrnany, and England - until weH into
the 17th century.
Flernish and French designs \Vere also very important
as sources of inspirabon in England, particularly
towards the end of the century. Henry VIII had
introduced Italian Renaissance decoration into his
interiors and \vith the arrival of foreign artists, such as
the Italian Pietro Torrigiani and the Swiss Hans Holbein,
his court was the equal to that of contemporary
European princes.
,England became a haven for many refugees from
both The and France, who brought with
them the knowledge of Renaissanee motifs as weH as
technical expertise. Foreign silversmiths, cabinet
makers, and textile workers in London, Norwich, and
Canterbury transformed these industries and were
protected by the eroH"n in spite of protests from the
English guilds.
4 Tllt' Gn!erh' Frnl1(ois / ni FOlltnillt'b/l.'l1l1, dl.'sifitl1l.'d bIt Rosso Fiofl.'lIlillo
<
nllrl FrmlCt'Sco Prillwticcio, 15]0-]4, l!5fnb/is1Jed tlll.' e({litn/inl1nfe
desigll ill Northem Ellrope. Tlle nllegoricnl pnilltillgs ere jrnmerl i
igel/ivlI5 sfl/cCO sCIIlplllres 01 cnl'ynlidfigures, pl/tli, al1d gal'lads of
j1olvrs. T/ti'5 wns 1111.' Jir::'1 1151' oj sfrnpl'Ork, wllicllll'ns Iv domina/e In/e
16tJl-cellf1lr)l decornliOI/ nll OL'l'r Europe.
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Italian Furniture
The Use 01 Classical Motils
1
nteriors in the 15th century \Vere still sparsely
fun1ished. The main types of furniture inc1uded cns50Jli
(chests) and chairs. TI1e most expensive item \Vas the bed,
tichly hung with silks and embroideries, which, along
with its accompanyingchest, was often given as l wedding
present. Equal1y significant were highly decorated
portable objccts such as writing cabinets. These were
decorated in the teclmique known as itltnrsn, devcloped
in Italy: coloured pieces of wood or other materials were
mserted or laid into the background,
The 16th century saw an merease both in the "ariety
of types of furniture and in the richness of decoration,
essential to the concept of magnificence. Although there
was no single room set aside for dining, the credell=n
(display buffet) became an arehitectural cupboard on
whieh expensive objects were arranged. Leading
arehiteets sueh as Polidoro da Caravaggio, Perino del
Vaga, and Giacomo da Vignola, a11 active in Rome in the
mid-16th century, used antique ornament to deyelop
new, extravagant forms of decoration. Sculpted term
2
1 TlIis (h'/ail 01 lIJe fl'exo af
Alexander and Roxana by Sotfollltl (GioPaIll';
Bn::i), c.1517. /(lmled illllllt'droom of tllt' Villa
Fnrllesi"t1 ill Rome, de/lid:; ti /ollr-
pos/a bcd in lile all'antica styfe.
2 Tllt' sgabello (backstoofJ 'tlS "/(leed ngaillst
tlu' ,mil ;11 n'Ct'ptioll room:; ill Rt'Julis$lTIICt'
Il/IlnCt's. Tl,s l'XlIIllple ill mlJIIlI. c.1551>-90, is
IY/Jim/ o/ l/JI' Vl'lIetillll Jorm. 'l'itll its Jliglllflu-
Jike Il(lck amI mn'cd term jis,m'S. Ht 74CIII/29;II.
figures were used as supports and decoration for tables
and ehairs. Elongated figures based on Miehelangelo's
work appeared in or above cartouches and contributed
to the sense of elegance. Walnut was prcferred, often
stained or partly gilded, because of the fine carving that
couId be achieved. The concept of }J1IlIliem (style) also
led to increasingly varied interpretations of grotesque
ornamento This could be combined with arabesque
decoration, popular in Venice and northern cities.
Pope Julius V introduced the taste for porphyry (a
reddish-purple stone) in the interior of the Villa Giulia
(begun 1331), and it was copied by rulers such as Cosimo
1in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence (133.5-63). This Roman
revival encouraged table tops of pietre dure (hardstones)
and marble, appearing first in Rome in the mid-16th
eentury, for the Farnese family, and in 1388 Franceseo de'
Medici set up a ,,'orkshop in Florence, which became the
Opificio delle Pietre Dure. The first designs were
geometric and stylized, but F10rentine ornamentation
became more naturalistic towards the end of the century.
---------------------------------------------
3
3 Tllis Jl1il/ted cassone bel1rs fhe 0/'1115 O/ the F/onmlille Morell; l1!1d Nali
jmllilies, 1472. The pnilltillgs by Biaggio di AI/tol/io nlld }acopo del Sallao,
SflO,l' SCt'I1CS I"OIII ROIllI1I1 histor!!. l-lt 2. 12/11/7ft 3iu.
5 T/is Floren/ille nil/ut creden:t:a (sidebollrd) mili IJe scco!ld hnlf 01 file
16th cenlur!! WI1S usedfOI" display as il'cll ns slOI"oge. T!le ,:;illlpll' desigll muf
Ihe nrchiteclllral frollwiI'ork are I!!pical of Florenc!!. Ht 1.13111/3/1 9ill.
The Development 01 New Forms
1 Writillg cobilll.'f roil/ illtafsin fll/oid illlo po/Hui, C.1520, ils exterior
with rolll/dels depictig ROlIllll/ t'!!lJNror:; alld ballle sct'!1es. Possiuly made
in Ferram (11Ie s/alld is lale 1901 cmtllf!!). Ht 2.06111/6f/8il1.
2 I'\'a/nul are/Ii/re/uml mbilld, c. 1580, mitll tlIe arllls of Cardilll1l A/esj{1J!dro
Fam61.'. by l/le Flemisll mbil1t'tmakel" F!alllinio BOH/allger. Ht 2.301!117ft 6'/,ill.
3 Tlle illlportanee of t!lis tabk probably l1Iade fOI" Cosil!lo / de' Mf'dici,
wllile Cardinal ill Rome, lay jI! its gl.'o!llcfric IIInrble topo TlIe serolled
CU11.
1
jg Iegs ,(litl, IOIlS' Pl/Wfl.'cf I"eflecf ti/e design5 of Beml/nio
SI/OHtalent h531-1608). L. S.18111/17ft.
4 !vlid-16tll cl'IIfllry cassoni pen' OjtCII COJl.'l'd ill !ligll rdie! {/lId gilded.
TlJis ('xaml//c, thcr RIlJllfill 01" F/on:lltillc, depicts bnttle S'/ICSfrolll
Ramall/r;(':c:;;, fui/II all'i1ntica gnr/1lI1ds I1l1d pulli. L 169.2(1II/66I.ill.
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1 Frellc11 ,mili/ti ceutre lab/emili tite 5t'colld
Imif of ti/e 1601 Ulltllry; lhe desigll illcorpornks
(l/dique motift from Roma" altnr:; Jor tlle ellds,
il'/lile tite cen/re mil is decorared it'ilJl fhe
nrcltitt'Clllrnl halllsterformo Ht 83CIJI/plJI.
2/11 tlJis Frmcl, arcsscr of mn'cd onk,
Cl 500-25, ti/e Cot/lic /orlll 1'n5 decora/cd H,jtl,
gro/esquI.' omUlllel1/ ill mi nssillJi/ntiOIl of /.'nrly
l/aUnll RCl/lsst1J1ce desigll. HI 1.42111/1/1 Sin.
3 Arnloire attribllh'd fa HlIglJes Snlllbill, ll'ho
worked ill Dijoll. 8l1rglllldy, 15-19-<.1580.111
'is Oeuvre de la dh'crsit des termes hjp.),
Snmbill called fernl figure:;, ,chic/ decorate litis
ilYlrdrobe. file "Frellc1, arder," c1l1imillg il WflS
a IIl'W acldi/ion lo lile cfnssical reperloin:.
H111I//6ft 7ill.
4 Desigll for n meuble a deux eorps
(dol/ble cubil/el) by acques Al1dl'olle/ Ou
CerCl'tllI, Paris, C.1580. Such e/tlborflle
desigl/s reflect fl,e fflmc1J ndoptioll of /tnlinJl
flrc1Jitectllrfll jomls.
Spain had a highly important non-Italian tradition
deriving from the Arahs and Moorish craftsmen working
there and using arabesque or moresque designs. 80th
types oE design were based on dassical antiqtty but they
had evolved into highly pattemed linear decoratian in
furniture, in which small pieces of ivory were inserted
into the solid carcase.
The silln de fraile was a Spanish type of chair whose
fonn evolved, in the second half oE the 16th century, into
the standard arrnchair used in Europe. It was a wooden
structure with Ieather bands for the back and seat, which
gradualIy developed into an upholstered chair ''''ith
arms. Anothcr key type uf hrniture to develop in Spain
was the pape/eh'a (writing cabinet), often known by its
name of vargllell0.
Anhverp was the most important centre for design in
the north. Designers such as Hans Vredeman de Vries
0526-<:.160-1) combined French and ltalian motifs ",ith
large geometric patterns of octagons, squares, and
rectangles. Cupboards and chests were often decorated
France
Furniture from the European Courts
P
rancis 1of Franee brought Italian artists to Fontaine-
bleau, and it may have been their influence that
eaused French furniture to imitate Italian so dosely.
Sorne types oE earlier furniture continued to be used,
such as the dressoir (buffet) and the nrl/loire (eupboard).
The earliest oE these kept the same form, but changes
arose in the decoration, from the medieval linenfold
panelling to the new Renaissance motifs: oE the roundeI,
based on a classical medaI portrait, and the
candelabrum. After c.1550, shapes began to change to
incorpora te the new all'alltica rnotifs and sculpted
featl.lres into the designo The cabinet developed in France
in a more individual style. Rather than being a free-
standing moveable object, it was generally placed on a
low cupboard with hvo doors. This l1IeIlble it deux eorps is
one of the most distinctive types of French furniture. The
designs 01 Jacques Androuet Du Cerceau
indude a wide variety of cabinets and cupboards, whieh
"'ould have been executed .in carved walnut, often inset
with srnall marble rectangular paneIs.
16
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Spain
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The Netherlands
1 DI'::'igll for by Hnllj Vrt'lkmflll Ik \lrit'S
from/Jis Differcnts Pourtraicts de
fe,IsBa). Tflis sllOit's file ndapfl1fioll iJl tlu'
l/orOI oI Un/in" Rl'"nis:illllCt' Tlic
{/lIiJl/a{ ft'l'l an' takt'lI fmm Frellc/I desigJls (mil
Tt:f.'r lmek fo ulI/iqm' Ralllnll tn/l/l's mut clmi,.:;.
2 T/e 1lo-:o;lon'y clIJI/lOard /'I/$ {/ (0111111011 t.vllt'
storngefllnJitlll't' ill Nort/cm Ellrope. TlJis
Flclllisli eXlHllple;'1 oo/.:, (.1500-50, styli=es
dellll?llls frolll l/u.' ({/lIdt'!llbrl/lll IIl(1lif.
0/.00<1'("::0. mili paterae (decomti,'t' rOl/lldds
or Oi'(ll:;1 for il:; deCtlrtltlm. Ht 1.19111/-46; 'j/l. 1
1 Portnb/l' papeleim (writillS
cnbillet) witlllvloorish dl'Comtioll
b)t Lllms Homebo/te i/l/aia ill
;por.v ollfo ,mlmlf, C-ljlj-:!.J.
rile fall Iraut cOl/id be lfsed for
U'Tilillg. I'1Jile ti/e drnws
Jliddeu bdlimi COI/Id !/OI/S"
5mnll <'nlllnbl('s. Ht 1.5:l1ll/6o!ill.
2 silln de fraile (nrllldltlir)
H'ns nfl"Ol1lnl c1lnir of (l'nll1l/t
witll nll elllvroidered bl1ck nlld
SMI. ThetesiSlllJecnllu' IJe
stnlldtlrd nrmc/Itlir fllrollgJ/Ol/t
El/rope.0550=1650.
Ht 1.1]/1//]/' S/ill.
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with term figures while tables featured large bulbous legs.
Distinctively Flemish is the use of (imported) ebony inlay
into oak, reflecting Antwcrp's positian as a trading centre.
In the German statcs, artists in the cities ",ith c10sest
access to Italy incorporated Renaissance ideas into their
hnniture first. and bv the middlc of the 16th centurv were
- ,
using c1assical motifs and three-dimensional sculpted
c1assical images.lnAugsburg, the cabinetmakers took the
intarsia writing box and converted it into the two-door
cabinet, which they decorated with marquet:ry \'cneers of
IIU!/llelllo Illori scenes of ruins and blasted hees. The creation
of marquetry'in the Gcrman states "'as Ol1e of their
most important contributions to the development of
hlrniturc techniques.
The most significant types of German furniture
remained the scJI1"fl11k (cupboard) and the chest. Later
examples ",ere decorated with Mannerist architecturaI
designs of volutes and broken pediments, as weH as the
strapwork, usually taken from pattern
books. Once cstablished, the forms continued ",eH into
17
4 "File schrank (CIIpllol1rd) rCIInilled nll i!!lpor/(lnt typc ill
16tll-c'1Ifllry GI!I"II/(I!I.II. T];,; mlt', in ol1knnd 11;,;11, i;,; dnkd 1541. Bnst'd 011 n
dt'sgn by tllt' N1I rClIIbclS (lrt sl Peta FJij/ na (c. 1490-1 546), it ;,;I/OI';'; 11 i;,; JI nda-
;,;f(ll1dillg of Rt'lIIl;,;;,;nllCt' (lmi ordt'I'('d cOIII/l(l;,;litm. Ht :J..35m/7ft Si!n.
4
2
the next century, no doubL hclpcd by thc conscrvatism of
the powerful guild system in the cities.
traditions continued ",eIl into the 16th
century in English society. The great hall remained a
centre of social activity and largc, joincd tablcs ",ere used
for the huge banquets, \\"ith benches or forms hidden
underneath ",hen not in use. Armchairs generally had
,,'ooden seats and carved backs, ",ilh lurned legs
appearing in lhe second half of thc century, Jointed stools,
also ",ilh tumed legs, ",ere a common farOl of seating.
Oak remained the primal)' ",oad and musl have often
been painted. Decoratian consisted of stylized geomctric
patterns, jc",c1 motifs, and strap"'ork. An innovanon
tOH'ards the end of the centurv ",as the use of ornaments
derived from French and Flemish pattern books: heraldic
beasts, term figures, and the cup and cover. Gerl1l<Jn
craftsmen H'orking in Southwark, London, are thought to
have brought marquetry decoration into fashion, usual\y
using stylized views of castles and pumacles to decora te
chests, ",hich have become known as Nonsllch chcsts.
The German States
1 Tllis $/yl;:('d tlll' Itafilm sg.:lbcllo
WIIS madi' 111 c.16oo, lor ChristiaJl V
of Sil xvIIY. b.ll t11,' /fll/mI Gion", lIi \ 111 rin
."Vost'/Ji, 'J'11O ClJIIIl' lo Dr.':"l/,'II in 1jij.
TJ('"lCk j:'o "fa,! "lll ST/It'll/iUt' pl1lll'lS.
2 l\'riliuS (n[illd fnJIII AIfSS/IIITS. C.ljij-
J 600. Il/Illlt- i 11 11/'/'''11('/ n tlr lit'tJJI'OOf, as/.
mili 5.l1ClIIIWTC ','III'<'h',1 (}I/tOIl pille cnrOlj.{'.
\ larqlld,.1I 1I'l/S 11 .i.t'!0/llllt'llf oi t!le Italinll
iJlt",..,, li'dmit/III'. l\'. 1m/;ft .fill.
3 ".11 LIlr'II: ill AlIgsbllrg.
I .'ib. "f/tlcl'illS tfl.' \'lItit,.' llse oj straptl'Ork.
mili tfml
e,'r,' iI/CllT/II.Irlf",f ill/{l mementi mori
(ntillt'd ';'lIt';;).
18
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In[jland
1 1, 'III"-po,:ter [,cd, c. 1530-50, oloak wil/ cnn'ed 1I11/e1s. Tfu! dl'sign
..I/h' pos/s is lmsed 01/ tI/iC ltalinll crmde/abrulll lIl()fif. IlIIt lIIay Jni.'C
/,',dll'd EIIS/Illld throllg/ Frt'!/c11 clIgmt
1
i!lgs. HI 2.4m/8ft.
\\'I"ililll; d6k. C.1530. ,[1llie1l bcloll,\cd lo Hl'IIn V1l1. TI/e (lrfi,:f l/sed
- ..
illllir/ll 50111"((.''; for f!le pufti. wlll' fllefigllrcs Alars nlld \lCllIIS are
}llhl'd oJll'l/grn'ing,; by Halls BlIIgklllnir oI Aug51Illr:{. IV, 4-0.,cm/16ill.
..
5 (arI'en oa/.: collr! cupllOllrd, c1590-1600. <I'illl Il[(lid dccorntiOIl Ilun
1 I/pllmi co'a sl/ppar!':. TlIe tL'fIll "col/tI" is frOIll ti/(' FrCllcll for "1m!'''
,1/1'/ di,:fillgllis!t6 if mm tlle l/orilla! t!llle ,pit/ doo/"s. /I.
2
3 Oak NOl/slleh che':f, C.1590, witllllrcllitectum! set'l/es ill /IIanlue/r!!
de1.1elopedmm il1/nrsia decoral iOIl nlld gMlIIl'I rie /)(IlIds o/ il11nid s/nil1l!d
woods. TI/{' fi'e/llliqllc cns pro/lnbly Gr.'r!IJnll; SI/e/I chl!s/s IIIn!! Im,'c bcm
/IIndc bit Gem/tlJl crnf/slllc!1 <porking in SOlltllil'nrk, LOlldoll. Ht ';'Cll1/:!.9ill.
4 Onk cen/re tnble, c. 1590, sflOwins the "Clip IJIld COiW" motif tlwt ,1'175
/nkcnfrolll F/clllish cl1grm'illgs. Ht SlCl1l/p.il1, f. 6..fOm/2If/ .
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1 Tflis 15tII-CL'"1rlry 'illg-
IUlJldled msc is all e.mmple of the
1-1ispallQ-\ Joresl]l/e IlIst r(eares
illlported lito Italy. TI/e arlllS
are tllose uf Piero de' I\-ledici
(d.q.69) or 1Jis SOIl Lort'l/:o tlll'
Ht 57CIII/22'/,ill.
2 Til/-gla:ed enrtilell;:t'are t'as
l/sed fo produce pll/lrlllacy
Tllis /iCo-/uwdled e.mll/plt'
tl'nS lIIade ill Flon'Jlce or ils
sl/rmlllldil/g district for tite
hospital of Salita Maria NlfO,-'a.
c.J.25-35. H/20oll/Sin.
3 AlIotlu'rforlll ofplulrll/aey
(.1-170-1500. this L'.mIllJJle is
1)(/illtcd i Il vi111', Ol"llllg.'. gr('ell,
mld pl/tple, l'it/ a c1U1mcleristic
valld ofsfy/i:edft!f/tllers tmd Ihe
hetld ofa lJ/nll. Ht 2S.5Clll/l1 XiII.
from copper, yellow from antimony, purple fram manga-
nese, and orange from iron. Charactcristic monfs on early
polychrome wares were stylized peacock feathers and
portrait heads in roundels. The latter, derived fram
antique coins and medals, "'as one oE the most wide-
spread of all Renaissance motifs, appearing in almost
everv branch of the decorative arts.
,
An overriding interest in antiquity in the 16th century
and the mOre widespread l\"ailability of printed source
material, coupled with increased dra\Ving skills, encour-
aged the maiolica painters to use the "'hole surface of
their pottery for narrative painting, both biblical and
mythological. This style became known as istorinto.
Although capable of being used, these pictorial pieces
must have been intended for display or as colJectors'
items and \Vere often commissioned by wealthy patrons.
Two important sources of inspiration were a series of
woodcuts illustrating Ovid's Mefnlllorplioses, published in
Venice in 1497, and the engravings of Marcantonio
Raimondi (c.l-lSG-c.153-!) afler the \\'ork of Raphael. In
1 ProrlllCl'rl ill Fncll:n, file 11/0:'/
,IYlfrl/llic Cl'lItn' for t'flrly istorinlo
pail/lillg, l1Jis Ixnl'1 ,ms made
C.ljlj-1525. Tlle n'l1lm! :,C'/l{'
is Cllrisf 1IU/1I//flJldlc,1 by
frOIl/ /l 'oodCl/II'y Al/wr.:lll
Diira. Diam. 19011/, 'ill.
ZTit:, C./525 11;:,11 Fllillll"d
;pitll tin' nrlllS (!f ,1' E
OIh' l!{ /111' gn'1I1t'';/IIrt pntnms
al tllt' Rt'wli"SlIllCt'. Tllt' ."'lIt'
n'/,reSt'II/'; Iltl' ."'or!! l!f PfwI'dm
flllll O.'id':,

Dinm.2/51:1II/10,:ill.
Hispano-Moresque Wares and Ihe Early Tin-Glaze Tradilion
Pottery
Early Islorialo Wares
e
eramic production in the 16th century was domi-
nated by the de\'elopment of Italian maiolica. The
word maiolica describes an earthenware bodv coated
,
with a glaze that has been opacified with tinoxide to
provide a smooth ",hite surface suitable for painting. It
was used at first to describe the finely painted lustred
pottery imported into ltaly from southem Spain in the
15th century va the island of Majorca. These luxury items
were often conunissioned by weaUhy ltalian families and
helped to raise the status of pottery as a display item.
Later, the word was adopted to describe aH Italian tin-
glazed wares, whether lustred or not, and, as the
technique spread thraughout Emope, it became known
by other names, which \ViII be discussed in later chapters.
One of the most distinctive early designs on Italian
maiolica was a pattern of heraldic creatures among
stylized oak leaves, painted in a thick cobaH blue. During
this period, the pigments \Vere painted directly onto the
raw glaze and had to withstand the heat of the glaze
firing. These were resrncted to blue fram cobalt. green
20
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lleslgll Sources
1 The Abduction o HeJen, mI t'lIgm'illg nttrilmted fa Alnmmfoll;o
Rnil/lolldi fc.I-l8o-<.J 5H), is p055ibly nftl!' he <twk o/ Raplmd.
ElIgmi'illgs slIeh (lS fhe&' becmllt' DI/(' o/ tll<' /I/osll'oplllar SOl/rces
o[ illspimlioll Jor lIIaiofien paillfers.
2 /lUId,' ill l1rbillo i/l 1533, 1I'as sigm:d by Frm/cco Xallto
A''f'l/i, Ollt' oj fJe lIIasf il-ell-kl/O'iI'J/ al/d prolific maiolicn paill/ers. Tlu:
sll/Jject is The larriage of Alexander and Roxana frolll a prillt aftCf
TIJe (lI'IIIS arl' tilOS(' of Federigo Oukl:' of Mm/flm.
3 AII ({rbillo d1Wlllell/ary picce, t//is sigllerl c1largcr, dn/ed IH3,
painted ,{'i/J, (1 tl(ltt/c scellt' /JY Om:io FOlllmm, mlOtI/l'r prolifc (lllri
l1igl/ly s/lc(t"5sjll/III(1iolica arfisf.

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Scrollwork alld Interlacillg Ornament
I
1 Tltis c151o-.Jo stomge
nI' is pnillted in blllf!, yello'.
nlld gn!m, .pi/Ii n cClltml
/lfmd o/grotesqul' Omllllll!ll/.
IIcol'pomlillgJautaslie
1II00lster:; slIrrollllded b.ll
folinte scrol/work. This tYlh'
01on/llllJt?llf, kl/o(tl as
aU'anoca, reflccts ti/(,
widt'sprl'nd lIferes! in
(llle/eut Rome.
HI3-ljCm/13Jl.
2 TII/' blue gral/lid o/ /11;5
disll, made iJl FaclI:t/ iu 15]6,
i5 kllOWIl (15 a beretlino, fllld
it 'as particular/y l/sed 111
Faell=a (lnd 1111' Vellt'to. TJe
,im i5 p"illfed witll dolphills
amOllg illter/aced omame/l/.
DimJl3 1cm/ 12/,in.
21
Other Popular Ornamental Motils
1 TI/e decora/io" 011 11lis Castl'1
Dumllte plate coll$i:;(s of military
trolllli/'S armllgell sYlIIlI/ctrieal/.'I
as a l'Order sl/mmnding tb..
U/ltral 't'ell. 'I,id, COlltail/'i ti/e
ar/lls of 1/1(' pasol/ for 'I'/Iom
/flt' }llntc I'I1S cOlIIlI/issiollCd.
2 Tite i1'ork::llOp of Alal':'fro
Bl'lIedetto. ill Sicl/f1, prodllccd
!lis plate C.1510. TJe CCI/tml
sCeIle depicls SI. ]t!fOIllC ill tll!'
Wildl'l"lIess, (/lid it is Sllrl"OlIl/ded
by n type of illterlaced Ol"llallll'l1t
kJlOWIl as nrnl'esqul'. Diam.
2.J5cm/91.i1l.
Lustrewares: the Revival 01 Lustre Techniques
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1 TI/(' pnilllillg 011 t l ~ ljl.J pinte ~ o[n ritw
god ill (1 lnlldscape. TllC plnfe has /lle mfditioll
DI fl gold nl/d Teddisl1 fustre, il'1/idl ,('(fS tlJ'IJIil'li
ill tite il'orkshop al Macstro Giorgio in Gl//Illio.
DitllJl. 24(111/9/';'1.
2 Tllis C.lj40 beBe donne dis./l 15 illscrilJc>d
nCasSllndra Belfa." T/,!' borda dr:sigll is ol
imi'ricuted scn/es. ti widcsprend ReJluis5Illlce
motif fllld fl Tt'ClfrrCllt c1mTacteristic 01 fIJe
H'ares made ill Oerutn. Difllll. H.jcm/13ZiIl.
3 Allot/er di::ll of belle donne type. tllis al/e
has n 10H'foot nlld is pnilltcd witll tlle portmit
of n 't'Omnn wit1 mi nccompilll.llillg serol/. Tlle
dis11 ms fllstred il/ J530 iJl tlle 't'Ol"ksllOp of
Alnl'$lro Giorgio. GlIbbio. Dinm. 22.5CIII/8lill.
22
sorne cases, painters took figures from several different
engravings lnd reworked them inta new compositions.
Another source oE inspiration \Vas tbe Roman wall
paintings found in the Golden HOllse oE Nero in 1488.
This "grotesque" styJe cE painting, wruch incorporated
fanciful creatures and bizarre monsters among scrolling
foliage, was l1sed by many artists and designers, most
notably Raphael in his decoration of the Vatiean Logge
(1518-19), and it spread to all branches of the decorative
arts. Other nll'nllticn motifs used in the designs indude
trophies of arros, laurel leaves, and putti, eombined with
interlaeed arabesque ornament from Islamie arto
The technique of painting with metallic lustres, which
had characterized the early Hispano-Moresque wares
imported from southem Spain, was introduced in the
16th century, particularly in Deruta and Gubbio. Oxides
of silver or copper were applied to the twice-fired pottery
and re-fired at a lower temperature in l smoky atmo-
sphere to produce an iridescent metallic surface, \vmch
varied from pale, silvery yellO\-v to ntby red. Lustre was
characteristically applied to the large dishes painted with
female portraits accompanied by an inscription on a
scroll, known as eoppe nJllntorie, or "love dishes." They are
sometimes knmvn as belle dOlllle (beautiful women) plates
and were traditionally given as betrothal gifts.
Tv..o developments in the middle of the cenhtry indi-
cate a move away from the fasmon for istoriato pottery.
One was the production in Faenza of wares eft almost
entirely in the white with slight, sketchy decoranon in a
limited palette of colours, known as cOlllpmdinrio. A paral-
lel development in Urbino was a fashion for all-over,
small-scale grotesques on a white ground, strongly
influenced by the work of Raphael.
Many of the different types of Renaissance omament
used by the maiolica potters are illustrated in Cipriano
Picolpasso's TlIree Books 01 tlle Potter's Art, \'vritten c.1557.
He induded a design described as alln porcel/mlO, a refer-
ence to the huge impact that Chinese blue-and-white
porcelain \Vas to have on European design, which will be
discussed more fully in the next chapter.
1
Later Developments in Renaissance Design
2""'"
1 111 tllt' un/re of tls pierced disk '{'!lid,
is pnilll'rl iJl MI/e, .IIe/fow, al/n oml/ge, is a
s/ig/fly dmil'lI ftsllrt' of aJ1II1I0 ngnillst n
wlJite background. decoratiol/ ;s f.'lPica/
of 1111" ,mres I"Ml/ced ;/1 Fae/l:a ;JI tIJe fate
1611/ ceJltllry. Diam. 2;.5cm/9ll.
2 Made ill Urbil/O ill tlle late 16tl1 cel/lrlry. tlle
;;Iory of leda and the Swan has bel!l/ pnilltt'lf
in tlle celltre of l/lis disll, ,l'it1l;1/ a blOOd borda
of groh"Sl//fl' omalllellt ill a predominanlly
.l/C1/0'1' pnleHe agaillst a ,'I,ile background.
Dimll.25cm/9iill.
1
The Pattern Drawings 01 Picolpasso

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1, 2, & 3 TIJe jolfowillg motifs can be fOil/Id in pnltl'rJI drawillgs mm 111(' PicoJ,msso mallllscripl,
writtcn c.J557: Trofei/Rabesche (trophies al/d ambestm:s), Cerquate/Grotesche (onk lea.",s (mil
grotesqlll'$), mui Porcellana/Tirata (porcelniJl auri strapu'Ork). SI/ell desiglls '('re l/sen by mllll.'!
mao/ica ,millters.
5 A dra1l'ing from Picolpnsso's book s'owillg
a brusl1 lml/dle (lIId /iI'O bruslles. The le..t
describes lile mnleriafs frO/ll wllicfl lile bruslit'S
,'ere /linde and tlle mm/J/er 01 pai/lt;lIg.
4 Tite decomtiOIl 0/1 tJis plate, madI' in
Cnfa,,?:;:i% C.1510, depicfs n maiolicn paintel"
decorntil1g /lit! rilll of a pinte, obsen'cd by fIJe
eOllpte w}osc porlmil will, per/lap:;, appenr
ill Ilre cellfre. Notice lIJe six Witll
sepnrnte brusl/l.'s for difieren! piglllellts.
Dinlll.235cm/9'bll.
.. -

-
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., ,
6 Altltol/gll tlle decoration 01/ t/is
brOlld-riJllmed bowl, made ill Cnfaggiolo
C.lSl0-1525. colIsists 01ballds of illler/aced
ambesqlle Ol'llalJ/elll, lile blue al/d hile
cofollrs refleet tlle growillg influl'llce of
C!/il,ese poree/aill. Dialll. 24,2CII1/91,ill.
23
-- -
-
Stylistic Developments in French Tin-Glazed Earthenware and Palissy Ware
1
-
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-
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,fI'
1 AftlwlIgf, ji Jlmdl/Ct'd ill Ni11ll'S,
Frml(,', p/mrmacy jnr, C.157D, is o/ Ita/iflll
I.'I/It'. TI/l' fI por/mi! llf:ad beht'ttll
(!f omnlllt'llf. is similar fo
l/l/film t'.mmJ'!t'S, VIII fIJe gTt'e1l is
J1l.'ClIlinr fa l/,isaclory. Ht 24CIII/91,;1I.
2 T''s dis/, daten 1582, re5emv/es file
i:-,Iorinto ,mr6 prodl/cen j" Uroil/o, blll/lle
slIbject. Am'O/1 cJlflllgil1g" roo lito a serJ1enl.
deriI('Sfrolll 1111 lIustra/ed Bibll' lIal il'IIS
prillh'd jl1 LyolIs. Dial1l. 41.5clII/161,;I1.
3 Bemnrd Pnlissy or olle o[ IJis jollo;(lel's
produced 111;5 //Jou/ded ear/Jemurln.' dislt
C.1580-1620. Tlle dOl/galed cm/mI figlll't',
symbo/i::.illg Feclllldity, is dmrncteristic oj
file FreJlcfl COl/TI style dt!1.'cloped al ti/e
palace oj FOII/ailleblcnlf. L jDem/J 9
4 Cltnrncl<!rislic 01 Bemard Pa!i""y'" ru,;lil
i:cart"S, ,1'/,id, it ....re pmfllccd 1j 56-1 11,;.,;
om! dis/ Ims green, yd[oI'. ami IlYilil'I1/I',d
gla:::es alld lIIollldt'li cn',lllfr. L 111.
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During the 16th century Italian potters settled in
France, Spain, and the Lo\\' Countries, where they
introduced maiolica-making techniques and helped to
establish a nevv tradition of pottery. Thesc v.'ares followed
contemporary Italian styles and can be difficult to distin-
guish. Characteristic Renaissance motifs included profile
heads and biblical and mythological subjects treated in
the istoriato manner. Gradually, each country developed
its own style, which will be discussed in the next chapter.
More idiosyncratic was the \\'ork of the French potter
Bemard Palissy (l51G-90), ",ha produced lead-glazed
earthenwares and developed l range of translucent poIy-
chrome glazes. He is noted for the production of display
dishes, relief-moulded with rnythological subjects
derived from contemporary prints, and "rustique
figuJines," basins and dishes with applied frogs, lizards
and crustacea, many cast from nature, surrounded by
water, shells, and rockwork. These latter elements can
also be seen in contemporary metalwork and represents
an interest in garden grottoes, which spread from Italy to
Franee. The style of Palissy's work continued through the
17th century and was revived in the 19th century.
Charaeteristie Renaissance ornament, incIuding inter-
laced bands of strapwork and arabesques, derived from
engraved sources and eontemporary metahvork, can also
he seen in a group of paJe cream-eolotued earthenwarcs
with moulded, stamped, and inlaid designs, known as
Saint-Porehaire wares, made in Franee c.1525--70. These
refined objects, which include ewers, candlesticks, and
salts, were luxury items reflecting Freneh court taste.
German salt-glazed stoneware is another type of 16th-
century pottery. lts high-fired, vitrified body \Vas imper-
vious to liquids and suitable for making wine bottles and
drinking vessels. Cologne wares are eharacterized by a
golden-brown wash and a distinctive pot-bellied jug with
an applied mask, known as a Bartmmlllkrug. Other areas
produced a pale grey body, sometimes with a glaze par-
tially stained blue with cobalt, and uscd incised and
applied ornament with strapwork, armorials, and profile
heads. l1tese types continued into the 17th century.
25
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2 These boff/e:; of 111IIIJoJls j01"1II
wit/ (1 ligllt browlI inm il'(lsll
Iluda 11 SII/t sla::e (lrc blOWII as
B<lrtmannkrugen. T!le beardcd
l/1ask 01/ Ilh'se vessds, made il1
C%glle C.lj-10, is OIlC oj the
IllOsl dislinctive decorntiIlc motifs
of Cologlle 11Ild Free/lclI pottel"s of
tlle 16111 17IId 171h ct'l1ll1ries. /t
lIIay deri\.lc frolll ROII/al/ SOllrces
o/" lile llorthcrIl EI/ropean folk
traditioll of tlle Wild Mall.
Ht (/efO 16.jClII/6'!ill,
(riglll) 2jCIII/Ioill.

I
-

1 Filie/y lIIoulded stolleWl1re jllgs

of /lis type, wllicll VIlS l1wde 'l
Raeren ill 1588, are c1wmcteristic
of lie prodllCtio115 of RaerCI/ (l1Id
Westerwald. TJu:y jreqJlelltly
display Rellqissallce 1/I0tifs
derh'ed frol1l clIgrm,ed SOl liTes.
Ht 3j.jCIII/I4i11.

2
2 AH extreme/y e/aborate exnmple
of tlle graup of Iligllly refiucd
FrellcJl enrtIU!IIII'l1res kllOWII as
Snillf-Porc!rnire wnre;:; cml be
sCC!/ il1 l/lis C.1545-1560 jugo
II ;5 decomted pi// bnllds of
coll1plex iJlter/aciJlg omnment
deri<,illg 11'01/1 co!1telllpornry
-lit sOl/rees. Ht 34clII/13'/ill.
German Salt-Glazed Stonewares
1 TlIese three nllds of ambesqut'
ommllc!1t by file GeruulI1
mgrm'cr Bnlt!1IJ;inr Sy/illS
(1518-159) "'erl! pllblislled in
155.j. Tllis type of Rmnisstlllce
Omll111t'JI/ was widespn:ad
t!II"OIlghollt Europe ;1/ t!le JIIid-
16f! cm/llf!!, ami dc:;igllet"s
workillg ,ui!/ 11 vnriety of
materia/s iJlcorpom/ed tI/CI11
nlo t!ldr work.
Saint-Porchaire Wares
1
Technical developments went hand in hand ",ith the
creation of new shapcs and object typcs. 5hapes were
often borrowed rrorn other materials such as rnetalwork
or ceramics. Gothic lines continlled into the 16th cenhuy
to be gradllal1y replaced with more c1assical and fluid
shapes, which are characteristic of the Renaissance period
(S<'e 4 and 6 above).
For decoration, Venetian glassmakers drew from a
whole arra)' of tcchniques, sorne newly invented, sorne
re-invented Roman teclmiques, and sorne copied from
Byzantine or Middle-Eastcm glassmaking.
Most typicalIy Venetian are the "hot" decorative
teclmiqlles, where the decorabon forms an integral part
of the making of the object, and which are carried out by
the glassmakcr while shaping the objects at the furnace.
Venetian glassrnakers made frequent use of dip-moulds
to create rib pattcms.
The sllbtle fluid lines of a glass object could be further
enhanccd by the glassmaker applying details in hot glass
and tooling them into intricate omament.
1 Two-IIl/lldled >ase <{'itl/ portmil of Hellry VII of ElIgllmd Imd (1 de.'iee
oI a portCllllis Ohe King's persollallmdge) <I'illtill a rol/l/del, in lattimo
(opnqlle-wllile glas:;), ellamellell alld gill dl'Comlioll, Velliel", (.ljOO. Its
s/mpl' is illj/w!l/u:d by eemll/ies of fIJe pl'riod. Ht 19.jCm/7/,in.
,
2 [;:/'l'r iJl calcedonia glass, Vellice, c. t joo. TI's '.1IJe of marblri ejfecl
imilaled }mrd stol/es. Ht 30.jCIII/l:I1.
3 Cablel ill millefiori glass, Vellice, mrJy 16111 Cel/llIry. TI/(' s/mpe is
derh't:dro", lIIefaftt'Ork. Ht 18cm!7ill.
4 E'l'er in Jiligl'cl' glass, lIsiJlg bot/ a fiH al/d a retorti decoration.
eOlllprisillg lml/ds of tI'/Jite, plaiJl lattimo calles allemalillgtl.itl. filie
tlm'ads, arrr1l1gt'd il1 a /nttiCl' pnttem, Vl'l/ice, late 16t11 cmlll!"!!. TI/e bady
is mOIl/d-b/Oll'1I {'it/ 5qllarl' ditllllolld-slmped projectiolls alld ribs.
HI 27cmhol,.
5 C(lra>aggio, Bacchus (detai/J, 1j 9 3 ~ depiclillg a VelletinJl ta::a, ti
slmllo1' dril1killg gla;;s for 'ille. lts ha/llster stem illspin-d by t/te
ba[lIslrndes of Rellaissan(e nrdlifecl1/rl'.
6 Titiall. The Andrians (detai/), C.1jI8, s/to{'illg a e1'er. TlII? c1assicnf
sfape is inj/llellced by Crl'l'k poffery. 6
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V
enice \Vas the most powerful trading nation of the
late Medieval and earl)' Rcnaissance \Vorld. From
the 12th century onwards it developed, on the small
island of Muxano, a luxury glassmaking industry that
\Vas to become the en"y of the ",orld. The industry ",as
highly organized and regulated by thc Guild of Glass-
makers. lts success ",as based on strong quality control.
stimulation of technical developments, the protection of
its trade secrets, and exccllent markct possibilities,
provided by the Republic's vast trading fleet.
The most important technical development in glass
was the production of an almost completely colourless
50rt of glass, clearer and purer than anything seen before,
\\'hich was named cristnf1o, after naturally occurring rock-
crystal. Its invention around 1450 \Vas credited to the
pioneer glassmaker Angelo Barovier. Cristallo became
all1lost synonyrnolls with Venetian glass, combining the
material's most essential characteristics of clarity and
transparenc)' with dllCtility, aIlowing the material to be
formed into complicated shapes.
Renaissance Venice
Glass
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26
Venetian Decorative Techniques
2 GoNet lkpicfillS riL'l'r gfJI.ls iJl
f%llr1to.;:s gla,;,;, f111d
gift, l'cl1i', first qUflrfa of file
16tfl CL'lIfllry WIl!fuuf is a
HI 20(1I//8ill.
,
2
!
1 C/U/liu alld co.w in m/ol/rJess glnss wifll ndded detnil in
CO/Ol/red glnss, I'IUllllclled tllld gilt, Vt'IIice, lnlt' 15tll cm!II"!!.
Ht ;q.jCm/91.i1l.
3 Detail oI I1llisl, 111 c%l/rle;;,; glns;; ;,1'i111 lattimo (opaqlle-it'1lite gln:,;;)
CIllles, gildi!1g, nlld dinll1ol1d-poi/l1 f'lIgrm'illg, /lcnril1g I!le I1rll/S of POI,e
PlUS IV (1559-65), Velli'. 1559-65. Ditllll. :qcmlto'lII. 3
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Venice also specialized in decoration incorporatcd in
the glass itsclf. Calcedollia glass, for instance, has a
marbled appearancc achieved through a complcx process
of blending diliercnt colours of glass and heat treatments.
Invented around 1'+60, it resembles semi-preciolls stones
such as agatc or after whidl it is narncd.
To make millefiori (thousand flowers) glass, a bubble of
hot colomless glass on the blowpipe is rol1ed over a Aat
surface on wI-Uch sections of prepared, multi-coloured
glass canes are randomly scattered. The colourful pieces
of glass stick to the surface and are raUed into the surface
until it is smooth, after whidl the bubble can be further
inflated and shaped. The resulting effect is one of brightly
patterned coloured patches incorporated in clear
colornless glass. Both mi/lefiori and calcedonia glass HIere
rare precious lechniques. Filigree glass was a more
widely used hot technique. It involved incorporating thin
opaque-white canes into the colourless gIass. The
resulting glass could have a simple striped decoration (n
jiU), but more intricate variations were made ",ith twisted
canes (n retorli). and the effect could be further
complicated by combining it ",ilh patterned moulds,
which ",ould distort the ",hite lines during inflation.
"Cold" techniques are those ",here a decoration is
added on the finished glass. engnwing
i.nvolvcs decorations being scratched into the gl<lsS
surface with a sharp diamond splinter. Patterns illcludc
arabesques and gratesques, and are llSU<1l1y dra",n in
olltline fiHed ",ilh parallel hatching. Cold reverse paillt-
ing was practised on dishes and plates; lhe reslllts ",ere
detaiJed but vulnerable, prone to scr<ltching and O<1killg.
Enamel could be painted onto lhe slll'face using
pigments based on ground glass. The decoration \Vas
fired onto the surface by gently reheating the decorated
object and it into the furnace unlil glass
and enamels became 50ft and fused together. The coarse
enamel paste allowed only cnlde painting and \Vas most
suitable for simple dot patterns. Cold leaf couId be stuck
to the surface with a sticky substance alld fired together
with the enamels.
27
Fagon de Venise
2
2 CoMe! o{ (olOllr/e:;s _ e
ret/ fimllolld-/lOilll t'lIgnu'illg,
/wri:olltnllnftimo t/lrt'l1ds. flud
lT1l(('"; {!{gi/tiillg. /linde ill tllt'
il'tJrksflOlI:> of Giacomo \'or:t,JjJli
I'II, t'lIgftwillg by AIl/boI/Y dt'
Ll/slc, LOl/lloll, 1586.
Ht '7(11I/6/"",
3 Bdl-sJtnjlt'd so/JId al CO/OIIJ'ft,:,S
gffl:55 decomlt'f ",illl II/QII/i1ed
lIlnsks olld prEmls. IlIrquoisl'
I'<'lId;;, al/ti gMil/g. l'it/ 11 Si/iW-
gill 11/01/ lit. Insl quar/('r ol 111<'
16/11 cClltllry, prolmbly AH/il'erp.
Ht 19CIII/71/1I.
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1 EIW ill gtass .{'iO,
11 gr(lf liJlt, coM-pnillft'd IIlId
gilt. proollCl'd /'Y tll/!
JI 1 IIg ViII, Hal/-;11-1fu'-
Tiro/. Austria, 1535-8.
Ht jI.jW!t2'1iJl.
5
4 Osas Bcat, Slill Lifl..' (deta;/),
('ur/y ltll alltUI"Y. dqlh-/iIlS
\/('lIdim-sfyil' go/lk/:,filh'll ,('itll
T<'lf l/lid dh' willl!. T1t, s"'m5
cOllsist o/llOl1ow kllol,:, ,'jtl,
e/fI/orntl' 1101-l'Orkl!d dl'cornliolls.
5 Tazza o{CO/Ollrll':,:, I';III
- ,
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1600, Bar'/(lJUl. Tllt' C(llollr
:;eht'''/(' pafe gn'l'I/, .lidIo.!,.
ami e/lilt' j;;; Iypiml 01 Bnrcl'lOl/a
glas,.. Dimll. 2.2.5cm/S/ill.
28
With thc rise of the reputation of Venetian glass, SO
grew the desire of foreign rulers to start their own
production of luxury glass in thc Venetian style.
Although the VenetiaIl Guild tried to keep its working
methods secret. its glassmakers ,,"ere regularl)' lured
\\'ith generous incentives to leave their country and settle
elsewhere. By the end of the 16th century, Muranese
glassmakers had set up hunaces in several countries
north of the Alps. Because they tried hard lo produce
gIass aln fn,oll de Vellise (in the Venetian manner), just as
thel' had made it at home, it is very hard to distinguish
their produds from those made at Murano.
The glasshouse in Hall-in-the-TiroL Austria, was one
of the very first Venetian-style glasshouses outside Itall"
Some glasses can be attributed to it because oE the coats
of arms they bear. The Tirol glasshouse seems to have
specialized in cold-painted decorations, while the shape
of its products is entirely Venetian.
Ant",erp became one of the main centres of Venctan
glassmaking in northern Europe. Most of the master
glassmakers \Vorking there \Vere Venetians, \\'orking in
the Venetian style. Ho",ever, some local shapes did
develop, especially during the 17th century.
From Ant",erp, Venetian glassmaking spread to
many other places. The ltalian Giacomo Verzelini
(1522-1606), for instance, went on lo London. Some
extraordinarily fine glasses of the 15805 can be
attributcd to his nrorkshop. Their engraving ",as almost
certainly done in London by the Frenchman Anthony de
lysle. Makers fmm Altare in north-west Italy, a rival
glassmaking centre, introduced the Venetian style of
glassmaking into france. They produced slightly
diffcrent, often angular shapes, and the figurative
enamelled decorations are more naively dranrJ1.
In Spain, strong local traditions nrere only partially
influenced by Venice. The glass used often has a strong
honey colour. Whle enamelling ",cnt out of fashion
among Venetian glassmakers after the first quarter
of the 16th century, the Spanish continued to practise
the lechnique, developing their distinctive style
Forest Glass
,
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,
1 Pnlll/CII/,t'flka I'I/k gr'lI gfa55 pifIE a
flni r,'d ri 11I, fmlll Gl'rIl/llll,l' or 5,pif ::altmd. Inte
13tll ur l'flrfYl..til (l'/llu,!!_ HI1.jCIII/iJl.
2 Bcrkcmcycrs (it:f/) lIIlt
RocmNs (ri.,;:1II J of ,?n'I'll o;:fn,-,-
. . , ,
11t'()m/,d ;l,jlll pnllll_". lim ,ilf
11il//II.JJlI f ptli 11 f nI,\; m,'i liS. jram
GI'fII/(/I/!f )J" rile
1590-16;5. Tll l ' Berkemeycrs
1Ia'l' IlJlplit '1 f jriIle.l
UI (1,1[[1';:;1) 23c1II/9ill.
3 Kr<llltslrllnck ofelmr

gll/;:;s, GCI'IJl/1I/Y, 15111 cmlllry.
HI '+.5011/1 lill.
4 Piel('/" Clll!';:;:, Sti11 Lifc with
Roerncl' and Herring (dcllli/),
dnlcd 16.+;. TlIl' nlt' g/'l'l'JI gln;:;:;
tif RClemers 'lIl1nl1Cl'/f lile goldclI
J/tlllr ruill t '. OHIe/1
pnillfl/S il/ 111(' 1;/1/ ((//Iu,.!!
iI'dlllll'lf !Jt' c/lIJl/l'IISl' 01
11t'liclillS 111(' ((lfllllr 11//11
ill 0;:111:':'.
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incorporating leaf designs in bright green, ",ith stylized
animal figures.
lo the great forests of central and northern Europe, l
distincti\'e style of glassmaking de\'eloped from thc late
Mcdic\'al period onwards. The forest pro\'ided the fuel
and the glasshollsCS mo\'ed on lo l new location when
their surrOlmding area \Vas clearcd of trces. The malo
fa", materials \Vere locally gathered sand and thc ashes
of bccch trces and ferns. These contained high Ic\'els of
ron oxides which resultcd in l glass with l strong green
calouf known as \Valdglas (forest gla55).
The forest glasshollss mostly produced drinking
glasscs for wine and beer in a limited variety of types.
Most of these are dcrivcd from the basic Medieval type
of beaker, which \Vas conieal or barrel-shaped, with an
applied foot-rim, often decorated with pincered points.
5ueh glass is dccorated with pnmts, or small blobs of
glass applied in a regular pattcrn. These prunts are
decorative as well as functional, providing extra grip
whcn thc glass is held with greasy fingers.
Thc most eommon type of drinking glass in the 15th
and 16th centuries was thc so-callcd Alnigl!leill, a squat
barrel-shaped beaker decorated with moulded honey-
comb or rib patterns.
DlIfing the 16th eentury, se\'eral typcs of glasses
de\"eloped fmm the prunted bcaker. The Kmllf::;/,."Jlck
(cabbage stalk) was a barrel-shaped bcaker decorated
\\'ith large prunts \\'hich \\'ere pulled out \\'ith pinccrs
into a pointed shape. Another "iui<ltion was the
Berkelllelfl!l", a beaker on a lo\\' foot, thc main bod\' of
. "
\\'mch consists of a more or less cylindricallO\\'er part and
an c\'crted upper section.
The ROl!l1lef, one of thc 11105t popular drinking \'essels
of the 17th eentury, de\'eloped from thc Berkellleyer in the
early 17th century. Thc top part of the RoeJIII!I' is spherical
or o\'iform and, fmm about 1620 on\\'ards, it developed l
higher splayed foot, which \\'as made by spiluling a
thread of hot 50ft glass around a wooden templa te.
RaellJers were especially popular for drinking \\'hitc \Vine,
thc grccn glass greatly enhancing its colour.
29
Silver and Metalwork
Architectural Background
,
4 TJt' Rt'1I0i:,:,flIl' comlOi:':'l!lIr Pit:ro dt' \ /elii
vI F/oml' wl/l'cil'd lIrt'oll:' lmrd:,ttJII'
f.Jr l'1lic/,/, COlllllli:,:,iolll'd :,ifw-gilt 1/10111//$.
TlIt' tk::.igll t'f tlI6t' 1I/01l1lt::. ;$ $/il/ Gtl/Jic bllt
/(l(11..$ !i.1/nmf j'l c,rMi" dt'faik Ht ,p.cm/l6/ill.
'.
often melted down to be re-made in the latest fashions,
many significant iImO\'ations in design "'ere reflccted
first in goldsmiths' work. The surviva1 of such works,
espeeially from the 15th and carIy 16th centuries, has
been almost negligible, especially from Italy, bllt many
dra\\"ings surnve and silo\\' the application of
Renaissance design principIes to vcsscls and other objects.
Renaissance architccture \VlS condinoned bv a ranonal
approach to propornon, expressed throllgh the language
of ancient Roman architecture and through the
\'ocabulary of the classical orders. Just ho\\' different the
resulting stylc \\"lS fmm its ancient inspiration, howe\'er, is
clear from the sUTviving buildings of architects such as
Leon Battista Alberti 0-10+-72) and Filippo BruncIleschi
(1377-1+-16), for whom sllrface decoration is as important
an elcment in the overall effect as rational proportion and
classical detaiL A similar concern for classically inspired
design and proportion is cvident in designs for silver bllt,
in seeking to emulatc classicll vessel forms, the
Rcnaissance goldsmith \Vas handicapped by the fact that
3
3 rllllm,;o POffllill% madi' tI,;,;; 11111::::;'('
altar eros.;. ftlr Ffol"t'II({' Cntht'dmf ;11 1.Jj ,-9.
/ts cksigu i,:: trtll/sitic'IIIfl/: Golflic ill the
Lmst' mIli (r(}:Os; R'jJ'S5oflJlCl' ill lIJe ",kili.
Ht J.jlJl!S{t ll.
1 TIII' nrc/tccflfrnl mui
sc/lfpfllrtlf compositioll al
<;j/w-gi/t altar (nlldll':,tick.
comp/l'tt'ff jI! ROllli' by nlltollio
CI'I/tilL' ill /581,;'; strol/g/y
by tite \laml!'ri,;! styit'
of Alic1Ie/(lIlRc'1o, iI'110 IIUlI' 1Ia.','

dt'Siglll'd il. Ht 1m/3ft 3ill.
2 TJI' cugrm'l'r \la/ajo Bl."!li
madt' 1M" mIli en/stal

(n",kt'1 for Papt' C/.'lIIt'Jlt VII jll
I jJ.2. Tht' rlassiml SI/bji'cf,; of lile
l!l1gmt'iJlgs tflld tllt' disciplilltJi
l'ropnrticJ/I" of ti,, 11101111/::-
'l'itClllfb' lb.' Rt'JI(j",,;ml" 51yk.
Ht J5(1II/6/1I.
I
n Medie\'al Europe there ,,-as no recognized
distinction bet\\"een artists and craftsmen. Artists were
those who practised ars, or skil). and the art of the
goldsmith was rightly regarded as the queen of crafts.
The materials in which they ""orked - both gold and
silver - \Vere highly \'a1uect and the objects they created
\Vere not on1y utilitarian tablewares, but sumptllous and
refined pieccs that testified to the status of their owners,
or were made for that greatest of patrons, the church.
1l1is did not change with the advent of the Rermissance.
Princes and prelates continued to offer Illcrative commis-
sions, and many leading painters and sculptors such as
Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-].1.33), Andrea del Vcrrocchio
(c.].I33-88), and Antonio Pollaiuolo (c.1432-98) also
trained and \\'orked as goldsmiths throughout their lives.
North of the Alps, too, \\"eIl-known figures sllch as
Albrecht Drer (].I71-1328), Hans Holbein (1497/8-1343),
and Nicholas Hilliard (c.15'+7-1619) \Vere either trained in
the craft or came from a goldsmithing background, Partly
for this reason and aIso because precious metals \Vere
30
-----
Golhic lo Renaissance: Northern Europe
1
2

3
1 Allm'c!f Diir"f ,ms Ollt' of fle lI/Osl ml/o/l:'
Gcrmlln RCllniss17I1Cl' nft;s/:;, bllt t/II! ()i't'I'IlII
{onu I1l1d al/ tlu' ddai/:; of llis 1526 dOJlllie-(lfp
- -
d6igll are sli/! Got/lc.
2 Pllb/ished ill abollf 1540 iJl Fulda by Hans
81'0511111<'1", the cnn:flll hori:Ol1fl1/ di,ijiolls oI
tltis ClIp desigll ami nI! its dclni/s I1rt' W/IOI/!f
RCWSSI1IlCC ilI cOl1ceplioll.
3 Tllis sih'er-gilt 11IId 1II1111il1l5 s!ld! nei. 01"
slIip !lwde/. IIIl1d(' ill Pars in 1528, is dL'sig!1cd
as 11 ccrcllltmin! sa/t cel/nl". 1t is slili GotJlic JI
cJwmctcr, alt!lOlIgJ 50me deta;l:;; like tlle eh,!'
111111 Imll fed are [{Cllnis::;IlIlCl.'.

.,
. . ~ .
r ,.;a -"'" \ 5,;:

4 Tlls mrc cnslil/g bottlt'.for

sprillklillg sccl1/('d mt{'/", IIIS
I/lnde ilI LOl/doll ill1553for t/Il'
lIIiddlc I/Ulrkel. /t dOr':: 1101 slw!'
fin' illjlllCIICt' ~ r Iltc cOl/rf/y
desigll:' o[ Ho/bl!ill, llllt mtller
Illnl oi he prillt:' 01 [-{((liS
Bro::nlller. Hf q5CI!I/5Iil1.
5 Ludwig Krug ,uns Olle o[ 111('
IIIOSt fnlllol/s cnr!.l/ Itll-cm/ury
goldslllitll:: of NUl"el!lbt'l"g n/ld O/1e
ol tlle piol1>('/"s of flw I/I'I' sly/>.
T1s (o'I'red ClIp Mili !lns Gof/lic
dcll1i!s. Iml t/> ilori:ollfll!
clllpltnsis of it,.; fOrtl1 i:,
Rl'IIlIissll/lce. Ht .J..J.CIII/1i')/I.
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Hans Holbein and lhe English Renaissance
1 Holbl'iu Cflll/l' fo ElIgllllld in 1526 Illld
prollwted n sop/list iwtcd cOllrtly ,'[T5;01l of !le
Rmllisslluce style. epitolll:l'd by llis desigll Jor
{I gold Clip fo (de/Jm/e H!lIry VIl!':, !!wrrillge
/0 fnlu' Sel/lllour ill 15J, ('!lidl iIlCOrp0rlllr'::
c/w,sicnl IIlednlJions, IllVrc:;rlIe fo!inge, plltt i,
nl/d 'nsef0rtlls.
2 Ol1e of tite fi'l!' ::11I1,ipillg pi['ct':: dcsigl1cd by
Holbcill, Ihi:: \;old, l'llnllle/, nl/d rock-Cfl:,tnl
. -
c01xrfor nllO>1 is dmsely l'nckl'd witlt
strllppork, c1l1ssirn/.figurcs, IlIOI"C:'I/II[, folillge,
(lIId jcucls. HI16clII/6!.i11.
1 _
I

31
Cellini and Romano
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1 8ellT('JIlIto CelliJli IIInde lEis go/d snlt celln,.
jol' (mllcis 1ill 1543. Tlh! r/eh sYlllbolislII, pil!!
lit' fU'o liglln's repreSelllillg rhe cart/I nl1d SI!(1,
(llIri Ibt' prl!cariollS(lf Ltnltmced COJIIllO'Sitioll.
('pifollli:e lIJe Afmllll'rist st.llfe. HI 6cm/:z bJl.
Italan Mannerism
_c--

-
........ .."".j "-"'.
2
2, 3 501111' of tlle '1Ir1icM lh'sigllSJo/" si/"i'rSlllitfls 111 tI/t' AImma;,;1 sly/e ,('cre by Gilllio ROllUIIIO,
il'lW1l'orkedJor file dllkes ol MtlllfUfl as I1lll1rc!ri/t'ct nlld pnil/ter as ;udl 115 n desigJJef ofgoldslllifhs'
rt'urk. k'eller!f. fl1/d hlJlt'strit's. T{c:,l' .1t'sigl15Jor n C/1I1dl6tick nnd n >'nlt n'llaf, dal lIg fl"OlII nbol/t
15:25-'0, l/se f!U! 'Ocal11lIary o/ ROlllnll nrc1litectllrt.' - amllllm;; foliage. /iDUS' IIIllsks, Imd l l h ~ -
lml llil'Y nppt'llr ill a cOlllp/elf>ly 1ll!i:1' (lIld 1'lnyflll ,my.
32
1,2501/1(, oj lile IJ/D::f illj1uclItinlltalillll
\tIall/u'ti:::1 omnllll'llt dt'sigl1s Wt'rt' file SL'rl':;
o/ (,</,,"5, '-'ases, nlld cmul/I'sticks by filen Vico
iu lile 15ol0S fwd 15jOs. T/f'St dcsiglls IISt'
c1nssiml ROllltlll lIIotifs. but lile <'islllll1y
l/IIsfavleOOI o[ fflc l>"l'f, il:; bi:llrrc Imlf-
hl/lllm! /ltllldk rllld tite filie jr/llctiol! 01ool muf
sfclII 011 he crtlldbtick are typicnJ 01 tlll' slyl/!.
3 AJos! spl'cinl COIIIIII;55;01/,:, 'efe lll1-;;ed 0/1 n
dmil'ing by lIJe crnjtsmall, lJl/t occflsiollfllly ti/e
d-:;igll ens n'prescllted by 11 tI'n'l.'-dimeH"iol/n{
IIwdd. TI';:.; fermcoftn /l/odelfa for 11 ('per ;5 n
mn.' SII1I.,ji.'fl/.
4 TlJis 111 id-1 6tll-Ct?1I t/1 r!, desigl1 for n sill'l.'1'
Imsin,from U/e scJlllOl of lile Flon'/l/jl/e
glffsmiffl Frtmcexo Sn{"j(fi, 5011011'5 11/1'
dense/y packedfigllral eOll/posilO" tllat mIs
key fa lli" slyll', blll also proi'idl'$ a rnridy
01 nlfl'mnlil'l' tn.'atl1lt'llts for tlu' border. 4
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School 01 Fontainebleau and Italy
1 Ro::;so Fiorel/tillO alld Frnncesco
Primaficcio ;,penIM ctrtl/Jil'Ork
for tlle Ga/erie F f at
FOlllaillelJlea1/, c.1540. lt ,'as
diSSI'millated by prillts Sl/c/ as
tllis curtol/c/le desis" of 1563 by
Rell Boy"ill after UOllard T/liry.
2 Very /iU/e J6tllccntl/ry
Parisirl/l SIITi.,i.,l'S, but tlle
sop/listicnted jr.l'el-/ike tl'Orkmall-
sllip of tllis go/d alld mame!
1Il00/l11ed DllYX e;>tr, c. J 560,
SilO,!,,, l/le tl/a/il.lffor wllidl il
'as falllol/s. Ht :2 C//l/JD 'l.ill.
, I
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4 5
3 Alldrollet DI/ CercealJ was
IJrobably tIJe //lost importnllt
Frellc/I desigllef workillg nrolllfd
'540, alld tllis salt ('/lar desigu
iIIustTlltes ti/e discip/il1cd darity
uf 111:; :;tyle.
4 011 CerCClw's desigll fol' atable
JOl/lltaill litis grent dCfillitioll, but
also del/se al/d colllplex ommllellt
flI/d a sellse olllllll/ollr, all i/l/por
tant c/emellfs oJ MflIlllcrislll.
5 Similar ",irror bncks to tI/is
sun'h'(' il/ car'l'd box;:'OOd, bllt
ti/e illlricncy of t/lis desigll of
1561 by lile Paris Etielllle
Oc/mme sllOws t!lat it mlfst IJare
bi.'t'Il madI' for exeClltioll ,,/
preciolls meta/.
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at that time no ancient plate had come to light. As a result
the essential inspiration for most UlpS, ewers, candlesticks,
and so on is the vase form, articulated with decorative
details drawn from architechlre. Rationality in design is
reflected in balanced compositions divided into c1early
defined horizontal zones corresponding to the various
component parts; omament is restricted to a limited
range of motifs including flutes, dentilations, acanthus
foliage, and roundels incorporating classical med.allions.
Pollaiuolo's 1-157 altar cross in Florence, for example (see
p.30), is almost entirely architechual and, while in basic
form akin to its Gothic antecedents, the designer has
checked its sense of verticality by imposing a strong
series of horizontal divisions.
In northem Europe, the impact of the Renaissance was
Jater and different. The already fuIly developed ltalian
style made a powerful impression on visiting artists such
as Drer (see p.31), which reslllted in thc carly 16th
century in a hybrid, transitional style incorporating both
Renaissance and Gothic features. By the end of the first
quarter of the cenhlry, Nuremberg artists like Ludwig
Krug (sce p.3l) and Peter Fl6tner had marshallcd a more
fully integrated form of the style. This retained certain
features of Gotruc ornament, but was mainly charactcrizcd
by horizontally zoned construction and a predominant
ornllnental language of flutes and gadroons (dccorativc
lobed edging), frieze omament, and classic<ll or mytho-
logical allusions. The interest of patrons in the classical
past, and their princely identification wilh imperial
Rome, is symbalized. by the incorporation of empcrors'
busts or even ancient sil ver coins into silver\\'are.
The role of princely patrons in <lccelerating the devel-
opment of style is nowhere more clearly evident than in
the patronage of the English and French kings, Henry vm
and Francis 1. The ambition of both to lead what wouId be
seen as the mast brilliant COllrt in Eurape loo to overtly
competitive displays of lavish grandeur and events such
as the Field 01 the Ctoth 01 Gold (1520), whieh provided
\\'ork for innovative artists capable of projecting the image
of the king and were the sllbject of diplomatic dispatches
33
Antwerp Mannerism
1 IIn/il'crp ;,;i/'cr o/ lIJe lIIid'16tll CL'llfury ,ens
nUlOug lile 111051 splCl/did ill [l/rope. Tht' :;'1/11111
proporfiolls (lnd grotesqlfc details 01 tJlis t"i/'t'r
nlld basill. ColjjO. /[15Im/t' Allf<t'erp's COlllri-
buliol/ lo !'vlmllll'rlSII/. EilW lIt ;-lcm!t;lill.
2 TIJis sUper-giU cOl'en:d lazza, /IIade
in Allfwap illljjS, is d('corall'd 'itlt
ommm'/Ils sYIII/loli=illg imfa. lis I"oporthms
nre RCIliJissmlCl!, '1I1 /11" symoo/isIII nI/ti
On/mm'III mr AIU/mer;,;t. Ht ;8.5(111/1j bn.
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4
3 TI/(! Alltll'crp (Irtisl Com('/is Floris
prodl/celj 011 origillal ::"crit'S oi l.'tIW
ill ti/e Ij..OS, iJlcOrlJQrnfillg groft'SI/IIt'
c{lmpo:;;liolls o/ //l/mml figlll'l.'s. stmpi'Ofk, al/d
m'cllfil'e n/Islmc! 1.''ssc! /OI"II1S.
4 Halls Vredelllflll lit' Vries wn,; nllof/zer
illfll/('Jltinl Allt;:"I'rp artisl ,1,JO$t' ,{'Ork illdud!?11
a St'ri!?s ror si/iNr, s//dl as litis 1563 taZLa.
5 Adri(/ell Col/nat's Imltalls for (l1"l/(/1IIl'11/
cirCIl/nl!!d widdy. (/Ild Iflis sl'iu p/nlt' desigu
sllo!'s lIis illren'sr in f(/IICiflf/ 5('(/ 1II0IIsl,'r5.
34
aeross lhe Contincnt. Francis 1 scored a symbolie point
over Henry in securing the serviees (or, more accuratcly,
the presence) of the aged Leonardo da Vino (1-152-1519)
and, later, the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini
0300-71). A more signal event, however, was his appoint-
ment of the two Florentine artists, Rosso and Primaticcio,
to whom \Ve shall rehln1 later. For his part, Henry VUl's
most brilliant eomt artist was the Gem1an painter, Hans
Holbein, who worked in London for several decades fTom
the 15205 until after the king's death in 15.j.7. His cruef role
was as designer, both of decorations for comt entertain-
ments, and also for what might broadly be tenned
fumishings. Almost nothing of the magnifeent gold and
silver made to his designs sun'ives, but a munber of the
designs themselves do, such as the gold cup made in 1336
for Hcnry VI1I's wcdding to Jane Seymour (p.31). They
show an eas)' command of Renaissance proportion and a
repertoire of omament that indudes certain ne'" features,
most notably moresque foliage, ,,-hieh was adapted from
saracenic metalwork.
The presenee of this feature is a reminder of how wide-
ranging Renaissance designers ,,,'ere in their efforts to
expand the rcpertoire of available ornamento Ewers,
dishes, and other decorative \\'ares in brass ,vere evidently
imported into Emope through Vcnice in quantity during
the early 16th. cenhlry, and their typical deeoration of
densely engraved abstract serolls soon beeame a stoek-in-
trade throughout much of northern Europe.
The designs for courtly objects like this, or exceptional
sun'ivals such as the Cellini Salt (see p.32), are also
reminders of the collaborative nature of the fnest
goldsmiths' work. Objects made for royal patrons often
incorporated other preciolts or exotic materials likc
carvoo rack erystal or rare seashells from the tropics.
Equally, enamel was used to enhance the effect of
decorative plateo Often this would be restricted to simple
opaque enamels or /liello (a compound of sulphur, siJvcr,
lcad, and copper, used to fill incised decoration) for coats
of arrns or inscriptions; occasionally panels of decorative
or pietora! enamel would be incorporated.
Jamnitzer and Nurel)lberg
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1 Till' NlIl"t'm/ICI'S gllld rct/llil"l'lf
tlmt mi flspiriug /lItlsta pmll1ct' a Clip offl
pnrtiClflarJor", bt:forl' tlfillS (fcct'I/h'd illto/l/II
mt'lIIbership. T/is d/'5(<;:1I c.J600 l,y Prwl
F/ilui! is o/ fhe prescri/lt'd forl/l. bul witli I/I'i!'
orllfllllt'l/f dt'5iglll'd lo 5110'1' I,is "kili.
2 TI/e lIIosl ;1If/m'Jltinl Gerlllflll g01l15111il1l ol
f1le Sl'COIU1/U1lfoftlu.' J6th cmlun/ il'as \\"'11:('/
]rwlIlit::l'r. Tillo' !/I(lS5l.'t' Merki'l c/'lItn:piccr! al
alf()lI/ 1).19 i5 del/:>e/y crotl'dt'd pi// complt'x
qllflsi-p/i1osopllicn/ "'Yllll'O/i:"m, HI 1I11/3ft 3ill.
3 Tlu.' arcfJill'cfllrn/ proporti01l5 01 f1lis
}lIl1llli/:l'I" jt'il'el caskt'l, c. 1j 70, IIrl' /ypiml/y
\lmlllerisl ill tlu: 'ir/l/O'5O mili
S'}fmllO/isUl 01 i/" omamel/f. W. j.lCIIl/21 bu.
3
, 2

\
\
1
4 Qm' of Imllllit:.,,':, II/lb/
/lrilliaJlt crentitlll5. ffi:, ('lIYr
fmll/es Irm :it'il"hd/" ill n cr)llIpo-
::ifioll dispara/e t'!el1l('llt;; that
n/"'lIdol/:, (1/1 ;;('III/11nIlCI' o/ fIIie:,_
E,'eH tllI' /lorllla/ relnfmsllip vI
sea/e Vl'/il't'1'1I tJl(' mg/e ami fhe
:;Iwil is discardcd. HI 33(111/13111.
5 Hall';' P,'/:old ,'liS al/e of
:-"'lIrI'Ulbt.'TS's !l'ndillg goldsmitlts
in fllc a{kl' /nll/llit:t'r.
. -
TJis ClIp, mndcfor lile pnlririllll
N11'-l'mIJag fa111i/Y al IlIIflOff,
incorparnfl's tite fmlli/y ert iJlfo
1111.' st('1/I f11ld fll/ial oI 'fu' cup.
HI46.jClllh81.1l.
6 Pe/:old 1m" nt tllelo'4ralll
oI nl'opll/nr Gothic Ti,;,.i"11l ill
X"I"I'III/,el"g, t'l'itollli:l'd by tl"
enl'!}! 17Ih-cm/ury (//11 ill tlll'
forlll ofa ml/ch afgnll''''
Ht 5OCIll/JQ :i/l.
7 TI';" dlll'llnl/" t/llli ClIp
/11/ Ori"IIII,11 Rilkr i" a ml"in/ioll
011 lIe lI/(1dl'1 /lIt' A'lIrl'IIIIll.'l"g
1I111..1"l"l'i('((' CIIJl. !dll!l,ll uf i/" fine
!,/lltem,;. dl.'ri,.... from
/lIIl11til:t'r. Hf 1j.jCIll/Joill.
35
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German Mannerist Design
2
1 Tlle well-orgnllizedlorlll nnd OI"/WIIIt'1l1 o/
tllis 1551 ClIp dL'Sig" by !vlnttlns Ziilldl o/
Nuremberg represelll lile sfmldnrd of ('()rk
aclliet'ed by Ihe besl goldsmitlls. Ziilldt's <l'Ork
,{'as il1idely disseminnted, mld ('/emell/s ollMs
desigll nppenr 01/ lIJe ElIglisJI ClIp 011 1'.37.
2 TJe gourd-s/mped Clip il1 tMs desigll of 15S1
by Benznrd Znl1 is n reviva/ of a Medil'7.'a/ formo
willl cOlltempornry strnp'Ork omalllellt. 11 i/'as
widely cimt1ated nlld rms prolmbly familiar lo
tlle IIInker of tlle ElIglisll gOllrd ClIp (xot' p.]?).
3 Virgil Solis of Nllremberg tt'Us n
omnmcllf nrtisl il/ ti/(: 161/1 tellfllry mili
produccd /mge IIl1l11hcrs of defniled paftems for
goldsllIitllS, SUell as tltis lIlid-cellfllry pnlle/ of
slrnpil'Ork nlldfolinge.
4 Tllis IIlngllifiullt rock-cryslnf mld
tnl1k1lrd, made by Dieboft Krllg al Slrnsbollrg,
c.lj60, drnws 011 n parid." of illtematiol1al
prillled gmpltic SOllrces. Ht 26clII/1O'l.ill.
36
At the Slme time as Holbein \Vas perfecling the
northern European expression of the RenaisS<:1.llce style,
artists in Italy such as Giulio Romano, Enea Vico, and
Francesco Salviati were produdng designs for goldsmiths'
work that refIected the new and very different preoccu-
pations of the Mannerist style. Two of the main features
of this style weTe invention and virtuosity, l notion
embraced by the ltalian word diffiClllt, But "'lhile these
priorities in themselves make it difficult to define the
style in terms cf specifie features, certain broad principies
cf design can be recognized. One cf these, characteristic
of Giulio's candlestick design (p.32), is a use cf the vocab-
ulary of c!assical design and architecture in a way that is
non-classical in its effect: the putti and lions are c1assical
motifs, but the way in which they stnlggle to escape from
the acanthus foliage is noto In Enea Vico's ewer (p.32), the
density of omament, the top-heavy sense of imbalance
created by the small foot, and the attenuated proportions
of the handle are a11 feah.lres of Mannerist design that
\vould be taken to extremes as the cenh.lry progrcssed.
Mannerism migrated to northern Europe much more
quiekly than had the Renaissanee style. This was partly
due to Francis 1'5 great project for the decorabon of his
ga11ery at Fontainebleau and to the revolutionary dcsigns
produced for it by Rosso and Primabccio (see p.33). 111e
elaborate sh.leeo eompositions of strapwork (a decorative
motif resembling cut and curling strips of leather) and
elongated figures were intended as a framework for the
painted canvases, but became the dominant feature of the
gallery. They ereated sueh a sensation that within a few
years strapwork had become an ubiquitous decorative
motif throughout northem Europe.
The main reason for the rapid dissemination of
design in the seeond half of the 16th eentury was the
grO\'\'th in the market for sheets of printed ornament,
which were used by leading goldsmiths throughout
Europe. The version of strapwork decoration that
travelled across Europe around the middle of the
cenh.lry was not so mueh a copy of the Galerie Fran<;ois
las an interpretabon of it by French artists sueh as Ren
Elizabelhan Mannerism
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1 Made lI Londoll ill 1568, tlds rock-crystal
ClIp alld cover bcar /le l1Iark of Olle 01 tlle royal
goldsmiths (md sllOw awareJIess 01 tlle latest
COJlfillellta/ pattern books. Ht 43cm!Ilill.
2 TIle desigll 01 tlJis Lolldoll-made spice
plate of 1573./rom a set o/ six, is dosely
based 011 the designs of Adriaell Col/aerf.
Dialll.155CIl116ill.
3 MI/eh slln'ivillg English Eli:nbet/mJl silver
fai!s to equa! tiJe slmldards of tIJe best
coJltinelltal work, a/ld lile emOOssed stmpwork
of tlds 1581 S111t cellar is a poor ref/ectioll of
conte11lporary design deve/opments, probably
takell al secolld /umd mt/ler than directly fmm
a pattern book. Hl 27.5Cf1I!III.
4 Like lile rock-erystal Clip (1), tlJis gOl/rd Clip
is of exceptiona/ qua/ity for EliU/be/1mll si/ver,
and was possibly made by aforeigll-tmined
si/versmit/I worki/lg in Londoll. lts maker
probably knew tlle 8enlard Ztm prillt opposite,
or olle similar. Ht 3ocml11'/,i1l.
1
Spain: Herrara Style
1 TI,is sihw-gilt c1m/ice is typiCflI
ofa sty/e tha/ de")('foped in early
17fh-centun) Spaill. Nmlled after
tlle arc!tect, jllall Hermm, it
combined a'TiC!lIless 01 material
alld Onlamellt witll an al/sterity 01
form that is IIOt fol/lId elsewllert'.
Ht 28C11l!III.

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1
3
Boyvin and Androuet Du Cerceau (see p.33L Other
centres of print production and goldsmiths' work in the
middle and late 16th century were Antwerp, Augsburg,
and uremberg. The published designs of prolific
artists and engravers like Cornelis Hors, Hans
Vredeman de Vries (p.34), and Virgil Satis (see p.36) did
much to define the character of high style Northem
European goldsmiths' work for the Test of the century_
Prints by graphic artists were not the only source of
innovation during the 16th century. The art of design
\-vas an important part of the training of a goldsmith
under thc German guild system, and the most
outstanding and skilled goldsmiths \Vould have been
largely responsible for their o",n designs. Enough of the
works of the Nuremberg goIdsmiths Wenzel Jamnitzer
and Hans Petzold survives to substantiate the brilliant
reputation they had during thcir lifetimes. Works by
}amnitzer such as the MerkeI centrepieee of c.1549 (see
p.35) epitomize the virtuosity as well as the excesses of
the style: arguably ill-proportioned as a whole, it is
nevertheless a triumph of finely executed detail,
eombining a wealth of densely arranged ornament with
a programme of inte11ectual contento
The Renaissance goldsmith, however, \Vas both a
Ieader and fo11ower of trends in the complex interilclions
that made up the European artistic scene. Thc background
of artists such pS Pollaiuolo and Cellini ensurcd that some
of the tec.hniques they used for goldsmiths' work \Vere
also applied to bronze, and perhaps the virtuoso of
a11 Hallan works in metal of the period lrc lhe brilliant
sculptura} parade annours of damilsccncd steel made in
the Negroli workshops in Milan. In nurthcrn Europe, a
role in the dissemination of ornament was also
played by \'\'orks in base mctll, most notably the
spectacular e\vers i1nd dishcs l11lde by the French
pewterer, Fran\ois Briol, and his Nuremberg imitator,
Caspar Endelein. The faet that these wares were made of
relatively inexpensive pewter, and were cast rather than
being individually raised and chased, ensured a signifi-
cantly wider market and thus l greater social impact.
37
- --- ----------
Textiles
Stylized Networks
w
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(1)
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1 \'1'wm si/k, possib/y iU6tem llldin fOl"
I.'xJ.lort, 140-1600, .oilil lile c/assic ogc!.' orll!,
in wlIicl eacJ/ dowlIll'l7rd roil' ollcar-drop
s!ll1pes aentes 1111 ill/en!ll.'dinfl' dOil'llll'fird rOlI'.
2 5ilk brocade, Spa;lI, 16th cel/tu!'!!_ [-lere,
tlh: ogee motij is deliwtc (md disCUlltilll101I5.
YlIrougll I!le Hapsllllrg dYllllsty, Spni/l
,!'aS stylislically illf/llt'lIlinl 011 dcsigll of
file periodo
3 Hallri-,llovell silk 'e/ve! witil meta! thread,
Oltoman Tllrkcy, 1550-1600, illustrntillg
file Jllrg('-scnle, ba/ti ogit'nl jmlllc<l'ork nI/ti
styli:!.ed pOIII('grmwfcs typicnl o[ IIInllY
Rellnissnllce pnllems.
38
4
4 5ilk <'el,'et, /taly, 161h cell/ury. T}e slIIall-scnle pnttem makes fhe
geomelric pla/l lIIore nppnrcll/, wlli/e IIe textuml de/ni! S/IOWS he close
relntioJlship hl'f,l1l!l!l1 textiles nl/d lIIetn/work desiglls o/ l!Ie periodo
5 Si/k dall1ask, /fa/y, lale 16th cmtIlry. ElIropeml origill is I/Slllllly
illdicafed by tlle il1c1I1sioll o/ a recoglliznhle object, !Iere a mse. T!Ie
c1nbornle ogi'1l1 frmllCll'Ork wifll foliage rescmblcs arc!Jilectllml defails.
Leal and Flower Vines
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z
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3 E",broilkmf bordm'd 1"'lIeJ, Britnill, Inte
16111 O.'/lII/1)" T/I/S border. 0/1 mi amotcl/r
t'lIIbroidt'ry. fi.'n/lln's tJl! IIIt'1l11il'r;IIg ;.'lIe
lIIolif, ;l'llidl illjccfs (1 j1l1idit.1f jllfo lit!'
dc::ign 1{1Il1 II/"l'.'rtl,e!t'Ss relnins n strollg
L'i:il/n! sfl'llclur.:.
4 Elllbroidl'l"l'd tWlepl'lldiltl1l (alfnr froll/n/),
\InIcUa, Mal/n, (.J600. rile memuierillg 'j'illt!
s il1l1s/mlcd ngnll!lcl'(', illtertwllcd </ltl1
nmlCsql1c l'1,'lIlcl1ls.
3
2
1 5ilk 'd.'el c1lnSllblt' (011/("
<,eslll/I'III 'il'om by n prilSf),
GeIlOI1, lnte 16t1l (el/fury.
TI/e IIIl!fllulcrillg l'illl' wns n
promillcnll?1clIIl'IIt ollnh'r
RCl1niSSl1l1ce pnttcl'J/s.
2 Dcsigl1s /1'0111 Gli Universali
di tutti e bci dissegni, raccami
(' moderno lavori by ZOppitlO
(\11'11io', 1532). TltcS<.' /IIage:; fnllll
nlJook ofclllbroidel'Y pnfh'I'IIS
5110111 n Rt'llfIiS:4!I/(' gro/esquI'
designo n /)(/IId of strtlJ"l'Ork. nnd
n /)(lIId l'itlt IlllndnptativlI ofmI
nrnlx:s'1ul! pnttcm.
R
enaissance textile pattems contain both consen'ative
and novel elements. The pace of adoption could be
slow, depending on the circuJation of cJoths, or relatively
rapid and extensive, as a resuJt of the publication of
books and single sheets of wood-engraved designs.
However, whether loom-woven c1oths, lace, or
embroidery, their designs - large and small - have a
robust appearance and a clearly marked-out structure.
The pattems on woven textiles range from smaU
geometric repeats to large designs that occupy the entire
width of the cloth, then about 51cm/21in wide. The latter
are the most well lenown, surviving in fair nwnbers and
also depicted in numerous paintings. These cJoths, the
damasks and velvets, typicalIy show highly stylized yet
multi-faceted motifs, \-vhich are most commonly
variations of the pomegranate oc, less usually, vases. The
arrangement is often organized within a framework that
is essentialIy teardrop-shaped. This so-called ogee
already existed in textile designs but during the
Renaissancc took more various forms: fine vines, curling
leaves, or broad ribbon-like bands, for example. Such
stylized networks reveal their geometric basis more
clearly in smaller-scaled repeats, especialIy those
destined for use in retice/ln lace and embroidery on linen
shirts and chemises, a resuJt of the fact that both were
produced by using the base cloths' OlVn grid-like
structure to count out the placement of the pattcrn.
Variations of the ogee designs emphasiLc thc leaf)' and
flowering vines, whim might meander in a regular
fashion from left to right, or intertwine. As in the more
fonnal pattems, the stems can be givcn prominence by
embellishinents such as crosswr.-.ppings and infilling
with motifs, perhaps scales, coiling vines, or prominent
textural marks indebted to repollss metalwork.
Simplified vines also often form the basis for strapwork
pattems, at their boldest illllstrating Middlc-Eastern and
Moorish inflllences. The influences of humanism and
c1assicism are also appctrent, particularly in embroideries
which, being a free-hand techniqlle, most readily
Ilustrate the impact of the developmcnt of perspective.
39
---------,
Baroque
c.1600-1730
The word Baroque relers to the style 01 art and architecture that developed
in Rome during the linal years 01 the 16th century, and it is used, more loosely,
to describe all art 01 the 17th century, and some later, with different expressions
in different countries. Baroque art was used at lirst as ameans 01 reasserting
the attraction 01 the Roman Catholic church and as a means 01 promoting the
Counter Relormation; but the impetus gradually moved lrom Italy to France, which
had been growing in economic and artistic importance in the lirst hall 01 the 17th
century, and it was used instead to underline the concept 01 absolute monarchy.
Opposife: the detail of tllis
tapestry after Charles Le Bnm
(1619---<)0) SJIOWS tllefalllolls
visit of Louis XIV to tlle Gobelills
factory in Paris il1 1667. Tite
Gobelins faetory elllployed skilled
craftsll/ell sudt as weavers,
goldsllli /!Is, cabilleilllakers,
al1d sC1llptors to produce luxury
goods for tlle royal palaces. Here,
t!Ie killg is beillg presellfed witll
some of !hese Slltllp/UOllS objecfs.
Left: lile body of tllis silver ewer
by Palll Vlll Vianell, made ill
Utrec/lt i111613, is decorated
witll picforial scelles related to
the goddess Dirl11a, but tlle foot,
l1eck, alld pOllrillg SpOll! are
cOlllposed of curiol/s, abstrae!
fles!ly forms dlllracferistie of t!le
Auricular style. Ht 34clII!l3'/,ill.
P
atronage, both religious and secular, continued to
be of prime importance in the 17th century, but it
was not restricted to the ChuTeh and leading monarchs.
The wealthy and powerful merchant c1asses in Holland
had a150 acquired ataste for luxury goods and their
patronage Calmot be ignored. In general, it can be
diffieult to attaeh stylistic labels to decorative art
objects, and not aH the pieces discussed in the following
pages can be described as truly Baroque, but they will
reflect aspects of the period also seen in architecture,
painting, and sculpture.
As a style, the Baroque reflects an admiration for and
a familiarity with the art of c1assical antiquity, partic-
ularly the grandness and monumentality of Roman
architecture, which is seen in 17th-century churches and
palaces alike. State apartments were painted with vast
illusionistic scenes of c1assical gods and goddesses and
filled with antique sculpture, reflecting both the taste
and the status of the owner. The decorative arts fre-
quently demonstrated a similar interest in architectural
and sculptural detailing that was based on a knowledge
of antiquity, and there was a general enlargement in the
scale of the ornamento Aliking for boldness and solidity
of form, rich colour contrasts, and the use of costly and
exotic materials were also prevalent. The overall effect
of an Italian Baroque interior was one of grandeur,
opulence, and theatricality, ,,,,,hereas French interiors,
while equally grand and sumptuous, tended to exhibit
a greater formality and balance.
Another aspect of the period, which was reflected in
the decorative arts, was a fascination volith light which
can be seen particularly in Dutch still-life paintings, but
also in the incorporation of mirror glass into the interior
and the desire for highly reflective surfaces. There was
also a great interest in movement which can be seen,
for example, in the taste for furniture supports in the
form of hvisted columns. These twisted forms and the
appreciation of ripple-carved mouldings also shoV\' a
general liking for curving lines and an interest in how
light moves over undulating surfaces.
Glass 66
Ceramics 62
PoUery 62
Porcerain 64
Furniture 44
Italian 44
French 46
English 48
Dutch and Flemish 50
German and Iberian 52
American 54
Techniques 56
Upholstery and Beds 60
Silver and Metalwork 70
Textiles and Wallpaper 76
1 3
3 Tlle b/ue (Inri ,{,hite co101/I"5 of l/lis /n/l' Ttil-
cel1/IIIY DI/ldl dem pal/e1 s/lOit' tll<'
oI Chillc$t' ('.J.por! porcdnill. blll fIJe frallll'i.l'Ork
01nCflllfl/lls al/t slrapll'Ork da;;:'t'S Iroll/ mi
I'llgra<.,iIlS by Daniel \farol. HI 60(1II/23,/il/.
1 111 this s/iII life 01(1 labie Inid ,['ilb cI't't'Se
IlIldfntit, by f!le OH/eh .millter Flo";:; .'1111
Dijck, C. 161 j, tllL' [asciI/alioli oj
nrtisls for tll,' .{'ay lig/tl IIIO"e::; 0<'1." differelll
slIIfnC6 C(/1I be 5t't'JI. Notice, ill pm'fiwlnr,
the C/Jillese bluc-(IIul-;:I'/Jilc pol'CI:/nill, lIJe
gmm glns'> Roemer. allrf flle/iuf', ;:I'hite
stollt!wnre IIg.
2 Tire 8rifislt nrchitect l!ligo olles sketcltcd
tlJis desigll. C.J637.for alll'xlmmgnll/
firepJace Jor /111' Quet'll':; HOllse. Gm:lltl'icJi,
vased 011 11 desigll by Jelll1 Barbet. Note 1/11:
s/lfdies o[pul/i.
2

42
An interest in light and movement can also be seen
in the development of the Auricular style in early 17th-
century Dutch silver. famed because of its similarity to
the human car, Auricular ornament is composed of
abstract fleshy forms and the effect of rippling water,
sometimes incorporating strange monsters, which
reflects the interest in bizarre and fantastic ornament
that was fashionable in the second half of the 16th
century. The play of light over the undulating surfaces
of the sil ver gives a disturbing effect of malleability, as
if the metal is actualIy melting. Although it is seen
almost exclusively in Dutch silver, Auricular ornament
does also appear in furniture, and very occasionally on
textiles and ceramics.
Another key factor in the development of the decora-
tive arts in the 17th century \vas the establishment of a
flourishing trade with countries in the Far East. The
various trading companies set up from the beginning of
the century began to supply the European market with
lacquer, porcelain, and si1ks, which helped to establish
a new taste for aH things exotic. Although these goods
\Vere cosUy and affordable only by the wealthy, lhe
demand became so widespread that cheaper imitations,
particularly of lacquer and blue-and-white porcelain,
began to be produced in European countries. At first,
these imitations followed the oriental prototypes fairly
closely, but gradualIy the designers, while retaining an
exotic mood, moved further and further away from the
originals, and developed the style now known as
chinoiserie. Because western knowledge of the Far East
was very sketchy, the designers had to use their
imagination when it carne to the subject matter of the
decoration. This led to greater and greater freedom of
expression, which developed into a fantastic and highly
inventive decorative vocabulary that had a profound
effect on the development of the decorative arts in both
the 17th and 18th centuries. Conversely, blue-and-white
\Vares gradually began to follow more traditional
European forms.
Another widespread interest of the period was in
flowers, and this will be reflected again and again in the
decorative arts. New and exohc species were intro-
duced into Europe, botanical gardens ,",vere established,
and illustrated herbals began to proliferate. This not
only established a fashion for displaying cut flowers
and a demand for new forms of the flower vase, but it
(lIso provided artists (lnd designers \Vith (1 huge new
voeabularv of deeorative motifs. In the first half of the
,
eentury the trade in tulip bulbs reaehed its height and
depictions of tulips, buth accurately rcndered and
highly stylized, began to be engraved on silver, "'oven
into textiles, translated into m(lrquetry Eurniture, and
painted onto earthenware.
The other motif derived from both nature and
antiquity that dominated 17th-centllry ornament was
the acanthus. Although the most \Videly lIscd of all
forms of foliate ornament and not particularly asso-
ciated \Virh any one period, the lobed lnd serrated
leaves of the acanthus seemed to appeal partieularly to
Baroque designers, and it appeared in architecturll
detailing and almost every braneh of the deeorative
mts, beeoming one of the Ieading deeorative eIements
of the Baroque style.
The Iast quarter of the eentury \Vas dominated by the
more rcstrained and forma 1style of Baroque classicism,
which was adopted by the French court and, in particu-
lar, the work of French designers and ornamentalists.
The work oE these designers \Vas widely disseminated
in the form of prints, particularly engraved paneIs of
ornament, \Vhich could be translated into different
materiaIs, and they became a po\\'erful SOllrce of
inspiration for the decorative arts \Vell into the eady
years of the 18th centllry. The spread of the French COllrt
style was fllrther assisted by the Revocation of the Edicl
of Nantes (1685). This new ruling meant that Freneh
Hllgllenots couId no longer freely worship or hold any
position of authorit)', with the result that many
thousands of Protestants fled from Franee to Protestant
cOllntries sllch as Holland and England. Among these
refugees were many skilled designers and craftsmen
who brought with them up-to-date knowIedge of eon-
temparar)' French taste.
An import(lnt aspect of the work of the Freneh
ornamentalists at the end of the 17th century and begin-
ning of the 18th eentury was a revival of grotesque
ornament. These designs were composed of acanthus
tendrils, Iambrequins, and fanciful creatures, symmet-
ricall)' arranged within delieate bandwork borders.
Althollgh derived from 16th-century examples, these
designs tended to be more delicate and linear and intro-
ducec1 a new element of airy lightness and eIegance
that, in man}! ways, foreshadows the Rocoeo style,
which wil1 be ~ i s u s s e in the next chapter.
4 T/c Gal/ery o/ tlh' rala::o C%lIl/a, ROl/le. I,lid ;:I'IIS I:rl'alt'd bt'lil'Ct.'I
16)4 (/lid 1665, witll it:; >asl nl/egorica/ cdlillg pnilltillg, exlrilmgalllllsc
o/ mirror glass, (md bo/dly can'l'd gilf.cood side fables, is tlll' epitllllll' o/
t/e gmlld 8aroque illterior.
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43
Italian Furniture
Early Developments in Florence
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1 A Florelltille si/per cnsket of
eJegnllt proportiolls mnde II
c. J 620. ft S/IOWS tlle emplUlsis
0/1 nrc11itecfural t1l1d wbic
orll/5 tlJaI cml /Je fOlflld 111 IIllfc11
El/ropen, desigll of rllis periodo
2 Tl/is table 1m:; desiglled in
nrol/lld 1709 by G.B. FoggII. /fu'
If!tIdillg scu/plor fllld archilecf ill
Fforellce. 5flOWII 15 Ilfe lap of tlll'
lab/e wit11 birds alld jlowers ;/1
commesso di pietre dure. a
teclllliquf' de<>eloped in Florellce
l/mi l/sed t1lill slict'S of sloll('-
pictra dura /l/Cal/S "Imrd slolle"
- lo create mosa;e pie/llres. 1
3
3 TI,;s carvrd, gilded frame pos
probabfy made iJl florencc c-16.,o.
ff c/osdy rtilccts tJe d('sigJls for
cartOl/du's pl/blishl>d ill c-16j4 by
Agostillo MileJli, 't'110 Cl'orked at
tJe Pi/ti Paface. Sucll alfriCIIlar
dClI/ellts were l/sed for FforellfiJle
frnllll'S f1lrol/gllOlIt file celltllry.
Ht 96CIJI/J7Y.i1l.
-
44
T
he reaction to the more exaggerated and fancihtl
forros of late 16th-century Mannerism first appeared
in ltaIy. Under the influence of artists such as Giambattista
Bemini (l59l>-1680) and AJessandro AJgardi (159l>-16S-1),
the design of fumiture in Italy began to feature foliage and
carved human figures. Rome was the centre of the new
style, where the interiors of the Roman palaces with their
vast reception halls demanded an appropriate flamboyant
style of furniture, partiruIarly for tables and eabinets.
Families such as the Barberini, Borghese, Chigi, Ludovisi,
and Pamphili conunissioned opulent hlrniture of a
grandeur that could not be matched elsewhere in Europe.
Cario Fontana (1638-1714) and Johann Paul Schor
(1615-74) designed sculpted fonns, J Forme, particularly
for tables, in whidl human figures and trophies taken
from antiqlle and architectural motifs were combined to
create symbols of power and strength.
This flllly Baroque style was developed in the
second half of the 17th eentury throughout Italy. ~ 1
Genoa, Domenico Parodi 1 6 7 2 ~ 1 7 4 2 created rkh,
organic masterpieces of sculpture. Giambattista Foggini
(1652-1725), the leading scuJptor in Florenee of rus day,
was responsible for the great architectural cabinets
produced in Florence at the end of the century, in which
ebony, ivory, gilt bronzes, precious stones, and canred
wood were combined in sumptuolls magnificence. In its
use of architectural forms, however, Florentine work was
often more restrained than in other parts of ltaly. The
most famous Venetian carver and furniture maker,
Andrea Brustolon (1662-1732), is famous for rus detailed
carving in boxwood of stands and chairs, in which
gracefu1 figures combine \vith naturalistic carving of trees
or stems of plants.
!talian fuminue exploited the used of rare materials
such as precious stones. The Opificio del/e Pielre Dure in
F10rence made tables and cabinets both for the Medici
rulers, as gifts to other princes, and for those, SUdl as Jolm
Evelyn, who travelled to Italy. Florentine design featured
vases \vith flowers, bird, and plant forms combined with
the traditional arabesque forms. -
Royal Collections
-

-
45
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5 Jlltmded for grent gnllerie;:;, pice('s S1Ie/1 as t!lis
cnri't.:'d gilt pia glnss frOll1 GCI/on by DOlllellico
Paradi (madI' (.1690 lo 1710) H'ere desiglled
to impress. Thc desigll fentl/res ricltly CtlI7.'ed
scrolli!lg folinge rmd mili. HI 5.25111/17ft 21,ill.
5
3
1 A cnbilIcl of simple c!n:5sicnl
dcsigu /linde CI 630 wifh pietre
dure plaques made iJl ile gnJlld
numl ,'orksJlOps ill Florcllcc.
Flofl'l/lil1c Il'ork dcpe/oped tlle
repertor!! of birds m/n flOiI'l'I"S,
w!lams Rall/an clllplInsi::cn
gcollletric lIIot{(j. L 68.5(1/1/27ill.
2 A desigll ofc.166o-gojl'OI1l
/lle eircle of !o!Imll1 Pnlll 11
pilpil uf Bcmh,or n lable <1';tll
slIpportillgfuI/-sea/e figures. 11
SllOW5 he sfrog Bnroqllc /rl'lld
in JI/milllrt'.
3 Renr "'l' of 0111.' of ilr{'c concl1e:;
!linde ill RVI/u.' in 1716fOl' he
Porlllg1/e5c I1Il1bnssndor, he
lvlnrqlli:; de FOllir'>. Conches. n
pm1'1'I111/ :5fn/1I5 sI/muo! of fhe 17th

celltury, U'e1'<' afien dcsigllcd by "
nrti:;!:; sudl as 8cmilli 01' Pietro dn .
Corfolln. TJcy ,POlIld h(lile /)1'('11
madI.' l/y tlle Sll/lIe mrt't.'J"5 nlld
sCII/plor:' I'/IO corked 011 fab/6
aJld e/mirs. NI -28111/23ft ni/!.
4 TI/{' e/abarate sfmpe of tls
SCIIlplllJ"l', festool1ed
witll tl"t'es,jloll'el"S, al1d otila
motifs. is takel1 from/mlllrt'. 11 ,(las
/IIade by tite VeI1etitlll_nmlit1lrc
lIIaker al1d sCIIlptor, Alldn.:'a
Brustolou, ,('llO wns kll(J(Ul1 for IJi;:;
ddailcd cnr'.Iillg, gel/eral/y iu
box1t'ood. Ht 21Jl/6ft 6il1.
2
1
-----------------------------------------------------------_.. _----- -------- -----
French Furniture
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Cubic Symmetry
1 AII cllgrfH'illg by Abra/mili Bosse (1601-76)
01fill interior c.16.o S/IOWS file mlll/lllw"Dril/S,
mbie ;;ltnpe:;, nI/d geolJletric desigll ,!lic!1 pcn.'
ypical of Jlortilem El/ropean //OI/Ie:; frOIll 16.20
lo 1650. Thc cJ/Ilirs {{,Duld Imue /lCCl! riclI11{
IIpho/stered in si/k:> 01' ''[Ic!S.
2 Tllis mbiud offloralll1nrquctry 1.'cneercd 11/
i1.'ory, cbon!!, nl/d cohmred woods uns mnde fVI"
Philippe, dlle d'Or/ealls, he brolh('/" 01 LOllis
XIV, il! nrOlllld 1660 blf Piare GaJe. H'ho ulnrie
flomllllarquctry !ns/iOlwble aeras;; ElIrope.
HI ] .26m/4ft ] 'l:il/.
3 Tlle cabinet ,,/nluf developed /11 Frailee as
cadyas 16:20. Tlts exnlllple, c.1645-jO, !m:.;
/Ice nllribuled fo }CIlII Mac (1602-72), W/IO
ilICllt fa Flnl/ders lo fcnm file fecJmiqI1l' ol
<'Clleerillg 111 eboll}!, o/" fo Piare Goll'. T/ll'
rllsticlltcd (OIII11I11S of 111/: stllnd C!lllllntc
tilosc 011 ti/(' fm;lld' of fhe Plllllis L/I.n'11/boH/X,
dcsigl1al c.16I 5 for t!le QUCt'11 Rt'gl'l1t,
MI/ric dc' Medici. Ht 2.L!.IIl/6ft 9'/,il1.
46
I
n the first half of the 17th century, furnihue design in
France showed a new sense of balance and regularity
of proportion which was in keeping with the emphasis on
c1assicism espollsed by architects sueh as Franc;ois
Mansard C1S98-1666). Trophy motils and garlands 01
naturalistic fruits and flo\vers were carved onto
cupboards, while the column beeame a popular form for
the legs of tables and chairs. As emly as the 1630s,
hmngs appeared on ehair legs and stretchers and
sometimes on the stands for eabinets. The ebony cabinet
beeame the symbol of status and wealth and was
coneeived on a grander seale than before. Although of a
plain rectangular form, it was riehly decorated with
carved scenes and was eombined with a matclng stand.
With the rcturn of Simon Vouet (1390-1649) and
Charles Le Bnm (1619-90) from their travels in Italy,
French design became more sumptuous, rich, and
grandiose. 111e Italian Domenieo Cueci (11.1660-98) ",,ras
brought to the Gobelins workshops for his skill in hard
stones (pietre dure) and was responsible for some of the
architechlral cabinets made for Louis XIV. Pierre Gole
062G-84), ",ho was born and trained in the Nethcrlands,
developed deeoration in floral and metal marquetry. New
forms of funture sueh as the bureml lI/azari1J appeared in
both techniques. These experiments culminated in the
designs of Andr Charles Boulle 0642-1732), who worked
for the king, the dauphin and leading members of the
Freneh eourt. Bis development of tortoiseshell and brass
marquetry still bears his name - bOllllework. His published
designs shmv new fonns of furnihlfc appearing by
arow1d 1700, in partirular the bJlreal1 plat and the eommode.
By the end of the 17th cenhiry, design had moved from
the robust forms of Le Bl1.m to more restrained, linear
outlines. 111ese trends towards c1assic designs led. to
closer imitation of forms sueh as the sarcophagus-shaped
commode. Jean Brain (1640-1711), the court designer,
created ne\\, forms of strap",ork deeoranon derived from
classical and Renaissance grotesque designs in which
bands of strap",ork ",ere combined \vith acanthus leaf
foliage, masks, shells, and C-scrolls.~ ---------- ~ _ _ ---- -----
--
Baroque Classicism
47
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1 T/lis slIite al table nlld stmuis Il'Duld llave
beell p/nced IIl1da n mirrar nexl fo file ,mil
bctl'cCII !le JilldoI':'. TlJis e.mll/ple ;5 prolmb/y
l/In! 51lpplied fo fhe Frellc/I ero,!'1l JI 1671 by
Picrl"l.' Cok, who mnde the mctn/-ill/l1id lop.
Mnlhieu Lespngl1(1l/(iclle, 11'/10 cartcd IJe
mI/u':>, lid On,id Dllpr, ,PilO gilded Ilu: pica.
2 Ocs(<;:Jl JOI" n side In/J/e /ly Brnill C.1690 lISillg
Imlllslas Iilld fl1pcring C011l1l1l1; froll1 c/11':;5icnl
nrc/ilec!ure. Tn/lle,:; ~ f fhis type :I'l're plnced in fhe
Gnlerie des Glac6, Verslllles. C.1690 to replace
.sifI'crfumillll't: tlnl IInd bCt'/! IIIdtcd dOIl'!l.
3 A 700 Frellc/ cfi/1'Cd ami gilded 5fool oj
elegmll proporfiolls, wllose ji l/e defniled carlil/g
is bascd O l l l l l O f ~ f s l/sed ill lean Braill's
pub/isllCd des(,?l/s.
2 Alldn! Charle;; Boulle (Inri !lis con/clllpomry
Bcmnrd mil Risl'lIburgll 1s]!ecinli:cd in dock
cl1ses 511Cl1 as tllis, IlInde l/y BOlllle, c1695,
I'cl/('cl"I.'d in !lmss ,,ill I1n exquisite lIU1rque/ry
designo H/2.23!11/7ft 4ill, iI'. 37.5clI1!l4'bn.
1 TJe ollly sur>h'jng pic' l/m! call be finllly
nttributed fa Andr CllIlrlC:;; BOl//k, thi:;;
COIIIlIIO,11' (Ollt' of n rar) 11'IlS ddiFefed fo tll'
Gnllld TrinJlOll ;11 1708. Tilt' s!wpe is lmsed
011 n ROII/flll snrcopflngllS. HI 87CIII/341;1I.
Boulle Marquetry
1 ;"'_cL
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48
1
English Furniture
Carved Decoration
2 Tllis cnnled onk c/wir o/
Imditiollnl/orll1 can be dnted fa
c.161o-jD becnllSt.' 01 tite /lse of
m/ll/llllnronllsfor lhe legs nnd
arms, t}e Cl/bic proportiolls. alld
tlu' dt'Sigll o/ n spray o/flowers
carl.'ed 0// fa tite lmck.
Ht 73CIII/28Y,ill.
1 Sgabello cJu'lirs (1625) made /her by (111 Itafiall or (1/1 ElIglisllllltlll for
lhe Earl o/ Pembroke. [lIi?:o fOlles h573-1671) rl!t1iIled l/lis 16tll-cell/lIry
Italiall desigll. t!fpical oi ti/e eDurl sty/e o/ Charles l. .Jt 1.10m/3fl 6;11.
I
n contrast to the traditional oak fumiture produced in
England throughout the century in parallel with
furniture made in the Netherlands, the court style of
Charles 1(c.1625-40) follO\ved Italian and French models.
TIlis is most noticeable in the revival of the 16th-cenrury
sgnbelJo. lhe introduction of upholstered armchairs,
either with X-&ame legs or with box-like stretchers, was
in keeping with Inigo lones' emphasis on the cube, and
was similar to French design at the court of Louis XIII.
Charles 1also owned foreign cabinets in exotic materials
such as ivory and amber.
Fumiture in the second half of the century assimilated
contemporary Baroque features from Dutch and French
designs. Canred cherubs in naturalistic foliage on tables,
stands and chairs \Vere inspired by Dutch carving, and
turned legs of both spiral and baluster shapes were very
popular. Chairs combined these motifs and introduced
caning for the backs and seats, a technique taken from the
East. Walnut was the preferred timber for fashionable
furniture, with beech or pine used as a base for gilded
3 A ni/l/lit dli7iroj c.1680,
bolrlly cnrved witll floral sirle
pnllels nlld sfretcller nlld spirnJ
lllrllerl sllpporls. Tlle mllillg 0/1
fhe bnck alld seaf /'aS illlport('li
frolll IlIdia, buf by tflt' e/ld oj fIJe
17th cellll/ry l/l/trI' <t'ert: lIIallY
specilllisl CIluers ill LOlldoll.
Ht 1.15111/3ft 9ill.
pieces. Also from the East carne the taste for lacquered
furniture, irnitated in Europe by japanning or painting.
Carease fumihre was decorated in walnut, kingwood
and other exotic \Voods in oyster veneers. Floral
marquetry appeared by the 16705. Typical of English taste
and manufacture is the way the marquetry is applied in
separate panels, to facilitate the number that were marle.
The influence of Daniel Marot (1663-1752) and French
Protestant migr craftsmen such as the Pelletier family
brought French taste to England, as seen in the canred
and gilded furniture made for Hampton Court, c.1700.
Furniture shapes were derived. from the French c1assical
style, and strapwork and grotesque motifs were taken
from Jean Brain. A different taste emerged with new
plain forms, perhaps as a result of the inflllence of Chinese
funuhire. Chairs with curved backs, known as "lndia-
backed" chairs, also used the new cabriole leg and goat's
foot. 111e bureau cabinet was a straight-sided fall-front desk
with cabinct above, decorated with plain walnut qllartered.
veneers, or embellished \vith colourful japanning.
--------- --------- - -----_.-
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1 This wa/l1ut table witll IUrIled legs al/d all
X-sJmped slre/cller was made C.1670 to 1680.
The top is decora/ed ill floml nmrqlletry and
/ias oysler vel1eers, i, whid the wood is cut
illto ovnls tlmt are in tllm placed in a
decomtive fashioll O1'er fhe swface.
Ht 73CIII/28Y.ill.
2 Long-case docks SUdl as this were hig/lly
prestigiolls and were Imuglll by rid lIIerc/ianis
as well as by arislocm/ic patrolls. /1 is
decora/ed wil/ floralmarque/ry based 011
Frellc!l desiglls, Witll birds, vnscs offlowas,
al/ri scrol/ing foliage. J-lt 2111/6jf 6ill.
2
2 Tltis walnu/ dmir wit!1 iis
Cllr<Jed back was kl1ol'n as al!
"/lIdia-backed" clmir. T/ie slmpe
was taken frol/1 C/linese dmirs,
w/Iile l/ie legs wae CIIrved il1 t/ie
cabrio/e fOl"lIl, CIIding il1 goa!'s
fee/. T/e enrlie.sf reference to
t!lese cJmir:; was for t/le dining
roolll of George 1a/ Hamptoll
COllrl il1 1717; they werc
supplied by TJIOllms Roberts.

French Influences
Floral Marquetry
1
1 This bllle-alld-while paillted
tablc (1692) after dcsiglls by
Daniel Marot ,l't1S probably made
for Quem Mary':; water gallery
al Halllptoll COJlrt. Here s[e also
Imd "er dairy decomted in b/ue-
mrd-white tiles and, l1ext to
it, a bal/iillg room fumislIed with
an angc/ bed tlmt Imd b/lIe-
alld-il'/Iile si/k Jmllgillgs alld
Jl/atclIillg cJrairs. Ht
3 A Crlll.'ed and gilded, gessoed
tablc made c.1690-1700 by
RCll Pelleliafor RalplI, DlIke
of vlolltagll ,pito, as Master of
- -
tJll' Killg's i'Vardro/1l', l/'as mI
illlportalll figl/re ill tite
illtrodllCliol1 of Fr('lIc/r desigll
al/d FrellcJl cmf/slI/ell al tlIe
courl o/ 'Villial/l al/d Mary.
Nt 81(111/;:,.ill: l. 1.1.7111/4ft 1.1I.
49
Dutch and Flemish Furniture
Antwerp and Amsterdam
1 Tlie illterior 01 n F/e",i:,h
maclltlllt's I/{II/x', c.16zo,
pail/klt II.I( Frnll:, fmllch'lIl1
/1 5110,1'5 ti/{,
,.ieh/y C%llrl'd tt'xlik:;; 011 file
'('II11s olld tlle mrpl'ts 01/ tll/!
tab/(' tlwl ,pcn' hig//y n:gnrded
ill !le 17th (('I1/III'!!. Tlle 1011'
ClIpbonrd asa/liS! lIe wllll is
based 011 dcsi,;1/5 by HaJ/s
Vrenelllllll de Vrit'S f1j26-16o.)
nl/d ,ms 0111' o/ Ilu.' 11I05/ popular
types al tI,is timf'.
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2 Cllbillcf::i willl mili/en interior;;
Sl/ell as t/1is 1:1'('''' {/ specilllitll
01 A'I1'l'crp cabilldmakcrs,
mlicalillg n close nssocilltioll
wit/ tlle Iminler::;' gllild. Tlzis
c.1620 example ould /u/t'c lUId
(/ Sei.'cre exterior in blnck ebollY
witll ripple-col.'cd mOl/ldillg.
50
T
he northern provinces of the Netherlands \Von
indcpendence fram Spain in 1648 after thc Treaty
cf \lVestphalia. In both southern and northern Dutch
provinces traditional forms of furniture throughout the
17th century included tables, cupboards, and chests
made in oak. These \Vere decorated with carved foliage
patterns and geometric forms, which were sometimes
picked out in stained oak or ebony. Features such as
bulbous supports for chairs and tables, carved term
figures, and large \'olute shapes continued to be used
during this periodo
In the southern Netherlands, exotic materiaIs such
as ebon)', ivor)', tortoiseshell, and metal mounts were
used from an early date to decorate eabinets, a practice
that reflected the importance of Antwerp as a centre of
international trade in these commodities. Cabinets
were also painted in the manner of Rubens. Ripple-
carved moulding in small gcometric patterns
deeorated the exterior, while the interiors opened to
show more elabora te, riehly colollrful scenes.
The Auricular style, so-called because of its similarity
to the human ear, was one of the most inflllential forms
of decoration to appear in the north. It \'\'as eombined
with extraordinary realism in carved fruits and flowcrs,
particularly in Amsterdam. Floral marquetry \Vas
equally naturalistie in its designo The northern provinces
made use of rosewood and ebony for eabinets, whieh
gave a rieh sombre flavour to the interior. Herman
Doomer (c.1595-1650) in Amsterdam specialized in
ebony veneers inlaid with mother-of-pearl f1onrers. By
the end of the 17th eentury, floral marquetr)' "'as in
fashion, as shown in the highly naturalistic work of Jan
\an Mekeren (c.1690-<.1735).
In 168S the Freneh Huguenot Daniel Marot (1663-
1752) carne to the eourt of William and Mar)', bringing
the French design of Versailles fiest to Holland and later
to England. In Holland more rectilinear forms were
often combined with realistically carved figures. Both
ehaie backs and mirrors rose to ne'" heights and
appeared with erested tops at the end of the century.
,

3 Tllis magllific?l1t tnbh' by Piell'/' riL' l...oili nlld 1\ ielid Vt'l'bi,'SI, 1It/f.'.! 1689.
'1'/lS Vllt' o/ t/II! /lIt>:>/ 1'11l/'Omlt' l/milI/ero iJl A1l1r1'{rp. TI/e /cdmqm' JOI' l/u.'
tortoiSt"S1Jcf/ tlild Illetal-illfny fop ,m:, dI:.Y.>/Ollt'tffrolll FllmcJ, bOIlI/tr.I'Ork.
4 TI,i:; vnk ClIplXxml ,ITIS typiml o/ordillnryfllmil"re JI Flrmi"l, IIII.'rc/mllfs
1I01l$('S. Dislillg'jsllt,dfrom mrlierDril/S by tllt' Iee/I, IUlturalislic Ctlr.:ed
decornlioll. t1'L'Sl.' "'t'n' COIlSt'n'fllh't' pit'Cf'S 01JI/TlIiII/TI'. Ht 1.''2111/4ft 6il/.
5 TI,is taMe sflO;:!'s t/e bulbolls kgs alld Sfroug
n/'stmct t.llpicn/ of DlItdl jlll"llitllTl'.
T/u' Tl'clollgllfnr I//JIds ofbog ook imilote 16111-
('III{1/V Fn.'lIc/fnshiol/s. HI Slcm/Jll.
6 A fligllly cnl"i.'cd (I(Ik wpllO<Irf tt'iII ft'rlll
figllTl'S 011 tf/{, I/PI,,"'r lia, c. TlIis 1.lIJIC
ofJI/milI/re .pos fiJllml tllrollSf/lll// 1I0rl//{'rJI
Ellropl' ill lile 17tlt c'lIlury.1I1 l..20m/7fl ll.
-
-
8
7 Pnilltillg IIY Pit'fadc Hll(ld, (}629 -S-I) o/l/JI ferior ill lile 5CCOJld Im/f
o/ lile '701 a /111'$<' i'lI(JIIY ami mSt't''lJOd Utrecllt tl'llrdrollt,.
S/leI, fl/milun' il'(lS (JI ridlllll"n"I/1lllts'/ItlIl."<'S jI! AII/:>terdmu.
8 Al/riC/llar s(l/h' cml 1", :;.{'t'/l QH IMs laMr. 11 cms l/sed for
fllmi/lln' lIIade ;1/ AlI/stl'r.ll1l11, oft'I ill mll/billnlioll it'ilf dt'l'p/y cnl"i't'd,
renlislic Sil'llgS liffmils {/lid floil'ers. HI S,clII/33il1.
w

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51
German and Iberian Furniture
Opulent German Furniture
4 By tIJe 1690:0 tIJe /JlIren/l
mbillt'f U'nS fn;,:/iollnbk.
T/Jis l'xnmp/c, C.1690. il! tI/('
Boul/e tec/llliqllc, IIn:; IIInrqlll.'fry
Imsed 011 Bmill ':,
-' -
Tlu.' 1II00lUlllelltn/ nlld l'xnggl'mled
fOI"III, hoU'l''I.'Cr, is tuillfl'SSelllinlly
Gt'fIIlnl1. HI 2.5111/6/1 8'1il1.
2 TIJe elnborntely r1ecomted
Cnbind oj Afirrors, (,1714-18,
rol/l Sclllo5S POlIIlIIl'fsjl.'1dell ,l'Il5
by Ferdilllllld Plit:ller. rile floor
is o/ e/aborate plll'qlletry <l'!tile lIJe
table (/lId lIIil"l"OI"5 are bnsed DIl
eml Le Pnllfrl!'S I!lIgnnoillgs o/
lab/es 511ppol'Ied by /el'lll figures.
3 T!lis .tYIrdrobe, c.1630.from
1k:':'l' ill Gel'lllllll!" is ,''lIcal?d
in H/lI/Xl/rin/1 as/ (l1Id syefllllOfl?
il'ih ,('rl/'III/ mn'illg. lt retnills lile
(Olll/I/'X IlrdJilcclurnl frmlmen! o/
('Ir!i'/" piel!'s. nlld is il1j1l1enced by
/111' Ilmls \lredelllml de
1/1 :.2.III/ft 31ill.
1 T!lis ddnil vfn dol1s' lVI/se
from Nllremberg, 1639. s/lOws
parl 01 ti/(' jllferior o/ a ll'ca/t/y
I/Iere/m/1/ 's hOIl:;e, ill ,l'//ic!1
lile cabinel in liJe {all ,(1(15 1111
impar/allt pieee ojJumilllre
cOlltnillillg I!le family lill'll.
52
---------------------------------------,
Spain, Portugal, and Exolic Malerials
1 CM alld Ilu.' Ea;;.t IIIdl6 I'.\'<'r/"ll
a ;;./rollg il/fllllmce: 01/ Portlls'u....
jllrJIilllre 05' SJIOU'II ill trl/:'
contador (cabil/e/) 011 a ;;'/0111/.
oj tmk. ebcmy, ii'Ory. olld Il/diml
;;tImlo1<l'ood. I V}ile tlle fOl'lIIolb'd
desiglls deri.,t' fmm Jlldion
pottems, lIJe l/se oj sclIlJlled
511pports reflects 1//1.' BorolJlIe
i/lterest ill the hmml1 jonll.
Ht 1.16111/4ft lill.
2 Ebony Ji!",;! appeal'ed ill
Portllgllcse flll"llitllre il/ file 16th
cel1tllnj. o/ld it collle to domillate
El/TOpean taste. TlJis 101t' 17t1,-
celltl/ry cobille/ is decora/ed
WitJl ripple Il/ouldillg alld illcised
diagol/als. Tll/! blllll()lls sl/pports
oj tite rosell'OOtt bn5t? are from
OutcJI fumill/re, rej1ecfillg tite
importal/ce of frade comlecfiollS
al/ltis da/e. H/ 1.jll//.ift.
3 Portllgllese c1wirs ,{'ere
strollgly illflllt'I/cl.'d by ElIg/ish
de:;iglls, 0111.11 flley l't'rl' typicnlly
/linde ,l'illl I!mvosserl len/fu!r
bncks. Tls lnle lJlh-cCIIIIIIY
eXn1uple ill cnrved ,trn/ml/fln:; n
crested bnck tll1d n !lig" slre/cher.
Ht 1.2111/311 l1lI.
4 FrO/ll tlu: 16tll CCl/tw'Y omunl'ds,
he Spmlish l/sed n pnl'tiClllll1'
type ofvldillg table, slIppol'ted
by me/al roas joiJled lo l/u! It-gs.
TlIis extlmple o[(.1680 is pniJltel1
'if/, slyfi::ed floral lIIotifs taken
from lndian c/lillf=.t:S in imitaliou
of oriental [acquer.

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A
fter the end of the Thirty Years War in 1648, avish
Baroque pieces ' ..... ere ordered by the rid1 burghers of
the principal German towns or by aristocratic rulers
\'vishing to demonstrate their \vealth and patronage.
Pieces were made in the Baroque style, featuring
marquetry in vory, ebony, or pe\vter set in vvalnut
veneers. Forms often had a boldness and excessive
movement not found elsewhere in Europe. Augsburg
specialized in marquetry cabinets of ivory and ebony of
great sumptuousness and court cabinetmakers
throughout Germany specialized in high quality
marquetry in many techniques.
The northem German states generally remained more
conservati\'e and foUowed Dutch and English taste, as
seen in the use of turned legs or walnut veneers, or in the
emphasis on carved floral decoration. Cabinehnakers in
city-states such as Frankfurt and Mainz specjalized in the
large wardrobe, sometimes in rose\vood and ebony.
Design in the southern German states followed the
more elaborately decorated furniture style found in
France - Jean Brain's designs were an important
decorative source. Court cabinetmakers such lS
Ferdinand Plitzner (1678-1724) in Pommersfeldel1, or
Joham) Matusch (ji. 1701-31) in Ansbach developed
personal style of increasingly vigorous forms, t<lking thc
Baroque well into the 18th cenhtry.
More than most European countres, Splin rem.,incd
close to earliex- 16th-century cabinet forms such a!) the
pnpeleirn or vnrgllello. OnIy at the very ene! of thc 17th
century did sculpted forms appear, 01" thc high-backed
chair. Leather-backed chajrs remaincd a speciality of both
Spanish afld Portuguese cabinetmakcrs.
Taking advantage of trading routes, POrhlguese cabinet-
makers used exotic matcrials such as rosewood from
South America and ebony from Africa ar the East lndies.
Bulbous, complicated hlrned legs were much in evidence
in Portugal. possibly as l result of trade with the
Netherlands. A singular form of cabinet, the COl/fadar,
contained many small drawers and was decorated vvith a
distinctive ripple-cut TIOtif, kno\,vn as tremido carving,
53
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American Furniture
The William &Mary and Queen Anne Styles
1 TlII' arcllnf loark al/d !urIll'd 1t'gs 011 tlls
"1l'lOfstemf dayllt.'d, "m/k ill PIIi/addp1/ia
c. J i2o-Jj, an' {'/l/Memafir t!f A/IIcriaJl/
baroqlll' [umi/un'. Tllc bnrk 511pports,
Mrdrllcrs, alld l c ~ PI'/"' /linde o[ mnplt',
lI'/ilc tllC rails [orlllillg tln' sent mil/e
wen' /IIade o[ ouk. Daylot'ds t,n' o/ll'll IIIndt'
pit/ arco/llpullyillg cJmirs, l'I'JlOls/l'rl'd ill
riel, i11lported[nlorics. Ht 9iWI/3Slill,
11.75111/69ill.
2 Tllis o.'a/-l0IJpt'd gntl'-leg faMt', mnlle iJl
NC'iI' York Gty. 1 ..l}-63. r'pn'scllts tltt' ilion.'
il/formal dillillS 1mM:; o/ tbc lnte 1;111 f1lld
lStll ccl//lfr.'!.
3 O.'al il'flflllft drop-lcn/ tnMt' 'f'itlI cabrioll'
/tgs. ;\/("" York '73o-jo. Adaptnl'lc t b h ~
likl' tbis cOllld l't' 1Iltrc.,t'd abOllt I//!' rOOIl/ no;
IIt'('dcd. HI 6S.jcm./:!;in, J. l.:!.jllt/'lft.
54
A
s is often the case with American decorative arts, the
primary design influence carne fraro Europe.
Baroque design trends rcached the Anglo-American
calomes from the royal courts of England and Holland
during and after the reign of Williaro & Mary
(1688-1702), signalling a discernible growth in pcosperity
and elegance in furnishings, especiaUy in urban centres
such as Boston, ew York, Newport, and Philadelphia.
By the beginning of the 18th century, design was
moving a\Vay from the simple beginnings of the Puritans,
when onl)' the plainest necessities such as beds, tables,
and chests furnished the colonists' houses. While much
American furruture continued to be made in ycmacular
st},ies, often reflecting distinctive regional characteristics
from British oc other northern European furniture, a
dilllted version of Baroque courtly styles can be seen in
the high arched chair bades and trumpet-tumed legs of
fllrniture made in New York and Ne\v England beh,\'een
1700 and 1730. Furniture with a strong verticality,
together with ClITving pattemed ornament and a profll-
sien of elaborate carving and tllrrung suggests thc
Baroque, often referred to as the \Nilliam & Mary style,
even into the eady decades of the 18th century.
Foliage and scrolls set in a syrnmetrical conlext \Vere
favollred motifs, and the Iater, so-caBed QlIeen Anne,
period (c.1720-50) saw the introduction of cabriole curves
for the legs of tables and chairs. The rcstrained use of
sculptural forms and architectural elements sllch as
shells, pllffi1es, vase shapes, scrolls, and volutes were part
of a new classical vocabuJary, while the claw-and-ball
foot was a favourite terminal. These forms, inspired from
Europe, were often interpreted with notable exuberance
in America.
\t\'alnut \Vas the fashionable \Vood, but maple, cherry,
and, later, mahogany were used far high-style pieces,
many of them veneered. Painting or staining of furnJture,
a distinctively American form of embellishment, con-
tinued, but the showiest cabinets, mainly emanating from
Boston, were decorated \'I'ith japanning, sometimes elabo-
rately, in imitatian of orientallacquer.
6 TIJis armc1mil' rolll Nortll Carolillo,
C.17-l5-65. 51/0<1'5 enrfy sigw; o/ tlle Rococo
lI'ilh ils cabriole legs. cnn'Cd opellit'ork splnl,
nnrl CIIr..'ed nrm5. HI 99.jCm/39/'i"
7 AIl illterestillg smoking e/mil'. mnde ofb/nck
1'flJ/l/t,frolll TideitVfter, Virigillia, T7-1-o-jo.
TI/f.' c1mir ml'S dcsiglled fo ftl jllto tlle comer DI
n room. fts t'nses/lflped splnts are distillctir.'C o/
tlle lnft' Bnroque. Ht 8..jcm/n'bll.
5
4 T/15 beee/ nr/llc!ur witll (n/'l'ed top mil
nnri slrefcIJer, fllrJIerl slIpports, (Inri len/iler
IIpllO/stery l'flS /l/nde in BOS/OII, C.1700-15
It WIlS IIfi"cllced by ltI/-cm/M.'! Dlltc/,
modds. Ht 2.09/11/6ft 11111.
5 Tite gracefl/l CUTt'iIlS ((lbriofe legs, ba/Ilsfer
splnt (lnd rol/llderl St'fll o/ tllis mnllOgtlllY sirle
e/Jai/' from ~ l l'Ork. 175tH>j. afl typify tlle
lafe Bnroque. HI JIII/;ft 3ill.
8 TJis lig/l C!u!sl 01drml'l'TS
WflS /l/ade o/ IIl11p/r: alld pille
by /01111 Pillllll il! Bostoll ill
1740-50, alld ia1ml/lled by
1111 IlllkllOL'11 dL'Corntor. Tlle
dl'Sigll illcorpomtes tJu' sllc/1
motif. cabrio/e fegs l/Int elld
il! cJaiL'/f!t!t, alld a brokm
JNdilllellt witll i'ase-sllllped
fillia/s. HI 2.43m/7/t 11l.ill.
9 TIJe deep aproll alld
comp/ex tl/rIlillgs o/Ihe
/egs o/ IJis dressillg lab/e
Jrom PJiladelpllia, (.1715-25,
are simplified cJlflrllctcristics
o/ enroque desigll /rolll tIJe
cOlirIo/ Wil1iam nlld Ma'Y.
HI755cIII/29Y.,ill.
10 TI,e bo/d Sllllpillg o/Ibe
palie/s nlld dL'ep profile of lile
mouldillgs Oll IIJis ;'a/lllll
wardrobe or Kas jrolll SOl/tll
castcm PCl/llsylI'm,;a, C.1745-60,
rcflccl bot/ DlItc11 alld Ilort/I
Gel'/lIm vemacrdar traditiolls.
Ht2.13 111/7jt.
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Furniture Techniques
Veneering with Marquetry
1 Tls cabilll!l, (.1700, aftribufcd
lo /011 t'llll AlekereJl of Amstentnm,
is r.'elleered il/ jlomllllflrq/fetry Of
mriOIlS it'oods S<'t ;lIto killg'il'ood
ami il'a/lI11t. DI/fe/ Jloral
IIIflrqw:try il'flS !OledJor
if:; flig1l/.'I reali:;tic de:;igll.
Ht 2.05111/6ft ;I/.
2 TlIis de/ni! from ti table by
AI/rire Clmrh's Bol/lIe sllOWS IO,t'
1Ie combillt'd floral I/larqlletry ol
tite flglu'Sf q/la/ily WitJI pett'ter,
(lllri bros:> in a lIIore
c1nssicnl style.
3 Made> m Wiir:blfrg by Incoo
Areud tllld lo/mili/es IVitta/i1l in
1716, tllis m/l/lIf blln.'t1l1 cubil/el
is l1l'com/t'd wil1ll11l1rqlletry
lmlle/s of ei'OIlY (l/Id <'arioll:>
w00i1s, witli pt'il'ler (llld hom
pallels in Ifle /0/) wpbonrds.
H/I.8olll/sft 9;"
4 Qlle of lile l'ar/iest e.mll/p/es o/
e{(llJomte IIInrqlletnj, flli:; enbine!,
c.1590, is n/l,.ibllled fa Jacopo
Fimumil/go, ti Flelllil/g workil/g
il! Nnples. lt is uelleered il1eool1Y
wifh ioo,.y pmu!ls eI1grnved by
Jncopo el/r!is. B/nck nlld wIJile
decorafiol! wns ndlllirro ill Nap/es.
HI879CIl1/3-lV,i1l
5 TIJe II1nrquefry of 111is w,.lillg
desk (694) /1/adl! fO,. fhe Ellglish
bllg l\'illial/1 lfJ is of killgtl'Ood
bnckgrolll1d will, amlJt'Sql1e
dl'Sigl1s pickt>d 0111 il! n figl1ter
'OOli. Tlle tcc/miqlle i5 lllO/lg1ll
fo 1/(1>e l'Cell dl."f.>eloped by /fu'
COllrl cnbillelmnkcr. Cerril JI'I/$('/I.
56
A S the 17th century progrcssed, patrons demanded
.L-\.increasingly more luxurious pieces of fumihtre,
which was commonIy carved and giJded. Sculptors, for
example, carved elaborate bases for tables and stands for
cabinets. SpiraJ legs became very popular and were
turned on a lathe. Louis XIV ordered silver furniture for
Versailles, which was imitated in other countries by
covering the woad carcase with sheets of silver repolfss.
As well as the new manipulation of fumiture forms,
the century saw the importing of exotic materials into
Europe from Africa, the East, and the West lndies.
Ebony from Asia and Africa appearcd first in Portugal
and the Spanish territories - the Netherlands, Sicily, and
Naples. Cabinehnakers in France, southern Germany,
and Antwerp learned to vencer not onIy in ebony, but in
West Indian turtleshell (common!y caBed tortoiseshell),
metals, vory, and co(oured v/oods. In northern Europe
it v..'as more comman to use marquetry of different
woods, especial1y \\'alnut, oJivcwood, or kingwood (a
form of rose\vood).
Painted Surfaces Veneering with Stones
57
-

I
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".'+;'-4'
* vL..-J'r1
---
--'-..
,, - ),
.'.. ,'.
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I
,
1 A mlleetor's envillet, c.1680, in ivOlY witll si/n?r-gilt 1I1OII/Its nlld Inpis
ln:::.u/i, prolmb/y by lhe Augs/mrg envil1etlllaker, Me/ciliar Bnlll11gartller al1d
demrated il/ Fforel1lille pietre dure prme/s (Jlnrd 510111'5). Ht SO.jCI11!31Y.ill.
2 Scagliola, ill ('/c/ groHlld marb/cs al1d glue Il'ell! l/sed lo fiU in IIU'
,
lIollowed base or as n coverillgfor Ihe IIO/e surfnce, wns rlt?l.'e1oped as all
nitemnlive to pielre dure. This palIe/ is attribllted fa SilllOlle Setli ofempi
(fb6jD-1700). W. 1.37111/.ift 6ill.
3 Tl1is e1nborale pietre dure fOp for a labJe ill Ihe GalCl'ic d' ApolloJl, c.1660,
/l/ay have hccll desigllcd by Charles Le Bnlll (161')-90),
3
1 Takcl1 mm lhe sitie of /JI!
Ellglish l i r r l ~ el7oo, fllis de/ni!
of n /;rnil1csquc desigll il'1l5 mane
1I5ing n Frenc/I lechniqllc called
verre glomis, nepe/oped by
jeall Baptiste Glol1l!! (d.1786).
Tlle back of tlu: mirror ({'as
cOFl.'red witl1 go/ti len! whicl i/'flS
tllen scmlchen away alln pain/en
witll n colau!" SUell as red, black,
bIrle, 01" greclI.
2 FlIrIlifIlre WfiS often pnilltcd
find gi/den in ile 17th cen/ury,
some/illles wit/ e/aborate SCCI/CS
as in t!Js detail mili fhe late l7fll-
an/u,.!! Swedish royal (ooc!I.
One technique used was oyster veneer: small branches of
timber were cut into oval shapes and assembled into
geometric pattems. Floral marquetry was another; it ,..vas
made by assembling individual pieces of contrasting
naturally co]oured aI stained woods, \-\'hich couId be
shadowed by dipping the edges into hot sand or
engraved in order to create still-life compositions. In
France, marquehy \vith metal veneers or hutleshell and
brass in contrasting patterns \vas occasionally combined
with materials such as hom or mother-of-pearL
In Florence and Rome, tables and cabinets were
decorated with pietre dure (hard stones such as jaspers,
agates, and marbles). Florentine craftsmen developed
the 16th-century technique of cutting the stones and
assembling them on the surface of the piece to produce
an effect somewhat similar to marquetry; this technique
"".'as known as COlIJlIIesso work. Scaglioln \Vas another
technique developed in Italy \vhereby a coloured paste
of ground marbIe and selenite (a form of gypsum) was
applied, almost like paint, on to the base. Dutch,
1
2
Carved and Gilded Furniture
2 Bnroqllc craftsmeu decomted
fl/mitl/re 1'itll gold leilJ. TIJe
'OOd ims cowed (litll gesso fllld
111m l'ililltl'd il'itl, mi c1ny. or
Il(Ik. 0/1 fa .pl,iel, file gold It?sif
1m,; flJ'l'fied. TIIl' delail 'a,; ClIf
jlllo Iltl' ami/lit' go/d kllf
'I'ITS lllmlislu!d fa at'nte tt'xtllrt'S
(lnd lo<t'-relil'f p"rterll:-. TJis
taNe. C.I7Jo. 1'lIS mnde mil
mm!:. \ IOQrt'.
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1 Fllmilllri? mfljf(, olsih.'l.'r ,'liS ti/e /l/osI
lU.ntriol/s pass/bit'. Lvllis XIV liad n ::el
/IInrle for l/u' Gnh'rh' de G/nc6 al VerSllilll.'S j"
fIIvlII,d 1670, ,('/lid, <l'as mt'1ted
dowl/. Olhe/' eXl1/11pJes slIeh as tllis slIife 01
lab/e, mirra!', {Ind sfl1l1d'5 WI'rl' made c. J 700
fol' lile rl//a 01 Knsscl. 11 H'115 co1.'Cfed il1
lIIil'l'ol" glns::;, cnn.red, sili'ered, IJlld gilded.
TnbJt.o 1It s/nlld fU511/13ft 91oill.
58
Flemish, and English eraftsmen all used this method of
imtitating inlaid marble.
lmported ]apanese laequer chests, eabinets, and screens
had a profound effect on European fuffiihlre. In their use
of black, these pieces ",ere parlicularly suitable for the
Baroque interior, and their laequer with its highly polished
sheen was mueh admired. ]apanese laequer was made by
applying layers of a syrupy substanee derived from the
sap of the laequer tree or ,-hus 'oemicifllln. Export wares
ofien depicted landseapes with mountains and temples
and were deeorated with l1laki-e (gold flakes or dust).
Original ]apanese laequer cabinets \Vere genera))y
displayed on European stands, while ]apanese laequer
panels \Vere often cut up and mounted on the most
luxurious European furniture.
The natural sap of the lacquer tree \Vas unobtainable
in the "'''est and the imitation of orientallaequer, known
as japanning, was taken up throughout Europc in thc
second half of the 17th eentury. As weH as ]apanese
examples, European prints such as those by Jan Nieuhoff
(1655) were popular sources of design inspiration. In
England John Stalker and George rarker published their
Treatise 01 ]apmll1illg ami Vamisllillg in 1688; this was one
of several technieal manuals on the subject. Ihe
japaJUling recipes varied, but included ingredients such
as shellac, gum-lac, or seed lac. Numerous coats \Vere
applied, sometimes on the wood directly, and sometimes
on to a gesso base. Relief effects could be achie\'ed by
applying extra layers of gesso, sometimes \Vith gilded
highlights. Mother-of-pearI \Vas occasionaUy included in
imitation of Japanese abalone shell.
]apanning \Vas mostly earried out in black, but red \vas
also popular and Gerhard Dagly (c.1687-17P) in Berlin
specialized in \Vhite laequer with scenes painted in green,
red, and other colours. Pierre Gole may have been one of
the earliest to create simulations of laequer, although he
did not use oriental motifs. Cerrit Jensen (jl.1668-1714) in
England made many pieces of japanned fumihlre for the
crown, especially for Queen Mary, whose passion for
]apanese lacquer equalled her love of oriental ceramics.
Lacquer and Japanning
3 Cal1illt'tmakl.'r-::: ofte" ClIt l/JI
St'llltim' orit'lltal laClII/l'r fo
jil Ellropeml slmpes tl5 ill tllis
I!xmllp/e by Cerril el/sell, c. J 690.
TIJe 1/','\5 (Inri sum:lllJlds (1ft'
in/mlll/cd fo IItnlc!l. Ht 74(111129;11.
4 Tflis (tlbilld 0/1 tl stmllj dafes
fa amI/mi 1,00;5 nttriblltcd fo
lile f('tldil/g mnker of japtllllled
JI/milI/re iu Camal/Y. Gerl/flrd
11'110 ,l'Orkcd JI Ber/ill.
e
Cabil1c1ltI6oCIII/231i1l .
,
1 Cn/li1l'ts o/Japanes/' /ncq//('" are
ilIl1stmfed lIthis pie/I/n.', c1675.
of Louis XIV';; lIliMress. rile Inste
for lile exalie,jor tlle lIJore r'nte
spaCf!5. ill grl!ITt flOlI,;eS, h'lllo l/le
importalioll %rielltal ilYlrl'S
fl/ui lo fIJ, display.
2 TIJis japdlllll'd c11t1ir jrvlJl
/I/(' Quet'''';; fIIllerOOIJl a/ Hall!
Hall;;/'. EI/g/al1d, benrs file al'M
01 Elisabdll Dysnrt, 1672. TIJe
e/mirs (I/"t' 1I1111$/wl 111 IJlt'ir
nttempf ro el//l/llIte II
/l/ot{ffor t/IC llfU:k, nJt1/Ol/gh I/IC
01."'rfIllllPP"lIrfllICl.' is Ellropl!lIlI.
Ht ,1.23111I..ft.
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5 TIIi;; IIIII/SIIII/ filM,' /11/ Pierre GoJe. C. 1673,
is pni"'t',f ,l'ith cofollrt,,f mrnis/u'S. T/l' plIllf'/s
fin' 01<'11 st'f il//o II eOIllJlositioll of mot/ll'r-oJ-
pcnrl /0 imitntc /apanese aba/ol/c she/l.
59
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4
Upholstery and Beds
The Upholstered Chair and Settee
1 The d1l1it ill lile ji!"s! hnlf 01 /e
17th (el/tul"Y wns oftm upJlOlstacd
jI! /cntiu:r as i/1 t/I,; c:mlllplc,
C.I630, whicll has tite ciphcr 01
Peta Prw! RlIlleJ1s. T/I' Il1rge
sluds ,pcte par! 01 he decoral ;011.
2 TI/e c1ulir of sta/e, 01'
e/mir, deriv{'drvlII 1tnliml
ReIlU;S5f1l1CI' prototypes. TlJis
e.mll/ple o/ Ellglis/l ro!!a!
fumifl/re /l/ay Jur..'/? bccII made jor
James 1(ll/ri is lIplwlsferclf il'ill,
GellQ('sc si/k, (lit flIld stitclted 01/
lo tI/(' "ilk lmek::''Tolllld. lt j,;
decomfed "'itl, sil'er spnllg/es
nnd redJrillgillg.
3 A tnl'l.' sUl"vivn/ of origillal
IIp!lOlstery, tMs c1mil" ins pnrt
uf (/ st'/ bUl/gllt il1 by
COIIII! Ni/s Bil.'lkl' (164_1-1716)
frolll ]acqut' Heref ami Al1l1e dll
FOllr (pro/m/ly he llpltolslerer)
in 1680.
4 A design for a Frellc11 royal
dmlued, C.1690, 01' Grand
Canap, IIpl10lstered dtIE
pallds, ('ac11 uordered it'itl1 11
cOlltrnstillgJrillgt', possiu/y
of si/w 01' go/d tllrmd.
60
5 n,is selt, madi' c.17o blf l/le
HlIgul'1I01 lfpJolslerer PII/;"
Guiberl Jor TJoll/ns Osoome, J 5/
DI/ke 01 Lud;;, /5 l/pllOlstered 111
imported GtIlOO t'e!<'et o/ (ri/llsoll
al/ri gret'll. lt 1/(J'; mntcllllg
fril/ges. tI,Jic/, afiell cosl as
IIIlIell as tlle materia/ itse{f
L. 2o.8m/6ft 8ill.-- ------_.
Lavish Expenditure
4 As well as beds. coaches ,'ere
mi illlportant stalelllcn! 01 powcr.
filld I/lI!ir illtcriofs ,l'l're crnfted
by tllt' royal upllolstt'rl!fs. Tile
1'IIIbroidery of /lIe s/ate coac"
for C/lndes Xl of Swede!1
(C.1696-9) was IIIflde lo desiglls
'1/ }I'fIIl Braill.
s

J
1
1 TI/e nllgeJ hed, 1672, desiglled by /cml
8mill for 1111.' Trinlloll de Porcelaillt' iJl ti/e
gral/llds al V'rsnifh.'S, 1I10d" l/se of elaborate
f1yillg CIIrlnills, tlJul ,{'as illtellded 0111.11 for
pri'ofe spaces. DmJiel Marol dtr.:e/oped fIJe
c/allOrtlle cnosted top for {,is fllg/ish stale llt'ds.
2 TlIe Frt!llcJl statl.' bed lUId {/ simple, grometric
pTofile wllich 'as combilled i:1';tI, file ridles!
{abrir,;. rlJis bed il'tlS madI' ill FTilllce fa, Jnllli'S
. .
II 0/1 fis lIInrringe lo Mnry ol Afodel1fl JI 1673.
3 TI';:: dl'fnil o[ file strlfl' bed madI' Jor Grorgl.'.
1st Earl Alt'/j/le. in e. 1700 11.11 tlle HlIgllf'l/ot
l/pllO/ster!'" Fmll:; wlJierre. sllOtl'S file m!/
in ,d,iel, nl'Tic :ms gllled 011 fa tlle cnl.'ed
headlmrd lo cmlte elaborate slmpes, ;:('hile
file -ere lo create (/ grenter
sel/se of.'O/I/IIII', (lud it't'rt' ricMy frillged
alld t'mbroidt,rt,,{
I
n the 16th and 17th centuries, the greatest sums of
mone)' spent on fumishing the interiors of hOllses and
palaces "'ere for textiles and fringing. Rooms "'ere hlU1g
",ith luxllrious panels of silk and velvet, bordered with
embroidery or fringes of gold and 5iker threads, and
beds and chairs "'ere upholstered in 5umptuOllS fabries.
Inventories sho", that in the second half of the 16th
century in Rome, fumiture ",as supplied en suite -
complete with the hangings. This practiee was introduced
into France in the 16205 as contemporaries emulated the
famous blue rooms of Madame de RambolliJIet
(1588-1665) who, Iike the Frend1 queen, was Italian.
The square form of the state bed remained fashionable
until1800. In France, more elahorate shapes were created
for the private rooms or garden pavilions such as the
Trianon de Porcelain. Daniel Marot in tllrn lIsed these for
inspirabon when he de5igned elaborate state beds in the
English royal palaces e.1700. The crested headboards and
carved testers were covered with sumptuous fabries, in
designs closel)' based on those of Jean Brain.
Based on the Roman campaign chair, the X-frame chair
had always been the chair associated with rank and was
therefore sought after for palaces and aristocratic houses.
A second popular type of chair was an armchair, often
called sil/ol! de fraile, as the square frontal form probably
originated in Spain. During the 16th century, the frame
was covered with fabric, and the seat cllshion and arms
were lIpholstered in hessian and horsehair, with large
nailheads acting both as decoration and for fastening the
material. Silk and gold fringes hung from the sides and
across the centre of the back. This shape lasted more or
less tmchanged tUltil the middle of the 17th centllry.
During the second half of the 17th century, as the backs
of chairs grew taller and the frames were more
elaborately caned, the role of llpholstery became more
important in providing the silhollette of the Baroque
chair. The backs were stllffed with horsehair and were
giyen a three-dimensional shape. The armchair also
developed a more architectllral form with wings on the
sides and scrolling lower sections.
61

Upholstery and

10 B1BFPJ S-\L\U
3 Tllis inscribed LO/uf011 delft lallkllrd is daled
1638. TI/e celllmll1lolifderiuesfrol1l a Il1fe
vlillg desigll ImdiliOlUllly kllOll'11 as Bird an
Rack alld is O/le af lile enrliest exalllples al 1111'
al CI/illese blue-alld-w!lite pOl"celaill
011 ElIg/isll cemlllics. HI Ll-CI1l/slill.

2
1 Tilis hellllct-sJmped fnii'Jlce bll5l'd 01111I1
enrlier lIefnli:l'Ork/01"11I, ;5 paiuled ill blue al/d
red, <villl {/ formal pallem of 5/iff caves nI/ti
brllldH'ork derivedmm Frel/e11 priut SOl/fCes.
Ht 28.2C111/11ill.
2 Glle 01 a par Di DH/e/I de/fl floil'er pyrnlllids,
mnde C.169<>-9S, pitil noz:les designcd fo
display clIl t1l1ips mili oflJa no/ie blool/1s.
TI/(! decora/ioll iucorpomt1'5 styli:edfoliage
{Inri emblellla/ ie figures, possibly re/n/illS; lo lhe
reigl1 of\il/i/!inlll {Inri "'Iary. Ht 5-1-.3CI1I/21/ill.
The Upholslerecl Cll,lil 1I1(1
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ct
c:c
62
D
uring the 16th cenhlry Italian potters took their skills
t France, the Low COlUltries, and England, where
the material became knm.vn variously as falence, Delit,
and English delfhvare. The production of tin-glazed
earthenware continued to dominate European ceramics
in the 17th century, but it began to move m'\'ay fram the
Italian Renaissance style and develop distinctive new
characteristics. In the 1640s potters working in Nevers,
France, continued to produce display platcs in the
istoriato tradition, but now followed the work of
contemporary French artists; later French decorators
favoured small-scale, repetitive pattenls derived from
engraved SOllrces. These formal, lace-like designs,
including stiff leaves and lambrequins, are characteristic
of French design in the late 17th century.
Imported Chinese bllle-and-white porcelain also
inspired the 17th-cenhlry tin-glazed earthenware potter,
and most of them strove to imitate both the material and
the colour scheme, \-vhile modifying the forms al' subject
matter to suit European taste. Characteristic of later
DlItch pieces are the great flower pyramids created for
VVilliam and Mary, which combine the 17th-century love
of blue-and-white with the fashion for exotic flowers. The
tulip became a widespread 17th-century motif, appearing
on English delftware and slipware. Particular to English
earthenware were royal portrait dishes.
Stoneware, both lInglazed red stoneware made in
imitation of Chinese Yixing ware and salt-glazed stone-
ware, also dominated 17th-century pottery. A particular
type of salt-glazed ware made in Westerwald, Germany,
had an all-over pattem of stamped motifs and a glaze
stained blue with cobalto However, Cologne continued to
make the brown stoneware bottles discussed in the last
chapter. TIlese had been imported into England in the
16th cenhlry but were only copied there "vhen Jolm
Dwight of London (c.1635-1703) was granted a patent in
1672. Dwight also made red stoneware lnd, in an attempt
to discover the secret of parcelain, created a renned \-vhite
stoneware, which, as well as being used for table wares,
\Vas used to make busts and figures in the Baroque style.
------------- -- --------
Tulip Mania
1 TlIe centra/motif 01 tu/irs ill {I vase 0/1 t/is
Ellglish delft disll, or cJmrgcr, /lUId.: ill 1661,
is Europenll ill style, bu! the divisioH of he
borda lila pal/.:!:; i;; illspir,'d by mrlier
Clm:se exporl wares. Dinlll. 48.5C111/!9ill.
Stoneware
1 Jolm Dwigllt's pottcry in LOl/doll /linde
IlIis grcyisIJ-white busl o[ Prillce RlIperl 01 tlIe
Rhillc (1619-1682) (.1673-5- HI 75011/29/';11.
2 Tlle red /lm/erin! o[ t!lis ElIg/is/t red
S/OIlCWllre fcapar, made c.169D with n loop
halldle Iwil Ilcom knop, H'ns l/sed fa imitate (1
type of ClIillcse tcapo! COlllllIOllly i1llportcd nI
tite tillle, {Inri 1I1lrierlillcs IIe impacl }nl trade
wi!/ /e Far Eas! 1I1d 0/1 Ellropenll decora/h'c
arts ill fhe 17th (millry. Ht 12.5CIIl/5il1.
3 A Inter style of JlVesterwl1ld stollcwaJ"c with 11
rc;?rllnr dinper of stalllped 1I10tifs picked 0111 in
/fue can be seell ;11 this pnilltil1g by Nicho/as
lvlaes of a fittle gir! roekillg a erad/e, C.1654-9-
4 A slrollg Gerlllal1 inflllellce call be seell in
fllis ElIglis/ salt-g/a::ed stolleware bottle made
in Londoll Cl675. Ht 11.5clII/8';n.
2 T!II: tu/ip as nfas/o/1ablf' deice spread to
eay brane/I of lIJe deeoralil'e arts, and it
appenrs as the d0ll1i!1a!11 1I10tif on l/lis Engfish
slipwarf posset-pol 01" /ovillg-cllp, daled 1709.
11 is ;l1scribed "tlle besl is 1101 loo good for
YOl/." Oinlll. 11.5clll/S/,in.
3 Pailltillgs SUe/1 as this stil//ife of a rose,
tllfip:;, nlld oml/ge b/OSSOIll by Dalliel Seghers
of Alllwerp (1590-1661) were n ridl SOllree of
inspiratio/1 for desigllers 'l'orkillg in n val"iely
of lIIalerinls.
2 3
Slipware
3

1 TlIis ElIglish slipiunre di:5/, ade by Tllol/las

Tofl c.1660-1675, depict:5 I/Iefl/ture C/ar/esl1
llidillg ;11 a!1 oak tree lo escape file ROlllldllcad:5.
Bot/ t/e sllbjecl I/Iatler (lIId tlIe robll:5t :5fy/c are
typica/ of lile paiod. Din11l. jOCI/I!l9'1:ill.
63
Porcelain
1 TIle earliest Meissell ceram(
malerial il'tlS l/sed for l/lis BOttger
red SIOIlt"iI'l1re tea caddV, e.llJO-15.
The simple forlll folfOiI'S Chillese
cemlllies alld cOlllempomnj si/ver.
Ht 1O.4clII/4"'l.
2 TIJis ({'/Jite BOIIger porce/aill
vase and copero e.17t5. desiglled
by JO/WIlII jakob !Jas mi
architeetllral slwIJe, WiIJl Baroque
gadroollillg. Ht '1.5clII/20'l.ill.
3 A dl/ Paquier {'(Ise, c1725-30.
TI/e hall/ster slmpe wit1/mlill/al
ma4: /lnlldles ed/OE'S lIJe Bnroqlle
slyle. as do U/e motifs, il/dudillg
tlle tassels. HI 29.,cm/lll,ill.

'F


2
Red Stoneware and Early Porcelain
Chinoiserie and Harbour Scenes

3 Tllis MeiSSl'Il cOl't'rcd

1Jeaker, cI730, is pailltl.'d il'itll
Ilnrbollr SUlles. A /igllter Jlote is
begilllJillg lo emerge, whidl ;s
seen iJl fIJe /acy gilt border f1l1d
lile figl/ral kllop. HI 18. ,cm/l.ill.
2 Tlle qllnlity of]. G. Horoldt's
dl'Siglls. dl.'rit'ed from tI,e c.Il2a
Schulz Codcx (El/rapean
tmns/afiOIl:; of ClJiJlt'51' sum.'s).
cml be sel'/l 01/ /11;5 e172j
Me;:;:;ell fenbowl fllld SlIlIcer.
-
1 TIie body of this Mrissell teapot
is based 0/1 Genllnll Bnroqlll' sih>er.
lt is pailltl.'d w;111 coJal/mI I'llnme/s,
;:;JuJil'ing n c1lilloiserie SUIIt: wi/hilJ
a Bnroqlle Laub und Bandelwcrk
borda. Ht l1.jcm/-llill.
w

es
es
a:
eX
a:l
64
A
n artificial porcelain \Vas first made in the late 16th
century in the Medici factory near Florence. Later, at
the start Df the 18th century, following years of
experiment at Meissen in Saxony - by the a1chemist
)ohalUl Friedrich Bottger 0682-1719) and rus mentor
Ehrenfried Walter von Tschirnhaus (1651-1708) under the
auspices of Augustus the 5trong, king of Poland and
elector of Saxony - l fine red stoneware was produced.
Pieces were decorated w1th baroque motifs from the
designs of lean Brain 0637-1711). Others were based on
contemporary gold or silver examples, and applied w1th
masks inspired by Balthasar Pemloser 0651-1732), COUTt
seulptor at the Zwinger, Dresden. Benjarnin Thomae,
al10ther sculptor, modelled small busts and bas-reliefs
b;sed on i"ories and C011l1lledia dell'Arte figures.
After htrther experiments, the first hard-paste, or true,
porcclail1 was made at the Meissen porcelain factory in
january 1710. Meissen's wrute, translucent porcelain was
introduced in 1713. It was made with a white-buming
china day from Colditz, mixed with feldspathic stone
similar to Chinese petlflltse, [ired, then covered ",ith a thin
feldspathic glaze. It was used to make tea and coffee
wares and small, grotesque figures inspired by the
engravings of jacqlles Callot (1592-1635) or by imported
Crunese blallc-de-Cllilll!.
johann Gregor Horoldt (1695--1775) developed bright
enamel colours derived from metallic oxides in the 17205.
They "'ere used to depict chinoiseries on tablewares and
vases, orientally inspired exotic Aowers and harbour
scenes, and KakielllOIl designs copied from Japanese origi-
nals. Many of these were enhanced by coloured grounds.
In 1727 Augustus asked johann Gottlob Kirchner
(b.1706) to modellifesize figures 01 birds and animals. He
"'as assisted by a young sculptor, Johann Joachim
Kaendler (1706-75), who joined the factory in 1731.
Two Meissen workmen absconded to Vienna in 1719,
and Claudius Innocentius du Paquier established a rival
porcelain factory there. The wares were of
metal shape, while others \Vere architectural in style, with
painted Earoque decoration.
Other Popular Ornamental Motifs

,
"-

.,
"
- 1-"

. .- .
.-: .
" ". ' ..'

,
,
/
/
,/ /'
'-
I
,

-
,
f
,
"
1 Made as {/ diplollwfic gift for Pie/ro Grilllrmi
C.172], l/lis MS5CIlllOf /l/i/k jllg IW5 fin
arlllarial 0/1 a sYl/Il/lelricnl, yd flnlllboYilll1
Bnroque enrloue/le. Ht 17.3clII/6Y;n.
2 TlIe s!wpe oll!lis C.I740 MeissCII fllree ;::ns
inspired by eDil/emparar!! Gernlllll si/ver. The.
stiffflOWCl's, kUOijl11 as Hoizschnittblumen,
WI'I"C copied11"01/1 /Jotallien! il'OodCllf
I'llgravzllgs.
3 TJe ho/ti rellderillg of a lmtt/e semc 01/
l/lis Ou Pnquier (Vielllw) tmse io. I!lpicnl of
Bnroque decomliOIl of a historicnl sl/vjee! il1
schwartzlot decomtiol1 (block).
Sculptural Forms
1
1 The sOlllcw}1IJ1 nai"l1c sl!!!c of
enrly figures, nlld t!le pajl/ted
decorntiOJl l/sed 011 Ihelll, Cnll be
SCCIl 0/1 fllis enr!!! Meisscll
chiJloiserie gral/p, ,u/cil -ras
lIIodelled by Georg Fritzsehe,
c.1725. The il1f/lIenee is Cllil1f'se,
as seen thro1lgh tlle eyes of a
Gel"llUI11 artist.
2 Tllis Meissen figure of
Har/eqllill 'with a beer tallkard,
from tile Commedia dell' Arte,
uas 1IIoncl/ed by J. }. Knelld/er
C.1733. /1 c1early re.lea!s ilis
tmilling as a seu/ptor in I/e
Bayoque tmdiliol1, (Iil/I ils
dy"mllislll alld e/oq1lellf strength.
The vibrant pri11lary Iones of the
e/lame/s are a/so typicnl 01 t}e
Saroque. Ht 16.1em/6V,ill.
-

3 T/e COIOIll"illg 011 tlle ult1lre is 1/ f,l/pim!

SI/roque fel/ture. Tfle /arge si:c tlll'
seareh ill early poree/aillfor 1111 idmlily.

w
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O
a:
c::e
ce
65
-
LLI
~
o
o
c:
<C
ce
Glass
Venice and Fagon de Venise
1 Three "serpwt" gablefs in colollrlc55 g/nss witl illcorpornfed
coloured glns5 threads, Cerll1a11Y 01' !Ie Netl1crltlllds, 17t/ celltury.
Ht (/lighest) 3j.jCIII/14ill.
2. StefmlO de/la Bella, desigll for tl falllasy ~ l e s s e FloreJlcc, c.16jo-75.
TI/e eiep/ulIlt tnlllks serve as spou/s filrougll vl1ic/ ti/e cOI/ten/s cOl/Id be
pOl/red 01" dnlllk.
3 Gabriele Sald, Still Life with Parrot (deta;!), Ha/y, doled 1716.
Tile fal! goble! is similar fa survj"illg e:mlllples il1 RosmbOlg
Castle, Copellfwgell.
4 Cablet oI CO/Ollrless glns> >it} wheef ('!lgm"llIg, SOl/ti/cm Nl'fhcrlllJufs
01' Bo!u?IIlia, c. J 680. Ht '''.3cm!17!,il1.

r'-
2
4
66
D
uring the 17th century glass became generally more
\Videly available. Colourles5 glas5 \vas made in
ever greater quantities, using cheaper materials and
simpler desigrls. But at the same time, the luxury market
was served with ever more complicated shapes and
intricate decorations. Venetian-style glass was no\\'
successfully made in most northern and central
European countries.
In the Netherlands, talJ "serpent goblets," ''lith
elaborately tooled sterns in the shape of sea serpents,
appealed to the Baroque taste for grandeur and display.
Doubtless these were used only for special occasions and
for presentation and, as a result, quite a few of them have
survived. Similarly cornplicated pieces were wrought in
Germany and Bohemia.
As Venetian glass was successfully copied i.n many
northern countries, the local industrv in Murano
"
responded with increasingly complicated shapes and
effects. Traditional calcedollia glass, for instance, \vas
sparked up by adding a random pattern of gold-coloured
aventurine speckles, created with copper powder. At the
Florentine glasshouse owned by the Medici family, which
was entirely staffed with Venetians, court artists designed
fantasy goblets and centrepieces intended for
ostentatious displays at parties.
The swan-song of Venetian glassmaking came in
arOlmd 1700, when the style, with its use of ultra-thin
glass worked in elegant and often complicated shapes,
was abandoned throughout Europe in favour of more
robust styles. During that period the Muranese
glassmakers produced sorne of their most fantastically
elaborate designs.
Display goblets combined blown filigree glass with
reticel10 or fine network patterns with a profusion of hot-
worked detail, incorporating whole bouquets of flowers.
King Frederik IV of Denmark received a gift of a large
number of such glasses when he visited Venice in 1708-9.
Most of these can still be seen in a special room, designed
to house this col1ection, at Rosenborg Castle
in Copenhagen.
1
1 Olri"topll "('igel (attrilU,
The Glass Engr<l\cr. Ct'r1I/1I11Y.
c. 1680. T/(' eugrl1i.'t'r lIold:> a
gobld llc!III'al1l a cOl'llt'r '1'1't't"
11jJ1't'r('d bl( a ffl'tldh'. l'lIic1,
tlle arti:>t o( t/Jis prillt lIas
omitt'd. 011 tllt, tab!c an' SI.'<'I'm/
otila it'lIel'1s alld llOl'1s 01
a/,ras;''!' pasft'.
2 Caspar Le/mmlll, pI/lid t,itI,
nJl aflegoricn/ dt'pictioll 01 nli{lJI
(delni/), cO/Ollr1t'"s g/a"" l'it{
w/ed l'lIgm'il1g, siSllt'd nlld
doled 16:!O. HI 23clII/9I.il1.
..
3 4
3 Hl!rmmm Sc1m,illga (aUrib.J, gtlL1k! tIIul Clli't'r in co'ol/rlt'ioS gltlss witl/
U'1It'l'I t'/Isrn>illg, Nllrl'lllb,.'rg, c.1660-70. Ht 31.8cm/Tlli/I.
4 Fri..dric11 IVillft'r, c%llrb" g/as" goNt'f mili m,'t'r ,pit/ Hochschnill
't'II..'/ ellgn1t'illg,/mtllril/S tllt' Pl'Iastltlrf.
Sih'sil/, u 700. Ht 3Scm/ljill.
5 RllbY-lnt gla"j teapot "il" 'I'h('t" t'/Igm,'ing lllld sih'a-gi!t IIltll/llf",
;;Qulllall C..rmauy, (.1700. A S//IalJ IIIllIIbt'f vIg/ass It'apots 'l'rt.' madI'
arolllld tJi" tillle, but ,n'n' ob.'iolls/y iml'raetica/. Ht 210ll/81.;1I.
W
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O
O
a:
<t
ca
Glass engraving with the aid of fast-rotating small
copper wheels, fed with an abrasi\'e, was first practised at
the imperial court in Prague. Caspar Lehmann
(1565-1622), ",ho worked there as an engraver cf gems
and rock-crystal, is credited with first using the technique
on glass around 1600. The decoration is cut into the glass,
creating a negative relief which stands out matt against
the undecorated parts cf the surface.
Through Georg Schwanhardt, a pllpil of Lehmann, the
art cf \\"heel-engraving passed to Nuremberg, ",here it
blossomed throughout the 17th century. Tall standing
lidded goblets in Venetian style \Vere decorated with
fincly detailed land- and seascapes, somctimcs incorpo-
rating allegorical scenes. The full potential cf the
teclmique ,,"as adlie\'ed onl)' towards the end of the
century, when a new glass material had been developed
which couId be blown much more thickly, allowing a
deeper, more three-dimensional relief decoration.
At Potsdarn, near Bcrlin, a glasshouse operated under
the protection of the elector of Brandenburg from 1674. It
\Vas here that the famolls glassmaker JOharul Kunckel
condllcted experiments. He de\'eloped a dark rllby-red
glass by adding gold po",der to the raw materials. The
elector also employed two of the most rcnowned
engravers of the time, Martin V\'inter (d.1702) ll1d
Gottfried Spiller (c.1663-1728). They engraved ll1assively
thick Iidded beakers and standing ClIpS with distinctive
reliefs of putti and grape vines.
>
Other centres of engraving emerged during the last
quarter of the 17th century under courtly patronage, such
as those at Kassel in Hessen and in Silesil.
\lVinter's btother Friedrich had a water-p0H"ered cutting
mili at Herrnsdorf, Silesia, where he created some
remarkable pieces of Baroquc glass. 111e)' were blown
very thickly, and their \Vhole surface was cut, lcaving the
main decoranon standing out higher than the deeply cut
background. This type 01' cutting, known as Hoc1tsc1l11itt,
often used bold asymmetrical floral decorations. Designs
gradual]y became lighter, but asymmetry and deep
cutting remained popular in Silesia until about 1750.
67
-
----- ----- -
Lead Glass in Britain
1
/" /
1 Basiu mul e[{ler ill ca/Dlldes5 [cad g/ass by
George Rnr-'eIlscroft's gII1Ss!lOlIse, LOl/dou,
C.1676-7_ T/e basIl is II1nrked with n mI'l'I1'S-
liead sen/o Alt/lOlIgh RlweI1scroft added Jlis senl
Oll/Y fa pieces he tllOlIght free of "cri=?lillg ", 01'
glnss disense, fhese objects /m.'C deteriornfcd
ove/' file cenfllries: tllis is fhe CIlse 'lere.
Jug lit 27.6clII/101.il1.
2 PlJilip \Itereia. Sir Thomas Samwell and
Friends, c. 1733. TI//' IIeni"! bnlllSffr-sfellllll/'d
glnsses ill t!Je pietlll"e lIIight p/'ednfe t!Je
pniJltillg by 0111.' al' fU'o decndes. T!Ie I1InIl in
t!Je lIliddle is lIoldillg n s/ightly Ialger glnss
ohieh pns probnbly IIsed for eOIllIll//1/{//
tonstillg nnd drillkil1g.
W
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C1
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a::
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ce
3 ColO/Ir/es;; [cad-glass goblet nlld coper
witll dinl11Dlld-pollf l'l1grtlved iuscriptiol1:
"5i 5imoll BoosillgtOIl," Ellglnlld, e1700.
Ht 37.4clII/14,/;ill.
4 Bn/lIsfa-sfellll1led goblet il1 colvl/des" /cad
g/ass l'itl111 feal" in t!le base knop, Ellg/and,
enrly 1St!! century. HI
5 EI/gli,,/ ba/lIster g/ass 01(olvllr!e"s cad
glnss, c. 1740. DI/rl/g lile (ourse 01 he 181/1
ceulllry, "fcms becnml' less heaIlY. Bn/lIs/raid
glnsses, like !!lis, llave a tnll stelll cOlIsistillg of
s('[wn/ salid balllsfers (Inri or kllo!'s.
Ht 25CII1/97:il1.
r -(
. '"
, I
-
5 4 3
68
.. 8
The Netherlands
1 l\"ilit'III/\loolc!l"5.'f, gobld af
gl/l$5 ;{,j/JI dinlllOlld-
1'11i/11 Rotterdllm,
"!VA'" illlllOI/Ogrtllll /Inri
.11It.-d 168j. HI 16..cm/6IiJl.
2 I\'i1f1'1II 'mI Hl'elllskerk,
II,y,1I/fa bottle 01grct'Il isl,-blllc
XIII;;;; ej// .finmolld-poillf
.'"sra'lug. Lt'idell. il'l"sh'rJ/
Xt'lfll'rfrmds. sigm'd (lllri dafed
lb;;. Ht 13.)CIII/9bll.
3 Aerl ScJoUmtlll, gobJet al
CO/OIlr/65 {cad glns:; il'itll
diamolld-poillf stipple I?llgrn'illg.
bt'tlrillg a portmil o/ Sfadtllo1dl'r
PriJlce l\'i/liollJ IV, \h'tIJer/mlds,
signcd Ilmlllnled 17jo. TIJe
g/ti:>:; is probnbly Ellg/iS/I.
Ht 2jcm/9Y.i1l.
4 Bellker fllld COi:W wit1 coa/s-
oj-arms 01lile gOi'l.'r/lors oll//I!
CUy TIJl'tltre. Amsterdllm, 01
colollr/l"ss Imd gtas:; wit/ wlleel
t'llgraping, :Vdllcrlrlllds, 1731.
TIl/? glass is probably EIIgUs/I.
Hf 39.IClIl/J5/;ill.
1

-
5 5i1l101/ Jaeob 5allg, gobJer, 01
eolOllrh-ss /end-g/nss with whee/
ellgrnr>illg, sJwoi1/g fllt' (mllS o/
fa'o All/sferdnmInmilies, possibly
fo eommemorat(' n IIInrriage ill
17.;.8. Made ill Amstcrdalll,
Netlwrlnnds, siglled al/d dllfed
1752. Hf 224CIII/6'1.;'r.
5 ........ 3
Venetian-style glassmaking was well established in
London from the late 16th century, but Venetian imports
continued during the 17th centmy. from the 16705, it
geems there \Vas a demand all across Europe for thicker,
sh.trdier glasses. The most successful attempt to make "a
perticuler sort of Christaline Glasse resembling Rock
CristaU" \Vas made by George Ravenscroft.
Around 1677 he overcame rus initial problems with the
instability of his glass by adding lead oxide to the ra'"
materials. This resulted in a hea,,)' colourless glass, clearer
and purer than e\"er seen before. Ravenscroft's glass \Vas
seon copied by other glasshouses in Britain, but the style
of their products "'as still Venetian. lllis ne\V glass had
different properties when it was blown and shapcd. It
stayed hot for longer, making it unsuitable for thi-nly
blown glass ",ith detailed decorations. A qll.intessential
English style was bom arolffid 1700, of simple shapes that
focused attention on the refractive quality of the finest
clear leadwglass. Goblets had heavy baluster stems of
solid glass.
In 17th-century Holland, glass engraving became a
favoured art form, practised mostly by
rli/etf(lIlti. ""ith a diamond point they scratched line
decoration standing out matt against the shiny glass
surface. Apart from heraldic and allegorical subjects, jolly
scenes of dancing and drinki.ng \Vere especially popular.
Calligraphic decorations proved particularly suitable for
the cUlTed su.rfaces of drinking glasses and decanter
bottles. Willem \'an Heemskerk, a Leidcn c10th merchant,
engraved hlffidredS of such objects in his sparc time.
When English lead glass carne into fashion in the 18th
cenhuy, diarnond-point engraving "'as adapted to suit
the new medium. The soft and shiny glass surface allo",ed
decorations to be stippled on, each picture being built up
from thousands of dots. The centre of stipple engraving
\Vas Oordrecht, where a group of dilettnllti included the
painter Aert 5chouman. \Vheel engraving continued to be
practised, mostly by professional engravers who had
come from Bohemia al' Germany to the Netherlands,
where the demand for engravcd glasses seemed insatiable.
69
,
Silver and Metalwork
The Van Vianens and the Auricular Style
"
2
1 Adam .'1111 Vil1m'l/ of Utreclll
ens (lile o.f tlle most original alld
"irtuoso goldsmitlls of all fime.
Hi'" 'cn'nfric AllriCll/ar slyh'
rC:clclll'd a it'ide al/dimee ,t']ell /is
11t':.'igllS for t'ica" alld other
"t'Sst'l" Wt' puNislred by Izis SOIl,
Clirisliall, ill 1650 IlIlder lIle tille
Artificiosi.
2 TJlis dl'Sigll by Dalliel Rnl'l'/
frolll Carlouchcs de diffrenles
invenlions (('1625J, retaills n
f1es/y AllriClllnr nspt'cl to tlle
mask al the IOi/'t'T n'nlre, /llIt has
illcorpornled il 11110 alllore
sl (l/CI11 n'd Bttrof/I/e COlll/lOSiIiOIl .
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70
3 TIJis dish l'y Pmd PilII Vial/I'II nlS made JI 1613 for Emperor Rudol! II
(/lid combine:; fluid AllriClllaT omalllt'lIt ,l'iffl tllI (/ccomplishet/ IIIasten) o[
pictorial embossillg.
T
he period of art history known as the Baroque does
not denote a single style so mueh as a phase,
embracing a cluster of more or less similar stylistic
types. The emergence of the Baroque fram Mannerism
during the first quarter of the 17th century, and its
eventual displacement by the Rocoeo in the earIy 18th,
weTe less emphatic or clear-cut events than the great
stylistic revolutions whieh carne earlier and la ter.
The earliest movement of the 17th-century goldsmiths
to constitute a radical break with the past, the Dutch
Auricular style of the second decade of the century, is
in sorne senses a continuation of the Mannerist
principies of invention and virtuosity.
Other aspects of the Baroque had very different and
not always mutually compatible priorities, such as the
strongly sculptural approach that was favoured in
ltaly and later in northern Germany, the botanically
studied decoration that became fashionable in France,
Holland, and Britain during the third quarter of the
eentury, and the formal, architecturalIy in5pired
4 RII/JeIlS'S desigll, c.163D, Jor a siker-gilt di"li /linde for C]nrlcs J is
eompnmble 1'it1l Adam .'ml Vial/el/'s, bllt has 110 abstmel omamCllf. T1Ic
llig/ relief of tlie desigll alld its strollg empllOsi" are Baroqlle.
ornament popularized by Huguenot artists around the
turn of the centurv.
-
The Auricular style is, more than almost any other,
associated \Vith a single family of goldsmiths and
specifically two individuals, the brothers Paul
(c.1568-1613) and Adam (c.1665-1627) van Vianen of
Utrecht. Paul tra"elled aeross Europe and worked in
the court workshops at Munieh, as \\Iell as the court of
the Emperor Rudolf Il in Prague, lIntil the latter's death
in 1613. His rnajestic dish (see 3 above) and ewer have
the proportions and the mythological subject matter
typical of Mannerism, but are quite ne\\l and indeed
revolutionary in the fleshy and abstraet modelling of
the borders, foot, and handle. These abstract qualities of
modelling and their implied teehnieal virtuosity were
taken fllrther still in the extraordinary e\ver (see the
design, 1, above) made by Paul's brother Adam in 1614,
but the dissemination of the style \.."a5 due in part to
Charles I's patronage of Adam's son Christian during
the 16305, and to the latter's publication of a series of
1
Sculptural Baroque
2
1 Cm'yntid figures wel'c ti ftlt'Ourite Baroquc
drr.,icc for cfllldlesticks nlld torc/ercs. This
1642 desigll by he Neapolifan goldsmifll
Ondo Scoppn nc!JiI'I't'S exlm height IJlld
drnl/ltl by il1corparntillg /'1'0 stl"l/gg/illg
figures, recal/il/g fhe swlptllre
oj Gimllbologlltl.
2 Tn'e/01ll1/niI15 wen! mllollg fhe mas! spectnc-
IIlar products oj /m/"oqJlc goldsllJiths nl/d, ill
Itn/y, H'l.'rl! aften n:duccd l'crsiolls o/lllrge pl/blic
IOIIII/nins. This desigl1 is typicn//y BOfoque;1/ ii"
seu/plural nlld nrchitectllrn! elclI/eJI/s.
Seventeenth-century Floral Style
3 T/is si/'er ((lIIdelll/wlIlII ,l'IlS mllde i Britllill
(.1680, II/mosl cerlllillly ndnplillg fhe desigl!s
of enl/ Le Pnufre. Hf Jicm!J4'1ill.
4 leal! le Plllltre's series of desiglls for carYllfid
{orc/leres ;VIlS publislted il1 Paris c.1660
al1d re-issued il1 8rilail1 il1 1674, Tlwir
for111nl sculptuml slyle las !1igllly illf/umtial
01/ silversl1litlls.

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1 A mnjor flla/llre o/ Bnroq//f' desigu ,vas t}e
Ul/l/m/islic.florn/ styfe t/mf del.'eloped Il
FrmlCt? (lJId HOI/(llld, nJld isfolllli1 QIl fllmitl/re
nl1d cernlllics as IIl11ell as 011 si/w. Tllis prIIt
o/floral omtlllll'Jlt l!!pifies he sciellfijim/ly
sflldici c1Ulrtlcter o/ tlle onwmclIt.
2
2 Allost 17t/celltllry Frellc!1 siJi.'Cr rns melted dOil'lI; tbis toitet :"t'r..'ice oI
1670, by Pierre Pri.'Ost, il'ns Slli'ed by its eXllor1 fo Britllil1. tt bears tlle
arms of \Vilfilllll mili AJary alld is t'lIIllOssed 't'itll floral orna1llt'1lf.
71

Baroque Engraving
3 GriIwlill wns proJably a/so
respollsiblc for lIlc slIperb
cl/gra>illg 0// t/lis sihw-gilt
tea cnddy of 1o6 by tlle
LOl/llolI maker Isaac Liger.
Ht 1l.5clll/-I-/'iJl.
4 Afca/ure of Baroque cllgnwil/g
is its del/siry. TlJis disll.frOIll a
Sllllll'llIOIlS toikl sen'ice by tlle
HlIgllclIol goIdslllilll Pirrre
Harache. il'as made ill Lolldoll iJl
1695. IV. -I-0.5CIII/16ill .
1 SltimlO Del/a Bella's prillts o/
fricI! omamellf, p"blis'cd il!
Paris iJl 16-1-8. 'i/we Ilst'd for
elllbossed aJld ellgra"l'd dl'foratiOIl
al/d for castillg paltems.
2 A ricJlly decorale1l dis/l by file
LOl/doll goIdsmitlt Bl'lljamill
PYlle. 1698. Tlle embossed bor.ler
is based Oll a Della Bella prillt o/
50 ycars eClrlicr. buf Ibe elaborate
cellfral carfOl/cIJe .('as probnbly
exewfed fo bis O('I/ desigll by tIIC
FrCllch ellgrm.'er 5i1ll011 Gribelill.
W. 2J.5 cm/81.i1l.

..

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.",
. ~ = . . ~ - ~ . -:,."..,. - < ~ . .
~ ~
- . ..... "':':;c
, . -f
~ . .
5 A s/lel!l frolll Grib<'1ill',; New Book of Ornaments (Ijo,), pllb/i::;f/ld
ill LOlldoll. TI/I'!:5e d6;gll;;, il/corporalillg /<,e/y figures nl/d scrollillg
fOliage, ('l.'n' ndnptcd tllld plnginri=ed by eJlgra'er,:; o/ si/r't'!r al/ti dock caS(';. 5
, .
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72
prints in 1650 after his father's designs. The sheer
technical demands of the fuIly developed Auricular
style, and its strangely deviant taste, placed it outside
the purview of mast patrons and goldsmiths, but in a
more diluted form the style continued to exert great
influence throughout Europe until as late as the third
quarter of the 17th century.
Te\\' and forward-looking too is the pietaral
treatment of the surface of Paul van Vianen's dish.
"\fhereas the approach of a Mannerist goldsmith "'as to
orientate the design around the centre of the dish and
to chase the scenes with jewel-like precision, van
Vianen has treated the dish as a single plane, with the
subject orientated around the vertical axis Iike a
picture, and has executed it in a more painterly
manner, \Vith high relief and a more subtle suggestion
of aerial perspective than would have been the case in
the 16th century. In both these respects the dish is
prototypical of much mainstream Baroque design and
\Vas taken up, fer example, in Peter Paul Rubens's eil
sketch for a silver dish for Charles J, executed in about
1630 (see p.70).
In Rome, the powerhouse of Baroque art, the most
important commissions "'ere for grandiose schemes of
church decoration, Iike the ]esu and Santa Maria
Maggiore. \ Vorks in precious metal and gilt bronze
played an important part in these schemes, and many
of the leading artists of the da)', such as Gianlorenzo
Bernini and Giovanni Giardini, \Vere involved. Their
focus \Vas architectural and sculptural and, because of
their different purpose, their character is quite distinct
from contemporary northern \Vorks. But there was
nevertheless significant exchange between artists and
craftsmen in Aanders and Italy and, although almost
nothing of Italian secular Baroque sil ver survives, a
good idea of its character can be formed from
surviving plaster casts of a lost series of silver dishes,
made for presentation to the Grand Duke of Tuscany,
preservcd in the Pitti Palace in Florence. These bear a
likeness in approach to a number of ewers and dishes
Random Variables
1 2
\
\
1,2 Proper Ornaments to be Engraved on Plate wns by
C. de MorMer 111 LOl/dol! jl1 1694 {Inri provided Britisll go/dsmitlls
witit n ,(ide mllge of dccornti<.'c lIIotifs, IIO! ollly for cl1grm'illg bul
for enstillg.
3 TII(' so-mUed lIIou/t/1 0011'1 nppenred in lile 16805 nl/d wn:; l/sed for
coolillg <l'ille g/n5ses 1" co/d ,mter. Tllis exmupfe o/ tlle 11O1'1, mnde ill
Lal/dal/ 111 1684, is j1at-c11f15(',1 il'iff, c1Illoi::erie scrllt'S, n kill/1 01
o/ oriell/nl desiglls /1m! '{>ere popular iJl 8rilis1t sif.'er for a
5//Or/ {'/lile. Dinlll. 19cm/n '/,iJl.
Daniel Marot

-
French Architectural Style
,
'L.iI.,. ..
1 Tite Nt'OClnssicnl cJlflnlcla of
1.1{( llIJ-cotllry Fl't'lIcI Bnr0-llll'
si/Fe'" nlld its illtt're'sl iJl
nllfil'/lIities is iflllstnlted by tJls
si/l'er-gilt t'il'er I/Ifldt' ill Paris by
Niclto/as De/mll/nll in 1697. 11 is
a rnl"e $1I11'i'n/: Delmlllny IIInde a
glmt tnble sen'cejOl" LOllis XI V,
wlticJ wns mclted dO/lll ,I 1707.
lit 33CIll113ill.
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1 2 3
1,2 Til'O ritos/glls by Dauiel Maro!, Villinm llrs courl aTcllilect, l/lIslmll' lIe disciplil1t'd
sly/e 11m! lIe illlrodllc('d arOl/lld 170: (1 e/ose ill/egrnfioll OfIOl"1II Iwd onulmcllf, n rigin
fonllnlity 01desigll, (lllri a repertoire 01 motif,;, tilat wae dmil'lIlal'gel!lfrO/ll clnssienl
areilitccture. TII!! ,;,ilel'f 011 tll!! rigllt i,;, tlle tit/e page to }is illfllll!l1tinl book Nouveaux
Livre d'Orfevrerie, published ill 1712.
3 Tite mn't'r 01 l/le HlIglI('//ot go/dslllitll,
Palll de LnIlIl.'rt', spallm'd abollt ';'0 Ilen,.,;,. T1Iis
sihw-gilt seollce (olle of n mir) 'ns I/lade ill
(.1717; it il'rlS pl'obn/1/y bnsed 011 n by
\-farot. Ht 55.5cII1/:211.ill.
73
British Huguenot Silver
1 T/Jis tco-Jutlldled wp alld
co.'a 01 1717 by Pal// de Lnlller;e
HlIgl/t'Ilof
design, displaY/lIg digll!(it'd
prol/orfiol/s. a mre!lIlllfllnllcc
belil't'ell plaill alld dt'Ctlrnfl',i
awi a o/
casi omallll'lIf. Ht 19C//I/I1'/ill.
2 TlIc so-ml/ed pilSdlll [Jotlle
"as Olll' 01 /e gmlldc:5f fypcs o/
display si/n'I' ;'I/nte 17t/I-Cf'lltrlry
Frtlll'. T/is e.mll/ple runs lIIade
ill Lowfoll by lile HlIgUI.'1I0t
gold:5/11il/t Piare Hnrnc/l(' in 1699.
11l1d colllbiJk'S !(lId sw/ptllrnf
Orlll1lllt'llf l'tl, IYI,;cnl HlIglll!lIot
ft'lllfres SI/e/I as "cut cnrd" filllt'S
arollluf file l"'lse. lit 5:lClIf/10'Il.
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1
French Regent Style
1 T/e Frellell nrtist lean Bera;1/ ,l'aS lnrge/y rt'Sp<Jllsible for illtro.fllJlg a
mllge DJlorlll5 nlld decornli,-,t' tlUlt fighrt'lIed t1u.' orll/aH/y o/ lile
Baroqlll' 5ty/l.'. TI,ii; Ior n oI pInte :>1'0'1'5 IIInny oI fileIorms
in 'Ogl/e nt tlle btgimJillg oI 1SOl CeJI /11r.l{.
2 T]1i:> si/w turl't'll, madI.' in Paris iJl 1714 by C/alldt' Ballill, rej1ects tllt'
lig1ltt'lIiJlg %mmllt'llt illtrodl/cf'd r/llda Braill's illflllt'IlCt'. Ht 2ocm/1.i1l
made in Genoa during the second and third decades of
the century, which \Vere in turn probably made by a
silversmith from Antwerp.
Whilst sharing the same basie seulptural and
chiaroseuro charaeter as the Italian Baroque, the style
in mueh of northern Eurape developed along distinctly
regional lines, refleeting polineal and eeonomic bloeks
of nfluenee. In northern Germany and the Hanseatic
states, a strongly sculptural style developed, especially
for large tankards and other vessels made for display,
which is derived more fram the German tradinon of
ivor)' carving than from bronze or stone sculpture, and
takes on a distinet character accordingly. Tbis style
found its \Vay to Britain too, through immigrant
goldsmiths, notably the German, Jacob Bodendick.
In Franee, Holland, and Britain, distinct features
emerged which set them aparto The centralizing of
Freneh royal patronage in the Gobelins workshop,
established in 1663 by Louis XIV, led to a strong
homogeneity in the decorative arts. The floral style,
refleeting contemporary interest in botany and wel!
suited to polyehrome furniture marquetry, was
adopted also for embossed ornament in high relief on
sil ver, whieh by the third quarter of the century was
widespread throughout mueh oE northern Europe. The
inspiration being observable nature, it \Vas perhaps
less dependent than otller styles on the availability oE
prints, although a version of the style ineorporating
putti and animals amidst serolling foliage was
disseminated through the engravings of Stefano DelIa
Bella and bis imitators (see p.72).
One oE the high points of this style was the
polychrome painted enamel decoration that was taken
to unprecedented levels of achievement in Blois and
also in other centres during the third quarter of the
17th century. The principal applieation of this
specialized art form tended to be far wateh cases but,
as the technology of watehmaking changed in the 18th
eentury, these cases ",ere to become redundant. Such
was their acknowledged artistic merit, however, that
2 Silpa-gi/t ft.'apol l/y Esaias
m8115[11, A.lIgs1'lIIg. 1719.
Tl't' com/IlmtioJl o( panel:: o{
lIatcased slrapmrk aun applieli
c/f1s,..ml Jlorlrnil 1I/l't1nIfiCIIIS
is typicnf uf rile AlIgslmrg
I'xpn'Ssioll of l/lt' Rgl'llct: styfl'.
1
German Regent Style
,
1 'vlnssin' :<et-ph'ct' /lisp/nys
(lJI jmp.:ulllJlf flllldillll
of royal sihw ;lIto rile 18111
cmfllry {Iud, in this l07 fesigll
tr Killg Frederick f of Pmssin's
lll/ffd ly E05fmder 'Oll Caer},t'r,
he design of !he indil'iffunl
picecs is secondary lo lIJe o,'emll
nrC/lilectuml display.
3 Tlle AIlgsb1llS goldswilIJ
joJUl/1l1 Er/umi Heigleill
pu/JIisIJed a sl'ril'S of dt'SigJls
for pmctiml decomtet1 dOll/'s/ie
sih-er l/lin. w/icl, did ml/e/I
lo pjln/llis} tfu: SQlltflem GerJII(l1l
Rt'gwf
3
many survived by "irtue of being converted into gold
snuffboxes in the middle of the 18th century.
By the last quarter of the 17th century, a new sense
of c1assicism was established in France, Jarge]y
through the influence of Charles Le Brun, who was
appointed head of the Gobelins workshops. The little
surviving French royal sil ver from this period is
perhaps epitomized by the austere precision of a ewer
of 1697 by Nicolas Delaunay (see p.73), in which
ornament is restricted to the repertoire of classical
architecture and carehilly controlled two-dimensional
geometric motifs.
The dissemination of this style abroad was Jargel)'
due to the French Protestant Daniel Marot (see p.73),
\\"ho worked in both Holland and Britain as court
architect to William of Orange. But his task was made
easier by the simultaneous arrival in Britain of
thousands of Huguenot refugees from France \vith the
skills and background to promote radicalIy new styles
and designs.
Partly because of the wealth of ornament prints
associated with this phase of the Baroque, the
architecturally inspired style also faund expression in
other areas of metal\vork. Marot's designs \vere taken up
not only by silversmiths, but by c10ckmakers and bronze
workers, and dosely parallel design solutions to those
fOWld on British and French siJver aJso occur in sueh
disparate areas as bracket clocks, ormolu lighting
appliances, and cast-iron garden furniture. Equally, the
flo\\' of ideas \Vas not aH in one direction; goldsmiths and
other craftsmen readily borro\\'ed designs and monfs
devised originally for quite different contexts. One of the
rnost influentiaJ ornament publications of the late 17th
century was a series of designs for wrought-iron gates by
the Huguenot artist Jean lijou (11.1689--1712). His most
famous work was the gates at Hampton Court, but
details from his designs were widely plagiarized during
the first two decades of the 18th century, translated into
both two- and three-dimensionaJ contexts.
75
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Textiles and Wallpaper
Energy
1
1 Si/k 'e/pet. Ita/y. (.1600. Earfy
Baroqul:' pntterlls lIIo.'ed mmy
rom file clarity of stl"llC//lre
dmmelaislic 01 RellilisSilllU
dl'sigllS. T//{, sl/rfnCl! pntkm 0/1
t/Jis ...t'I.'ei rdaills il gt'O/IIdric
palfem, l/lIt illlrChfll'5 n lIl.'<r
rl/ytfllllic arra
2
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3
2 LiIlCll punto in aria, /taly. c.1635. TllI' opeJlil'ol'k o/ sucll lleedk-lI1ildl'
In' L'/I/plms;:.',; file IIInrkt'd cOlltrast betl'eell backgroulld tlnri Illuem.
(l1/l! ms il'iddy ;mitaled (lS far alm!! as Britain, Fhmdt'l"s, flJld Selll/dil/tIt,ja.
3 "lris/," clllbroidt'ry by Eli:nwtiJ Parkcr. Pellllsyh>mlifl, 1763. Tflis.flml1t'-
slile/, bag 51/011':> ti/(, Baroque tasle for [in'/y al/-Oi.'t.'r pnltem. \ \'. 15clII/6;1I.
4 TraJe carel jor Abra/mili Price's imllpnper comptlllY. lf,l ' B/I/l' Papt,.
IVardlol/$e in Afrlt'rlllallbllnf, 8ritaill, c.1715_ Flf11/u'-jtitd fllld atlll'J" fllf
Ol'er ptltterllj flre depictl'lf flt the tl'f/rt'JOlfseroll/flgt.
B
aroque surface pattems on textiles fall into foue
broad categories: energetic designs, those
showing exotic influenccs, \-ine-based arrangements
developed from the preous period, and those with bold
outlines. Despite these di\'isions, they share in being
highly rhythmic in character and, in general. the results
gi\-e an all-o\'er impression.
The most energetic of Baroque pattems appear in
those that are relatively small in scale. Most typical in the
earlier 17th century are contrapuntal arrangements of
spike-edged leaves, flowers, and seed pods plus, in
embroider)', insects and animals. A dynamic quality is
also apparent in elaborate embroidered variations of
stepped pattems, kno\Vn since the l-lth centLlf)' and by
various names, but becoming a standard during tlle 17th
cenh.try and remaining popular virtually e\'er since, such
as the flame-stitch pattenl. Lace edgings - having no\\'
cmergcd as ;:l frce-standing technique as opposed to a
Dne - echoed these tendencies up to about
1640, having distinctive jagged shapes along one si de (the
ather edgc, far attachment, being straight). By the mid-
16005 broader laces were being made and these, like
loom-wO\-en cloths and embroideries befare them,
displayed s\\'irling floral ne motifs. Such patterns
achieved long use on wallpaper, \Vhich \Vas in limited use
in Eurape from around 1500 but \Vas not commonly
a\ailable LmW the later 17th century.
Contrapuntal designs continued to be
dcveloped after 1650, but were modified under the
impact of lndian and oriental influences. Exotic blooms,
rendered from imported textiles (most notably chintzes),
porcelain, lacqllerware, or actual botanical specimens,
were combined c10se together or attached along
wandering stems or tnmks. Their scale \Vas often giant in
comparison to the figures ar birds which wcre scattered
amid them, lending an incongrllous air to such patterns.
lntertwined with these trends \Vas the impact of the
copperplate engraving of design sources for silks and
waUpapers. Its exheme delicacy of shading fwollred
half-tone effects, which were adapted to good use by
1
Exoticism
1 Pail/tel si/k. Frailee. c.16S0.
By tite 1660s. IlIdial/ nnd Far
[nstem-illipired pattems
ellurgt'd. 501111: looked Iike
nsst'lIIblagt"S of ;11 n
Irnt.'el1ers Jlotel'OOk, cOl'eril,t'{
/lit? eutire sl/rfnce ;1'ifll n
set'lIIillgly rnl/dolll arrnllgellleut
alflornl or pictorinl ;mngery,
alld cOI/Id tI( 1/{IlId-paillted, ns
here. IIs;ng plnill C1lillese silk
as t/u' callms.
2 Copperplale prillted ;ml/paper,
Brilaill. Inte lit" celltl/ry. IV/leH
prillted 011 c/Otll or ml/paper. tlll'
1II0tifs ofte1l relnted lo booksellers'
blocks or l'IIgrn'elll'la/t"S.
3 Gros 1'oill/ lace, prohlNy SJ1,7iJl,
c.1670. fll COI1Ml"llcteti texli/c
palll'1"II5 sudl (lS Illee. mllt n/so
[OOI/HI'OPCII elotllS, pictorial
II/otifs H'l'n.' rare. 1"Mead,
illfol'lI1a/ bu! croil'dcrl
nrrrJlIgemcllts iJrcol'pomted
pnllemillg
4 Fl'ellcll brocntird si/k, c.1690-5,
ill wllich t1h! pnltcm o/floral
lIIolifs is dellse/y nl'mllgcd, as
in 3 abo1.'e.
5 Cllr/ail1 rolll n sl'l oI
bl'fillal/gil/g> 'mbroidtwd ill
'{lOO!> 01/ n (OUOII nl/d il/eH
gral/lid (de/ni/). Possib/ymili
Walli:jield Hall. I/enr SI
Edil/l/litiS, Briff1ill, liDO-lO, its
internal pattcmillg i'l'/lS typiml
oj sudl crt'<t'cl.cork,
directly illflllellced by imporff'd
llldian kl"lifE.'s.
6 \\'ooJ pll/sl/lamp"s (eDmpol/lId
.cem.... ). frailee. c.1680-17oo.
SI/e/I forma/ farge desiglls for
illterior> afiell /le/I/ded exotic
jaggcdedgcd. /ea.fike paltemillg
in and arOlllld the motifs.
3
5 6
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Meandering Vines
1 CI/Ilin IJlld bnck-"fitchcd
clllbroidcred COi'Cr/ct llldo- ,
Por/llgal, 1650-1J00. Ogees (md
menlldcrs ocre still tlle basis for
fhe dcsig!l5 l/sed in l/XII!"!!
Icxli!6, like carpe/s ami ,mll-
/wngi!/gs, bu! t'IIcrgetic coilillg
.,iIl6 n/so proi'ided a <'el!!
contms!, l/S lIae.
2 Brocnded <'eh'l.'/ !ul!lgig,
Vellice, c. 1 66o-IJoo. 1/f1l/ellccd
by ylnlllll!l"islII (!lId tlle rc!ntcd
det,e/0pll1e11t 01 s/ate apal"tlllellts.
/exti/e desigm grCtl' 'ollga,
/ypically pi/Ji /11t' ai/di/ lm ({11
secllIld desigll clt'll/cllt plnced
/1('til'(t'IIIlIIU'\('('-fmllll'llllloli(.
'. .
3 5ilk 'el,'!'!, !ta/I/, lIIid-!o late
I7tll cl'lI/UI".II. TlIc large senil'
Iflt'fom:fllf impae!
('xol ic bloolI/s lid illtenllll
/1(1 ft tTlliliS, set by sI roug
(0/11111' COIltrnsts.
78
"'eavers and lacemakers in particular, to cxtend lhe
perceived tonal range of single- or two-colourcd d<Jl1l<lsks
and all-white laces.
Vine-based designs in the Baroque periad (lrc
characterized by a light, almost lyrical movement
through the patterns they bind together. Nevertheless,
the pattems are still formal in eomposition, with their
vertically mirrored motifs clearly discernible. In cases
such as embroidery, appliqu, and loom-woven textiles
with bobbin-inserted colours, a horizontally mrrored
repeat may also be presento In the late 17th century
vertically mirrored (or point) designs often also
incorporate incongruously sized elcments, but the major
change appears in the size of the repeats in weayes and
wa11papers, which become extremely long, often three to
four timeslonger than the repeat width.
While a11 the designs discllssed above are still found in
the early 18th century, the characteristic pattems ne\v to
the years 1700 to 1715 have bold outlines and often very
detailed in-fillings. These take their lead from two
SOllrces, The first is now so fasruonable that lace-like
designs <lIso <tppe<t[, on loom-patterned cloths and
st<lmpcd \"c1"cts (pl<tin veh'et embossed by impressing
with i1 w<Joden block), In these the lace-like elements may
vary frolTl the incorporation of half-tone filigree effects
<tnd cxolic elements to the \'irtuoso representation of lace
in troll/Jle I'oeil man.ner. The second influence relates to the
en suite decor developed in response to the earlier
emergence of state aparhnents, especially the work of the
Huguenot engrm'er and ornament designer Daniel Marot
(c.l663-1752). Active in Holland from the 16805 (and at
times in Britain from the 16905), rus publication of
volumes of engraved prints in 1709 and 1713 ensured an
international impacto He is credited with the fashion for
extremely long designs, already discussed. In addition,
Marot melded the pre-existing trends inta a distinctivc
style that transfonned salid outlines into architechu"al
forms; his interpretation of niches filled with classical
imagery, of columns and arches, and of festoons,
remained i..nf1uential into the 17405.
lnfills and Outlines
79
L.LI
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1 E111broidered nftnrjrolltnf, Jtnfy. c.1735. silk
chellifle with sih'er Ilnend. By the elld oj tlll'
periodo Inrgl'-scnh' de>igll:; plnad complete
emplmsis 011 illlernal pnttems flJll/mnjl'Stimlfy
coi/illg ,illt'S. L. 1.1111113ft 8/'.
2 5ilk Ilnllltlsk iu Ince style. Lyoll:;. (.1700.
SllOil'illg tlie iuf/l/mee oj bobbill Ince 011
cOlllelllpornry F1'I.'uc11 tnstes.
4 \"'/al/pnper, red flock in n Inrge de:;igll of
c01wel1fiol/nl folinge in t((lO slmdcs of red,
Brifnill, tlle Queell's Dmwillg RoolII,
Hmllpto/l COllr/ Pnlnce, e.I735. AIl extl'ell1efy
dO/lgnfed ogee is /lI1rdy nppnl'CIlt ;11 tlle desigll. 4
5 Utrecllt sfalllped1l'ool/e!1 ,le/vd, /lOrtll-east
Fl'mlCC, C.1700. Mercnll/ilc wenltll bl'ondClled
dell/nl/d jvr jnsl1io/lflbh' textiles. reflected ill
dnbomtdy pntt<'rlwdllllll/bkl' jnbrics.

6 Desigll5 by DflIJil'f Maro/. ArO/lIld 1700,
Xorthem EI/rop.-nll pnllcms censen lo be
l!'i.'idcJltly ortcwf arO/llld /he ogee principie.
jllstend de1.'e/opillg n i'OCflbulnry of robl/st arell.
'arlonche. callapy. ami Slralil'Ork seell
n/so in tl,(' Spitnlfit'ld,; silk "eln:1 (/10.7).
7 Cut (llld IIIICl/f silk ,..l.'1i'd nttribllted lo lo/m
LCIlIfI/l, LOlldoll. 1708-14. whicl
fen/llres cnrlOl/chr nI/ti CflllOPY 1/10/ ifs.
8 Nccdlctl'ork /JedlulIlgillg plllle/, Frflllce,
17til-enrly 18t1r ccl/fu,.!f. T/lis "corporales
magel)1 tI/I1/ bol/ depie/s (lIId is il1debted fo
c()/1Iclll}J01'IlI'Y 111'c!ritl'ctlll'C.
3 Bobbil1 Ince, Bru::::;;ef:;, 170o-J j. ArOlll1d
J 700, lilas began fo display delica/e gnu=-y
pntlcl"/Is. !c5tooI15 IlIrd alfil!!" llspects of
sin/e arar/liten/ in/crior>.
5
2
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Rococo
Rococo design, which originated in France in the lirst hall 01 the 18th
century, is characterized by its organic nature and the curving, serpentine
movement 01 its composition. The motils used are based on shell and
rockwork, or rocail/e. In addition, there are suggestions 01 wave or llame
motils that often create a sense 01 f1ickering movement and asymmetry.
Essentially astyle associated with interior decoration rather than with
architectural theory, Rococo patterns were open to a high degree 01
personal interpretation on the par! 01 designers and craftsmen.
Furnilure 84
French 84
German 88
North East Europe and Spain 91
Italian and Iberian 92
British 94
American 98
Ceramics 100
German Porcelain 100
French and Italian Porcelain 102
English 104
Pottel)' 106
Glass 108
Silver and Metalwork 114
Textiles and Wallpaper 122
S
orne c1aim that the Rococo style began befare the end
of the reign oE Louis XIV in 1715. The second
generation of architects working at the Freneh court after
the death in 1690 DE Charles Le Brun developed their
ideas from those implicit in the late style al Versailles. The
Saloll d'Oeil de Boellf(Bull's Eye Room) by Pierre Le Pautre
cE c.1703 is oEten considered to be ane oE the first
examples oE the new laste. rt \Vas decorated in white-and-
gold painted woodwork with curved profiles far the
window5, doar frames, and chirnneypieces. A fllrther
source of inspiration for Rococo can be fOlmd in the
gratesque designs of Jean Brain (lErlG-1711). The C- or S-
scroB designs llsed by Brain provided the necessary
frame for the floral tendrils and wave motifs of eadv
,
designers sueh as Claude Audran m(165&-1734) oc Jean-
Antoine Watteau (168+-1721).
A third source can be fOlmd in the plasterwork of
northem Ital)' at the end of the 17th eentllry where
asymmetr)' or irregular cartouches formed part of the
designo The goldsmith Thomas Germain (1673-17-18) and
Gilles-Marie Oppenord (designer to the dlle d'Orlans,
the Freneh rcgcnt fmm 171510 1723) brollght the implicit
sclllptllral, naluralistic qualities within Itahan Baroque
design baek to Franee and adapted il.
The fully forms of the Rococo, known as
the gel/re pittoresqlft', bcgan lo emerge in French design at
abaut the same time as Louis XV began bis rule in 1723.
During the regenc)', society had returned to Paris,
prm-iding an apportunity lo ereate ne\v aparbnents in the
oId hte/s, or palaees, that had been abandoned under
Louis XIV. }uste-Aurele Meissonnier (1695-1750) creatoo
sorne of the most dramatic fonns of Rococo design, wruch
are featured in rus published engravings (1723-35). TIlese
sho\\' the possibilities of complete asymmetry and
sculptural movement based on naturalistic omamenl.
Nicolas Pineau (1684-1754) created interiors of a lighter
nature, drawing designs for woodwork panel s of elegant
proportions, with floral tendrils, wave motifs, and
rockwork elements that flow lightly over the space.
Nature, children, nymphs, and shepherdesses populate
uft: lile nSYlIllJlctry t1l1d
rocJ.....<L'ork /l/otifs I/'S('d i" t1lis
enrlel dock by Charle;; Cre:::sellt.
Col io.+i. are lile esse1/ce o/ RecaeD
decoratiOIl. T/le figure 01 Fatller
Time il'itllllis scytl/l" lies /laken
aeros:; tl11.' fro"t, wllile tl .l/Ollllg
CI/pid, n>pTl'SellliJlg LOi'i'.
fooks doit'lI frOIll aOO,f'.
HI 1.35/11/4.11 jill.
Opposite: t/u" Salan de la
Princesse, jn tlle Htel 50,,/lise,
Paris. ,1'115 desiglll'd by Germnill
Bof!rmul C.1737--+0. 1" file
spflJldre/s (lrt' pailltillgs by
80llcher, Nnffier, t1l1d otllers
01 sceues taken frOIll c/nssicnl
mytllOlogy. TlIe Jllsian of
decorntioll ni ceilillg rmd W(l115
is Dile 01 file mos! adeltlnced
s/n/tlllellt:; o[ rocaille !1n/llmlisJII.
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3The I3reakfast by Frmu;ois BOl/cllef depict:; nI!
uferio/' oi c. 1740. Tite sro"p gntJU'P5 nrOlflui (/
fob'" wit/ (1 coffi'l' 01" c1lfxolntc Sl'IL,jCl'. T1I,' dock
is typiCll1 oi file lIiglt/y sw/ptcd (/1111 n"'YlllllldriC/71
stylcojClmrh>s h6Sj-Ij8) 3
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2

1 The Nurse!)' of Apes, flltriblltcd lo Clol/de
lJI Alldrml, c.1709, iI rl'd cJmlkmld penci/, TI/e
mOllkeys are placcd IIlIdel' a fre/lis decorated
oirhf101IWS ami e-serolls, I'lIIplmsi=:illg tite
"forll/nl twd tI//! IUI/lfral. Ht 69-7CIII/27'1;II.
2 Tl,(' trndc ((11'(( JOI' TlIolltas Cardlll'/', {/
LOl/dou gold5l11i111, 511OW5 fIJe impact 01 Frclldl
Rococo dcsigll ill Ellg/awi. 1f lists file typl.' oI
goods 1/1-' couid proi'ide. SlIe/ cnrds it'ere aften
clIgrul't'd by ll.'ndillg Ifrsigl1crs ill Lolldoll.
82
the paintings of Fran\ois Boucher (1703-70), many of
which \Vere intended to form part of a Rococo interior.
Eastem exoticism introduced elements of fantas\' -
-
deemed suitable for private rooms - to Rococo designo
Christophe Huet (1/00-1/59) created the cabinet rooms at
Chantilly decorated with painted panel s depicting
monkeys acting out human acti\'ities (siJlgerie). Another
form of exoticism was chinoiserie. Brain depicted oriental
figures basecl on engra\'ings of the Chincse court, adapted
to European taste. In the doset of the duchesse de Berr)',
\'\fatteau expanded the repertoire, using figures of Chinese
goddesses. Bouchers designs for tapestry took the Rocoeo
genre from incidental decoration to the scale of paintings.
As early as 1737 Jaeques-Fran,ois Blondel
published his treatise, De In disfribllfioll des I1Inisolls de
plnisnllce el de la dcornlioll des rliftces ell gJlrnl, in which
he criticized the excesses of Rococo and argued for a more
restrained style. This led to designs in ..."hich form kept its
naturalistic curving movement, but in wmch omament
became more controlled and was less freguently used.
In the second 01" third decades of the 18th century
Rococo design began to impinge on the indigenous
Baroque traditions of different parts of Ewope. Frend1
maJrners and customs dominated the courts of Eurape
with a resulting inerease in smaller, more intimate rooms.
Porcelain rooms, tea pa\'ilions, and other exotic creations
were to be found in the la\'ishly decorated palaces created
by the princes and nobility of Europe, whose \\'ealth \Vas
expressed in an unprecedented scale of building,
Architectural concepts for extcriors rcmained clearly
influenced by 17th-eentury fashions. TI1e interior spaces,
too, remained strongly Baroque, especially in the retaining
of staircases, reception rooms, and great halls surmounted.
by illusionistie eeiling paintings. The decorati\'e motifs in
these rooms, though, were increasingly influenced. by
French rocnille design and \Vere often e\'en more
expressi\'e and indi\'idual than their French eounterparts.
Italian design of this period is sometimes called
Bnroqlletto to emphasize the continued influenee of
Roman Baroque designers such as Gianlorenzo Bernini
(1598--1680) and Pietro da Cortona. Italian design, e\-en
\\'hen adopting French forms, retai.ned its sculptural
ridmess. The royal hunting lodge outside Turin, the
StupinighC is onc of thc mast impressive of the \Vorks by
the Sicilian arehitect Filippo Juvarra (1678-1736). Its
towering central hall exemplifies Juvarra's combination
of Baroque space and French Rocaco omament, lavishly
applied over the surface. At Caserta Jl Naples (built in
1751-56 for Charles V), Luigi Vanvitel1i arguably moved
from Baroque strength to c1assical harmony. The
decoration, hmvever, inc1udes a profusion of nahlralistic
and exotic decoration. TIus was repeated at the Royal
Palace in .Madrid (c.1761--66),. where the reoms were
decorated by fellow Italians, such as Mattia GasparJli
(f7.1765-1780) and Giambattista and Giandomenico
Tiepolo, who painted the ceilings.
The end of the War of 5panish 5uccession in 1713
brought a sluge of building activity in the Holy Roman
Empire. In VielUla, Lukas von Hildebrandt (1668-1745)
was one of the first to incorporate elements of Rococo in
rus decoration of the Upper Belvedere, Vienna, built for
Eugene of 5avoy. Later, Empress Maria TIlcresa created
fully fledged Rococa Jlteriors at her palace of Schbnbnum
(1745-49). Many reoms were decorated in oriental
lacquer because of her passion for this exotic material.
One of the first German princes to take up French
design was Max Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, who had
been exiled in Paris. Both his court arcrutects, Joseph
Effner (1687-1745) and, more famously, Fran<;ois Cuvillis
(1695-1768), had studied Jl Paris. Cuvillis' designs fOl"
interiors and fllnuhue \Vere closely based on French
sources, but \-vere combined with more direct expressions
from nahue. The Amalienburg hunting lodge (173+-39) i.n
the grounds of the Nymphenburg Palaee is perhaps one of
the most perfect Rocaeo interiors. Cuvillis also worked
further afield at Schloss Brhl (1728-40) and Schloss
\!Vilhelmstahl (17..13--19). At Wrzburg, Balthasar
Neumann (1687-1753) created a magnificent residence.
TIle series of state apartments were decorated with
energetie and deseriptive stucco ,vork by Antonio Bossi
while the paintings on the staircase and in the Kaisersaal
(1752) are among the Tiepolos' grandcst works.
The latest examples of the Rococo occurred in Prussia,
in the work of the arclutect Georg von Knobelsdorff
(1699-1753) and designer johalm August Nahl (171D-S5),
who worked for Frederick the Great until 17.+6 at Schloss
Charlottenburg in Berlin and Sans Souci and the Neues
Palais in Potsdam. TIle interiors are characterized by their
sparse, light, and highly nahrralistic motifs. However, the
ncw sensc of structure and order underlying the dcsigns
of their successors, jOhalU1 Michael (b.1709) and johmm
Christian Hoppenhaupt (1719-<:.1780), reflects the mo\'e
towards more c1assical theories.
Tn England, the Rococo \Vas one of several styles.
Rocoeo design "'as more likely to be flUld in the
decorative arts than in arcrutecture, but interiors might be
decorated with rocnifle plastenvork. However, classicism
Jl the form of revived ltalian Renaissance style \Vas
paramount in architechtral design and Palladianism
dominated taste until at least 17-10. At that time, pattern
books appeared showing the French style, which "'as
rapidl)' taken up by silversmiths and car\'ers, ",Iule the
newly established porcelain faetories offered irnitations of
continental scrvices or figures. There ",as also an interest
in reviving Gothic and oriental styles, which "'ere
altemative expressions to French naturalismo
4 rile mirror 1"001/1 al \Vir=bllrg rm:;: designen by the arc!litect Baltlznsar
NClIIlltlllll, C.I740. Tllc CO/OIII" nlld IIlnterial reflecllJu' GcmwlI passioll
fOl" hig/lIy e!abomh,', gl"lJlldly co!lCped il/kriors.
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83
French Furniture
The Role 01 the Oesigner
o
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1 Tllis desigll for 11 'il'nl/ in tite Gm!1d Cnbincl
a/ lIe Htel de Rorlille, mm Jenl! Marictl,,'s
.,1,rchitecture franqlise pllblisiled iu 1727,
S}lOiI'S IJe plncell/clIl 01 n CO!l50/e ab!e Hllder
the lI1inm; alrti lIe tl'nl in wl1icJ tite sfll1pe ,UIIS
illlegrated filio lhe desigll of fhe mil decora/ion.
2
2 Tlli5 pair of /JIlle pnin/ed (/lid paree/-gil!
Iripon cand/estallds (guridons) c1730,
tnken fl'OlII dl':'ign5 by]ncqlles-Frl1lu;ois
Blomfel (l70j-N) shows lile fOrlllnlily
slilllo beolllld ill enrly Rocoeo rieees.
TIi,' desigll 01 l/le I ripod feet O,l'es 1I1/1e/1
lo t'xllmplesfrolllllIc Inte 17th cm/lIry.
Ht 106111/5ft 3in.
3 TI/{' cOlIIl/lOde for /> kill;{s bedroOI/1 nI
Versail/es (rlelh'l'red 1739). 11 ms desiglled
by fhe royal sClIlplor, Al1loil/c-Sbns/it'lI
Slodt= (0695-175.;J. nlld cxcwtcd bl
Alltainc Rabert Gaudreall (c.168o-1751)
in killgwood parquetry, 'wlli/c tllc 1!101ll1tS
I1'.:rc pro,-,idcd by t].: !.:adillg scu/ptor
Jacqllcs Cafft{>ri h673-1755) Ht 8gcm/35in.
84
T
he first years of the 18th cenhlry saw the
development of several new types of fllrnitllre,
published among the engravings of Andr Charles Boulle
(1642-1732) between 1697 and 1730. These included the
flat vvriting desk (bureall plat), the chest of drawers
(cornmode), and the low bookcase or cabinet (bas arlJlorc).
In 1737 the critic Blondel described three sets of rooms:
apartelJlel1ts de parade, or state roams, entertaining ar social
rooms, and private rooms. Each required furnittu'e that
reflected their status and purpase. Sociallife required tea
and side tables, garning tables and chairs, and dlairs far
lhe salo or for small-scale private functions. This gave
rise to a profusion of new forms, such as the small toilette
;llld H'riting table, the bO/cllr dll jOllr, or specific types of
chairs including the bergere and dllc/lesse.
and chairs, and sometimes commodes, 'ivere
lo be part of the interior, and were intended to
rdk'ct Ihe rnotifs and shapes of the panelling. The first
,1:-; shoH'n in designs by Oppenord or Pineau,
rvfh<ch'd Ihe gradual softening of shape from the
architectural fonns used in the 17th century to curving
serpentine shapes. At the corners rnight appear dragons
or female heads, which were replaced by more abstract
forms of foliage and sheU motifs as the style developed.
By the 17605, designs developed a new rigidity while the
Rococo motifs were combined 'ivith classical decoration.
There were h,\'o main types of chairs, those for display
against waUs, "vhich had to fit in with the design of the
panelling, and thosc for shifting around for use. Cornfort
was a key issue, with a resulting interest in upholstery.
111e daybed evolved into a cornfortable settee, often with a
detachable footstool (dl/chesse bris). The Rococo chair
was characterized by the use of the cabriole leg,
introduced eady in the century, and by decorative shell
motifs and e-scrol1s. By the 1740s the arms emerged from
the frame in one continuous movement.
Chairs were made by joiners who created the outline
shapes. The decoration was carved by specialists, many
of whom were sculptors, or men who had been h'ained in
design as wel1 as carving. Once joined together chairs
I
Two Console Tables
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2 AltllOlIgll it Itas fIJe naturalistic /I/otifs alld C1/medfonu:> 01fIJe IIeL' styk
tIJis tab/e of (.1720 retaillS tdelllt!ll/s from late 1fll-eelllllry desigJl SlleI, as tht'
s/miglll lap alld frice alld 'hefrmale mflsk in ,lIe centre. Ht 80. jeml; Zi/l.
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1<,/ I
Chairs
1 Tlw fleai'Y can.,iJlg (md I/Ilifielt design o/ l/lis c17,5 tab1c are typical
oIlllter RocoeoJI/milllre. TIJe 111llltillg lIIotifs are takell frOIll pnilltillgs
/1.11 rol/-Bap!isl/' Olldry Ht 88C11l!J4'!ill.
1
1 A pnttem for ti d,air en cabriolet {mm
L' Art du Menuisier by Alldr-Jacob ROl/bo,
1772. Eaeh sectioll wns C1/t I/sillg 911111ljY.il1-
thick coodell sllcet:> (calibres) as pattems fOl"
he VllriOllS sfUlped par/s 01 file cluIr.
2 This c/utir 01CI720 WflS made for tite riell
collector Pierre Cro::at (1661-174-).115 cnn'ed
frame alld cabriole legs are nlready Rococo,
w/ill.' tlle straight fines of the back illdiente its
ear1y date. lf has ils origilla/ leatlu?r coverillg.
3 AII armc1mir of (.1730 01 cari'ed and gilded
beec/w'OOd. T/e cnrtouc1/e-s/mped baek is typicn/
ol Frellell ellairs. T!le clmir is a la reine n
strnig!lt rntller IImll n cl/r;ed bnck) nlld il hns n
dropill sent so t!le cOI/Id be ehnllged.
85

Gilt-Bronze Mounts
-
1 A libmn/ C.l ;:!O '1/
. .
Omr1t''; Cr'';:'t'III. '.l'l'ntl.',f
iJl l/lid (mllll'' 111
Ill1rplt71'(lI.Jcf. 6.11 1/o"'igllillS
alt'/l mOl/llh. (n''''''II' n'uld
c';/Il/lli...l /j... tlil'lI "'/1/1.' 11' ...JI
lb m/rtl11l/1' 11111/11 111.11"'(":'1
allll ('rl'(I/I/I'II. IIlt' .;ollplt'd
Icnnf1SI/1"l'" rln' Illlli(o/ (l{/ti...
"Iy/-: I/I'-Y rq"-""'JI/lIll'jllI1"
((llItill'III .... 1/1 1.{.1It!3ft .i!1,
,1'. .1.,.2111/8/1 110/11.
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2 Thi.,; rt'ritiJlS f'sk. or bureau plat, ill bois S<ltin ,,jt/ Ilpp/iedfclIllllc:
/t'rlll Ihe forll/aJi!y of lf',;igll C.l ;20. n,; Jldieoh'.! llY tI't'
,;tmigflllop /lIC dl':,k. Ht SCIIl/]O..iIl.
were either coloured to match the panelling or gilded.
The specialist natme of French furnture can be c1early
seen in the division within the guild of joiners between
those ",ho nrorked in solid ",ood (lIIellllisiers) and those
who ",orked ",ith \'eneers (bllistes).
TIle commode, wruch developed into one of the most
important pieces for the 18th-century interior, began as a
chest of drawers with three or four drawers down to the
grOlmd (colJllJlode ell tOlllbeall). Boulle and 8rain dcsigned
a c1assically based form of a sarcophagus shape, wruch
de\'eloped into the h\"o-drawcr commode (collllllode la
Bv the 17305 this had become the standard hvo-
, -
dran'er bomb formo
At the beginning of the 18th century, cabinetmakers
tllrncd to new exotie \\"oods fram the ealonies for their
\L'llccrs. Kingwood (a forrn of rosewood), bois satill, and
purplchcilrt \Vere frequently used in the earl)' stages of
tlll' I{nenen, with hllipwood coming into fashion in the
17l0:-. ,md 7-l0s. The earliest deeoration consisted of
,l',l'(lllll'lric p,lllcrns of parquetry which acted as a foil to
3 L-. ...J:::::::j
3 TlJis 'I'rifillS tflNe 'Y la:::l'pIJ 8nlfml1flller s!Jo,cs file cOlltilllllllfS, l/Il{fi('d
de:;igll of !JI! '7jOS. 511c1l fllmiturl', decomtl!d l'it1l }flJ'flllese fflcqller
'1m/e/s, TflS 1'.\': fas/j(lllfl/lll' i11 FrmJel!. H: S3CIII/P" '//.
the gilt-bronze mounts. DlIring the l7lOs, floral
marqueh-y reappeared. The sprays of flowers cO\'ered the
sllrfaee emphasizing the Iight and deeorati\'e qLlality of
tile piece. Mounts of gilt or lacquered brass - and less
frequently of bronze - were applied to the surf(lce,
usually in an open, scrolling cartouche shape.
One cabinehnaker to de\'elop the new fonns was
Charles Cressent (1685-1758). Trained as a sculptor, he
made rus own mOlU1ts for furniture and c1ockeases, and
specialized in scuJptural fittings. Another, Gaudreau,
worked on key royal pieces. His forros were often quite
restrained, but the deeoration of the mounts was
generally extremely rich. Se\"eral cabinetmakers \\"orked
primarily for marcJulIIds lIlerciers sueh as Poiricr or
Granchet. They H"cre responsible for many fasruonable
pieces of funuhue sueh as the bollllelIl" du jOlIr, and also for
new types of decoration using Japanese aequer or senes
poreelain plaques. Many leading Parisian eabinetmakcrs,
sueh as Bernard '-an Risenburgh II (B.V.R.B., c.1696-1766)
and Joseph Bamnhauer (d.1772) worked for them.
Types al Decoratian
1 TlIis COllllllOde ,-as <'xt'ClIted by
Mnthie// Crinad (] 689-1/76) for
tJI(' \ InifJ!1 (lpMt 1IJ('1l t al LOl/ is
XI\f's mis/nos:, anti :ms de/in'red
ill 1;38. It imita',,:, lIJe lacqu<"r oI
lIJe Oriell! ;:/litIE pnillfed surlaces.
TI/{' Cl?n/rol cnrlOllche is Iypica/ ol
COJ/lIIIOiil'S 01tll.. IJigfl Romeo.
2 A lfrop:frOllt secr<'tl1irt'
OfC.l60 !JI' B.VR.B. il!
- -
mnnjlll.'try o/bois de bout fl'l1d-
grnill rOSl'it'OOfO se! j/lto (('lIlml
pom'1:' of Il/lil""OOI.t. ami l'Ordered
titJ, amaran/k L. l.p_m/.:ft .Jiu.

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5
3 f1ol'llllllarqllt'!r!1 COlllllllldt' nI
t11/ipC()(Il IIlfldc: c. Ii 5 Jor tlll'
C/flllllw dI! In DI1I//,lIil/(' 111 t//<,
CJmfl'fl1l lit' C1lOisl/-1t'-Roi tmd is
nltribllh'd lo .'nIl-Pit/T<' Lnt::
(C.1691-1i5'') OT /t'lll FrllIIfOis
Od.lt'1l (C.1;21-63). HI 9ocm/3jIl.
4 A COIII/IIOlil' ala Rgence. C.l2D,
,di/ dn!<l't'rs st'/ lito tll<' frmut!,
tllt' trm't'r."t Mil x'pllrl1tillS
tI,CIIl. T/lis Il/I.\td in tQrtoi::<'s/,t'l1
llild bmss, tt'itlllioll-It"17d /lWlIIlf:;, i,;
,(,orin...1(nJIII 11,.' Bol/lit' l'Orh.JlOp mld
may Im,'c I.....JI 1I1ll1111'.lf Alldr';',; j{l/I';.
5 Tltis SlJIlll/ tt'ritillg tllblt' il/
tlllipl'('J(It 1'llIIdl'd eitll ml/aml/th i,;
typi((J/ rt.f tllt'/l/xlII)/ obit!cfS malt. iJl
tllt! lBt/1 Ct'lItlll)/for 1Ij{' in primtt'
room5-. \Iadl' bl/ ROll,;sd c.l60, tht'
box-fikt! mld silllJllt' out/ill,'
art' c1tnmcfais/ic (Ir tllt'/alt! Rococo.
Ht 740ll/J.9i11.
6 St'llillg Si"i'n's Ilorct'/aill il/lo
fltl'l1itllH' I'n,; Ollt' tl'l' /ligllest
fOl'IIIS olll/.mry. Tllis lwk
filMe il/ flllipl'ood (lIld pllrp/t"il'ood
l'flS slll'plicd by 8. VR.B. C176o-fi-l
fo Poiri('/'. NI 67'5CJII/26!ill.
87
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German Furniture
High Rococo Design
1 Tllis /'00111 in Scllloss $a/15
SOJlci, Potsdnlll, COllfnil1S
elmir:; desiglled by]ohmm
Me/lile! Hoppel1Ju11lpt JI ilI
arolllld 1760 IlI1d (l comlllode in
floml I/1nrqllclry by fIJe Spilldler
liroiJ/e,.s, W/IO wereja1ll0115 for
lid,. ,-'elleerillg ski/Is.
3 ....._
2
2 Dt"Sign by Jo/mllll MicltneJ Hoppell/lfllf1lf 11
for a cOl/so/e tabfe C.1760 S/Oil,illg ti/e
strollgly clIn.'t"d lil/es (lIIti de,,!/ of nntural;stic
orJ/(lIl/l'IIf 'YI,im/ o/ Gerll/ffl/ Jl/milllre. T/e
cicle II/otifs l/sed 011 fIJe base are aften Olll/d
in jis drail.'illgs.
3 A cm1'ed nI/ti gi/tfed COII:;o!e IrMe maJe
bl/ \Vw:I..':i/nlls Miroffsh, h733-4). Desiglled
by Cllvi/lis for file Residl'lI: in
MllJlich, il refnills ils swlplured Qntnlll/!llf
(llId strollg ClII1Ji!S. L. 11]111/511 Sill.
88
W
th its many states, Gerrnan fumiture presents an
extremely wide range of styles generally using
French Rococo omament and shapes. At the beginning of
the 18th century, Andr Charles Boulle remained highly
influentia1. johann Puchweiser (d.17-!-l) in Bavaria, and
ohaTUl Matusch (/1.1701-1731) and rus pupil Martin
Schumacher (1695-1781) from Ansbach, specialized in
metal (brass and pewter) and tortoiseshell marquetry; the
latter to create an espec:ially exotic look.
A key piece of German fumitu.re was the bureau
cabinet, with an upper cabinet of drawers and a lo\Ver
slant-top desk above drawers. Its design was often
controlled by the guilds, leading to conservative, dated
iorrns, although decoration \vas often elaborate.
Furnitme from Munich can often be dishnguishcd by
h\'ing carved, painted, and gilded rather than veneered.
h.l1l,nis ClIvillis was one of the first in Munich to
lk... ign illrnitllre in the French Rococo stylc. The fllrruture
1ll.1dt, hy COllrt cabinetmakers sllch as johann Adam
l'id,lt,!" \V,lS richly carved wth nature motifs.
Abraham Roentgen (1711-93) \Vas undoubtedly the
most famous German cabinetmaker. A Moravian, he
settled in Neu\Vied c.175O. Having spent time in London,
he often used English techniqlles combined \"ith typical
dynamic German forms. He is recognized for the qualit)'
of his work and for the complicated mechanisms he
developed for tables and writing cabinets.
In Dresden, the use of japalU1ed decoration stemmed
from the electors' passion for japanese art. At fust man)'
shapes \Vere taken from English models; later, French taste
dominated. The court cabinetmaker, Martin KInmel
looked to Parisian models, imitating their gilt-
bronze mounts and llSing tulipwood and kingwood.
Berlin and Postdam, the centres of late Rococo, and
where the linear elegance of the Hoppenhaupt brothers
Uohann Christian and johann Michael) emerged. In 176-:1,
the Spindler brothers Uohann Fricdrich and Heinrich
Wilhelm) arrived. In addition to AOrll marqllctry, the)'
worked in tortoiseshell and sil ver with the scuJptor
Melchior Kambli (1718-83), \Vho supplied the mOlmts.
Cabinets
1 TJe japmmillg ill bllle (Il1ri gold 011 tlris C.1730
/lIIrel1l1 (nvillet is il! the fllg!:>11 stylc. lt caH be
atlribllted /ha lo Marfill 5c1l1lcll (fl.1703-40)
o/' lo Cl1ristirm Reil10w (z68j-1749), both
actil'c in Drcsdm nI !lis lime.
Chairs

1 This ellair as desiglled by Fral1(:ois ClIvillis,

C.173o'or lte pl'illcipl1! apnrtll1ellts in he
MUllidl Reside/IZ. 1t retns {/ Frellc/l sClIse of
proporfiol1 nIId balance. Ht 84CIII/33;II.

2 This collector's ((Ibillcl il1 wahlHl WlIS made

in 1(25-30 for tl1e Dl/ke 01 Bnlllswick's cnst/e

al Sa/:dahlrwl. lts rCl1Inrkable gilt-brollZt'
fretwork doors were vased 011 desiglls by
lean Brail1.
2 A chair probnbly carved fa desiglls by ol/e of
file Hoppcll}wupl uro/hers, C1760. TIJe IIIll1Slla1
nrllls, ;Vitll {!lr cmplmsis 011 /la/llmlistic motifs,
(I/"e typicnl of IIe de:,igl1ers' work.
3 T/le orgmlic, n:iYll1l11etrica/ decomtoll of Ills
e/mil" tnkes t:i IlIltllm/istic SOlll"ce fa 1111 extreme.
/f mas l1Iadefor Se/I/OSS Fas{werie ill Fulda.
3
3 Tlle 1\1aill: area was fa/ll01ls for its bureafl
cnbincls. Tlls wn/llul e:I:tI!I1ple mns IIlnde in
1738 wtll IIlnrqllcfry of ivory {lIId e.lOtic woods
alId cnrved decomlioll. TlIe 5trollg fines dlvdop
enr/ier Bnroque forlll5.

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ingenious Craftsmanship
2 --'""'-""'-_..;;:
3 Altlloc,:lr he /las;c filmJ of

Illis c/(ll-k is EnSlislI. C.l;.p.
ils tllllJllh'x (-'cd fllld gildcd
dIYtlrltlil)l ['l1lirl'1y Gt'I"lIIlln.
/1 Ci1S mnde b.l/ CA/. ,\In/km
m.l ;'.'3-;0)..(.111/(1/15 .riJr !lis IISt'
IIId'IJlIcfrll. NI 3.111I/10//2;11.
2 A s!W({'pt'ce illgt'l1iolls
cdl/mica! <cork, this d/.:
'clIl'l.'rcd in <'.mlie ,cOtlds, rory,
Illld 1/Iotlll'r-of-pcllrl l/'l/S IIl1lde
,.ti A/mllmll Roen/g/'JI, c.1;60.
for tile elector ofTria.
Ht
4 TJi;; mM-J8th-cm!"r.!' Dl'l'sd'1I (lrll/o/I/-
lIIolllll,'d t'sk display:, fIJe tWlf (!{ m'm:, tilld
1I1OIIOsrnlll tI/(' elector of 5t1.\"cm.lf 011 tlle
topo /1 is !'{,//{,t'I"t'd ill I'iclllyfisured i:mllluf.
Ht 81.5(1II/]2.ill.
1 Tllis efl'snJl/ CIlI"i'cd nud gildcd
In/lit' /J,I/IVilllcllll G(I/tlieb
Alar/il: c. T769 cOIIMJI('s IIWI!f:,
froll111lltiqllit;f wil/I tlu'
IIlltllmlistic (!lid f1llraf
dt'(orntiol/ or tllt' Rococo.
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North East Europe and Spain
Different Techniques
-
1 TI/.' frmll of Ihj" el 50 (md .,..d Spt1l/i::lt cOII;;(l/t' la/>/c
(""':'1'.91) Sl't'lIlj IJI od..t" l'ith tll,'fmgm,"lit'd 11II/llwokl?1l coryd decomtiolJ,
1111/1 moy r.:flt'cf tht' X,'{Ill(.l/ifoll d":'igll. HI 78clII/30lin.
2 A RIIj"jOIl fnlJJl i/l/p.'ria/ ml/ecf C. I 6o, n:(ltyt j /lo": tll,'
:,-cll!pluml /,lTllb of ti/(, rtJ!/o/ arcIJilccl (J ;-00-1;JJ.
1
3 r/lis AlIIs/adl1l11 ClllI/ll/lld ,m/'lllt
dlf /11/11 liljll. <':.1,00, <'.\<'IlIjlli(i<::<
ti/;' Dulc/I fllten'i-I 111 i'V!lIplllOI/S,
(llSmic 1110,'('/1/('111. Tlu'fil1c cnn.'llg
is Ils:;.ocinll'd H'itll hL' il'Ork
,\I//"ClII!I Grill. 1/1
4 A Ollllsl1 1l/IIWlU mbud l/y c.F.
UhJl/t1I1IL (.1755. /1 js Imsl'd VII
Gerllllll1 fOI"/1/:./'rtl s lI/IIdc ['pell
111O/Y s/llIIpllftlllS /hrollSh j/s IISt'
oI e.mlje ,('(Jods, I<,d!/
II/()WII:;;, Illld {loral J!tlllI'iS ill
d((fi'I't'l/llIIl.'tn/s, ir'o!"!!_ flIld lIIolf1l!r-
Ht 2.5111/Sjt Slifl.
5 TI/js Dl1Ilis/ ('l/JIU! (OII1I1Wf,,
c. J 50, i,: /'1s'd tlll :n'IIc! R;gl'IlCt'
'itll sJiS/tly e.mggcmlt'd
(lIId (011','.1 OrlllllJlt'llf 01/ tlh'
/l(Ix'. Sl'l'tisl, (Oll/molle,: IIm'l' 11m?,'
dmc('r;; (llIlt silllilar :'l1t/p.,S, ofh'l/
{'((mlll'll 'illE 1I ,,=01d b,IJIlI/It,ttlYt'1I
,
dmil't'r. HI J.:!5J11/{f1 Jiu.
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lItch fumiture combined designs from France and
England with a residual sense of Baroqlle mm'e-
ment, characterized by its pronollnced cur.-es and strong
car\'ing. One of the most important pieces was the kast or
cllpboard, Olltch chairs are close to English, but often mix
featllres from earlier periods in their designo By 1730 the
French fauteuil appeared, although made in walnut or
mahogany. Very typical was floral marqlletry for
cupboards, chests of drawers, and after 1730, conunodes
in the French manner.
In Scandina\'ia, Baroque forms continucd lUltil the
17305, lnfluences from England, Holland, and Gennany
\\'ere important, especialiy in long-case c1ocks, fall-front
desks, and chairs. Danish cabinetmakers such as i\lath.ias
OrtmalUl and C.E Lelunann made pieces with Germanic
featllres. ln Sweden, the COllrt taste was French and
designers such as thc architect Carl Harleman (1700-1733)
trained in Paris. As late as 1770, the Swedish cabinet-
maker, Nils Dahlin (j7.1761-87) made a filing cabinct for
Qucen Louisa Ulrika, adapting French secrtaires.
91

,
Italian and Iberian Furniture
Venetian Decoration
1 I1lis collsofe tab/e oj e.li50 has /l/Jita 01 giallo antico IIltlrble 011 lile
!iJp ,md is p,1III,:f ,dJ ,11iJloJij('li" :ulJIl i;g ';';CII(;:> 0/1 , polle grtt;'1/ lllll/lla
grOlllld. TI/e fec1miqllt <1'115 exfr<:'IlI.>f1/ popular in Vellicf. HI 8]cm/p.'I.ill.
2 TIJe .tesigll 01 tJis Velletiall part1.ll gi/ded, .('n/l/lIf e/miro C.l 50. sllDa,,;
r::dc'di, iJl7l1o?11c. Till' Ol'!'mli :'o/111/1e" o lile Ot/f;; i;. illkt?J1 jrom Frfllch
exampleo. bul ti/e cell/ml Mek sp/nl ;5 clearly deri,'ed from ElIgl;5/1 elmi,s.
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Baroquetto
1 T1Iis e1abomtl'ly can'ed Illld
gilded coI/so/e iab/e Tl'I1S IJl"obllbly
exeCllfed ;1/ Ill'orl1ld 1725 fa 1750
il/ Rome. wlrere l/le il/teres! iI,
5C11lpled forms cOlltilllled wel/
llto lIJe 1801 cm/llry. The grl't'lI
porpllyry lap il'itll gilt edge is Il
Iypical ROllltlll cm/lln.'.
2 rocaille /ecom/iOIl
(11 e-scrof1s, flO<l'l!rs. sllelfs. alld
/"I1II1/t' u'ifll trl/ditiaual
jClIlpft'dfiglfrt'S. I!lis Horel/tille
mirror t'xprt'S5eS tllI! rl!fi'1elllellt oj
It,!itlll (tlr"lIg by tlle II/iddle oj
tht' lSth cellfllry.
92
I
talian furniture continued to use bold Baroqul'
sculptural decoration and flowing Illovement well into
the 18th eentury. Sculptors such as Antonio Corradini
(1668--1752) in Venice made highJy elabarate, figllred
pieces and eabinetmakers such as Pietro Piffetti (c.1700-
77) in Turin kept the boldness of Baroque forms as late as
1760. Carved, gilded console tables also retained the
sculptured forms of the previous century.
Ne\\' types of fumiture beca me popular in the 18th
century, including many delicately car\'ed, small pieces
for the fashionable mezzanine apartments, the bureau
bookease (caBed trlllllenll in Venice) based on the English
type, and the eornmodc, developed from French designs.
Chairs copied both the carved frames of English chairs
and the upholstered jnllteuil ITom france. \>\'alnut \Vas
preferred for veneered furniture, but in Genoa
cabinehnakers used imported tulip and rosewood, while
in Tmin, Piffetti created. elaborate marquetr}' in exotic
woods, ivory, and mother-of-pearl. One of the most
distinctive forms of Italian deeoration was painted
furniltlre. [n Venice a ne'" technique, lncen popera involved
clllling clnd pasting prints an to the surface of fumiture
<lnd then coJollring lnd varnishing it.
In Spain, the ne\-" Rococo style was mast1y found only
in royal furniture. SOllle of the most ambitious was
dcsigned far the royal palace in Madrid by FiUppo
Jllvarra (1678-1736) and shows the continuing use of
Baroque sClllpted forms. Philip Vset up royal workshops
at Buen Retiro, Madrid, bringing the Neapolitan designer
Mattia Gasparini to wark there in 1768. Richly decorated
and carved, the furniture expresses an understanding of
rocaille forms and decoration.
Notably, Portuguese furniture used exotic woods -
jacaranda and rosewood besides mahogany. The chest of
drlwers looked back to cU.Tved sacristy ehests, being
taller, with four drawers and splayed. upwardly curling
feet. English forms were important in northem Portugal.
In Lisban, during the reign af Jaseph 1 (1750-77) French
taste carne into fashion with earved Racoeo motifs mixed
,,\,ith Chinese or Gothic themes from English designs.
---- -- ----- ---- -----------
~
Regional Variations
1 A ,"'lil{l!1ese COllllllOdc il! ,m/lllll, 'cllccn:d
<t'itl, a star i!lset illto a rOlmdcl, (.1760. lts
sJwpe is clcarly illspircd by ElIglis/i c.mll/ple::..
2 TlIt' work 01 ti/e ca/illetll/aker Piel ro
Piffctti ,('as c/wmcleri:::.cd by !!wnlue/ry
i!l "ory and 1!101!Jer-ol-pearl. [11 t!Jis piece,
(.1760, fl/c scclles are l)f1scd 011 ellgrm'illgs
01 the Siege o Troy.
3 Tfis trumcau (l!JIreall bookmseJ, (.1730, is
decomft'd Il'itll IllIlItillg scelle:- tfwl !w'e bee!l
pasled Ollto tlle painted backgrollnd and
i'amislll:d ill a tec/lI1iqllc mUed lacea pO\'era.
4 GmOl!se ftmlitllre rms OftCIl uasf'd 011 Frcllcfl
(orll/s, as in tllC Imuer part of tlIs UllrCf1JI book
- -
Cflse, (.1750. TI/e cmtm/ I/Iotif ollOl/r le{liles is
Iypical/y GeJlOl'Sc. Ht 2..gIll/Sft.
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British Furniture
Carvers' Work and Seat Furniture
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2 lila & Alm,ht'l' crt'tllt'd 111l' fo,. rht'St' ccmdlcsttmd:;, rl'llicJlU'lI:'

plI/JIis!Jcd iJl The Cniwrsal S,slem of Houschold rurnilure, 1762.
IIICfca"illg ddieney l/lid lIatrrrn/is/ic dl'tail "hall' n cOllfidl'llf Rococo st!lfl!.
3 T/is piel' I(/fe, made af cnrl'l'd (/lId gildc'd pim', pllrl o/ n suilt, of
tI/bitS, ;;/l1Ild::. alld 5COIIC6 ((I1<'I'd /1.1/ }111116 Pascnl1 for tllL' gn/h',-y ol
T('l1Iplc N'il'::mll HUIIS(', Y(Jrh/in', 1/.J.5.
2
1\ dl':'(I.: " flll' 1I pit'" Sll/';s frl/ll/(, 1\ Illllflitb ulek. 1'"/1/sf,el! 111 Si"
Sconces. 174';. SimlOlIs {"I''; /lI/e/un/ur,,{,;/;, dt'l,lil'4lt-d tI,.,
i"trodl/el m f11(' Rll'J "(llk i 11 EI/,\/ ;,;1/ -.m...',; ,,'r1.: fn111' 1:-4e1, 3
1
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I
ntemanona' Rococo design began lo intlul'IlCt..' 13riti... h
fumiture significantly fram c.17..J5 and continucd unlil
the late l760s. The first penetrating and mQst pcrmclncnt
use of Rococo decoration was in can'ing, espccially fm
pieture and mirror frames, pier tables, candlestands, i1lld
chairs. Among the first British car,-ers and gilders to use
the style \Vas rvlatthias Lock (c.1I1D-65), who publishcd
designs for such pieces in 17.J-l and 17-16.
ln the 17505 designers and can:ers de,eloped the style
into a Iighter, more sinuous form, employing delicate
flo\Vers, leaves, branches, rockwork, animals, birds, and
human forms. The m'eran effect "'as one of Iightness and
grace, giving a sense of fantas), and delight. Smaller-scale
elements were introduced and sorne of the most delicate
\Vork \Vas executed in gesso. Pieces designed for rooms
used in the e"cning and lit by eandlelight \Vere often
gilded or finished in \Vhite paint with partial gilding.
Afler 1750 Ihe British Rococo style developcd more
distinctively by including Chinese and Gothic motifs and
the French-inspircd gellre pittoresqlle eharacteristics of
a"'''IllI1lL'tr\' clnd naturcllism. The Gothic stvle is seen at its
. . -
sophislic.1led in Horace \Valpole's fantas)' ,ilIa,
Str.l\\'bl'rn- Hill at T\\ickenham.
Thc dissclllination of the stvle owed mudl to the influ-
,
cncL' of Thomas Chippendale's inno'"ati'"e pattem book
TlIc Gt'lIf/t'/IlllJl n/Id Cabillcf-Mnker's Director (175-:1:, rurther
eds 1755 and 1762), which induded designs for pieces in
Ihe Chinese and Gothic laste as well as the "modern" or
"French" style. Subsequent paltern books include Inee &
i\layhe\V's Ul1ipersnl Systelll of HOllsehold Fl/mifl/re (1762)
and the Society of Upholsterers' Gellfeel Holtsehold
Fllmifllre (1 160-2). Highly distineti\'e \Vere the designs of
Thomas Jolmson beh"een 1755 and 1761, an exaggerated
and spiky \'ersion of Ihe highly naturalistic French style.
Fully upholstered armchairs, settees, and side chairs
made of beedl or pine and painted or gilded \Vere knO\vn
as French chairs. Their upholstery \Vas sinuously shaped
with shallow, tufted stuffing and fixed to the frame with
small gilt brass nails. Fabrics for" upholstery included
Italian silk damasks with formal patterns, embroideries,
4

5
7
4 This dl!Sigll [01' nfrnllli' llY
1\-lnttl1inj Dady i('1l:; pl/bli:4Il'd
ill A New Book of (hines\!
Designs. 175ol. Chilloiser;e
'{.'lIIell/s 01jigl/r?5 Ilnri decomtirt'
details deTived /roll1 Chillese
certllJlics, laeq//er. filld <t'fllfpnper
liTe blt'llded witll file Frenc/I sly!/'.
5 TI/e dl:Sigll for l/lis mirrar.
/linde o/ (aTrro nlld gilded pillt"
c. J ,62,/or Lord Akt/me" nt
COrsllll1ll COl/rt, lVilts/jre, /'aS
illspirl'd by desigus by TfIOIJIIlS
]OllllWII ill One
Hundred and Fift\" Xew
Designs. LomloJl, 175S.
Ht 2.67m/Sft 9il/.
6 Tllt' fr{lll1t' 01 t/Jis gildcd
wt.'CJ {Irme/mir <t'il/ 1Il(}(lcm sifk
dmu{lsk IIp/lo/stery is {If1ribllfe.f
lo M{ltt/j{l;; Lock. cl'55. Tlle
e/mir 'lIOIISl'.f fo tlll:' {Irt;sl
Rie/ulri1 Cosml( {Ind
ill SOllll' oI IJ;s portmits.
7 OJlt' of {I si'l oI l'iglIf, IIlis
T,55-M {Irme/m;r i{'{lS 11I{1de for
Sir /llaUlle.!' Ft'{It!Jerstolllmllgh,
Uppark. SII5St'X. Tlle cnri'I!,1 alld
gilded L'el'e/I frnll11'5 il'l'Tl' madI.' j,y
Jolm BladH't'11 mld t!le t{lpcstry
COI.'('/"5 d!!picting SCl'I/I:'S frolll
Al.'50p'S Fables were madI.' by
Pmd Sl1ll11der5.
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8 TllOlIltlS Chippclldnh' lIIade
tll6t' fil'sigllS jor par/ouT c/ufir::
c. 1 ,60. ,{'hic/, ,ceTe ;'lIgrIH'i'd ti lid
11l1M;s!lcd il! The Gentleman
and Cabinet\laker's Director,
]rd ftfitioll. 1,62. Enc/loftlle
dt'sigl/:; optOJ/S for
sJmpt' nnd it'lIIil ill t1U? /met,;.
kgs. nlld :'l'llt mils, 11110l'ill.'\
tlll' dh'/II 01' Cilri\'r /0 sl'lcd his
1'l'T$OI/f11 prefemlCt.
8 _

1
I
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,
'.
I

95
Shapes and Details
4 TJls CIlI1'.'d nlld silded pillf' stn/e lwi. C.l 760. by ;...toril/aH & IV}jttle ms
madI' for Lord Egrt'IIIDJlt ni Pcl7l'Ortll HOIl5C. SlISseX, aftel' n d6ig/l by
TlIomns Cllippt'lIdn/e. TIIl.' is l(lrgely IIIMem. 4
. .
cnr"JIlg ms expl'lIslt'e. 2
3 Tl1e Rococo SI!!/' 011 t//is
C. J 760-5 eOll/mode, Ollt' 01(l mir.
is llltdl'rstnfe.1. bul il t!xisls ,l tlll'
sI/Mued serpel1tilll' sJwpe ami
(.'/nvornte Or1l10/1I 11/01/11/5.
1 T/Ji,. di'fnil of cnn'illg 01/
11 1I111/lOgallY sdlee. C.1760. is
afta n 175.;. desigll by TflOlllns
ClJippl'lIda/e. TJe delicate
acnllt//lIS lea,'es,
(lIld 5croll fool 011 t/Jis cabriole
ft'g 17ft? typical Rococo de/ai/s.
2 fA'Sigll" Jor pnrlollr dlflir
(/lid spnl/drds by Rol1l?rt
Alnllll'ill"illg weft' m/llislIed JI
The Cuide.
1
1
66. TIlt' sillll'lifted styJe im,;;
for modest (ollmlissiollS - detlli/ed
1
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96
and tapestry-",oven panels, 1\lost distinCbye "'ere chairs
",ith open backs carved ",ith interlace pattems, offering
the craftsman endJess opporhmities for variety and
\"irtuosity of omanlent dtrring the 1750s and 17605.
The British tradition for free-standing fOlu-posted
beds continued. Bedstead frames were can'ed. with sorne
of the most expressive Rococo omament, including trees,
branches, lea\"es, flowers, anirnals, and birds in the gellte
piftoresqlfe, while others used Chinese or Gothic inspira-
tion, Accompanying chairs, stools, and settees eontinued
the stylistic Iook to provide a theme for each room,
In general British Rocaco cabinehvork "'as more
restrained than SOIne of its continental counterparts. The
<lrchitectural discipline and purpose of many cabinet
piL'Ces in dining rooms and libraries, as well as the use of
lll.lhogany for construction, influenced the design of such
itL'ms as bookeases, desks, and sideboards, The most
nbviollsly Rococo pieces were the fine corrunodes, or
dll..':-h of dra",ers, inspired by French examples, intended
lor bl'dchambers and \dthdrawing rooms. Some adopted
a Frendl serpentine shape for the sides as welJ as the front
and ",ere omamented with highly decorati\'e gilt brass or
bronze motults, but these rarely obscured the \Vood\Vork
to the same extent as French versions. Commodes created
by the French-trained eabinetmaker Pierre Langlois bore
the closest similarity to French types, but those made by
Thomas Chippendale and John Cobb in lhe 17605 were
restrained, relying on detailed carng, fineIy figmed
mahogany, and high-quality gilt mow1ts for their effeet.
Other large pieces of cabinehvork remained subtle in
their general outline, but much Rocoeo omament "'as
inc1uded in carved detail. Smaller items such as tea
tables, pembrake tables, china sheh'es, night tables, and
dressi.ng tables were more expressively decorated with
delicate Chinese lattice ",ork or small Gothic erockets,
and cusped tracery for glazing baTs. by about
1765 the most asyrnrnetrie or contorted carving styles of
the Rocoeo style \Vere receding and a more controlled
style of decoration had de\'eloped, appearing in most
fashionable British fumiture.
97
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6 KnQil'1I as lIe Vio/in Bookcn::e.

tllis maJlOgal/Y ,,>itJ ellOn.'! iJl/ay
desk (lIId bookcnse ,I'IlS dl'sigJl(!1
c.160 by TlJomas C/tippcJldale
for Wiltoll HOl/se. TlIe cel//ml
can'l!d pallel in tite l/ppa Sl'clioJl
iI'flS illsJ1il'cd by Rocoeo desiglls
for mil/es.
7 A fretrt'ork cnge beueatJl lile
top of l/lis IIwhoga/lY pel1l/Jroh'
fttble. made C.176j. is gi,'en a
chilloiserie clmracter tll/"ollgll
ti/e 1151' of lalfice desiglls.
8 TJis tripod tea table ,I'as
madI' of IIw/ogaIlY, C.1760-5
The :'ac:'y erige o/ l/u' top reJ1ects
s!mpes ill cOllfelllporary porceInill
pfntes il1 file Rococo styfe.
Ht 71.5clll1281.ill.
9 A C.1765 CfJiIll.'se fncC/l/a
cnbillet is mOIllJfl'd 011 n
/l/allogal/!! stal/d mit/ delicate
Intl ice fretll'Ork.

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5 Tliese desigl15 for n Indy's secretaire by luce & Alnyhew i./'ere pllblislled
ill The Unincsai S\'stem al Household Fumiture, 1762. Got/Jic tlJld

chilloiserie decora/h'!? e1el1/(.'l1ts il'ere oftell npplied lo sil/al/el' pieces of

cnbilletwork tl'it/ sl(lIIdard s}mpes.
8
5
American Furniture
Pre-Revolulionary Slyle in lhe Colonies
,
1 1/1II111';o:./11I/I/",,. "",d., /'1( Ikllj'IIIJiIl
UIIII'/olll" JI' 1/11111/,,... .. \IIli'd. m Pllifl1ddJ,/!in,
j, ",, .>,'' ,I'illl /c'li'l'f> l/mi
w/ll'ip/,' //1/1/ dll;1' IIl/d-/m/l fect h, fllr!
(I( jI '/.1111'. 11/" I ddaile/1 ((Irt'illg
,11/.1 tI/.' "ll/lld /1/1' are Iypim/
oll'III/"ddl'/t", 1 al its bt'M.
1/1 "1'111/;;'111
2 I '/,/k .\ \ '/ /1, "11 Cflipp..'ldlllt.'s Thc
( ., 'Illll'l1l,lrl & Clbine!-i'\ laker's Director
( I7",' J. Sudl dl'siglls ,(11'/"(' directly illjllll'lltin/
0/1 1'/i/orld/l/lio !liS/I-s/y/e fUn/ilu!'",
3 lil""t'i-l'"ck, 01' dEnir:;.
111,,01.. OH/!/ in \'cw York. TJt',lf follo,,' ElIglish
1111.1 lrisll ami ,{'al' nmollg f/u' mos!
Ilo/'It!ar pnllems. TlIe bllsy cl1n.'illg alld
il'gllty ca/Ir/ole legs 'Iifll /flelr pTOIIO/lllad
(/111
1
1'5 an! l/oled c!wrnelerislic5 of J\IIICl'icau
(I/mi/lIre. HI 97(11I/38/ill.
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I
n American furniture the Rococo stylc is most apparent
in the art of the carver, the signature of the style being
the realistic portrayal of elements from namre such as
shells and rock\vork, scrolling leaves, and flowers and
fruit, all combined with e-and S-scrolls. Sometimes trefoil
or quatrefoil shapes suggest the Gothic style, and piercing
or blind fretvvork the Crunese taste. The predominant
influence was Chippendale's Tite GeJ1tlelllall & Cabil1et-
Make,s Director (1754, further eds 1755 and 1762), which
inspired large numbers of exuberantly canred chairs with
cabriole legs, shaped top rails, and pierced splats.
In the major cities of the pre-Revolutionary American
calonies, cabinetmakers created distinctive local styles,
sometimes guided by irnmigrant craftsmen. One of these
wos Thomos Affleck (1740-95) who came lo Philodelphia
fmm I3ritain in 1763. He and other cabinetmakers, mast
1l0lilbly Benjamin Randolph, produced case furniture
illld chnirs in what they called the "Nev..' French 5tyle,"
.111d l'11:.urcd Philadelphia's leading position in the pro-
duction of fine furniture during America's Rococo
4 1\,(11/ bmckcts suc!, as f!lis
pille eXl1l11pl1.' by miles R('y"olds
of Plliflldl'1plli(l, /IIade 1765-7j,
rnrdy sl/l<'il'ed dI/e lo lile
fmgility 01 lte clllbornte cal1,ilrg.
T/is e.mmpl/' /le/r/dcs serol/s,
foliage, nlld stnlncfitl'S (ll1o,'f file
bird's 1//'lId. Hf 41.jc/ll/l6Xill.
period; this began U1 the 17605 and continued at least
until the 1780s.
Most of this fumiture was made of mahogany, with
carved panel s, frequently inc1uding shells, placed
centrally on chests of drawers or on the mees of cabriole
legs. Looking glasses, sconces, and other carvers' show-
pieces were usually gilded, or partially gilded, like their
European counterpart5. The high che5t of drawers, or
highboy, was quintessentially American, with its deep
curving broken pediment embellished with scrolled
terminals and finials above, shaped apron below, and
vigorously carved cabriole legs supporting the piece.
Emanating from Nev.'port Rhode Island, was the
block-fronted secretary. Whether taking the form of a
simple kneehole desk or a tall bureau cabinet, it was
characteristicalIy carved with shell headings to the
panels and set on ogee braeket feet. Boston's version is
plainer, with fluted side pilasters and sometimes a Dutch-
influenced bomb lower section supported on short
cabriole legs and c1a\\'-and-ball feet.
5
5 \ li'mryllOOkca:'t',
mId,' ill 50,,'b Cllrl1/illn. 1;-55<').
/1, il',/:, p/lllt' XC111;1I T/lomn5
('IIII'I"'lId"/'j Tlw Gentleman & Cabinet-
\1. J..I.r ... Dirl.'Ctor (l/j.P. HI 1.0jlll!]ft jiJl.
7 Bri/islt illflllellce is parmllOllllt 01/ fhis cllilln
tnlt: of J 765-7j, nllri/JlIti'd to Iltt' E/lglislJ
cnbillelll/nker, Ro/J:rt Hnrto/d, who worked ill
Porls/l/outll, Nc'W HmllpslJirc, cenl re oll!le
\J1'1/' ElIg/alld li",ber lrade. HI 72.5clII/28'/,i".
6 A lligh c/h,:,1 oI Irail't'r,,:. oI lIle l.l/pl' klWi!'11
eb a higllllO}f ill Alllerim. It hn5 n SC'rt,lh-d
l'rokell pedilllt'llf, jltnfh'd IIproll, mui cdbriole
kg,,:., alld i"" a1frillll/t'd lo Elipllnlt'1 C1111pill of
COIIJli'cliCl/I. 1-11 2.22/11/711 lbn.
8 Tlts rol/lid ten fabie 011 a tri1Od bnse
e.tpr6ses tite IIftilllnfe IIrnllily ill Rowco
desigll. .vllen 1/01 ill IIse it cal/Id /JI' lilted illlo
n patien! posiliol1 nlld pllslled illto n COrtlt'r.
HI 72.jCIII/281ill, dinlll. 76clII13oil/.
6
9 A llnck leg swillgs Ollt fo slIpporl fIleoldillS
10p cif litis filie/y cnrved 5t'rpellfillc Ctlrd tavle,
nlfriblllcd lo lIJe workslloJ ofTlJo/l/as Affleck ill
jllti/ndell'hin, J 770-71. T/lc jCl'OlIillg decomfiOIl
nlollg thc npl'OlI is Rococo. HI 71CIII/28ill.
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99
German Porcelain
)
,

3 A Meissell colfee ClIp and sal/cer frolll Ihe

SlI'all Sen1ice, 1II0de/led by JI J(cJIdler alld
].F. Eberleill C.1737-40; IlIey are fmm tlle
senJice I/Iade for Count BriiJl. His lIallle /l/eant
"marsh," tl11ls tlle aquatc theme, <vitll shells,
,a ter, alld reeds - al! Roeoeo 1I10tifs.
-
2
2 f.J. Knclldler's Meisscll grollp ofHariequin
and Columbinemm fhe Cornmedia dell'
Arte, made C.I74I, still SJIOWS lhe strollg
CO/OIlTS 01tlIe Soroque slyle, bu! lhe lIIodellillg o[
lhe pairjrOIll {!le cOl1telllpornry I/Ientre S/IOWS fhe
IIg!lf lllood oj fhe penod. Ht. 15cm/6il1.
I
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.,
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1
Early Rococo _
Developments in Rococo
1 TJis MeisscII tcapol, tIIodelled by J.J.
Kaclldler, C.I740' exemplifies fhe Rocoeo
fashiollfor trompe J'oeiJ. lt blur:; Ihe il/e
betweclI falltasy nl1d renlity, na/llre tll1d I1rt ;/1
{/ jrivoiollS, colltelllpomry way. Ht 14cm!5Y,ill.
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1
1 Tls C1745 MeisseI1fgllre of a Map Scllcr
is parl oj a series oj the Cris de Paris, Inkel1
fromellgrnvngs by the eOll/te de Cayllls,
after drawngs by Edm BOflc!rardoll, {/lId
1II0delled by].}. Kaelldler. Tlley were jOl"lIIed
from IIIlIltiple smal/ press-/l/ol/lded
compol/eIIls alld joilled witll liquid slip.
Ht 16.5clII/67oill.
2 Tire exoticism of lIJe Rococo sly!e cml be
seell ill tlris C.1750 pa1" of Messell figures
of Malabar Musicians, by F.E. JVleyer. By tlle
middle of the 18th aut ury, figures could be
made ,pitll lIlore e/aborntioll and detail, SUdl
as lile sellse of 11I0vement bellg suggested by
the sillirlillg robes. T/e aSYlIlmefrical feat/lery
C-scroi/s 011 lile bases elllp/zas::e the Roeoeo
style. \<\Iolllml111 17.5em/7ill.
100
B
y the end of the 17305, the grandiosc Baroque style
had ron its (ourse. It \vas replaced by the playful,
feminine Rococo stylc, vvhich generated l ne\\' fccling of
frivolity, energy, and movement. It was a style suited to
porcelain, vvith its brittle, yet plastic qualities, and its
ability to take brilliant, glossy colours. In J.J. Kaendler's
hands small models reflecting scenes at court, Italian
COl1ll1ledia dell'Arte eharaeters (from a type of improvised
folk drama), peasants, craftsmen, miners, beggars, street
vendors, Turks, Persians, and Chinese ,vere fashioned
from \'1
r
ax or clay. Frem these, plaster-of-Paris moulds
were made, from which carne press-moulded porcelain
figures, used to replace figures for table deeoration made
of wax, marzipan, or sugar paste. No longer did porcelain
seek to compete with hardstones, metal, or marble
sculpture - it had found an identity all of its O\vn.
EarIy figures stood on flat mound bases applied with
f10wers to disguise firing faults. Gradually, bases becarne
more Rocoeo in style, with flamboyant giIt scrollwork. By
the 17605, they were raised on high scrolled feet with
piereed deceratioll te give an illusion of fragility. The
enamels changed from the strong Baroque eolours te a
paler palette of pinks, lilacs, primrose, and turquoise, and
clothing 011 the figures was painted with oriental flowers.
Between 1737 and 1741, Kaendler and Johann
F,iedrich Eberlein (b.1696) designed for Count Briihl,
ehief minister of Augustus m, an armorial service of over
1,000 pieces, each decorated in low reliefs with swans. By
the 17505, tablewares were pierced 'with trellis or basket-
work and painted with flowers, birds, htmting scenes,
and amatory subjects after Watteau and Teniers.
Sma11 galanteriewaren (toys), sueh as seent bottles, t/lis,
and snuffboxes, previously the province of the goldsmith
and enameller, \....'ere no\v made in porcelain.
Before long, Meissen's closely guarded secret had
spread a11 over Germany, and rival faetories opened up
under royal patronage. However, all were surpassed by
the brilliance uf Franz Anton Bustelli (c.172G-1763). at
Nymphenburg, whose series of figures from the
C01llllledia dell'Arte epitomized the spirit of the Roeoco.
-------------------------------1
The Height 01 Rococo
o
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1 The seJlse of lIen'DIIS,
asymmetrical ellergy elllergillS
from Jlatural forms is evidellt ill
lIJe lIig!1 scrolliJlg cresl of lIJe
clock. wllicll is surll/OImtro by
ti/e figure of a water "Ylllp!l.
;hi/e C-scrolls composed ofwater
reeds flallk tIJe sides, alld l/u' Jligh
Sscroll feet sllggest fishes' tails.
TIJe pniJltillg of lot>ers afler
Watteall alld tlle gildillg add lo
tllf! effecl. Ht 40.5cIII/16ill.
2 T}e sJmpe of tllis Meis5f'1I seellt
boffle, made C.1750. is typicall.lf
Rococo ill ils asymmetry, as is
tlle object itself. Watteau, Paler.
aJld Telliers prol'ided illspiration
for tlle <:(('11('<; 011 MPissPII l/>arrs_
HI J4.5CIII/51.ill.
3 COlllemporary si/ver illspirl'd
fIEl' desigll of flEis c. J 750 mir of
MciSSf'n vases. Tllet displm mI
illveJltive l/se of C- alld $-scro/ls.
olltfilled in 1I/01l0cJlToml' al/d
gildillg fo create mI eleganl,
rl'strailled effect. HI 12C111/41,ill.

I
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4 Tls sliglltly later pair of
'l'fe;s5e1l ...ases for pot-poIlTri,
mnde c.175j, ",as modefled by
J./. KIlelldler ill t}e fllll-blowlI
Rococo style, Witll jlnmboyallt
scrollrt'ork nlld pierced
dt'comtiOIl. 111 compnrisoll to
tll(' t'nSl.'$ a/Jovr, tlley are /letheT
restmined llar clegant. TI/e uases
represen! Earth anri Air from a
se! 01e/elllen/s. Ht .p.cm/l6V,ill.
5 TlU! Rococo lave of mllllral
Dril/S can be seell in tllis
AJeis5e1l schneeballen
(SllowballSJ fencllp fllld sal/cer,
made c.1745, wi/IJ the Dl/ter
slIIface of bol" pieces bcillg
ellcrl/sfed willl mnyflowers.
6 PI/U, or pillk, was a
c/mracteristic C010llT for pailltlllg
en camaieu (i" IIIOJ/ochrome
sillllllatillg a cnlllro) dllr;IIg file
Rococo periodo fllld ir ellhollCt!s
the jemillillily of lhis pair of
Meissell chocolale CIIp5 0/1 a tray,
made c1750, as do tlle clln>ed
olll/ille of tlle tray, tl,e pierced
lTembleuses galleries (fo IlOld
tile CIIpS sleady w!lell Ilnlldled
by tremblillg JWllds), mld lIJe
VI/alteall <,iglleltes.
\V.285clII/ l1 V,ill.
101
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102
French and Italian Porcelain
Early Developments in Vincennes
1 TlEe bombt' form of tllis VillUlIIll'S Pase
alld the scrolJillg nCillll1l1lS /eni't'S tiJa! flow
rOlmd fi,e body are typicnl of a,e Rococo loi.'C
of Silll/OlIS tllld /lntuml/orllls. Tlu: use of
gildillg teas restrich'd fo ti/e ViIlC('///ll'5 nlld
Sel.'res factories.
P
orcelain \Vas first made in France at Rouen, Sto Cloud,
Chantilly, Mennecy, and at Vi..ncennes. French porce-
lain \Vas different to the hard-paste porcelain of Gemlany
and the Oriento Kaolin \Vas not discovered until1768 atSt.
Yrieux, near Limoges, but the Freneh created a 50ft-paste,
ar artificial, porcelain ITom a glassy frit mixed wi.th whi.te-
burning c1ays. It \Vas prone to cracks and blemishes.
TIle Vi..nceIUles (later 5evres) factory \Vas taken over by
royal adm.inistration in 1759. It took six years to master the
firing of biscuit (unglazed porcelain) and the lead glaze,
and in 1748 a kiln was invented to fue enamels. TIle
factory hired enamellers to develop COIOUTS to be mixed
\,'ith shadedJoJldalIts (pastes) and fused with the glaze. In
1748 gilding \\"as also discovered. Among the earliest
"'ilrcs "'ere lifelike porcelain flowers that were mounted
llll lole",are stems. From 1751 small pieces \Vere decorated
wilh .111 lInderglaze-bllle (blell-Iapis) ground, and birds and
llo\\'crs \\'crc painted in reserved panels with gilt scroll-
l'dgL'd Rococo borders. Other colours - turquoise (blel/
l a l ~ I ) , pink (rose POlllplldollr), and green (verd) - followed.
2 L:....A
2 These ViIlCel/lleS jlowerllends, 1Il01lllted 011
pnil/led tleware stems al1d leaves, display the
Rococo lope of imitatillg naturl.'. Prodllcedfrom
c. 1745, lile jlowerlu:llds were III/IOI/S 1111.' 11105/
sllccessflll of lile enrly </IIIl'es, becallse their
Sll/IIU si:e presellted /lO jirillg prob/ems. A
specill/ stl/dio ilJIlt employed t/ze VO/l/e1J IIlld
girls who /l/lIde cadl separate pelll/ al/d stllfllen
wtJs sel IIp for their prodllctiofl.
Madame de Pompadour, Louis XV's mistress, \Vas
responsible for moving the Vincennes factory to Sevres in
1756. She took an interest in its develapment and helped
to employ tap French designers and craftsmen, including
juste-Aun?le MeissOlUlier (1675-]750) and lhe sculptor
EtielU1e-Maurice Falconet (1716-9]), whose influence "'as
seen in the swirling use of natural forms in h.1reens and
vases, and biscuit figures used as table decorations, sorne
adapted fram the paintings of Fram;ois Boucher (1703-70).
Scenes frorn Boucher's work ",ere translated onto wares
and vases by the 5evres painters and expressed in the
spirit of the Rococo, with putti, shepherdesses, and
nyrnphs. These costly wares reflected the opulence of
aristocratic life in pre-Revolutionary france.
Of the other French factories, SI. Cloud excelled in
brainesque decoration in underglaze-blue, ,,-hile
Chantilly specialized in Kakiemon-inspired motifs
painted on a white tin glaze. Mennecy's softly coloured
flowers ",ere highlighted by rims painted in yellow, blue,
and puce, since only Sevres \Vas allmved to use gilding.
The Opulence al French Rococo
1 Tlle l/se of fI/e Jl/SC/OII:; COrOIlT
gral/llds 0'1 tllis erl'l!T Iwd basin
ras a particularenture of Sei.'res
dllrillg t1le 1750S (llld 1760s.
T/le patlem projects a sense
of lIlovcmenf typical of lhe
Rococo styfe.
2 TI,;s 5fi'res rosei.mfer e'"""u't'T (lnd
basill. /linde C1755, emplmsi:es
/1le ClInVJCOOllS /la/llre of Rococo
desigll ill porce/aill. T}e
tllrqlloise (bleu--<:leste) gral/lid
C010llT was illt'ented il! 1753.
It U'as t'ery expellsive fo l/se,
partly beCflU5e ils !ligll copper
COLltenl cOllld damage other
pieces in lile kiln.
4 The tllick base (md sOlllcwlwf
il/distinclmodelling of l1/is
Mellllecy grOl/p sl/ow SOllle of lhe
problems associaled Wit11 soft-
paste porce/aill, wllic1/ was fragife
alld oflm co/lapsed ill ti/e h/ll.
Ht qcm/jiill.
5 A Cnporiimollte (Carla lJI)
figure of a l'OlIlall dallcing.
model1ed by Gitlseppe Gric
c.lijo. Tlle object s/loil's
dislillct/y tlle soft. meftillg
qunlity of soft-p"ste porcelaitl
mld its disadl.'allfages for tlle
lIIodeUer. Ht 14.jCIll/5/,ill.
103
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1
1 Tlts olltstmldillg e:mmp/e of a
c1Jilloiserie grollp .('as made ill
Hdcllst. Gen/mI/Y. ill 1765. Tire
pnrliCII/nr/y sharp/y detniled
lIIode/fillg nlld piercillg {('IlS
possible beClll/se file grollp tl'as
mllde of Irard-pasle porcelllill.
/11 comparisoll. figures made of
50ft-paste porce1ain (see -l & j
llOOt'C) Sf'f'm blllrr5:d.
AGerman Comparison
4
3 TI/e IIl1derg/n=e grosbleu i{'nS fhe jirst grolllld colol/r lo be ilm!llfed ill
1752 nI VillCl.'mn'S, (llId il comp/elllel1ts fiell gi/dillg. As IIlt1lly as lltree
!fl.'lers il'ere oftclIllpp/iL'li. TI/elorlll copies tfle oral/ge free t/lb of tlle time.
Ht 14cm/Sill.
3

English Porcelain
Early 80ft-Paste Porcelain
.-
..
2
- -
-
1 These C/Ie/sea dis/les, made e.1755, are paill/ed
<vitll scrol/-l/1ou/ded vigl1ettes ofscelles from
Aesop's fab/es iu file sty/e 01]. H. O'Neale. TJe
scafteredflower sprays, whicll are ill Meissell
sty/e, are placed lo cot'!?r b/ack specks, bubbles,
al/dfirillg cracks. W. '3CII//17111.
2 Tl1e pattern 011 tMs Bow lenj-s/Itlped dislt,
C.17jj-6, is copiedfrom a ]apmreSt' Kakiemon
origillal or iB lvIeis5e1l copy. nle sJlilpe rej1ects
fIJe Rococo lot>e of I/atl/ral fonl/s. L. 2. 501l/lOill.
3 MOl/lded aU Oi.'!!r U'jtll i.'illt! feai.'t5, tllis
umgtoll Hall Icnpol, c.17jj, ;s a Rocoeofalltasy.
n,e crabslock lumd/e alld spollt are fal/lld 011
parce/aill alld eartIJelliL'tlre5 of lile mid-18t11
celltllry. Based 011 acmb applt! brandl, lile
IItlJldlt' is flimsy for lllt! 'L'eight ofaull pat, bul
it .ms t""Yfaslliollllb/e. HI 13.501l/jl.ill.
,
1
,
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,
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1
Ornamentallnfluences
1 A si1<'c!r 1}T()/lIt.'llh' by NiellOlns SprimoJlt,
l/U! fOlllldt'r t1111t' C/ds'n fnctory, illspired the
lIIaking oflllis g(l(/t and llt't' jl/g e.ln5. As ill
tlll' t'nrlit'st -t,m's ofnll factories, it facies tlle
tec/miCII/ rt'JiIII'IIII,,,t (1colollr nlld gilding alld
n'/h-s IU/ 1111' (rt'lIIIIY soft paste for ifs aesOldie
impad. Ht 11.9Cm/o1l..iJ/.
2 TIJis SIIIIII/ Clu!/sen figure symbo/i=es
fmm 11 St't of I1lc Four Seasons, made e.1755
Tllt' lIas bt'eJl applied Wil/I flotl'ers ill tlle
styit' of \ leiSSCIl, but n/so senlf!s to disgllise
smafl illlpafectiol/s ll/tlt cO/lllI/ollly OCC/lr
IllIril/g lite firil/g of 50ft-paste parce/aill.
As U'ilIll/1allY early El/glisll figures, it is
solllt'iL'/ltll crude nl/d slalie. Ht 13.jCm/iill.
r
104
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-
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3 Tllis \Voreester ehilloiserie
teapot, /IIade C.17jj-60, sflOws
tlle l1ea! pottillg nlld sfrellg!h
of body flmt beenllle Jossible nt
\Vorees!a nftt'r fIJe illt"odl/elioll
of SO.1pstom' !o tlrt J'115tt. TI!!"
steafitic body pro1.'ed ideal for
l/sefllf il'ares, and this praclicnl
desigll is lypim/. Hl I2em/4ill.
4 TIIt! body of t/lis Bow coffee poi,
/linde C.1760, is cOioered vitf,
I/lolllded Rococo C- nlld S-sero!!s.
TJe c/III11SY serpellt SpOl/t vil"
overlarge lip, tlle II/nsk beIow tlle
lIeck, lile kl/op, nlld !lIe splnyed
seTOIf feel alf mnkefor /ll/ object
11m! /lspires lo soplJisticalioll, bltt
fai/s disll/afly, nltllOlIgJI witJl n
cerlni" c//(/rlll. Ht 30.jC/ll/Ill.
2
'--
Triumphs and Failures 01 Later Developments
1 Dile of ElIg/nl/d':; greafest
cOl/tributiolls fa he ceralllic
world was IJe fecJlI1iqlle 01
trnllsfer prillfillg. ","idl ellabh-d
e"grm.'illgs lo bt
trausferred lo poralaiJl alld
pottery. This speedelt up lile
decora/i.-'e process, fllld madt'
porcelain, witl, decoratioll
prhlfed /l/Ider 01" over (he g/n:e,
II/ore rcely nvailable fa he
lIIiddle e/asse:>. ni;; Worcestl.'r
IIII/g, c.1757. is pril/fed Witllll
por/mil of lIJe kiJlg of Prussin.
HI102(1II/4;1I
2 Tls mi' of Bowfiglfres of
Harlequin and Columbme
[rvlII fIJe Commedia dell' Arte,
mnde C.1765, stand 011 lIigh
scrolled Rocoeo bases, Ieh
<'ere popll/m' dl/rux file late
17605. A/tIlOlIgl/ ti/ese are bnsl.'d
01/ Akisscll mode/s. t/leyare
cTllde (lIId doll-like in
comparison with tlle origillals.

1
f continental porcelain was elegant, its English counter-
part was pedestrian. This was partly due to the soft-
paste porcelain and an English conservatism in the arts,
but also because the factories had no royal patrons paying
for experiments. Li.k.e the Freneh, the English 50ft-paste
poreelain was made by mixing white-burning day \vith a
glassy frit. lnstability in the kiln produced warping and
firing cracks. The glaze was thick and difficult to control.
England's first porcelain factory was at Chelsea in
London. Nicholas Sprimont 0716-71), a Huguenot
silversmith from Lige, designed early pieces influenced
by Huguenot Rococo silver. On tablewares of the 17505,
fiov./ers, landscapes, and harbour scenes were adopted
from Meissen, and Japanese Kakiemon patterns \Vere also
eopied. Aesop's fables \Vere painted. on tea and coffee
wares by Jeffreyes Hanunet O' ieale (d.1801), and a series
of botanical wares named afier Sir Hans Sloane were
remarkable for their uninhibited flamboyance.
Moulded. borders became popular, and the Rocaea
taste fer natural forms \Vas seen in leaf and flower-shaped
dishes, as well as boxes and tureens madelled as fruits,
vegetables, birds, and animals. Figures were influenced
by Meissen, and many were model1ed by Joseph Willems
(1715-<56). By the mid-1760s, large figures \Vere supported
by sturdy, flower-encrusted back supports, or bocages.
In the 17605 luscious eolour grounds with exotic birds
and flowers in frames of heavy Roeaeo tooled. gilding
\Vere popular. 5?me of these efforts at sophistication were
clurnsy and beset by technical problems. In 1769 the
Chelsea factory dosed after only t\venty-four years.
The Bow factory was founded in 1744 and eatered far
a middle-class clientele. Kakiemon-style decoration and
blue-and-\vhite chinoiseries \vere cheap and popular, as
were white wares copied from Chinese b/nllc-de-Cllhu!.
Bane ash \Vas added. t the Baw paste ta give stability.
This allowed for rugh Rocaeo bases on large figures.
Other faetones made 50ft-paste porcelain, but it \Vas at
Worcester that a new formula was discovered. Dr \l\7all's
porcelain body inc1uded soapraek (steartite) and rus wares
beeame more functional, with neat, heat-resistant shapes.
105
Pottery
The Continuing Fashion lor Blue-and-White
1 A de/iea/e lim'ilr pnltem incorporalillg
PI/U; (Inri saol1s cmllle seell 0/1 ajs frellcll
faii!llce sttllld pninled " cobalt bluf', c1120.
T1Ie desigll clost'1y /0110"'5 lile style of
COlltempornry FrencJ prilltS.
Diam.21(1II/81ill.
2
2 IJI I/Jis palie! of OnllTlllflll by /crlll Brnill,
c.169O-JpD, tlledesigll is rcm/u;san! of
16111-centllry grotesqlle omnment, bul il has
alig/ltlles5 t1ml c/mrllcteri:es lile Rococo sty1e.
3 TIIis Por/I/gl/ese tile pallel, made 17
2
0-]0,
l/ses bllle-tllld-.t'11ite CO/Ollrs bul depicts
EllropenJl figures wit/ill ti jrallle of CIIn'tS.
Changing Tastes in European Earthenware
.'
..,.
"
o
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Jo
3 Tllis U,'el!! and rea/istic tllreel!
mld co.'a. /IIade il! A1arseilles
Cliio. i:i illll1eform of a
tl/rkey. 1t is a late example
of tlle widespread illtert."'St in
lIalllm/islic forllls, ,o/licl, ((1/1
be see/! in ei.wy bnmcll of tJe
d('comtit't!l1rts. Ht 3S.,cm/1jill.
/
/
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"
~
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-
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1 Tlle scnttered bllllciles of
/ln/ Ilmlistie f10wers nm/I/ged
nSYl1ll1lctricnlly 011 f/e sur/aee
of this pinte, maje ill Stmsbollrg
e.1755, Ilml lIe domiutlllt rose
pil1k ill'l! clmrncteristic of Frcl1c1,
jaicl1ce ill lile middle of tlle 18t/1
CCl//JI,!!_ rlley feJ1eet tlle
illjlllellCe o/ Germ(m porce/aill.
Dil1l1l. 2..,cm/9Y.ill.
2 rile desigll elemellts o/ t/ls
cartel dock, l/1ade in Stmsbollrg
C.li,Q-l60, illcorpomte brokeJl
cun'l'S mI/1/it'c!/Y. "I'isted feml1le
bl/s/s. il'!licl' n'call el1r/ier Frene/I
fl/mill/re mOl/lIts and l/le tt'Ork
of tll(' desigl1er ]l/ste-Allri:le
\leisscmllier_ HI 1.loml3ft i/l.
106
1 Tlle shape of l/lis Stnfford:#Jirc
red SIOlll?Wflrt' coffee poI,
iJlscri/k'd JosepIJ Erige (111.1 dflled
1760, rleripcs frOI1l si/ver, bu!
fIJe IIntllralistic rcafmenl o/
lIJe Jlal1dle fll1d Spollt (11I.1 the
nSYlllllletrically plnad sprays
offlOi'et"S are typicnl 01 Ellglislt
poI/ay. Ht 21.3CIII/8'1;II_
2 Tltis t/illly potted. snft-gln:ed
stonl!H'an: $(llIceboaf, /linde ;11
Sflljfordsllire c. t 755. Itas
saollillg liBes (Inri I/alllra/istic
floilWS pniJlted ill ellfllllef ca/ours
sud, as rose pillk. L. 16clII/6'1ill.
3 Tltis l(lrge,
stOlletmre plmell po!. made ;11
Stnffordshire C.1755. combines a
IUI/llm/1stic crnustock spolll nlld
/nl/dle wifJl CJlillese figures
pickcli Ollt 11/ all ill/el/se Tose
pillk. Ht lS.jemI7bu.
;
, .

"
English Stoneware
The Emergence 01 Cream-Coloured Earthenware
1 lVedgwood made filio:; crelllll-coJoured elll't/tCllware tellpot C.176] in tite
forlll ala rca/istic il'ifll tlle Jotl'el' parl ill a ricJ green g/a:e.
Ofller pieas il'ere made as me/oliO:; aJld pillt'npples. Hr 12CIII/41.ill.
2 Appfit'd Rococo-o:;/yle decorafioJl, illcllldil/g aJld ribooll-tied
brnllc/I /lIllldles. CIlII befOil/Id 01/ t!lis cn!!l/II-c%ured enrllleJliI'llre tureell,
COi:W, !l/Id stm1fl, IIIndt' in Let'ds 01' Sfnffordshire c.1770. L. .pcmh6'1ill .
2

o
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ce
A
n awareness of tile emerging RocaeD style can be
seen in the development of Freneh fai'enee in the
18th eenrury. Early wares eontinued to be painted directly
onto the llnfired glaze, llsing high-temperature colours,
particularly eobalt bllle, and to favollr symmetrieal
designs derived from engraved sourees but developed
into a lighter, more delicate style. TIus was sllperseded in
the middle of the centwy by the deveJopment of Im,\'-
temperature colours, whieh \\Tere applied onto an already
fired glaze and given a third firing in a muffle kiffi. This
technique allowed for a wider and more delicate range of
eolours, in particular, a rose pink enamel derived from
ehloride of gold. This softer, more delicate colour scheme
was eombined with the random placing of naturalistic
ornament and a pronounced liking for asymmctry of
fonn, reflecting current fashions in porcelain. Ataste for
utilitarian objects modeUed in the shape of animaJs and
birds reflected an interest in naturalistic forms.
In England, Rococo fom'ls and motUs deriving from
continental silver and porcelain can be seen in the stone-
wares and earthenwares produeed in Staffordshire in the
second half of the century. These often appeared ten or
more years after they had gone out of fashion for items
rnade in other materiaJs.
The use of 5- and C-shaped curves, a liking for asyrn-
rnetry, and 'In interest in forros derived from nature,
which had already been used by the English porcelain
factories, can be seen in both the revived red stonewares
of the 17.505 and17605 and in the thinJy potted, white salt-
glazed stone\vares developed from the early experiments
of John Dwight, which were discussed in the last chapter.
Although often relying entirely on moulded decoration,
these white wares were occasionally painted in enamel
colours, once again looking to European and oriental
porcelain for the eolour scherne and subjeet matter.
The material that dominated English pottery in the
second half of the 18th century was a refined eream-
coloured earthenware, which will be discussed more
fully in the next chapter, but which continued to exhibit
Rocaeo tendencies "'en into the 17605.
107
Glass
Eastern Europe and Holland
en
oc:(
o
u
o
u
o
a::
1
2
1 Bollemiml Zwischengoldglas (go/d lIIlder
g/n;;;;) Iidded gablet. decorated in ellnmel nlld
si/ver nud golri lea! s(lIldwiclll!d betll'eell t1'O
layers of glns;;, W, fI JllmtSlI/flH QIl llOrsebnck.
C.J740. Ht
2 Scalloped "f1l11bro,;ia" sll't.'efmenf di':;!I,
tJi!ordically illfemfeli for SI/ppillg lile I/eelar ol
lhe gods; tlle nrcllety}m! Rococo res5ef. Silesifll/,
c.l750. Ellgral'ed 'it/ scrafls (lIld jfllllily
armorial cr'ji jlflllked by lio/15. Ht 15CIII/6;1I.
3 5;1'.'.'/111"'1/ ;1'iIIl Sch\\'artzlot (blnc/.:-
Il'iIrO 1'lWllldlt-d drillkillS SC,'Hes by Iglln:
Prssla. c. I ; J(J. 11101ifs, Offl'/!
drClil1l fmlll CVlIll.'UI/,orl/l'Y ('Ilsm,illgs. wer,'
frl'qlll'lIt/y ('1111",11i:;fl,'d ,l'itll ;nJl/-r,'d, gilt,
(/lId scmtc/I<'f }Jighligllls, 1// 12cm/4f,il1.
108
G
lass proved a perfect vehicle for Rocoeo decoration,
typified by intimate, colourfu}. elegant, and often
dream-like images executed in enamels, gold, and
engraving. lts principal themes were courtIy leve, the
countryside, ships, ruins, and exotic, supposedly
Chinese, Indian, and Turkish scenes.
Vessel glass could not be formed into Baroque and
Rococo's curves and lattices, Indeed, the shape of its
standard vessels, beakers, goblets, decanters, and Pokalell
(covered goblets) remained constant throughout most of
the 18th century, However, the scalloped "ambrosia"
sweetrneat dish, descended from medieval rock crystal,
preved the archetypal vessel of Rococo glassware.
Many Rococo trademarks, induding scrolls, strap\vork,
lnd grids, ,,>'ere culled from pattem books, notably those
of the Parisian architect draughtsman, Jean Brain. His
\\'ork \\'as plagiarized and published in 1759 in England
by Pwlus Decker whose O/jI/ese Architectllre, Civil alld
OI"llI1JJIl'llfn/ and Gothic Arc1litectllre Decorated became,
logclher, the Rococo decorator's style bible.
Sponsored by noble patronage, the small reglOn
encompassing Bohemia and Silesia became Europe's
most int1uentia1 and leading producer of fine!y decorated
glassware. The taste of the Hapsburg Empire's aristocrats
ensured a gradual shift from ponderous Baroque to
Rocaca's lighter, more frivolous themes, Backed by
centuries of experience, Bohemian glass decorators proved
masters at the tluee main forms of Rococa embellishment:
enamelling, gilding, and engraving (see p,llO), Their work
ultimately eclipsed previous centres of excellence,
inc1uding Berlin, Nuremberg, Thuringia, and Dresden.
Bohemian Rocaco glass decoration proved 50 alluring
that, by the mid-18th century, tlle fafOlJ de Bo}cJllr? had
become ubiquitous across most of Europe. The glass
industries of se\'eral cOLmtries, including Italy, Spain,
Portugal, Russia, Halland, and France, became virtual
fiefdorns of Bohemia, with its migrants supen'izing local
production and decoration. By c.1750, Bohemians
operated 50 foregn glassworks across Europe and North
America and had effectively captured the \vorld market.
109

8 \lel1etitllI IlImbla decora/eri

:/: r('!ye./rf"IU f'IUlIIJe/S ill tlll.'
BohemlIl slylc il'itJ, tite (lr",s al
lIe da POllte fami/y. lIJe Rin/to
'''irige, (Jlld a caTOllel. attribllted
lo Os,-'a/do Bm5Stl, C.1770.
Hf ll.jcm/.Y:ill.
9 Til'O Bo'eme-sfyle decall/as.
made flllri/or dl'comlerl ill 51"';11
by Bohemia" misrmlt crnftsml'n,
it'itll Rococoflornf gildillg (lIId
ltoJ1ow KlIge/ "scoop" cuUillS
(/lOllo<l'cd CIIts as if mnde by
nftllgemnil), Left: /f 2ocm/7 ;1,/11.
Rigltl: /It 23cm/9ill.
"
6 Bohemiflll Zwischengoldglas
/idded gablel decora/eii fur
file Dulc/I lIIarkt/ Witll (1
(ollt/mol/s seme of ti' hOllse,
sJlip. (Inri lmrbollr, fllld ti'
(OIllIJl('lIIornfipc illScriptioll.
(.1730. Ht 27cm/IO'/,iJl.
7 At'o:rnge '1/1flJity Bof'cminll
cylilldl'r decallta piO, a hall
stopjJer f1l1d Rocac!, gi1diJlg of
ti' lila" mlkillg !lis dog.jmlllt'd
by free:> (lIld serol/s. (.1770-80.
Ht 25(111/91.;11.
\
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7
8
5 ...... _
-
-
-
--
.-
-
4 FllIle-ClIt Bohemian IItaka
decornfed 10itJl ti' WOI/1Ii1/ drl?S5t'd
a:; ti' shepllerdess, fl /l/flll /15 11
IlllllfslIUlII wi/f his dogo (lIld un
obelisk fralllf'd b-" Rocaeo si/el/s
jn polychrome el/ame/s, (.1760.
Ht 9.5cm/3Y.in.
5 Tllret' gobld:> ltecorntrd iri,!,
typical BohcllIiall RocO(o
polycllrome l'1Itl'lIll.'flillg, of a
e/OiVlI. (l t/'Dnlnll in api1/k gO<llIl,
:ud a 'IJ!lU II n tllrl'tHl.lJroll(1/1l11
exccufed by il Hausmaler (110m/?
decorntor),1735-ol 0.
Ht 14cm/5!il1.
4
Boheme Engraving
4 5ifcsirlll pok,t/. C.l';5. l'IIgm'I'lt
,{'tl, Hope jl/ ti/{, fisure ol a
lI1(1idcl/, :,/ti!':' al :'('(1, and ti/e
ill:'CI'ipfioll, "j\!Oi/' f:; Hopt' 50011
To Be FlIlftl/ed," fl"lllllcd by
.Jmilll,,:,qlll :'tmpil'ork (lud
serolk HI19.jCm/7<".
-,
,
3 . .f!llC.',.",. (Il/d milis ,j','n' mllollg t/oll::/lIlds
of ideas il/II::'/ ni fed JI flit' Fdl fa11 ['(l( lk 111/ bli:,lt,'d Iluda I/R' t.pi11 tillt-s,
n'e Ladies' AmUSC'llll'llt JI" Tho.! Whole Art of Japilnning (1;62).
3
,;--,
1 AIililnnJ lleTOL'S U'f'refrwolll1'd g/lIssU'a/1' moti/s. n,is PotSlnlJ/
engTtwed tlJld gilt pokal, c.q..oJentllres il vicloriOH5 cOI/lIInlldl!l" lr polislted
TIefschnitt (deep cari.'illg) engmvillg JeigllteJIed wifh gold. Ht )OCm/II 1,;11.
2 Typica[ pnttern book desigll by Jea" BraiJl. His drnil'ings pro1.'Cd olle
of ti/e stro/lgest illj/IIf?llCes oveT file Bnroqlle {I/ld Romeo styles (md were
widely applied across t/le decomtive arts. 4
o
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R
ococo glas5 engraving was inspired by techniques
and themes pioneered by Caspar Lehmann in
Prague from c.1600. Cheaper and more stable than the
previous medium, mineral rack crystaJ, glass preved
perfectly suited. to Rococo's light, superficial airs.
Drawing on a range of sorne 40 differing wheels applied
\vith abrasive paste, the engraver gradually 5cored
images, ofien drawn from Brain and other pattern
books, in straight and curving lines. TI1e effect was
heightened by selective potishing, gilding, and cutting,
and in differing profiles ranging rrom light scratches to
deep grooves. The rnain characteristic of Baroque and
{()Coco engraving was the proliferation of scrolls and Lnllb
IfIld Balldelwerk, literally, "leaf and strapwork."
Thc central Eurepean nobility adopted decorated
g1.1sswnre as relatively cheap wealth statements,
1ll,ldvt'rtcntly sponsoring the development of sumptuous
1'llgr.lVing in the rock-erystal style, notably on lidded.
);Ilhkh. <Ir PoknJel1. The gerne preved so popular that the
11 11 IlIhl'r of cngravers working in the Silesian spa to\\'n of
WarmbruIU1, for example, rose from six to over -lO in the
decade to 1743.
The proliferation of capable craftsmen encouraged
many to seek fame and fortune in Derunark, Norway,
SV'leden, Poland, Spain, Russia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and
Britain. TIUs migration contributed to a general stylistic
unifonnity in European glassware, c.1700-70. The excep-
tions were British and Dutch engraving: the former for its
mediocrity; the latter for its quality and individuality.
Continuing the 17th-eentury Dutch tradition for di a-
mond point calligraphy, Frans Greenwood (1680-1761),
David Wolff (1732-98), and others produced an
outstanding series of unique stippled portraits and
figurative work. However, the most notable Dutch-based
wheel-engravers were the Bohemians Simon and ]acob
Sang (d.1783), members of a dynastic family of glass
decorators, who worked in Amsterdam from c.1753.
Their Rococo wheel engraving on lead-based Angleterre-
style Dutch-made baluster goblets, indude sorne signed.
commemorative and ornamental pieces.
o
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8 AH EIIgJisll-slyle [mll/sfa glass
wil" a stipp/e-el/gm1ed portmit
afler Frt/lls Ha/s, sigm'd and
daled Frall:; GreWl'Ood. 1745.
11/ stipp/e-engm<,ing fhe mage is
created by repeafedly tnppillg nt
ti/(' glass vil" a poillled tool.
Ht 2jcm/9Y,ill.
9 Filie, large TII/lril/giall copered
goblel el/graved lVi// a
cOlltiul/ol/s scelle ofa rider ill
wood/nlld by Alldreas Sallg,
faffler or brollJer of acob, siglled
alld da/ed 1727. Ht 18cm/7ill.
7
"
6 TiPo cllilloiserie f'lIgrai'ed
Britsil fllcet -5 tClIIl1Icd driI/kIIg-
glassQ, /llore attmclit't: for fI//!;r
mt'l' cI/arm tlum qlln/ity 01
eXl!cutiol1. Ht 15.3CII1/6;1I.
7 Dlltc/llidded goblfl eugra>ed
Ji// fl s/lip iJl Juil sail, l//e stCIII
(lila lo1l'l'r bowf CI/I .pit/
AlIgletcrre (Ellglis/l-styleJ (lit
motifs. 0765_ Ht 35.6CI1I/14;11.
10
5 Ametllyst-tillted $ile:;inll clIgra.'ed, cut, tllld gi/f l1okill. ,.1;60. TIIl'
llOit, is (111 witll Chei'1"01I5 (llId pdals, nI/ (,lIgrmxd Wil/l figur6 G/IIid
Ro((lCO servil:; nlld foliag<'. Ht 2ocm!l.ill.
9
10 Allgleterre-sty/efacet-stclIlllled drillkillg-g/flSS, file !Jowl
stipp/e-C1/graved willl afrielldsltip Scell/?, Col 775. Ht 16cIII/61.;1I.
11 Light balllsfer dril/killg-glass eIIgrnved willl a DI/ldl illscriptioll allri
Rococo scrolled car/al/clle, signed 01/ Ihe ool "Jacob 5rlllg JIU el Fec,
Amsterdal1lq60." Ht 18.lcm/7Y.ifl.
5
8
d
_.
2 Cobn/t-b/lle ClI'er, C.176S,
fypicaf of Britisl ClIffillg durillg
fJe Rococo periodo Britis}
craftslllclI liad yef to dt:ve!op
clll11ed CIII molifs muf remailled
n'Stricted lo straigllt
filies, 51/(1110<1' slices, alld large
sfars. Ht 2j.SCIII/91.ill.

-
-
5 Ciant 1m/lIsler gla::5, probttbfy
Dutch, ill polycllromc el/ame/s,
tl'ifll IVil/iam of Oral/ge's arlllS
dtJJiII Rococo llOrder::, :::iglled
"Beilblf Nf"iccnsf1e," C. 1766.
Hf 36cm!J4II.
6 OpafJlle-I'/Jite stemllled
Britisfl drillkillg g/ass, tlle boa,1
decoraled by IJe BeilbY5 il,il1
fruitillg "illes. HI 1S.2CII1/6ill.
6
,
,
rr
."" ..
.. -.'
Britain, which mistrl.lsted both France and Catholicism,
initia]]y resisted the Rocoeo style that was associated with
both. Besides, Baroque had been superseded in Britain by
the sober Queen Anne style, c.1710, and its Protestant
peopIe preferred plain or shallow-eut glassware to
Boheme glass decoration, regarding it as ostentatiol1s,
effeminate, and foreign. E\'en at the height of Rococo's
popuJarity in Britain, c.175S, the critic Robert Morris
lampooned its whimsical airs \vith a Trentise 011. ..elegnllt
benl//ifl// HeIlllOllSeS alld de/ig/Ifjlfl Cow Cribs ...
nccordillg fo lile TURK/SH al1d PERSlAN I1lflllller.
Sorne British silverware \Vas embellished with
asynunetrical scrolls as early as 1730, at least a decade
before Rococo's earliest manifestations on the nation's
glassware. E\'en then, cut faeets and sliees, and enamel
and air-twisted drinking-glass stems paid it only minor
allegiance, the former being more Angleterre than
Boheme, and the latter harking back to the Veruse.
The finest British Rocoeo glass decoration \Vas
exeeuted in enamels and gold. The leading British
3 Cable! il'itI mI nir-/wisf stelll,
lile bOil' decornted in POIIIc1lfOIIU'
I'lIflme/s by trIe Bci/bys. A pastoral
,,;celle is 54'f withill a ((Ir/allche
01semlls. Ht 8.1(11I/31.;11.
4 5l/gnrlonf drenllla ;ptJ, tl
Rocoeo ((Ir/Ol/clle for BEER nlld
decora/eri t,it/l JlOps, llflrley, nl/d
a butterfly ;/1 opaq/le-wllite alld
fHrqlloise ClU/Ille/S by file Beilb.IIS,
c.liJo. Ht 2Scm/llil/.
1 Pnir of talJ calldlesficks, C.176j,
ti/e eptome of 8ritisll Rococo
C1/ttillg. Tlie stems wt iJl/,OI/Oil'-
dinlllolldlacels, fI/e fet'l nlld
nozzles ill slUlllow sl;ees, crenlillg
n series o/flnt nlld diamond-
slzaped motifs. Ht 36.Scm/q<ill.
5
, ,

f
, .,
.!
,
British Glass
7 SI/Sllr 1""l'1 decornted ,/ opaqlle-L'1Jite el/mlu:!s by ti/e Be/byami/y,
ptl, a ::ln'pllCrd gllardillg llis flock {l/lile shelterillg IlIIda n Ir!'/', C.176j.
HI 1OCIII/.;ill.
7
3 .....-==
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112
8 Tllt: BciJby;; 't'/'' Iwf
Oll/Y Rococo 11".;
cordial glass, (.177, 1'11111'ilil'dy
pOlye/I1'01I11' t'lInllll'lIl11g '!l1I/1
IIl1ideu1ifi'i 5col/i';/llul/ld, [,'lIrs
111(' l/mm' mIli o( lit..

8eggar',; 8('lIi';0I/, mi Edillbllrgfl
basl'd g('/1tll'/IIrIll';; drillkillg e/lIb,
HI I)CIII/jill,
9 Britisli VJIl111l1l'-il'1lill'
cm/lih-:::lick (md ff'(l c(mister
decvmll'd ill po/ycIJroll/e elUlII/e/s
prolmb/y ill SOlltll S/nffol'ds/Jire,
u7OO. Tite poP"larily olopnqlle-
{'/tite muedJrom 1777 wllell
c/J(JlIges ill fi,e tnx /mt' rnised ils
priee. Cnlldlesfiek 111 22.Scm/9iJl.
Cnddl/ III J2.7clII/5ill.
8

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9
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10 C%l/red nl1d (lIt-gTass slllellillg botl/es, decorn/l'd ill t/le 'orksIJop
011flll/t.''S GiMs, C.176o-j. DlIeks, blo,;sol/l, illlngillnry /nlldsm/1es,
C/jlloiseries, fllld 'erl? stalldnrd 1II01iJ:; o/ tlle Britisli Rococo
<'ocn/11//ary. HI (npprox.) 8elll/)v'ill.
11 Elllt'mld-greell 'ase, s/J(Jped ill tlle 1I/(//lIIer 01 Chillese porce/nill,
decornted il/ golJi ,('il1l YOllIIg lo,'ers ns ImYl//nkers, by Jnllles Gi/es,
C.]760-j. HI 4ocm/tj1.ill.
12 A Imllsitiollal piece; Neodnssically slmped 11m decnl/ler decomted
('it/ Rocoeo serolls nlld lalfices ill goTd by Jall/es Giles, Cl76j-70.
Ht :u.cm/S:r.ill.
enamellers were Williarn and Mary Beilby of Newcastle,
aetive between c.1760 and 1778. Working in a polychrome
and bluish opaque-white palette, mostly on drinking
\Vares, they applied Rococo motifs induding heraldie
crests, ships, shepherds, ruins, and so on, in a quality that
at least matehed the finest in Europe.
Opaque-\vhite glass, itself typical of British Rocoeo,
was painted with polychrome vitreous enamels in several
centres, including Bristol and Staffordshire, and was
\Videly advertised behveen 1743 and 1767. Favoured
subject matter included pattem-book flo\Vers and insects,
applied to "ases and tea canisters.
Britain's most versatile glass decorator, James Giles of
London (1718-80), was also among its leading porcelain
painters. Working belween c.1755 and 1776, Giles applied
a distinctive range of Rococo and, later, Neodassical
monfs on to aH manner of glassware in gold and
polychrome enamels. Giles's repertoire ranged from
unique geometric mosaic patterns to typically British
Rococo floral sprays, scrolls, chinoiseries, and the exotic.

Silver and Metalwork

Meissonnier and Early French Rococo
l

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1
2
I
n france, Britain, and much of northern Europe
around 1720, design was dominated by the ornamental
style no\\' known as Rgence, after the duc d'Orlans
' .....ha served as regent dwing the minority of Louis XV.
Effectivelya lightening of the architectural Baroque style
of Daniel Marot and others, this was led by artists such as
Jean Brain, whose widely circulated ornament prints
influenced design in all areas of the decorative arts.
Into this relatively stable environment, the new Rocaco
style empted as one of the most sudden and startling
developments in the history of designo lts application to
the decorative arts is largely identified ' .... ith Juste-Aurele
Meissonnier (1695-1750), the son of a prominent Turin
goldsmith, ",ha carne to Paris in about 1715 and ",ha \Vas
appointed Dessilwtellr de la Chambre dll Roi in 1726. This
appointment and his conunissions from patrons Iike the
dllC de Bourbon ensured a high profile for his original
and astonishingly inventive designs.
Largely a French phenomenan, the Rocaco style
derives its name from rocaille, meaning rockwork, but its
3
1 usfe-AlIre/e MeissoJlllier's desigll for a 'WiJle coo/er madI' il! 1723 for
tite dllc de BOllrooll is trallsitiOlla/ betweell the Rgence mld Rococo sty/es.
Some onlfllllental fonlls, like tlle basketwork behilld the coat of aTIIIS, are
cOlliJellfiollal, bllt file cartollche mld tlle lalldles nre 1II0re ellergefic.
2 T/le neL or slJip model, trnditiollnlly IIInrked fIJe place of tire killg or
great lIoble at tableo Tllis CIIn'aCOOIlS nlld sCl/Jptllmlnef uns by
MeiSSOllllier for LOllis XV, C.1725.
3 Meissomlier's 1728 cmldlestick comprises two plfIi amid rising serol/s.
Us compositioll is so compJex tlml he drew it from tlITre differmt flngJes.
roots were in Italy. H emerged in part from late Baroque
architecture, especially the \vork of Cario Borromini and
Filippo Juvarra and in part from the irregular forms
found in nature and long used to decorate fountains and
grottoes. Its essence, as illustrated by the title page of
Meissonnier's Oeuvre (1748), or by rus 1728 design for a
candlestick, is a radical of the familiar
building blocks of ornament - scrolls, cartouches,
classical architectural motifs, and shells - combined with
naturalist motifs, and used in such a way that synunetry
is abandoned, ,vhile the whole composition conveys a
Iively sense of movement and energy. Although
apparently random and free, the style in fact demanded
considerable intellectual dexterity, if the balance between
the appearance of freedom and the necessary tension to
hold it together was to be retained.
Very few of Meissonnier's works in gold and silver
survive, and it is difficult to assess the full extent of his
influence, but he was not alone among the Parisian
artistic cornmunity in having been exposed to the late
,
I
115
4 T/lis se/'h!;> of desiglls (Jr "1//1
ceflnr;; 5//0<1'5 Akissomti,""
t1stollis1lillg ilU'I.'llli"l'IIt's:::. Tl/",I(
11!ake pnrtelllnr lI5e olseasl1el1.
rock, tllld coml mol!rs. 11l11.'IIdt'd
prilllflr;ly for gll/d5milflS. tht'Y
H't'I'(' nfso takl.'ll /lp ill porcdaill .
5 Tlle lit/c page o/ Meissoll/lier's
Oeuvre o/ l'S is i t s ~ all
extmordil/nry Romeo desigll. ff ;5
com'llci IIgly t/ree-d;11/(.'1/5;011(11,
yd al lit' SIl/II/! time 'irlllal/y
illlpGSsile ill tite fca/ i:l'Orfd.
!1
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6,7 TI/I." slIit/' o/ sihwceJltrepieCt'

Ill1d two saJlp /lIreellS desig/led
for l/U! :!.IId dl/ke 01 Killgstol/ in
1735 f1l1d partly eXf'Cl/led ot>er
t/U? /le..! set'eml !lear:> is 0111' of
heew mnjor lvkis50lIIler
COllllllissiollS fo SlIn'ir..oe. TII/.'
IlIreens /lfe complete/y
aSY!llll1etricnl (lI1d bear uo trace
01 trnditiollal c1nssicn/ ornamenl.
depel/{iillg sole1y 011 a
combinatiOIl of abstraet scro/ls
alld slte//s mld cnreflllly sllldied
i'egetaMe alld animal forl1ls. Tire
celltn'l-mxl! ,('as probably lleI,cr
lIIadl'. Trlrem lIt 37cllI/14'!ill.
8 T/ree-lighf CQndefabrlllll
desiglled by McisSOllllier for
tlle dI/k!? of KillgStOIl allti madI'
in Paris in 1734-j by e/al/de
DlIi'ii'ier. Like lIJe tllreclIs. tlli'
desigll has replaced l/U? Imlguage
of c1nssicn/ vmnl/lellt witll nll
clll!rgdie bllf Co/l<'sire
cOlllpositioll of illtcrtlelillg
scrolls rllld s/ell motifs.
Ht ;S.jem/ljY,ill.
4
1
Thomas and Franois-Thomas Germain
1 TflOlllflS Cerllla/u'5 desigll jor (1 go/d
etmdefnbrlflll ,m:; cOllllllissiolledfor lile killg
in 1739 {Inri ;5 composed 01 PI/ti; slIpportillg
floral brallcJllS. 1t is hig1l1y Rocoeo bul /llore
sYlllmdricnl alld colli'f'llliollnUy strucllITl'd
tlm/l ,\JcissoJlllier's desiglls.
2 Cerlllai,,'s carJier <!'Ork brl'aks morc rndicnlJy
wit/ com.'elltiOlI t/mll }Jis later desiglls. Tbis
'ille coo/er 01 1727 ,ms a royal COllllllissioll
nl/(1 is cOlllposed entirely 01 styli:ed 5!Jell (lI1d
ville motifs. Ht ncm/8'll.
3 Frnllfois-TllOlllas Cerlllai" sllpplied this
lIIagllifkeut si{'er-gi/t tllret'll to Joseph 101
Porlr/gal ill 1757. 11 combines strollg sil'eepillg
Rococo 5crolls wit/I dassicnlmolifs alld a
sYlllmetricnl plall. Plafenll w. 58.5C1II/23ill.
o
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4 Part al fhe Porfllglll'${' royal scr"ict: by
Frm/(ois-TJlOl/Ins Gt'l'Il11lill, I/ls kell/c of 1757
combilles Romeo Omnllll'll/ with cililloiscrit:
e/CllIcn/s likt' fhe dmSllII sJolll. Ht 4-7.5clII/181.;II,
5 TlJis tlll"l'I'/Ill1l1f ca'a o{ 1733-';' bll Tholllas
- -
Cerllla;1l is Iypicallif s cOIJII';,ml iOIl o/
cla,;siml, "C11lplllrtll. alld Romeo omnmCJlt
l'il1 an:Ujwlgl,f S<!Jlx' 01/01'11I llJld
proportioll. TlIret'1l .t
'
. 48.jCm/19ill.
6 This gold snlf cellar o/ 164 by Frmlfois-
Y/lOmas GermaiJl from ti/e Portlfglfe5e royal
St'TPiCf probnbly copies a desigll by lIs fafller
(lllri 'TUI/s/nles file sly/e 01the great tl/1l!l'JIS lo
a sil/al/el' sen/e. Ht
s
6
116
Italian Baroque. The great goldsmith Thomas Germain
(]67J-1748) had trained in Rome ;md was also back in
Pars by about 1715. He had \-vorked under Giovanni
Giardini on the church of the )esu and his earlier works in
silver, such as a wille cooler of 1727, are conceived n a
radical sculphlral Rococo malmer.
The success of any style, however, depends as much
on its acccptability to patrons as the creativity of artists,
and the evidence is that in general the vigorous organic
style of the most fully developed Rococo did not appeal
to all. The stylc of Gerrnain's earlier works, for exampIe,
was not maintained throughout rus career, and his later
works - and those of rus son Fram;ois-lllOmas (]726--91)
- are generally of a rather more accessibIe nature.
In one form or another the Rococo enjoyed a vogue
across IllOSt of Europe, although in some areas, especially
in eastern Europe and Russia, its adoption was Iater than
in Fri"lI1ce and Britain. Meissonnier's Oellvre of 1734 was
one of the first of many Rococo pattern books for the use
of goldsmiths, cabinetrnakers, and other craftsmen
published all over Europe. Although a styIe identified in
large measure with France, there were nonetheless strong
regional characterstics. In southem Gemlany, a form cf
the style \'\'as developed under architects sllch as Fran<;ois
Cuvillis and Balthasar Neumann, while its application
to the needs of goldsmiths \vas typified by the prints of
Caspar Gottlieb Eissler (tl.c.1750). The most ambtious
designs in silver, sllch as the grand service of tureens and
centrepieces made by Bernhard Heinrich Weyhe
(1701-82) in Augsburg for lhe Prinee Bishop of
Hildesheirn, have a more staccato and less organic
character than the styles of Meissonnier and Germain.
The aesthetic of fluid scrolls and shell forrns that
largely defined the Rococo style was equally ",eU suited
to other metalwork, and was particularIy exploited by
workers in onnolu. Inhicate works in gilt bronze "'ere
difficult to cast and costly to work up and gild. As a result
they were considered almost the equal of silver in terms
of luxwy but, si..nce they ,",'ere not made of precious
metal, they have tended to survive in larger and more
------------------------------------------
Claude Ballin 11
1 Elaborafe si!r.'C'r (<'!I/repieces, or surtouts
de table, bCCIlII/l.' jas/liol/able i 11 F mI/ce i 11 fIJe
ear/y JSt/l celltury. Tllis drsigll by Clllude
Bllllilll/ h661-1754) combim'S calldle
brnllc/f'j, Cl1sters. (rile!:;, Illld salt ce/far::; witlt
/l cel/lral SCllfptllrnf CflIIOJ1Y ill trnllsitiollllJ
Rgt'llCt' style der;'ed from le"" Brnill.
2 DraU'illg oftl surtout de table by Bnllill 11 2
;l! file Hermitage. Jt is similar lo tJe adjllcmt
dt"';igll bllt has SlIbstitlltt:d the central CaJlOPY
fuI' ,i !''jj-sl,pf boJ.,l.
3 Tites!? "iJl/.' coolers o/ J7+; by Blll1illll
or;gillafJyforllll'd par! o/ "'1' same ;;en'ice as
tlle Gerlllllill boar's-I/Ct1d frm'i'IIS (se/.' p.116),
alld combine cOIlSi!n'atit'l! Rgel/ce Orlltlllll.'ll/
(pm/e/s o/ bllskct,l'ork nlld reed-mu1-tie
IIlDlIldillgS) Wil/I hlt'l:Htive hlllldles ill fIJe forl/l
of lOod/es nbo<.pt' npplicd spray:' of bulmshes.
Hf 2j.jCIII/loill.
1
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Later French Designs
1
, DL'Sigll for n SOllp tllm.'1l from Elemenls
d'Orfevrerie by Pierre Germnill (1.8).
T/is pnttem book did /IIuel, fo dissellliunte n
slighl/y di/uff'd 1:.'ers;oll of tlle Pl1risirm tigll
Rococo sl!!le. Pierre Gerlllnill wns 110f re/ntcd
fo file fnmol/s goldslllifhs of I/Inl IInme. 2
2 This des;gll by acques de Lnjol/I'
(1686-1761) was pllblisl1ed;1I Pnrs in 'iJ'.
AItllOllglt ill fIJe [01"11I of n ship, if .('11:' lI"IJ/ll1/t1y
memlf to be l/sed ns n cnrlollellc.
117
1
Soulh German Rococo
1 Desiglls Jor <'nS!'S nI a large
cOlllltry ltOIl5e, mlO/I., n,ftl'r
}.B. Fischer '(lJl E1Irfacll.
2 TI,;s s/eet 01flnlil'llre desiglls,
from a series b.1I Jollf/llJl Bal/T
fJ 681-1 760), fIJe SlIIJ1f'
f.llpical(1f Germtlll illterpretatioll
of tlle Rocoeo as ti/e larger pieces
0/1 fhis page.
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118
2
4
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5
3
3 alle 01 the centrepi/'Ct's from
file great dillller ser..'ice mUlfe bIt
Bem/lard He;"ric1, Wt'Y/II' for
flte priJlce bisJlOp 01Hildeshm,
c. J 759-61. Tlie tightly I'llfil'illed
scrolls (lIld opelltl'Ork o/ file desigu
are tv!ry diffm'lll in c1Ulmcter from
Frellc/l Rococo. Ht j.lcm/:nY.ill.
4 Tllis e<1'er desigll 101'1115 file title
page 01a pnttem book pllblislled
by tlle AlIgsbllrg ar/ist ChristiulI
Friedrich Rudo/1'/ (1692-1754),
C.1750. 1ts dellsefy packed /II/d
spiky l/lIality islypica/ oflhe
Germml response lo fIJe Roeoeo.
S Cnspnr Gottlieb Eissle,:, ncer
desigll WI1S pl/blisl/ed in
NlIremberg nrOlllld lIJe :;nme
time ns RI/dolpll's pnlten book,
nlld is superficinlly similar but
n/together more fnl/tnsticnl. 1fs
exceptionnlly lligh reNef has echoes
of fhe Al/riel/lnr desiglls of Adalll
van Vial/ell (see p,o), whi/e fhe
hal/dle is remilliscellt of ti1/!
Mml1lel'ist sty/e.

Paul de Lamerie and the English Rococo
1 L __ .J
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1 TI,;s 1731 sih.w bnsket is
(lIIIOlIg Palll de wmcrie's {'(/rlil!5f
flirtntiolls ,,,illE Rococo. Tite bnskt'f
simple baskettl'Ork, bul tllL'
l'lIgrn'illg flTOlllld file eOil! o/(1m/s
slI/n// palie/S o/slighfly
nSYlllmetrica/ scrolfs. IV. 33clII/13;11.
2 A high/y illvClllh'C 1,l'o-/Jalld/ed
CI/p, 1737. blf de wmerie dmw$ 011
e/elllellts 01 Frel1c/1 Rococo alld (in
I/It' grotesqllt' mtlsk 01/ tire fool) of
17t1I-ccllfllry Al/riel/lar desiSlls.
HI36clII!I4'1;i11
3 This l/Illl1nrked 'remll jI/s o/ n/lOul
1735 is probnb/y by de Lnmerie (/lid
jl/e/I/des sollle o/1Jis IIIOs/lypiml
lIIo1ifs - scale7.t'()rk /lnri (l scrofl
Ilnlld/e (ermil/nf/lIg n tl grim';lIg
mask. Ht l1cm!.l,i".
4 n,s 114-2 etl'er 11I1d dis} by
de Lnmcrie is deJlSl'ly drxornfed
wit11 fIJe (lr1ll5 o/ lbe palrO/l nlld
omamen! symboli:illg ti/{' riches
of tlle enrth nlld sea. Dish ditfJJl.
755cm/29'!.iIl. 4 L.. _
representative quantities than silver. Other than pure
seulpture, gilt bronze \Vas most often employed as
mounts to furniture and oriental poreelain, but it \Vas aJso
used for entire objeets such as vases, candlesticks, and
ehandeliers. Because bronzes ,,,,ere not general1y signed,
the names of its practitioners are not as weU known as
those of silversmiths, but one of the most outstanding
artists \Vorking in the medium was Jacques Caffiri,
whose 1751 ehandelier in the WalJace Col1ection is one of
the greatest works of the Rococo style.
In Britain, the style was also distinet frem that of
Franee, although the French origins oE London's large
Huguenot community are betrayed in a style that 5 more
French-orientated than that of Germany_ Leading
goldsmiths sueh as Paul de Lamerie (16Sl>-175]) and Paul
Crespin were clearly aware of current trends in Paris and
evidently made use of French pattem books. But they
were eclectic and wide ranging in their sources. Not all
goldsmiths of foreign extraction in London were French,
and others, sueh as Nieholas Sprimont (1716-70), Charles
Kandler, and James Shruder introdueed the influence of
other countries, namely Belgium and Germany. Equally,
native artists such as William Hogarth aspired to create l
British Rocoeo of their own, and bis St Martin's Lane
Academy served as a catalyst and forum for their ideas.
Many of the most original eontributions to British Rococo
silver, hO\",ever, are anonymous, because they were the
,vork. of modellers who left neither drawings nor
signatures. The artistic character of many of Paul de
Lamerie's most ambitious works during the late 17305
and early 17405, for example, is due principally to the
anonymous modeller who was responsible for the relief
ornament that enlivens what \\'ould otherwise be
relatively standard forms.
Another important element of British Rocoeo silver is
the engraved decoration that was general1y in the hands
of specialists, most of \Vhom are aIso unknown to uso
Books of cartouche designs and other t\Vo-dimensional
ornament were published aH over furope during the
seeond quarter of the 18th eentury, and most engravers
119
"
Silver Engraving
1 T]e Rococo cJlflmela mlld,
Brilisl si/n'r d"/J<'IIII:, cl/l lb
I.'lIgrm'ill:':. \ lo:,!
flIIOIII/J1lOlI';, l/lIt 1111' I'/I,>:nll'ill'>:

of 1111' CClltre uf /ill'gc r7:lS
5nh't'I" IIY 1'11111 d,' 1.l1l1l,'I'l' I/IIS
II{"'JI rlllrillult'd 111//"l1rti5t
IVillirllll/-/(ls"rt11.
1\1.., S. ',t11I/I9i/l.
3 2
Sprimont and Moser
,
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1 T"c COlllribllliOIl of lhe F1elllish goldsmith
NidIO/as 51'rilll0llt lo 8rifisl! Rocoeo sih'l'l'
ami J10rcdnill H'ns t'ery dislillcfi'1'c, nJld l!lis
I/lIsiglli'd dt'sigll for n snll cellnr is 'ypicnl of
!lis SClllp/lIl'tlll1ppI'OIlc/llo fOI'III.
2,3 Allolher imporlnllf figure was tlle illllJligrnllt arlisl, dmser, ami {'l/mllcl/er George MicJmel
Moser. TIJis sihoer Ctllld/eslick, togetller 1:l'ilI, Mo$t'r's desigll for ils pI/ir, n'pr..;;t'lI! t/U! myll of
Daphne and Apalla, ill w/lid, Dnp/me is Il'tl/lsforllll.'d illlo n 1m', n 1I101I/('lIt tfmt Aloser
brillirmtly l'epl'esl.'lIts by lIIergillg tll(' figl/re titll nlllol'pllollS scroll-likl' OI'll(/lIIl!lIt.
CI/lldlestick lit 37clII/14',1.ill.
120
made extensive use of these $ources. Some original
artists, however, engraved sil ver. \Villiam Hogarth
(1697-1764), for example, began his career as an armoria!
engraver - though he found it too limiting - and
occasionally signed works are Cound by engravers such
as Joseph 5ympson.
A particular field in whieh the British Rocaeo style
flourished was that Df gold and silver chasing, especially
in the medium oC luxury watch cases. These were often
w1signed and their makers anonymous, but among the
most prominent exceptions was the inmligrant artist
George i'vlichael Moser (1706-83), who is known to have
made both watch C<Jses and gold snuffboxes. Moser is oC
particular interest be :ause he worked not only as a chaser
but also as an enameller. His exquisitely painted enamel
scenes are among thl' most accomplished. of a11 made in
England during the 18th century.
The art of the enamellist enjoyed a marked resurgence
during the Rococo periad over much oC Europe, with
skilled practitioners working in London, Pars, Vienna,
and a Ilumber of centres in Germany. 1l1eir trade was
c10sely al1ied to thc demand for gold snuffboxes, and
decorative as wcll as pictorial enamels were made in both
opaque paintcd and translucent enamel.
The Rococo, hOlVever, \Vas not to evcryone's taste. In
France the Got Cree began to appear as early as the
17505, and in Britain it fell to William Kent (c.1685-1748),
Hogarth's nemesis, under the patronage of Lord
Burlington, t promote a form of Palladianism that
amollntcd in many ,vays to a precursor of the
Neoc1assicism of the 17705. Illl.lstrated by Chiswick
HOllse and by his designs for plate which were published
in the 17405, these eschew both the decorative vocabulary
and the compositional principies oC Rococo in favour oC
a more sober kind oC grandeur. In other countries, notably
Russia, the Rococo was so far removed fram traditional
forms oC omament that it never filtered mudl below the
restricted circle oC court patronage. The empress
Elizabeth's enthusiasm for the Rocaeo was very soon
supplanted by that oC Catherine for Neoclassicism.
William Kenl and lhe Palladian Reaclion
1 2
1,2 Dt'Sigll5 by tll/! t'rdllfcd
lVi/tinm KeJlf Jor ti gold ClII'IIll,1
(/ cCJlfrt'picr:e. Kellt's desigll:' ,,,
sihw (Inri fimritllre <cen'
publisbed by IVillinm \lordY;1I
J 7+4; I1ley are dmmcleri:ed by tl
discip/il/cd dassicislII t/tnf in
SOl/lt' ronys is 'lEe nl/tidote lo tllt'
Rocaca, {l/Id 1'lIjell ms prefl!rrl'd
by SDme 8ritis/ palrol1s.

Laler Brilish Rococo

1 Tlle sili'ff ct'llfrt'piece, or
1
"""r"",, -.. o.. , ,,( '1" 111"'"
-r-',) " ....,. tI_ "') ,
sptclnculnrJorllls o[ Rococo
sif't'r. TIJis exmllJ1fe. by TJomas
Pitts. 1763. is bnsed 011 11 series
o[ disfu?S fmd bl1skels slIspellded
frOI/J SCTol/ bmllc/les fllld
cfl/sfert'd arO/llld n cell/m/ pagoda
sfmctllre. H/ 66c1II/26ill.
2 T/Jis Clip anti co'er by u:U'is
Heme flJld Frnncis 811ft!! (active
/1"0111 C.1757) represell/s a
distillctiveJol"/11 0/8ritislllafe
Rococo decorofioll, c1mrflcferi:ed
by SCToll/ll1l1dles remillisct'1I1 o/
Genlll1ll paftem books. al/d U'el/-
defill.:d n:presmtl1fioll111 onmllle"llt
illl1PJ1/ied re/itj. Ht 33.5cm/1j'bll.
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3 Y/U! caree' of file royal goldsmitll Thollltl5
Hemillg (C.I 726-<.1795) sJNlIlIII:d lhe trallsitioll
from file Romeo lo Neoc/assical style, and l/lis
loilel semice, /IInde;1I 1768, COlllnills eleml!lIts
of bol/ slyle:>. MiTro,.!,! 71cm/28ill.
4 TI/(." origills of lhe Londo" goldslllitll ]nllll:5
511ruder (lre /lo! kIlOtt'Il, bul 111.' il'tlS possibly
Cerlllall. The spiky JlIlIldle of Ibis 7152'101-
1m/er IInI /5 denrly illfillellccd by cOlltempormy
Germtlll palterl/ books. Ht 56clII/22/II_
121
Textiles and Wallpaper
Chinoiserie and Japonaiserie
5 Bromdt'll si/k Slllill 1I'il1l
lile/n/ f/rmd. LYIlIIS, c.l/3j.
As S(('1I6 gmdllally 't'cmll!'
/IIor,' st'pl1rnll'd, illa:msistclIClI
in sO/h' r.'l1Inil1t',f nI<'n/llre.
4 Design for a
brocaded si/k. London. by
/a1ll6 Lemall, C.171j-25. From
c.li:!), oriental scellic pattems
grew fnrga.
2
1 5ilk drmUlsk, Lyon:;;, l'llrly J BUI
cenf/m;. T/l' pomegnmnle motif.
tramiforlll/'d ;lIto all oriental pod,
,ms a ketJ feallm: 01 "bi=arre"
desigll, C-17oa-lO. Wif/ I1lese
cmlle a Rococo('atllre of pnffems
arrallged nlollg parnl/e1mcnl1ders.
2 5ilk desigl/, Drmid NInro!,
('arly 18th ceJlfllry. tI!
nrdJitectllmlly illspired pntterns.
oriellta/ e1emel/ts were jlle/uded,
11IId here, too, lmral/e/ IIU'(lIIriers
nppeared wl1elllllese sillgle-tl,idtJ,
pattems were joilled.
3 Bobbill face appet (pnr' o[
Jemale lcad-riress), BTlIssels,
Cl7:!j. As sta/e/y Baroqlle
Cl/ri'L"S dei.'eloperl Rococo
C-s/mpes, nrmngemellls beca",c
II/ore asymmetricn/. 3
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122
B
ecause of their significantly higher sun'ival rate, the
development of Rocaeo textile designs is more
accurately charted than those of earlier periods. The
intertvvined developments of production and a wider
consumer base also means that a greater range of tastes
was catered for than hitherto was possible. Out of the vast
range of surviving designs, it is possible to understand
the general trends of the period by focusing on the use of
oriental elements and their scale; naturalistic motifs; and
Indiennes features and their pattem arrangement.
Chinoiserie can be found in designs throughout the
18th century and is an important element of the Rococo.
The flowing asymmetrical curves typical of all true
Rococo pattems are deliberately anti-elassical and thus
compatible with large parts of the Eastem design
\'oc<lbulary; they may even have been inspired by it. The
tOllch of whimsy, another characteristic of Rocaco
is equally indebted to non-Wcstem saUTces. This
1..'.111 be sccn in the transitional and so-called "bizarre"
p.ltll..'rtlS, which show Baroque forms combined with
fantastic shapes and llnllSllal features, such as elongated
pods, parasol farms, and insects. More recognizabIe
orientalist elements sllch as figures or buildings are aIso
present fram thc beginning of the century, when they arc
incorporated as visually contul110US designs. By the 17305
such motifs are often the sole component, arranged as
floating islands.
Ln scale and distribution over the backgrowld of the
design, the trend was to move away from the dense, all-
over patterns that characterize the early 18th century. By
the 1730s much more background is unadorned.
Simultaneously, entire blossoming chinoiserie trees or
their branches become popular designs, the former
especially sought alter in wallpapers. Such patterns
continue to become more widely spaced and, by mid-
century, slim vines ar decorated ribbons aIso provide the
continuous motion, typically with mixed floral sprays
falling away from these at an opposing angle. The
appearance of these sprays was most widely in.fluenced
by the last \vell-knovm painter, and designer of
ALighter Touch
o
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3 TI/e \VollolI Room,
Bel"k('/cl/ H01l51', C.l 740,
I VOttOIl-lII uf!! r- Erige,
Gloll(('sfl.'l'sllhv. Tilis pallelled
roo/ll of I'inl!wood is fUl"Ilshed
,{litll U50 o ~ l a l orl'lllaisl
{{'al/papel", whicli rses fl"OIll dado
mil lo (ei/illg witllollt I'epeatllg.
2 Pnilltrd si/k, Cllillcse, 1740-50,
I'mln{fy for a Ellropcrlll lIU1rkcl,
jcafurillg n similar/y opelll1!1d
ligill pnt!t'mJo t!le brocaded
dalJlnsk (I/'o.'c.
1 Gold alld si!<.,t!f brocndl'd
dalJlask. L!folls. c.17:35. From
(.1725-85 orien/ali:,! }lI1ttCI'l/::'-
l/lid textil/' rmd wallpllpel" dl'siglls
gellt'l"{llly -/'I'((lIIIt' /llore !lJ.Jl'1l
and deliea/e.
1
2
Lighter Floral Designs
123

-
.::~
--
."-
2
1 8rocnried sifk, LYOJl5. 1750-60.
ElIgrn>;llgs 01desiglls cirw/ated
il'iddy, illfllll!lIciJlg t"i'l'/1 fllt,
mirror-repentillg pattl'ms.
110,1' usual/y for IISt' in cflllrcfles.
2 Pnm$O/slmped floral de-;;igll 01/
a pInte i5511t'd /1.11 /t'l/ll+Baplis/e
Piflemeut. C.1755--60. SI/dI
:'iJllrcto:; as tllis "lid lile ad;act'llt
l'lIgnH.'illg {'',.' importan! for
cottOll al/el cottoll/lilll'/1 prillters,
he ll(l(lm illdllstry dllrIIS tllI:
l/60s alld 17705 in Brit/liJl
(Inri frailee.
-
Towards Naturalism
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1 Ullen '"IIf!nJidnnl
in silk. NI/n'mlll'/X, GI'I"1II1//11/_
('1/1"1.1/ 181/1 U'JlIIUI/. 111"11111*'1111
Jo,. 111/1''/''111 111
I,'x/i/"/"I 111/11/11,'" II'JI." Sn,dHIIII.I/
hrOIlS'II/o/lII'/i1r, i/l ,oriol!.
l'n'Plolhll/. 1'l'/It .. /11 II'lh
a....(I' 101<',1 11,/111 1I/I'II/O.ls il/ wllich
1/11 /11111,'\,' ,1'1/-' slrtll/d by
"/nwr/. rI .. 111 trl/"'.. lfl. /l1ee-
l/lid "/l/lroiden!, as !lat'.

2 /I/I'(IId,'" .. dllllll1sk. 5paill.
r,'.',1 r>o {fl,' l'O;':lI[, jil!" :5(1'11;(
,/,-.. ISII" /1/"011;.:11/ jOft!! 100111-
/'Oi,,'/I dotl/:> l'IIJumccd by
1111/!lnllislic deliea/e slU/dill,'?
/l/Id 1/ r<'iaxcd flOi1' in lile
IIrml'S<'IIIClll" OffloIl'crs.
3 Floral mllpaperfroll1 a
I/OH;;!? ill Brentjord Higll Strect,
Middlesex, ElIglnlld, 1755,
c%l/1" pri!1f frOI1l wood block,;;.
Prillters rel/di/y cnpifali=l'd 0/1
t//dr pietoria/ origills. Oftl'1I
s/lOwil1g off Il/s/ mi.wd
bouqllefS fIIl1id lIIore sfIli=cd
jrli'ollrite lIIotifs sudl as .'ases
aJld scrollwvrk.
4 CottOI/ block-prillfcd by
A. Queslll'1 of Damta/, nl'ar
ROllell, 17805. COlIl/temctillg
fhe lIIove fo;vards na/lIra/iSIIl
was file collfil11led influence of
[I/dim prinfed, WOl'f'I/, al/d
elllbroidered textiles.
3

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....
124
Rococo chinoiserie, Jean-Baptiste Pillement (1728-1808).
During the period fram about 1750 to 1760 he had
editions amounting to well over 200 engraved plates
issued in both France and Britain, illustrating Chinese
ornamentation and, in particular, flowers in the Chnese
style intended for manufacturers of both silks and
printed chintzes. These engravings, with thcir three-
dimensionalty and shading techniques, another feahue
of true Rococo pattems and also introduced in the 1730s,
continue into the 1780s to provide the basis for chinoiserie
designs, which become increasingly light and open in
character. Pillement's motifs themselves appear in textiles
manufactured as late as 1808.
The same mutations fotUld in crunoiserie pattems -
f]oating islands, flovvering branches, sprays of vines,
Ihrel'-dimensionality, meanders, and increasing delicac)'
,1 bn appear within other styles of textiles and wallpaper
\ jll ritl
b
the periodo However, the treatment of floral motifs
hl'l\\'l'l'n llbout 1700 and 1790 generall), moved towards
ll,ltur.lli:-.m. Although very realistic elements become
noticeable in the 17305, they are often of incongtuous
scale in relation to each other. As this tendcncy decreases
it is replaced by mid-century with the introduction of
subsidiary patterns of simply rendered naturalistic
omament or mixtures of several very different flowers,
vines, or trees, or the introduction of vases, ribbons, or
scenic tableaux.
Such inventive combinations are another key Rococo
featllre. So too, at the end of the period, is the use of motifs
derived h'om lndian embroideries and painted and priJ1ted
cottons. So-called lndienne motifs, notably intemally
pattemed flower petals and splaying ferns and the like,
constitllted enhre designs or were added in Rococo
fashion to other compositions. Sud1 leafy elements were
well used in meander designs, which were particularly
fashionable from the 17405 to 17705; in \vallpapers and
sorne woven textiles these can be very large. Meanders
were gradualIy succeeded by arborescent designs,
indebted to Lndian tree-of-lfe pattems and representing
the final move towards naturalismo
Meanders
2
1 Point de Saxe or Dn'Sd'//
lace. Ct'mlfllIY. 150-18oo.
By Hu' 1 NOS, mellllders ,l'er!'
jl/lldtl/1/l?/ltn/ fa Rococo pnltems
(Inri took 5fiwa/ /orllls. Logicnlly.
tIJey appeared ;11 bordas (lJlri
texlill''; witll a 1Io,;=0,,'a/
<'//Ip/IfIS;S, SUell as /nce.
2 Plntefro/ll Saiuf-Al/blll1'S L'Art
du Brodcur hilO), sltowillg
lIoH' 1I1l'IJllders mil carry more
ftlllCifll1 moti/s.
4
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5
5 \Iock flock l/tIper, J7 AIlIl?/IInr/e Street.
Lalldoll. c.1J60. fllrllisJJillg palfems
<?ftellllbnl1dolled file remnillillg o/ arder
l/m! l1Ienllders provided. Here. pilles nppel1red
solely fa lillk together /(lrse exotic /em.'e5.
3 Britisll p/ate-prillted textile dt"Sigll. Bromley
Hnl/, t\lidd/esex, 17705. Typicnl/y. tite parnllel
II1l'(I/lter sfyle m:5 /l/l/de lIIore /jy/y by iJlserfillg
a x'COJld /xlIId IIlldlllafillg at a diffl>rl'llf pace;
file:'{' 'f''Y oftm depictt'lj ril.'/l(II15 alld lau.
Arborescent
4 Block-prillted siamoise, Frene/, J77OS,
5110l'il/g (1 semI' (Il1lid floral
lIlotifs (Inri scrolls.
1 Block-p6llfcd lndinll c(Jflllll,
Frnllce 01" Britnin, lii5-Soo. /11
Infel" nrbol"escent S"I/l'kJ!
brnllches disJlln!fl'd (11/ I1rm.11 (!(
bloo1ll5 nIId
125
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism developed through the inspiration 01 antiquity and as a
conscious relorm of the perceived excesses of the Rococo style. The term
was coined in the 1880s and is generally considered to cover the period
from c.1760 to c.1830. Neoclassicism was both a historical revival
Ll'ft: t/t' e17N desigll o/ this
jnsper mld gilt-brol/::e pe/fu11I1'
bUrIler by Pie"/! Golltlere is
bnsed 011 tlle (mfiqllc tpod, tnkel1
from Thc Cupid 5eUer, pnillted
by VieH /11 1763.
Tll5 .'US/OII 'liS desiglled fOT
lhe dile d'AlIlI1ollf by Fml/fois-
JosepJI Belnllger f1l1d sofd 0/1
his deat/ 111 1782 fo Marie
Allfo/l/effe. Ht ..8.)cm/lgill.
Opposill': detail from l/u'
C.1S00 pailltillg by Jacqrles LOllis
Dai.'id of Napalton il/ Ilis stlfdy.
s}owillg fhe lleiO sfyles of
fllmisl/illg infrodl/ced at tlle
begilllllIg of tlle 19t1l cellllln)
by f1Je desigl/ers Charles
Perder alld Pierre-Frall(ois-
Lollard FOlltaine.
and asearch for atimeless style - hence the emphasis in contemporary
writings to the notion of a "true style." By its end these concepts had
become subsumed into a romantic notion 01 the grandeur 01 the past and
antiquity became one 01 several possible historicist revivals.
T
he first the importance of
inspiratian rlthcr th<lll imilation. Writing in Rome,
Johann joachim Winckelmann in his Hisfory 01Auciellf Arf
(176-1) evoked Ihe nobility of the c1assical past as
exelllplifcd by Hellenic art, and Giovanni Battista
Pir<lncsi (1720-78) published h..is influential engravings of
the antiquitics of Rome, Al1fid/if Rommle (1756) and
Vedlftt' di Roma (17-18-78). Neodassicai theory was
assimilated into Enlightenment philosophy. Rousseau
and Diderot's concerns to restore the moral values of
contemporary society was reflected in Abb Laugier's
Essni sur I'Arcl1itectl/l'e (1753), in which he evokcd the
primitive hut as the source of arch..itectural puI'ity.
The excavations at Herculaneum (from 1738) and
Pompeii (from 1748) offered a new repeI'tory for artists, as
did the discovel'Y of the temples of southem Italy and the
Middle Easl published by Roberl Wood and James
Dawkins in the 17505. Future patrons travelled to Rome
on their Grand Tour and to Naples and Greece. The
coUections of antiquities and artists' sketches created a
huge repositol'Y of c1assical ideas fol' the decoration of
interiors, to create woI'ks of art imitating antique forms oI'
to provide ornament fol' htrniture, silver, and poreelain.
lOe forrns ereated by early Neoc1assical designers
\Vere detel'mined by the artists studying in Rome. Fl'endl
designers at the Aeadmie St. Luc in the 1740s I'etumed to
Paris inspired by Piranesi. The arch..itect jaeques-Ange
Gabriel (169&-1782) travelled lo Rome lo see Roman
arch..iteeture first hand. Among the English in Rome \vere
Robert Adam, James "Athenian" Stuart, and William
Chambers. The first attempts at a I'eformed classieal style
appeared in both England and Franee before 1760.
In Franee the earliest forms of ieoclassical design -
Got Gree - emphasizcd geometric forms and deeoration
in aecord with the "simple and majestic manneI' of the
aneient arch..itects of Greeee." jean-Fran<;ois Teufforge
(1714-91) began to publish hjs classieal designs in Reelleil
E/11lElltail'e d'Arcl1itecfllre in 1757. Goftt Cree motifs
include volutes, bay leaf swags, vitruvian serol1s,
palmettes, and the guilloche pattem.
Textiles 202
Glass 176
British and French 176
German and Bohemian 184
Furni!ure 130
French 130
British 138
From the German States 146
Austrian 148
Spanish and Portuguese 149
ItaHan 150
North Eastem European 152
American 154
Materals and TechniQues 158
Silverware and Me!alwork 188
Ceramics 160
Major Contmental European Porcelaln 160
British Pottery and Porcelain 166
Ottler European Pottery and Porcelain 170
1 AH enrly e.Hlmple of:'\'roc/nssicnl desigll, t1Jis
mgrtl'i'hlg ,m,:; plIl>lis!lcd tl!1 Gio;'(//lII; Bnftistn
Pirrmesi il1 1769. Tite dock Ill1d taM(' 11nI'l'
lI1otif,:;from diflere/I! c/1l5sicn/ sOl/ras.
I
3 Percier fll/d FOl1taiJlI! desiglled l/lis 511111/1
closel for lile Casa del Labrador il1 tlle Royal
Pnlnce 01 Arnlljlle=, Gil/sirle Madrid. TJe
mirrored palie/s (Iel as n backdropJor paillted
milI/deis, dt'rh'edrom ROllltlll interiors.
2 T/e C.l 767 il'1l/i'I'CO/Olll' desigll for he ceilil1g
DI /lIe cirClllnr drl'ssil1g 1'00111 nI Hnn'wood
HOIl::e. Yorksflirt', sJows Rober! Admll's /<'e/Y
trrofml'Jlt ol illferioTS. He nlfOtt'l'lj lht' eliml fa
c1Joosefrom Dlfe of sei.'ernf CO/OIIT pillettes.
3
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In the 17705 design became more fluid and elegant.
Interiors '''ere decorated in. ,,,Dad panelling incorporating
classical motifs or painted ,vith imitations of the
grotesque ornament revi\'ed in the Renaissance by
Raphael (afien called arabesque in France). Designs incor-
porated naturalistic motifs, flowers, and scrolling vines in
light colours.
A further range of motifs - the Etruscan style - was
inspired by the decoration on Greek "ases, at the time
thollght to be Etruscan. Franc;ois-Joseph Blanger
(174+-1818) and Jean-Dmosthne Dugourc (1749-1825)
expressed in their designs the reviva.! of the antiqlle with
clarity and delineation of lineo In the final phase of the
allen rgillle (c.1780-92), bllildings emphasized geometry
and simple forros for exteriors but remained elegantl)'
decorative in the interior.
Oesign under the revollltionar)' governments of
1792-1803, known as Directoire and ConsuJate, \Vas
inspired by simpler forms of Roman arto This heroic sUn-
plicity was partI)' inspired by Jacques Louis Oavid's
paintings, for example, Yhe Oa!1i of tlie Horntii (1785).
1 .lpoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798 was also a SOlITce of
dL'c(}fative ideas.
The reassessment of c1assieal sources led to the imita-
tion of Roman architecture and design, best expressed by
Charles Percier (176-1-1838) and Pierre-Franc;ois-lonard
Fonlaine (1762-1853), Napoleon's architects from 1794 lo
181-1. Their publication, the ReclIeil de dcorntiolls
i1JtrielIres (1801), formed the basis of much ElITopean
design of the early 19th cenhlry. They wanted to "imitate
the antique in its spirit, in its principIes, and in its
precepts, which are timeless" and "to adhere to the
classical moclels, not blindly, but with discernment."
Architectural forms retumed to the simplicity of early
Greek and Roman monuments, but interiors \Vere
deeorated in rieh, contrasting colours. Marbles, gilt-
bronze furnishings, silk, and velvet damasks \Vere
appropriate for an emperor: Tapoleon's imperial style
spread throughout Europe.
In E.ngland, James Stuart's decoration of the painted
room at Speneer Hause (c.1761) is one of the first to take
Roman wall painting as a sauree. However, Robert Adam
(1728-92) synthesized classical motils deri\-ed from
Roman architecture with a sense of elegance and
lightness, concentrating on harmonious proportions.
Adaro also created the first Etruscan room at Derby
House in 1773. He \Vas a proIific arcrutect and dominated
English design lmtillhe 17805.
Adam's style \Vas continued by rus pupil Joseph
Bonomi (1739-1808), \Vho created one of the first interiors
to be decorated in a reviva! of a Pompeian wali painting at
Packington Hall, Wanvickshire (c.1780). lames Wyatt
(17-16-1813) .Iso developed Adam's decoration inlo a more
austere fonn of design, \Vith an emphasis on linearity and
pure space. Henry Holland (17-15-1806) adopted French
motis and fonns of decoration, as \VeU as using inunigrant
French craftsmen at earIton House, London, built fer the
Prince of Wales, 1783-96. George, Prince of Wales, later
became ti,e Prince Regent (1811-20) and then George IV
(1820-30). Because of the prince's po\Verful infiuence on all
aspects of the decorative arts, the period c.1790-183O is
often referred lo as the Regency in Britain.
Of great importance to ne\V architectural theories was
the development of the picturesque, which emphasized
the greatness of nature and man's role in perfecting it.
This led to a conflict between those arguing for synunetry
and reguIarity and those espousing the asymmetrical. It
also encouraged the development of anti-c1assical styles
such as Gothic, Chinese, and Indian.
In the early 19th century, design was dominated by the
search for the archeologically authentic. Thomas Hope in
rus HOllsellOld FlImitllre nlld J,terior Decorntioll (1807)
pllrified and developed the fonns and omament Hrst
promoted by Percier and Fontaine.
Until Napoleon's campaigns and the sllbseqllent
redefinitions of territories, the map of Eurape remained
much as it had been at the beginning of the 18th century.
Design in the various kingdoms, principalities, ana
regions depended on the affiliations and laste 01
individual rulers, following developments in Engl,lIld
and France, often with variations. Giuseppe ValadiL'f
(1762-1839) in Rome expressed the grandellr o(
archeological classicism and \Vas no doubt an influencc
on the designs of Percier and Fontaine. During the 19th
century Pelagio P.Iagi (1775-1860) look the Etruscan
style to its limits in rus revivals for the interiors of palaces
in Turin.
The 1 eoclassical style in the German states mainly
coincided with important potitical changes and with the
rise of national consciousness but had first appeared at
the Prussian court of Frederick the Great, where the earIy
Neoclassical architect lean Lament Le Geay (171D-c.1786)
designed the_ Neues Palais in Potsdam in the 17605. Later,
afier the Treaty of Versailles (1815), reorganization of the
German states lead to new civic building in a fully
developed style.
The Empile style flourished from c.1805 onwards. The
architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841) kepl the
monumental simplicity of French visionary architecture
but emboldened it with a strong sense of light. His vision
of the granrleur of simplicity and thc importance of
interior space is best expressed in the Altes Museum,
Berlin (1826-36). In a similar manmer, the interiors of Leo
von Klenze (178.J.-186-!) exemplify the 19th-centlllY laste
for lUlomamented walls with bold painted decoration
taken from Pompeian interiors.
4 Marie An/oil/ette's cabille/ al FOlllailleb1eall 1I'as desiglU'd by ROllss'au
de la ROllliere in 1790 jlitll omamenloosed 01/ RnpbneJ's grolesqlles in
I!le VatietJII Loggifl oj c.15 JO. The fumi/l/re is by Rieseller tJlld Sell.
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1
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French Furniture
GoGI Grec
1 TI/e portrail al Mndallle de Pompadollr by Drol/ni;;, L1J6" sllO'us a
rl'Ork tab/e by Oebell ,(lit1l Gmit Cree lI10tifs SI/ellas file mm's lIead.
2 Enrlier c1l1ssicn/ stylt'S am be S.'l.'JI JI l/lis C.176j cOI/:iOle tableo /msed 01/
desigJls by ]eml-Ciwries De/aJoss/'. The sea!e 01 fIJe vitnwinll scrollllloy
be illJ1l1ellced by Ellg/iS/1 PallndimlisIII. Ht 86.jcml3olill.
3 Tlle bllreau plat Jor llit'c de jl/fly ,nls desiglled by Le Lorraill
(J71j-j9), Wit/l/1101l1ltS by ]acqlles Caffir; (16j-1755). Its bfack (I1/d
gold decorafiOJl evoked lile grnlld mmlllcr of LOllis X/V Excwted ill
1756-7. tlle set 'I'as f!Je jirs! example in Paris 01 tlle IIel' (lIlfiqlll.' In;;fe. 3
T
he fust set of furniture to be made in the new taste,
which the French referred to as Gout Grec, \Vas foc
lhe cabinet of Lalive de Jully, 1756-7. The style favoured
strong, rectilnear forms, occasionalIy retaining a
restrained curve, with large-scale decoration in the bold
mounts of vitruvian scrolls oc guilloche pattems, as can
be seen in the designs of Jean Fram;ois Neufforge
(171,1-91) and lean-Charles Delafosse (1734-91). Masks or
term figures \Vere aften placed on the comers. Seat fumi-
ture and tables \Vere just as massive, afien ",ith straight oc
columnar fluted legs.
Contemporary with t:h.is architect-designed fumihue
\Vas that made for Madame de Pompadour by her
fa\'ourite cabinetmaker, ]ean-Fran\ois Oeben (c.1721-63).
This was in a more conservative taste, shovo'ing a gradual
Ir.lllsition from Rococo forros to the ne'" rectilinear
.Ippro<lch required by ciassical theorists. Seat fumihtre in
i ~ tr,lIlsitional style afien retamed the cartouche back
.U1I..\ c.lbriole leg of the RecaeD, but the rails were deco-
'''lll'd \\'ilh the c1assical motils and swags of the new style.
Oeben worked extensively fer the crown, creating
many innovative types of fumiture such as the roll-top
desk (bllreall il cylilldre) and mechanical toilette tables. He
adapted the comrnode and other carcase pieces to
Neoclassical form - tripartite with the central shallow
breakfront decorated with a panel of figurative
marquetr)' - and developed the faJl-front scretaire. He
introduced new techniques in marquetry, wruch were
taken up by, among other cabinetrnakers, rus brother-n-
la\\', Roger Vandercruse, called Lacroix (172&-99) and rus
t\\'o pupils Jean-Henri Riesener (1734-1806) and Jean
Fran,ois Leleu (1729-1807).
Riesener took control of the workshop on rus marriage
to Oeben's \Vido\V in 1767, and he completed many of
Oeben's original commissions. He continued to work for
the crown as blliste dll roi lU1til an attempt to economize
led to rus dismissaI in 1780. lliesener developed an easily
recognizable vocabulary of floral marquetry panels,
trellis motifs, and floral gilt-bronze mOlU1ts which he
designed and had made in rus workshop.
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2 Tlle mll-loI' or 177'1 br,
. .
Le/t'l! /r tlle IlI'ill' dI'
COI/d lit lile Plllnis 8tlllr/!oll,
Pan;;, is ."l'lleeml iJl Irellis
I'nrqlldry illt(l d/k/ /s set 1111 (1',/1
of/1I1ml/l/llrqllt'lr!,. Tlle llIperillS
legs /llld resl rn/I/ed IISt' o/ 11I011/1/:'
IIre lypiCllI of l/lis dllk
HI 1.o6m/3ft ;/ill.
3 TlJis ((l/II (nbil/t,t for IlIc (omtt'SSt'
de PI'O'l.'lI' c. J 780 ITl/ /eall-Hl.'lIri
Rit'Sel/t'r Ims gilt-bron:e 1II01lllt5
IIgllil/51 11 ricJllllnhognll!/ "l'II'I".
TI/c cmy"lidfigures Illld IImr.t'
/togs IlJIJt.'tlr ill room:>for AInrie
Alltoillt'Ut'. Ht 2.6jm/Sft 8ll.
1
1 A fable decomtcd ill
,
gr'l1 \"ernis martin (n[ol"1II o[
jnplll/llil1g) l/y RCll Dubois
c. J ,69- rile mil/sI/nI mcrllltlM
fess 1I1t1.1/ re/lecl ti/e desigJl" of
ClmrJ.'5 de \\'nif1y fJ73CJ--9SJ. It
,!'aS Oi'/U'd by Cntllah/C tlU?
Creaf. Ht 75.-+(111/29'1;11.
The Influence 01 Boulle
1 AInri" for tlU? Htc/ de CfIO;51.'1/1-
Pms/ill C.1770, t!Jis cbollY /Ol/S-
n-sfrOl/omica/ dock l/y
Bnftlm=nr Uell/alld (",nsler in
17-19);5 ltolllillflfed b.lf fiJe
11I01111/5 afta ni/fique On/mllt'lll
by Philip}!e enffi!"; (1714-74),
TlII' shape 01 tflt' dock pny,..
lOlJIase fa 8011111."5 d6igJls.
Ht 2.66m/Sft 8lI.
2 T1Jis bofIkcnsl.' by Efit'1II11.'
LeimssclIr (1721---98) C.1790 is (!JI
adaptnlioll of BOlllle's origillal
desigll fllld IIpdn!ed by file
-slrikillg l'flllds of ebcmy.
Decorated Elegance
'!j
4 Rh'SelllT'S SI/ccrssor, ltall Ferdilltllld (fl.1760-90), made l/lis
mbilld, 1788, probably lo dl'5igll5 by rD. DlIgOl/rc. TI/e Vedg<l'OOd plnf/lres
(md gOl/nche prlilltings IIre v/lsl!d 01/ ROlIl/lII SOIlrct!s. Ht 2.46111/Sjt 1 in. 2
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New Forms
1 IJI tlJis paillling of(11/ interior, n 1'01I1(111 is S}OWIl st'llted al 11 511I01/
writillg desk ;1/ (l lIf'il'I.II fumisIJed faslollable interior. TJf' collstallt
illl.'eJltioll of lIeil' ty1Jt'S of.{lmliture alldforms of decoratioJl reflected fhe
impartal/ce 0Ijas/lioll muf /lf.tllry in la/e 18tJ-eelllllry Pars.
2 A c.I60 bonheur du JOUT (writillg fable) by Roger Valldercruse. Tlls
pica: is tml/siliOllal jn its l/se of Clf,,-,jllg legs. Ht Jcm/28iJl.
3 TIJe roll-top desk desiglled jor LOllis XV',; ..tlfd.ll. c.l760. Deben crentM
Ihe marquetry. <{'/lile file gilt-broll=e 11/01/1115 were desiglled by]erm-
Cla'lde Dllplessis (d.J774). 3
Design undcr Louis XVI (1774-89), \vhose name is
often inappropriately given to the entire period of Neo-
c1assicism in France, continued its emphasis on
decorative elegance. Motifs derived from classical
sources \Vere llsually combined with floral motifs,
garlands, or ribbons. Omament \Vas continually refined,
becoming smaHer in seale and tighter in exeeution - the
jewel-like quality associated with Riesener'slater \\'ork or
!he gilt brenzes of Fran<;ois Rmond (c.1747-1812) and
Pierre Gouthiere (1732-1814). Fumiture supplied by !he
leading marc1la/,ds merciers featured innovative materials.
Pomer and Daguerre eornmissioned the 5evres poreelain
factory to make poreelain plaques and bought 17th-
century Japanese laequer and paneIs of Italian pietre dure,
whieh were mounted into secrtaires and eabinets by
Joseph Baurnhauer (d.1772), Martin Carlin (173G--1785)
"nd Ad"m Weis\Veiler (c.175G--181O).
Chairs had square bades with rectangular seats, the
fronts of whieh were generally modified by curved seat
rlils. Georges Jacob (1739-1814) and Jean-Baptiste-
2
Claude Sen (17-18-1803) created sets with variations
of their decorative details for the many apartments re-
decorated for Maric Antoinette. lncreasingly the motifs
became stiffer and tighter, with small pointed leaves,
tightly scrolled ribbons, or the bead and reel motif
replacing the earlier floral garlands.
Fumihtre designed in the 17805 began to show a
reaetion to this delieaey and refinement, beeorning
stronger and introdllcing classical motifs seen in Roman
waH paintings and Greek "ases. Blanger and Dugoure
designed fumiture in the new taste, with elegant caryatid
figures on pedestals at eaeh side and legs imitating a
qwver-full of arrows. The arms were set at right angles to
the baek, resting on thin columnar supports or,
oceasionally, classical sphinxes. Decorative features
included imitations of Roman carneo motifs, either
painted or using vVedgwood plaques. Inereasingly,
however, marquetry panels were replaced with plain
panels of plum mahogany (lIsed extensively in Franee fer
the first time) or thuya \""ood.
The Commode
1 TMs lriparfite eOll/madl'. made by]eaJl-Henri
Ries.!lh!r;', 1;iBfar lIJe kiug's apartmcllfs a(
FOlltailll.-blf(l/l, ims 'elllyrl'd ill tlllip<mod nlld
sycalllon', 11 n'tnill:, fhe original fonll im'l'lItm
by Ol.'ll(?ll. T1Ie In'/li:; mnrqllefry 'itl, (lit
daffodil is typiCflI of Rie:;oleT. Ht 95C1J1I3Y:ill.
1
Chairs
2 A $l'micirCll/nr or .lmlll
cOIII/lwd.';/1 1Il1111O:1111lf.
, .
k;IISi''OOl1, allll /lIliJltl'OChl.
slIpJ'{ied ;11 1786 for lite killg'::;
Llt'dclu/llI/w at COlllpieglll'
by Gl/il/mlll/!' Bel/I/cmflll
IIlJ78''-H:in) lo des/gil:; by
jel1l1 l/nllre en. J 77-1-(6). 'file
I/{'W style illlroIIICt'd 111/)/"1.' rabI/s!
S!1tl"l'S Imd dccorntioll.
HI92.:!CII//36'1.;II.
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1 TImlsifiOlln! e/mir. madI' c.I6o-o. Tile
s/Ulpe 1"t!lIInills Romeo wlJilc ti/e decornfioll
/l1kl!s 011 II/O/'I' nssocinted Wit/l
NeoclnssiciSIII. HI 1.1211I/3/1 Sill.
2 Tlle 0.'111 bnck clmir beCllme illcreasil1gly
pomlarfrolll C.J768. Tllis exmllple by leal1
Til/iard (1723-98) S!IOWS lhe ciassicaT,
baTallccd proporliol/s of ftigil-quality Frelleh
menuiserie (carpclllry). Ht 1.1111/3/1 7ill.
3 By lhe l780s tlll' emp/msis Il'M 011 rl'filll'd
decoratioll al1d rigid s/apes, as il1 t!lis c/wir
desigl1ed by Hen.' alld madI' by Claude Sell
fol' Mari.. AlIloillcttc's apartmclIls at St Clol/d
in 1787. Ht 81C11l13:1l.
133
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GoGt trusque
1 Tllis c1mir ;11 tlll' I/l"" 11II/lq/lC slyil' ,O,
sickks nlid s!ll'll( 1110/ il'1l;; lIIade Il!! Jea11-
BtlJJfiMt-Cf/lllcf.' 5t'll1: lIJI,1 rdkds tI'l'
of EII:.:/isl/ t\ llglolll<1r,ic (a cm:cjor nl1
l1jI/S.... ["Sl"/) "'(/" ".!i, ..lliollabh' ((//Ieep' at
Ihe 'lid tI/l' ,1llciell ro:'bime.
2 0""(,11"11 111/11,,/11'1"1 aO/Il'f1 for AJarie
AII/Ilillc'Ilt"",lmn, lIt R/IIllbtmillet iJ, 1787.
II/1llm,\lIllIl d"Jir bl' Jacob wns

cll/krl Uf/I';(III.Ill.'Olll::e lIJe /l/olif;; :;cJ, (15
he 10:"II.'\l' Jlilltt'rll /11/ file back mili sen!
dl'fin'{ lmm tlll' dt'Comtioll Greek 'lIses.
f-Iq.lOU/, '/11.
Consulate and Directoire
1 The fllmitltrt' COllllllissiom'd by Madllllll'
Rectl/llierJOI" her bedroolll ,PIIS bnsed 01/
desigus createlt by Joeques LOllis Dni.,jd for }is
pnlItillgs. TI/e simplicily of lIJe de'sigll DI this
e/mir is based anearl!! Romrll/ forms of tlle
klismos c/mir. /1 was /linde in citronnier
cOlltmsled 'itll ballds oj purplewood in
1798LJIf Jacob Freres. Ht Sjcm/nYill.
2 Tllis (.1'9j stoo/. deri1:.'t'd frOIll tlle Roman
r('pllblicnn joltlillg cnmpnigll 5fool. is paillfed
b/nck tlIld gi/ded. The choiCt, oj enrlier
protolYpl'5 ,'a:.' ddibl'rntl', nltJlOlIgll tll!'
mmpnigll stoo/lmd bt'ell lI:.'ed n:.' n SOl/ru al
clmir .lt":.'igll n:.' t'nrly 115 tlle RI'Jlnis:.'f11ICl'.
Hf ,1011/28,:;11.
134
The incipient c1assicism associated with the Go
trusque of Dugourc, which "'as inspired by ",hat \\"as
thought to be Etruscan decoranon, ",as swepl a\\'ay by
the Re'"olution. Most nonceably, furn..iture "'as strippcd
of its decoranon. At the same time, the revi\'al of c1assical
forrns, such as the Greek k/isl1Ios chair, airead)' under",ay
during the nJlciel1 rgillle, "'as even more popular ",ith the
ne\\' republican governments. Furniture known as
Directoire (1793-99) and Consulate (1799-180-1) reflecting
changes of government, continued to de,"elop in
archeologically correct forms.
The furniture made by Georges Jacob (1739-181-1)
\\'ho, \Vith his sons, was the leading cabinebnaker of the
period, imitated Roman eouches, tripods, and stools. A
ne\\" kind of table, the gllridoll, \Vith a round top and
pillar or tripod support, \Vas introdueed, and the fall-
front seertaire \Vas now the chief form of \Vriting
furniture. Bernard Molitor (1755-1833) de\'e1oped
cabinets, chests of drawers, and secrtaircs that retained
the forms of the previous generanon but \Vere plainer, the
only dccor.llion being eolunms or simple architeetural
motifs. Simplificd pilW feet, deri\'ed from antiqlle seat
fllrniturc, repl.lCed the twisted, tapering feet of the Got
Afte!" Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798,
Egypti<lll l1lotifs "'ere added to the repertor), of design,
olugmenting thc geometric restraint inherent in the pieces.
\Vith Franee at war, it was often difficult to
obt,lin il1lported, exonc woods and, except for luxury
itcl1ls, nati\'e fruih\'oods were often used. Mahogany
rel11ained extremelv fashionable, but citrollllier
,
(pale yello", satin,,"ood), which had been llsed on the
illteriors of eabinets by craftsmen such as vVeisweiler, was
now found on the exterior. Such decoration as there "'as
took the form o eontrasting inlaid monfs of laurel
\\'reaths or anthemion (honeysuckle).
The revolutionary go\'ernment did away ",ith the
guild structure of manufacture in 1791, so firms of
furniture makers could provide both ean'ed and
'"eneered furniture. The firm o Jacob Desmalter (set up
in 1803 by the son ofGeorges }acob) pro"ided most of the
From Simplicily lo Grandeur
2
1 ThisJal/:frollt S('cn:tnire by Ekmnrd AJo/itor,
(.1811, reflccts lile empllasi:; 0/1 froll/nlity 01enrly
19f1t-et'"fmy T,Ie nr.- typic:i! of
Infer ElllpirclImilllre. Ht 1.37m/4ft 6/11.
2 A dosig" from t}c Recueil de dcorations
intrieurcs by Percier Illld FOl/taillt', SIIOit'illg
!1:L' OIllI11.<1'7/ily uf 111': Empile :>lylt'. The
0/"/1(11111'1115 1'01I1d be madI! il/ gilt brollzc.
1
Georges Jacob and lhe Early Empire Style
1 17/!! S'tlll e/llliT ,1'flS desiglled
l/y Perder nud FOlllnille (Inri /linde
l/y Jncob Freres for he clIlpress
fospJJiIll! nI Mofl/misol/, ISOJ.
Takil/g its sllllpl! jroml1Ee Gn...k
kJismos c1mir, I}e (ldaifoll 01the
SI'mIS frolll ROl/11m illlperinl
fllmill1rt! Sir'i':> il grnlldellr.
Ht 77CII1/30'!ill.
2 r\ mnhogllJlY drop:frollt
secrdaire by eall Grtillaul/le
Belllll'IIU111. madI' to blf e _
Perder illld FOlltnill1' C.1S00. At
tltis dnte the term figures ''re
pillad ni /lI1 nllgle 011 l/le
wlJile ti/(' ft't'f an' stilll'llsed 011
/lIJiIl1IlI formj.
3 TlIi:; (.1S00 dayl't!'d is illl/Il'
Eg}/ptiall styk mili is mad/' of
/ll/ti satilli/wd, iCit1 e _
gilt-broll:e /II01ll1!:;. It is stalll11l'd
"Jacob as tll(' firm ll'ns
m/h'd 1796-180;. 1,!Jt'lI Gt'orges
Jacob ,nlS il'Orkillg 'l'it// !>Ut11111S
:.0115. Ht I.l11l/3ft Sill.
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The Continuing Influence 01 Percier and Fontaine
3 Sp/Jill.\" sl/ppor!s in ebOlli:ed
lI'Ood CIll/lle seell 011 11lis
IIInllognny nlld gilt-broll:e
cOl/sole /nb/t: iJl ye,l', bneked
11'il/I fl lIIir/"()r, mnde C.IBol jrOIll
f"siglls ,y Percier nllri FOII/nille.
Ht /.03'1113 jt .Yill.
2 A meuble d'applli (f0;:1'
CIIpbottrd), mndt' ill 1810 ill
IIIn//ognIlY nnd gilt "-OIl:'/IY
neo/ Desmn/tcr, (l'hiel, prm'id"d
lI/os1 o/ tlll' jllmitllre jor
N(lpoil.'oll. HI 98[1II/3jl 1/i1/.
2
1 TI,e fibrnry al t\1nimniSOll il'fl';
desiglled ill ti/e Pompciflll sty/e
by Percier l/lid FOlltnine ill 1800
for EllIpl'ess }o5pJlilll'.
:!:
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furniture for Napoleon's residences. Gilt bronzes
reached a height of excellence in the work of ciseJellr-
dorellr> such as Pierre-Philippe Thomire (1751-1843), and
Paris remained the centre fram ",mch wealthy
Europeans ordered their clocks, candelabra, and other
furnishings in gilt-bronze.
Napoleon's two premier architects, Charles Percier
(176-1-1838) and Pierre-Franc;ois-Lonard Fontaine
(1762-1853) based their ideas for furniture on Roman
forms, irnitating them dosely and taking up the simpler,
bolder elements DE designo Egyptian motUs \Vere a150
high1y popular, the figures DE comer mounts often
showing Egyptian styles of dress. Imperial ornament
such as wreaths of laurel. rods, or medallions of profije
portraits were set against a plain background.
Seat fumiture retumed to square, frontal designs,
generally simply decorated with motifs such as stars or
balls. The legs and arms were generally more substantial
than previous periods and the backs plainer. One of the
most i.Imovative designs was the gondola chair which
appeared with swan ann supports. Another favoured
image was the sphinx. The bed took on new importance
and was set in an alcove under a canopy, the design
based on the Roman couch. 1l1e upholstery emphasized
the se\'erity of shape, with large borders and heav)'
fringes addng to the magnificence of the furniture.
For tables and sdeboards the monopod leg with
stylized panther head, sphinx, or Egyptian mask \Vas
placed frontally on a pli..nth, beneath a simply decorated
frieze, thereby elllphasizing the geometric solidity of
designo The Illirrors above pier tables no", extended
downwards forllling the back of the table itself. DiIfcrent
parts of the fumiture \Vere either gilded or ebonized to
contrast with the flame mahogany veneer. Secrtaires
and chests of drawers were treated in a similar way.
The French Empire style was most effectively
summarized in the Collectioll de lIlellbles et objets de gOlit,
published in instalments by Picrre La Msangere
between 1802 and 1835, which ensured the perpetuation
of the style aH over Europe into the mid-19th cenhll')'-
1
Towards the End al the Era
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3 .....,-

2 TI,,::; fab/e ,/ lIIilllOgmlY witll

fegs dewrnf('d in tlll! Egyptinl/
sty/t> ,ms c'XI'ClI!e11 c.1810 for
Ihe (,'/,11l/I o[ SI Clund U!I
Bernnrd AJo/itor. Ht JIII/3fl 3ill.
(
The Use al Exotic Materials
1 Y/lis dressing Mil/e, c. 1S:w, in rock crystn/, yerre eglomis. nl/d sleel
,('ITS desigllcd by Percier (lIld FOII/nille for Ml1Ie Dsflmolld-Clmrpelltier,
O<l'IIt'r of n specia/ist glns;; s/op ill Par;s. Ht 92'CI/1/361;11.
2 TI/[' IOl'e ol/npnl1l!sl! /acquer n/'i'Cr disappcan.'d, as illdicah'd iJl fI/('
COlllllli;;:;;OIl fvr Marie Alltollldle for t!lis sop"isl icafed wrifillg desk,
/linde (.178411.11 VVeisweilcr 1l'itlllllOlIllts by Remol1d. Ht 731CU1!29i11.
3 T/lis gi/t-brol1:c OI"l/{/U1Cllt WIIS made by fhe leadil1g cJ/{/ser o/ t!le Ct11/y
191/1 cenfllry, Pene Fililippe Tltomire (1751-1843). Ht 58.)Cm/23ill.
1 A (.1834 'litre laMe bIt J l t l ~
Barriste Gil/es )'oul (J 762-1 838)
51to1l'illg 11/{' COIltilllll'd illjllll!IICI'
uf [mpi/L" dL",i$'1. TlI': ill;/t',buf
empllas;s 01/ 'ciglll illld lnrgt'
OnUllII!!"! 1ms fypicnl 01 t/lis
paiad. Ht 82CII1/32l.ill.
British Furniture
Archeologicallnfluences
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1 T1Jis mnJflgallY pjer fa/Jle 'I'itll
ferm figlln's ccas dt'Sigm:d b.l'
Roba! Adalll mui probnMy mnde
by TllOlllns CJlippt'lldllle ill /775.
Tllt' taNe, ,('itll tenu fiSllrl!S
Jillked by.h'slro,,:::;. dt'/J/olIstratcs
/IJe illcr<'tlsillgly glll alld slellder
Nt'Oclassicnl :::;/y/e prl'ferTt'd II!!
Adalll duri/lg file 1OS.
2 TI/e! Pre!sidellt's c1Ulir of fllt'
RO.I/n/ Salidy of Art,; ms
de:;.igllef by \\'i/Iialll Chambas
il1 Tite c1Ulir is IIIlJn'
I'Ccfi/illel1l' in olltlil1t' fllld IN'S
arcl/t'o!ogicn/fy wrr.'ct .letni!,;
ill it,; can't'.l on/ml/el//. Ht
l.3IIII/-Ifl 6ill, .1'. 65clII/15<ill.
3 A si?fll fol' /lIe Pl1illfcd DrnwillS
Room, 5p(,IICt'1" HOIlSe!, ulJIdol/,
/liad.' iJl 1,59-60 of can't'd mui
gillkd pill<" dt'''igll''d by
S/l/fII'f. Tllt' ['illgt'd CJ....ltllre!S
f)rlllil1g tllI' sides of /flt' sofaa/"t'
dmI'1l direct/y frolllal'clle%gica/
"0I/rC6. TI/t' c,-imSOlI tlallln,;k
clra is /l/Olfall.
138
T
he Neoclassical style, which dominated British
furniture tluoughout the period behveen 1775 and
1830, had its beginnings in the 17.505, when design all
moer Eurape was affected by the reYi,"ai of interest in a
pllrer c1assical style, stimulated by ne'" discO\"eries of
andent remains, particularly the excl\'ations at Pompe
and HerclIlaneum. During this period designers in
France and Britain \Vere reacting against the excesses of
the Rococo style and, drawing on both the Palladian and
Rococo inheritance in outline, they began to introduce
restrained classical ornament to furniture.
TI1e architects William Chambers and James Stuart are
credited \dth the earliest pieces of Neoclassical fumihlre,
bdore 1760. Thev lIsed more rectilinear forms and
-
,Hcheologically correct decorati\'e details drawn from
direct observation of Greek and Roman origjnals. The
Illll... t (mous of the early practitioners of the Neoclassical
... l\"!L' "'l're the architects Robert and James Adaro, who
dlllllin.lll'd British hlmiture design froro the late 17605
111l1i1111L' lillc 17S0s. Many of their designs \Vere made by
the cabinetmakers Thomas Ch..ippendale, vVilliam & John
Linnell, and Ince & Mayhew.
The distineti\'e and original c1assical style of the Adam
brothers, in their o"'n words, "captllred the spirit Df
antiquity," bllt ga\e it a fresh and modern interpretation.
The style was light, highly decorative, and often small in
sea le, concentrating on linear and two-dimensional
ornament rather than hea\y earving. r-..lotifs included the
tripod and \ase, rnythological creatures sueh as sphinxes
and gryphons, c1assical figures, masks, and bueran..ia (ox
skul1s), as ",eH as smallcr pattems such as Greek key and
\itrt1\'ian scroll borders, festoons of ",heat husks, laurel
",reaths, paterae, and anthemia. TIlese ornaments were
carrjed out in marql1etry in woods of contrasting tones
and in sC111ptural relief with carving or plasterwork.
British cabinetwork adapted gradually to the intro-
duction of the Neoclassical style during the 17605, and
thereafter it de\eloped into a confident expression
through thc use of controlled rectilinear shapes, skilled
craftsmanship in wood, and fine metal mOl1nts.
4 5
139
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7 S/llart madi' l/lis dt"i-igll
lor 11 pa tll/JIe ml11 tri1Od for
51ft'IIca HOllx', LOJldoJl. (.175,
Arcllt"OlogiCIJI iJlfillt"llCl? is ,idmt
i 11 tl/l' T.'C1i/i W:11r fOTlJI oI tll;' fn/J/t'
f1l1d tlll' dirt'Cf 1I:;.e ofmJliqm'
forll/'S nl/.i decorllfioll iJl tll,'
tri//Ofl ;1Il:t'Il:ioc' '"r11t'f 0/1 tll.'
'nl'lt' tal"
aGeorg.' Ric!wra;:OII pu/llislled
t/'$ 11t'Sigll for 11 cfllldfe:::tnJld ill
Designs far 0.nd TriFC'ds.
1793. It ms il/tcnded lo bt'
{'.wCl/lL'd ;11 gi/l //Ida/ or ;YJ;Jd.
{/lId thl.' nttl'llHtlfL'd desigll
1lc!lIdes IIUlII!f drll/cn/s derit't'd
mm nrcl1t'%gicnl :OVllrce:;.
10 This 1"''1'(11 S/tli,l/, poli"tl'I' tll
drapay mili Cllchiwl /ri',",ll1l 1//llrMI'. ms
possih!.ll modl' '.II JlI,' fi 1"111 11' ,\ 1lr.;/, & Tl1tJltl 111.
ft is f/ll'i.',f {flllIl / l'rIII'11 l'y
C/-I, 1" Elchings of
"\11(i/:nt Om.lllll'nl.,l Archileclure, 1/99
11 A11 1" J tl dI''';''':' 1_!I' 11 /l,'d, 1'11/JI is!1l'll i JI
mfol/ .. k/.:o'1"11/111111 's 11/(11/1llllf mni;ill:i111', _ _ e
llf Arls. Omper!1 iJl t/H' c/Ilssim/
Gr.'cl.: lJld IIIIWI/ domilllllcd texfile
flll"lli"/liIIS" ill ti/{, l'lld)! 79th "'l1tur!!.
4,5 T/,i:; 1,68 11esigll I,y
Ro/'a! Adalll is for a slool for
51/t'/bllrll' HOl/Si. Adalll's de::.igll
is jn 11 :>fi'en' iJlJil rP5fraim.'d
.\'eoc:/nf.f.icn/ styk oflm l/sed
tl}/ hin;or 1111' .lecoralioll f1lld
Jl/mill/n' of JmJls.:
6 rl pmr oI EII:;li:JI kll!fl' ImlS
/lIllde of ,t'it/I _ e_
f.ost(l(lI1:'- nl/ll ri/lllOlls a/lO"" stW-
kaf l/(lffcr". elSo. ,\ In/lOsau!!

O,. 1-': . ,",.{'c' ., ,,,'"";nl M,

" ... l. .. '."., ... ..,..'_
find,l! mn.,.'d fonu:,- n/ld dt'tail"
in lIe NCtlc1nssim! st!!le.
8

I
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9 Tlle desk, mad",
maJogall!! alld rl'll,'{'rs
olha d",nm1fi..y ''1xhls.
allrilmll'd lo tlle mbiUl'flllaka
Olristol,l1er Fuflr/ollg. (.1;-j.
AltlJouS/1 ti/{, lf{'sk ;s
cOlllc!lIlpOrar.11 JI s/lflp.,. ;r is
Si....'JI a pur,'
In'atlll,'lIt ;11 tlu' Ift'siS:ll o{ ils e _
nnd l/(>Ctlmlir.' lIlarqudry
c!assical/igllrt':'-.
I(IIII/ Il.'m't's, IlIld ft'S/(h.l'b.
IV. 1.-l9111/-I,ft 9/il1.
7
Tables and Frames
3 ...._ ...............;
3 TI/c top of t/Jis pil'r fnbie
rms 'f'Ju.wt:d ill sntil',I'OOd
1I'illl pail1fl'd dl'Comt iOIl. Cl 790.
Tile si/pt'ry figure 01 snlimmod
nikcls fhc /nter lStll-cclI/ury /nsfl'
fil!" Jlt/kr CO/O/ll"5. mld tltc pailllt'Ii
II'Ctlratioll follo'I'5 cOllfemporary
~ I l h : fmll/d ill IIItJrqudry.
1/1 79011/31 ,'ill.
4 {o/m Cmter mnde I/Jis desigl1
.(lI' 11 s/n/unr!! IIIn,.,c IIlb/e illlrrid
dtJ/ {IIJ"III pllilltmss. I,hiell ms
Pllb/isf('d ;11 The Buildcr's
\1.1gazine. IJ. T/,ct'/nbomte
lop I'ollld {',I"I' /1<"<'" slIppm"fed
OH ngilded (1/" pnilltL'd Irnllll' pifll
slrnighl kgs lid s/re/eI/as.
2
4
2 This l!l1gl'lH'llg for a pf'r s/nss
framt' dt'siglled by B. Pastorill;
tl'll5/ll/blisfled ill A i\.'ew Book
o Designs far Girandoles and
Glass Frames, 1775. TI/e dl'sigll
follow5 ti/(, style o/ Robat ami
james Admll, in tltt'ir publis!l'd
desigJls o/ 1772-8.
1 Rohl!l't Arlmll /linde lhis desigll
JOl' n piel' lable fol' tl11' Ear/ o/
BI/te, J7'2. lt il'flS Jlllblis/It'd
ill tlle t//ird m/l/IIII! 01 Rolh?rt
Ilnd }iJllles AdIlIllS' Works
in Architecture, 1812. T!le
lIIag" ifiCl!lI t 511 it(' o/ tab/e, m11I',
(/lid s/alld5 ras fa bt, cxeclIfl!d
in pille !Inri gi/ded. irge panels
ol mirrar g/as;; domillaf\' he
de/ieate l\'eoc11l55ical omamell'
01 he[nlme.
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Publications such as Tlle l1\'orks ill ArcJlitectllre DI Roberf alld
james Adalll (1773-79) and T"e Cnbillet-Maker alld
UplJOlsterer's GI/ide by George Hepplewhite (published by
his widow, Atice, ] 788) popularized the style, not just i.n
Britain but in other parts of Europe and the United States.
A distinctive feature of cabinetwork throughout the
period was fine marquetry, incorporating delicate
classical roundels, ovals, and shields, enclosing c1assical
figures, mythological creatures, symbols, and sur-
rounded by hvo-dimensional bands of architectural
ornamento Painted decoration in similar styles and Iight
colours was also used, sometimes co\'ering an entire
piece, in others only in panels or borders.
By about ]770 straight square-section or columnar legs
tended to replace cabriole shapes. Carved chair backs
incorporating classical lyre, oval, and shield shapes were
adomed with small-scale omament of paterae, medal-
lions, wheat husks, and laurel. Gilding continued. to be
used for the grandest pieces but painted decoration on
beech chair frames using a palette predominantly of
green, blue, white, and grey was popular. Silk damasks,
or sometimes painted silk panels, covered luxurious seat
furniture for drawing rooms and the best bed chambers;
horsehair and leather were used for dining and library
dlairS; and printed cottons were increasingly popular for
light bedroom chairs to match window curtains and bed
hangings. Patterns for furniture cottons fa\'oured
c1assical medallions, flowers, and ribbons.
Gilded frames \Vcre regular in shape, either oval or
rectangular, with narrower borders enclosing larger
sheets of silvered glass. Accompanying pier tables corre-
sponded in their design, usually with columnar legs,
straight hieze5, and tops of marblc, painted wood, or
marqlletry decorated with delicate classical motifs.
Occasional tables fOl' writing, tea eqllipment, and card
games were simple and elegant, with slender straight legs
and decorative marqlletry borders in light-coloured
\\ooos slIch as satinwood and harewood. Mahogany con-
tinued to be Llsed, bllt lighter shades of the wood were
favourcd. Cast-metal mOlUlts, usuaUy of gilt-brass or
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5 Tlu' dcsiglIs for the:;e pCIII/lrokc III/JI!':' 'Y
George Hepple<ullite wt're plIblislted by
A. Hepplewhite il1 The Cabinel-Makcr ;md
Upholsterer's Guide, 1788. HepplcwJJit.
stnlerl t}/Il1 SI/eh tab/es "adlllit o/ cOlIsiricrnN,'
efegnl1ce ill file worknll11lslp (md Dml1mCI1/s."
6 This pelllbroke tab/e wns nU/de o/lIIahognll)f
with vencer of sntillwoori mld o/lIer woods,
LIISO. TIle delicnte OnmlllCl1t of fhe border
is stnined nlld illlnid il1 Neoc/assicnl patfcms
of lenves alld tel/drils. Ht 73CIII/2S'l:in.
7 TllOlI1as Hope, a conlloisseur 01 Greek mld
EgyptinlI sfyle, designed this rouJld rabIe witll
a colulIlIlnr sJlpporf iJl a slmpe populnr in tlle
enrly 19th cellfllry. The brlllds of decorafioll 011
t!Ie top are typicnl ol/ate Neoc/nssicislll.
8 T}is sofa table Ims tlle rectilinearfol"lu and
slender legs nssociaferl wif!J Neoc/assicislll, as
;:vell as bmlds of Illnrquetry ill woorls 01 a
ligllter c%ur. Tlle sirle sllpports alld single
strefcher wae l/sedmm the lS00S.
Ht 76clll/30ill.
,

" , '
"
"

6
,
5
9 The decoration 011 tJzis
srtfiJlwood ritil/g tab/e ;5
concel1trated 0/1 tlle swags 011 the
cen/ral drawer [milI nllrl I1pper
sectioll oj he table. The s/ende/"
legs are tnpered 1l!1d slIpported by
casters, wllich ,(lere l/sed
incrensillgly frolll lhe //lid-18th
cellfllry lo nllow lile1l/mill/re lo
be lIlo,'cd <vil/ case. The rol/lid
hnlldles are decomled IVi// a
clnssica/lIIotij 01/ he bnckplate.
Ht 90cm/35Il.
9
10
10 Tilis desii;ll fOI" a mirror by George Sll/ifl!,
IJlIblisllCd ill !Jis Collection of Designs, lS0S,
indicnh's tht' l/se of COllvex g/nss nnd a carred
alld gildcd jrnllle illspired by c/assicnllol"ms;
tll!! bat 5Ylllboli:ed l1iglzt.
141
Seal Furnilure and Beds
1 T/'11111,15 Cllpl','ud,lk m",I,' ,-"r'cd .Uld
giMt'd i>.',d, ."(!f;, ;:'/J, :,ilk d.IIII,4
1I11!JlI/'-:/''r!!};w Sil' / l/il'l',',,(,' DlIl/da." ill 1;65.
AltllOf/>:/1 :,till ,-1/I";'jlill,"'1" 11I ollt/i!ll', fhe (1lIi.'iJl'i:

(111 /1I('/1"I1IIIC il/ r/IIIPf'lIrdI'%simlly dcripcd
:'11//". l\'. ::0..1811I/';0 I ill.
o o
21'11,' ,lI"IlIdl<llr -. //Irld,' Jf lIIa/lO'i:allIl o!'itll
o
i/l/au ,,,,d 1,.I:io1l (rlm. :5ent. :'t/w7b
l'fll/CI111 I/I(lllllt;:. /t ;:CIl:, mad,'lIY
/e'/m Lmlldl.ft,lr R(I/wt CJIi/d. O;:terh'!/ Park
/ ,\ liddk"..'x. c. 1;6,. TIJe e/lnir
ill1rpJml.':, mdl 11:'
ti/, 11m' in t1't'!I;lCk rllld ,'ilnri'ir//l scr(lll
tlll lit,' mil.
1
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142
3 T/,. pnillted bergere e/mir. desigl1l'd by Rober! fllld jall11.'5 Arinlll.
C.1770, VIlS made by TJlOlIUls ChippelUfa!e for tllL' actor Dm,id GarJ'ick.
Tire sJnpc is Frclrc! hrspired bll! tire decol'fltioll !ypically EuglislJ.
ormolu, complemented the fllrniture. Handles \Vere O\'al
or round, their backplates decorated with motiIs slIch as
paterae, wheat shea\'es, or sunflowers.
The high quality of British cabinetrnaking during the
period enabled the de\'eloping enthusiasm for mechani-
cal devices for compartments, spring-Ioaded slides, and
secret drawers. Thomas Sheraton's designs for elegant
and often complex tables, published in rus Cabillet-Maker
alld Upholsterer's DmwiJlg Book (1791-94), illustrate the
taste for such pieces. Th.is collection and his Cabil1et
Dictiollary (1803) were important in presenting the
current styles to a \Vide public. The Dmwillg Book
embodied the French-influenced taste favoured by the
Prince Regent and bis architect Henry Holland, and the
Cnbillet Dictiollary reflected the renewed interest in
archeological fOIm in the early years of the 19th century.
Archeological sources for fumiture design received a
further boost in the 1790s through the publication of both
ancient forms and their decorative detail, drawn from
Roman originals by CH. Tatham (1772-1842). Atter 1800
4 TIJis desigll for n par/ol/r c!wir by George Hepplc'1'hitc ,1'11:;; Pl/':;;}cd
by A. Hepple,dJte il! The Cabinet-ivlaker and Upholstcrer's Cuide.
1788. TI/e s/Jcld slwpe ('I1S poplllar il' /fU! 1770:;; nlld 17Sos.
this influence was seen most clearly in the use of tripod
and sarcophagus shapes and zoomorpruc elements in
fumiture, created in a more sad and style
than that of ti,e Adam brothers.
ln addition to the standard Roman sources, many
designers and patron5 were increasingly attracted to
Greek decoration. The Chinese and the Gothic styles,
exotic altematives to c1assicism, \Vere u5ed to create spe-
cific decorative themes, and Egyptian and lndian styles
were also introdllced llnder the enthusiastic leadership of
the Prince Regent-
A leading exponent of both the Greek and the
Egyptian styles was the connoisseur Thomas Hope
(1769-1831), who published designs for furniture for his
own houses in HOl/sehold FUnlitl/re nlld IlZterior DecoratioJJ
(1807). This was soon followed by George Smith's
Collectioll of Desiglls for HOlIseholri Flfmitllre anri IlIterior
Decoratioll (1808), Rudolph Ackermann's monthly
magazine, the Repository of Arts (1809-28), was a150
influential on early 19th-century designo
5 (Ir d/lliT /'Ifb /'1/
ShenJtoll./IlIM"J,d II/1,,/,,-'1 "'/'/11"
ofThe Cabinet-).Iaker .1nd Lphol... lL' ..... ...
Drawing Book, J 793. TI/' si/ltnn' ,;IM/"'.' "1
I!le lmcks reflect 1he Ilew si y/e i IIll'odl/ce.! .froll/
FmllCt' dllrillg t}tlatt' l;SOS mul ear/!I l;'l<h.
6 TIJis pair of parlollr e/mirs. c. 1ISO. lIa.', (1,\,1
'.1cks t'rm:.yd ,1'iIl111ll auth,'mioll alld
II'Ss. 8mll1s ofgildillg
IIJc fmlllcs of tllt' (hair:;.
7 AIl d'olli:cd (lIId gilf cfmirfrom a sct mal('
in 1111' mrly 19tf, (,JlIIII)!. Tllt' Grt'ek sl.'lil'
X:formed legs llas l't'ell adapledjor ils dt'sigll.
8 fuspire,/ by lte:,igll:' pllblished 11.1/ TllOllIas
HOpt' /1/ Household Furniture <lnd Interior
Decor<ltion, 1S07. tlls gild,'d '(w!t armc!mir,
mm/e lS0S-10, is iapnllllelt illa dark grl?l?IIlo
simulalt' broll:e alld has a calle x'at alld squab
Cl/sltioll. TlIefnwll! exprse:> file pre:ailillg
Grcck taste il1 tlll' U';t' of tl'il1gl'dliSUrt
sl/ppol"f:>JOI" tf/{, amI:>.
p
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9 TJIOII1IlS ChipP('IIriale /linde lIis
(an'cd nl/rl gilded wecll sta/e bed
"'itll gmm si/k damllsk /nl/gillgs
for tite 1St EnTI of Hnre<"OCld,
Hnre,l,ood HOl/se, l'orkshire.
1773. Qlle of !le gral/dest
uf file Neocln5sicn/
style 15 SIIOit'1I IJeTe in fIJe
c/nlxmlfl' l/51' of mn'f'd detni!
I1l1d drapery.
10 TIJe cllgravillg!or t/is
desigll of (1 bed by George
Heppleit'lite WITS plIblislJed by
A. Hf1Jplt;,whife jn The Cabinet-
)'laker and Lpholsterer's
Guide, 1788. Hcpplewllite
slIggested tlm! fhe Orllal/1C11ts 01/
tlle comice /l/igM be japmllled,
1'ltI, jestoollcd drapery 0/1
lile fo.!'er <,n/ances.
10
143
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144
Cabinetwork
1
-
"
2
In the earIy 19th century new shapes for tables ",ere
introduced in response ta changes in the arrangement of
withdra...ving raoms. These included central round tables
on tripod or columnar supports, with elegant inlays of
brass or ebony, and rectangular sofa, games, and writing
tables with lolding flaps, on supports in the fonn 01
Greek lyres or linked colunUlS joined by a single stretcher.
Darker, richer woods such as rosewood, zebrawood, and
darktoned mahoganies, and simulated ebony smfaces
became highly fashionable, making strong contrasts with
gilt mounts ar brass inlays. Most tables and many chairs
",efe fitted with casters for ease of movement.
In the perlod 1800-30 gilding continued lo be used
extensively fer mirror frames, on which mouldings and
other carved decoration became larger in scale. In
addition the newly developed convex mirror glass
used with circular
From the 1790s British chair fonns had responded to
French influence in the use of much more rectilinear
shapes for chair bades and seats, rounded seat
1 Robert Adnlll dr/?w this desigll for n e/oflles pn:ss for Lord Coventl}/,
176-1. TIJe IIInssh'e fonll of tIJe pieee rej1ects tlle' prt'i.io/ls PnllndinJl
style but lhe omtl1l1ellt of fhe frollt pnlle/5 is Neoe/nssicn/.
2 Qlle ofn pnir of COllllllOOes nlld torcflin'S by Joll11 Cobb for Lord Metlll/e'1I
nt Corslmlll COl/rl, IViltsllire, 1772. The piecl's are Rocoeo il1 slmpe, bllt
tllr decornfioJl is iJl n Neoclnssicnl COlllmode ht 95(1II/371,ill.
3 AInhognllY secritnire 'l'itIJ 5fltill<l'Ood nmf .'el/ea5 by Thomns
Cllippelldale for Huml'ood HOII::':, Yorksllire, 1772. TI//: 511t1pi! is FreJIch,
bul ti/(: marquet,-y pallels are' Ellglisll Ncoclas5icnl. HI 1.-11111/4/t 7Y:ill.
and back upholstery with square-edged, or "French,"
stuffing. Afier 1800, chair design adapted again to the
fashionable Greek style throllgh the use 01 tablet-shaped
backs and sabre or X-form legs, with classical figure or
zoomorphic supports for arms. Canework with loose
squab cushions for seats increased a sense of lightness
and mobility for chairs, but strong plain colours were
favoured for upholstery textiles.
Fashionable designs for beds also adapted to modem
classical ideas with the introduction of couch beds, or /its
ell bntenll, with elaborate drapery, although traditional
four-post beds with fine classical pillars continued in use
th.rollghollt the periodo
The early years of the 19th century were also marked
by notable developments in travelling or campaign fumi-
ture, stimulated as much by Britain's colonial expansion
as by the needs of campaigning soldiers and sailors.
Compact pieces combining se"eral functions, or knock-
down huniture that could be con\'eniently packed for
travelling, ,vere both ingenious and elegantly made.
------
Influences from Abroad
:2:
en
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-
en
en
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O
LLI
Z
1 J<nrl Friedricll 5c1Iillkel's desigll
for the drnwillg rOOIl/ of Prillce
Augllst ,uns bl/ilt 1815-17 in lile
El1Ipire style. TJe wall pailltings
afta alltiqlle ROllmll desiglls rllld
fhc IIIllssive jllmilllre crealed for
fhe palace are based 011 inferiol"5
by Percier alld FOIlfainc. 5c1Iillkel
frnvel1ed frOI1l 1801-3 il1 ltaly
and fo Paris.
2 Tllis desigll for a clmir fo be
made ill lI1allOgallY by 5c}illkel
mas fOI" thc C}al1lois Room ill the
royal palaee, Berlill, C.18ol' Tt
WIlS Dile oj tllCJirst COJllllliSsiOI1S
jol' the CroWII I1lld s}ows Sfrollg
FreJlcf iuf/lIellees.
2
1 '- --'- _
M
an
y
of the rulers of the Cerman states decorated
their palaces in a modified Rocaeo style into the
17705, and German Neoclassicism only developed
towards the end of the century. The two main influences
carne fraro France and England, and 18th-century Neo-
classical design shows a wide variety of forrns. The most
important cabinetmaker working in Germany was David
Roentgen (1743-1807). He developed a form of pictorial
marquetry in which the pieces were individually tinted,
then inset into the veneer so that the colour or grain of
each segment of the marquetry created the designo This
technique, en mosarque, created a painterIy effect.
Roentgen \'\'ent to Paris, Berlin, and Russia, creating
architectural pieces 'with sophisticated mechanical work-
ings. His monumental forms of the 17905 were developed
from classical architecture. By this time, Roentgen had
foregone the decorative fittings previously supplied by
Pierre Rmond, using simple molUlts of great quality,
occasionally decorated with antique scenes in bas relief,
which "vere set against the flame mahogany veneers.
In Prussia Friedrich Wilhcll11 von Erdmam'lsdorff
(1736-1800) designed furniturc for thc royal palace in
Berlin, the Marmor Palace in Potsd<lll1, and at Schloss
Worlitz, near Dresden. Johann Christi<ln Ficdler, the royal
cabinetrnaker, began work c.1775 in il Rococo stylc with
muy the decoration taking on cbssical motifs. He later
evolved asevere style, with limitccl OrTI<ln1enl. The
designs of Hepplewhite and Sheraton wcrc popular and
led to an emphasis on elegant, elongiltcd fonns.
After 1805 the French Empire stylc WilS t<'lkcn up in aH
the German states. The palace of Wilhc1mhhe, Kassel,
was furnished for Napoleon's brother, Jrome, with sorne
furniture fram Paris and somc made by Friedrich
Wichman, c.1810, in l heavier style. Percier and
Fontaine's designs were copiecl in publications such as
Ideen zu Gesclunackvollcn Mbeln (Leipzig). Sorne
German furniture of this period favoured lighter timbers
such as satinwood, birch, or maple. Karl Friedrich
Schinkel's designs were drawn frem antiquity and he
experimented with furniture in metal and in marble.
147
LU
a:
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-
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:3
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Z
144
Cabinetwork
1
-
"
2
In the earIy 19th century new shapes for tables ",ere
introduced in response ta changes in the arrangement of
withdra...ving raoms. These ncluded central round tables
on tripod or columnar supports, with elegant inlays of
brass or ebony, and rectangular sofa, games, and writing
tables with lolding flaps, on supports in the fonn 01
Greek lyres or linked colunUlS joined by a single stretcher.
Darker, richer woods such as rosewood, zebrawood, and
darktoned mahoganies, and simulated ebony smfaces
became highly fashionable, making strong contrasts with
gilt mounts ar brass inlays. Most tables and many chairs
",efe fitted with casters for ease of movement.
In the perlod 1800-30 gilding continued lo be used
extensively fer mirror frames, on which mouldings and
other carved decoration became larger in scale. In
addition the newly developed convex mirror glass
used with circular
From the 1790s British chair fonns had responded to
French influence in the use of much more rectilinear
shapes for chair bades and seats, rounded seat
1 Robert Adnlll dr/?w fhis desigll for n e/oflles pn:ss for Lord COvenfl}/,
176-1. TIJe IIInssh'ejonll of tIJe pieee rej1ects file' prt'i.io/ls PnllndinJl
style but lhe omtl1l1ellt oj fhe jrollt pnlle/5 is Neoe/nssicn/.
2 Qlle oj n pnir oj COllllllOOes nlld forcflin'S by Joll11 Cobbfor Lord Metlll/e'1I
nf Corslmlll COl/rl, IVilfsllire, 1772. The piecl's are Rocoeo il1 slmpe, bllf
fllr decornfioJl is iJl n Neoclnssicnl COlllmode hf 95(1II/371,ill.
3 AInhognllY secrifnire 'l'itIJ 5fltill<l'Ood nmf .'el/ea5 by Thomns
Cllippelldalejor Huml'ood HOII::':, Yorksllire, 1772. TI//: 511t1pi! is FreJIch,
bul ti/(: marquet,-y pallels are' Ellglisll Ncoclas5icnl. HI 1.-11111/4/t 7Y:ill.
and back upholstery with square-edged, or "French,"
stuffing. Afier 1800, chair design adapted again to the
fashionable Greek style throllgh the use 01 tablet-shaped
backs and sabre or X-form legs, with classical figure or
zoomorphic supports for arms. Canework with loose
squab cushions for seats increased a sense of lightness
and mobility for chairs, but strong plain colours were
favoured for upholstery textiles.
Fashionable designs for beds also adapted to modem
classical ideas with the introduction of couch beds, or /its
ell bntenll, with elaborate drapery, although traditional
four-post beds with fine classical pillars continued in use
th.rollghollt the periodo
The early years of the 19th century were also marked
by notable developments in travelling or campaign fumj-
ture, stimulated as much by Britain's colonial expansion
as by the needs of campaigning soldiers and sailors.
Compact pieces combining se"eral functions, or knock-
down huniture that could be con\'eniently packed for
travelling, ,vere both ingenious and elegantly made.
------
Influences from Abroad
:2:
en
-
c.,;)
-
en
en
:3
c.,;)
O
LLI
Z
1 J<nrl Friedricll 5c1Iillkel's desigll
for the drnwillg rOOIl/ of Prillce
Augllst ,uns bl/ilt 1815-17 in lile
El1Ipire style. TJe wall pailltings
afta alltiqlle ROllmll desiglls rllld
fhc IIIllssive jllmilllre crealed for
fhe palace are based 011 inferiol"5
by Percier alld FOIlfainc. 5c1Iillkel
frnvel1ed frOI1l 1801-3 il1 ltaly
and fo Paris.
2 Tllis desigll for a clmir fo be
made ill lI1allOgallY by 5c}illkel
mas fOI" thc C}al1lois Room ill the
royal palaee, Berlill, C.18ol' Tt
WIlS Dile oj tllCJirst COJllllliSsiOI1S
jol' the CroWII I1lld s}ows Sfrollg
FreJlcf iuf/lIellees.
2
1 '- --'- _
M
an
y
of the rulers of the Cerman states decorated
their palaces in a modified Rocaeo style into the
17705, and German Neoclassicism only developed
towards the end of the century. The two main influences
carne fraro France and England, and 18th-century Neo-
classical design shows a wide variety of forrns. The most
important cabinetmaker working in Germany was David
Roentgen (1743-1807). He developed a form of pictorial
marquetry in which the pieces were individually tinted,
then inset into the veneer so that the colour or grain of
each segment of the marquetry created the designo This
technique, en mosarque, created a painterIy effect.
Roentgen \'\'ent to Paris, Berlin, and Russia, creating
architectural pieces 'with sophisticated mechanical work-
ings. His monumental forms of the 17905 were developed
from classical architecture. By this time, Roentgen had
foregone the decorative fittings previously supplied by
Pierre Rmond, using simple molUlts of great quality,
occasionally decorated with antique scenes in bas relief,
which "vere set against the flame mahogany veneers.
In Prussia Friedrich Wilhcll11 von Erdmam'lsdorff
(1736-1800) designed furniturc for thc royal palace in
Berlin, the Marmor Palace in Potsd<lll1, and at Schloss
Worlitz, near Dresden. Johann Christi<ln Ficdler, the royal
cabinetrnaker, began work c.1775 in il Rococo stylc with
muy the decoration taking on cbssical motifs. He later
evolved asevere style, with limitccl OrTI<ln1enl. The
designs of Hepplewhite and Sheraton wcrc popular and
led to an emphasis on elegant, elongiltcd fonns.
After 1805 the French Empire stylc WilS t<'lkcn up in aH
the German states. The palace of Wilhc1mhhe, Kassel,
was furnished for Napoleon's brother, Jrome, with sorne
furniture fram Paris and somc made by Friedrich
Wichman, c.1810, in l heavier style. Percier and
Fontaine's designs were copiecl in publications such as
Ideen zu Gesclunackvollcn Mbeln (Leipzig). Sorne
German furniture of this period favoured lighter timbers
such as satinwood, birch, or maple. Karl Friedrich
Schinkel's designs were drawn frem antiquity and he
experimented with furniture in metal and in marble.
147
1 71u! lyre s]ape was (1 VicllIlt:'Se
illterpretaton 01 ale Empire style,
appearillg c.tSoo. T/e penwork
desigl/s l/sed lo decorate tIJis
Indy's secrtaire 0llllllhogany,
fnlitwood, (lila elxmy i>ellurs
appear ill cabillelmakers'
drnwillgs, c.1806-10.
Ht 2.09111/6fl 101,;11.
2 This burr-1{>allll/f alld e/Jolli:ed
lt'orktable, made '.1825. opens
lo nll nrc/Jitecl/frnl scelle
villlill. Ht 96cm/3ft 11,;11.
3 A C.1805 IIInllOgllllY writillg
desk nffribuled lo Josef Hnllpl,
witll as), nlld eoollized pear
illleriors alld delicnle gilt brOIl:::e
//lOlmts OH tlle exterior. T/is piece
combines n sophisticnled l/se of
onJlll1lel1f Dll tlle stand aJld in
tlle "terior lVit/ efegnllt
geometn'c sllllpt'S.
Biedermeier Design
Austrian Furniture
z

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s
4 TlIc 1I1111S/W/ bnck o[ l/lis enr/y 19t1l-CClllllry klismos eha;r reflects ti/e
Udy ill w/ich illdividlln/lllotifs from flJltiqllify wcre givell geollletric
dflrih, 11.'1 '1l/arging lile seat' 01eacl, elemento
5 IS:!D-j semi-circular desk by !osepll OnIlJUllIser sh(r<L'S tI,e extreme
JIgmmetric forms, vil/ /lll a/Jsellce olomament, espollstd by
/li,'',rm.'l' fllld la/er Nroc/assiml desigllers. Ht 129clII/4/1 2Y.il1.
S
orne of the rnost inventive furniture of the early 19th
century was created in Austria, where the c1assical
bourgeois style known as Bieclermeier took mot c.1815,
soon spreading to other parts of eastern Europe and
Gerrnany, and continuing until the 18505. Biedermeier
absorbed both the French Ernpire style and English
Regency, working thern into elegant forms distinguished
by rOtrnded or geometric shapes and sparing ornamento
Light-<:oloured figured timbers such as buch, maple, and
fruih''''oods as ,vel! as mahogany were favoured, ,,,,th
decorative motifs and borders in contrasting ebony or
vory, or painted in black. Convenient, comfortable, and
",eU marle, most furniture was designed by craftsmen, of
whom the most important ,vas Joseph Danhauser of
Vienna (11.1804-30). Capacious desks with ingenious
internal arrangements, multi-purpose tables, and chairs
with fan-shaped backs were typical, while COh.lIIU1S, IYTe
shapes, drapery 5wags, and volutes were themes. The
practical, clean-lined simplicity of Bieclermeier fumiture
gives it a strikingly modem appearance.
Spanish and Portuguese Furniture
An Elaborate laste
::
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149
2
2 Desiglled by DI/gol/rc for the
Casita del Labrador, Artllljlle=,
Spnill, fllis e/lI1ir .cas e.uwled in
cbol/Y nlld boxwood c,1790-j,
DllgoJlrc l/scd /IJe eJlgrai.'illgs 01
ClII1r/t'S IIrs Catalogo degli
Antichi r..lonumenti (1759) for
tlle palllillg 011 lile hack.
3 TIJis Spmlisll comer tnL'k .'itl, 1I1l11"llIdll', "",,{,'/,I/,' IStllc'r t'nrJ.II19t/l
cenf 11 ry, i:. based 0/1 de:.igll:' "It (; 111",'1'1/" AloS:': 10111/1. lit S/01l/3:1/.
4 TI/e lIIirror, COIlSO/c laMc', /l/Id c/",,, 11I 1/". I J, '111I" .\ ",i,1 rOQIlI ol tlle
Ricaf/io do Espirito Fll/l/ll/"'hl/l. ",,/,,'11, n'/11I'I/f.I/ tll,' Pilrtllglle:5e
illtcrprdl/I iOI/ of Ncoc1o""/t'NII - d'.O, '11, ,'," (if I!ropo,-!ion alid {// I
l/bul/dance oI l1t'coml iOI/. 111,' ('cJIIIIIWr/,' i/1 t11,' 1'"'/Idl :'o/.II/e, c.1J90.
_ '0 _':
-";'" 1,
_.. ,

1 Tllis sofa in can't:d alld

gilded ,oad forlllcd pa-I of a
slIite madeJor /l/e s/lip in it'fJicJl
file Portllgllese royal family f1ed
to Bm:iJ ill 1807. T/e Cl!lllraJ
Oi'a/ call,'aSL"S arc Ll/1scd 011
/lI1rOOl/r scel/I!s by }eall PilIell1l!lIt,
L. l.ljllll3ft 9;/'ill,
4

S
panish Neoclassical fumiture assimilated influences
from Italy, France, and Britain, emerging with a
distinctive flavour. The royal workshops, headed by the
Neapolitan Mattia Gasparini ITam 1768, produced chairs,
consale tables, and cornmodes for the Spanish royal
palaces in a bolder, slightly exaggerated version of the
Italian style. Case furniture was decorated with
marquetry or paintcd panels of Pompeian figures in the
Milanese style, sometimes \,,th small mirrors or ceramic
plaques added to the ornament.
In the early 19th century, the arrival in Spain of the
designer Jean-Dmosthene Dugourc ensured the
supremac)' of the French style, with the use of sculptural
motifs sllch as swans, sphin..Xs, and figures.
In Portugal, fumiture makers follo'Ved French design
extremely closely, although English influence was most
important for chairs. A d.istinctive type of breakfront
cornmode with marquetry panels and a deep apron is
known as a DOIUla Maria conunode. Jos Aniceto Raposo
specialized in marquetry of trophies, arrO\\'s, and AO\\'ers.
1
Italian Furniture
Furniture from the 18th Century
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1 A $l1m// COllllllOOt!. (.1800.
i't'IIl'erl'd " vnriOIl$ 'l'OOds by file
LOlllbnrd cabil1etlllllker Giovrmlli
Mnffl!::ol rl!f1ects fIJe dominaJlce
of Maggiolilli's illfll/mce ill 1l0rtll
ltafifm designo lt 11115 mi il/set
n'rde antico lIIf1rble tal' IIl1d fI
frie:e ill/aid Witll Pnses f1lld lr:nfiJ
sero/k Ht 9JCm/Jft Vo;Il.
2 A pale grern pnillted f111d pared
gift cnrped coulIIlOl1e froll1 fhe
eire/e of Gil/seppe Maria
BOIl:,migo. TI/e decoralioJl
"eludes 11tIuds of lal/rel fetH'e'5
illlersected by thyrsi, SlI'ags.
/l/erial/imls, beadillg, rllld po/eme.
L u.Sm/4f1 2'1:111.
3,4 Tllis caft'ed mirror mili tab1e.
(.1795, pnillled ,'lIite alld gi/ded,
are similar lo pirces !IIade for he
royal jfllllily al Paln::o d'Amfos,
Nap/es, willl floral Sil'ags tmd tl
ricer:; hend, slfggestillg tlley
mightlmve been for alllllllillg
lodg!? Tlle designs 01 tile frie=e
are taken frolll ellgrapillgs by
Giot'alllJi Battista Vo/pol/e afier
Raphael's desigl/s at lIe Vaticm!
Loggia. Table lit 94c1II137ill.
4
150 5L- .....
6
5 Tltis Jig1J1y sClflpted gilticood sidl' tlJ/IIt'/HlIII ti,.' Pala::o Borg/lese,
Rome, ,ens cnn'ed by AlItollio Lnwll1cd, (.1775. /ls frttllsitiOlral slmp"
reflects ti!!? iJifluellce oj Piml/l'Si's desigl/s. Ht.93.5C111/36'/,il/.
6 Mndejor tlle Pala==o Altieri ill ROIII!? C.179O-3, ul/dl'r the directioll o/
tlw nrcllitect Giwwppe Bnrbieri, tllis tallle witlt fllll-/mgtJ figllrt's al/d
can'ed decoration reflects lIe n<earwf'SS 01 tIIltiql/e SOl/rus tha'
illfllltmced Inter desigl/ers $l/dI as Perder al/d FOl/tail/e. Ht 98cIll138;;;1I.
19th-Century Furniture
1 Pe/agio Palagi desigl/t'd tJlis
dmir for tJe Etmscl/ll roolllat
Caslef10 Raccolligi, TI/rill. IS34.
Gabriele eapello r/vived tlte
ledmique of illlay. 'I'/lidl liad
complelt'ly di5nl'penred ill ltaly.
2 Fforel/ce IIIld Rome cOlllilllled
lo prodl/ce ./'Ork ill lIardsfollfS
fhrougflOl/l file J8111 (/lid 19111
Cl'lIturies. T/s ROlllnl1 fab/e top
5110<1'5 arcllifect/lral Scell6 wil]
dassical alld ruins ill
the lIIicrOlllosnic 1l'c/lIIique. 11 is
siglled "8. Bosc!Ietti. 1829."
3 Tlle pure ami f01"1/1 of tIi:;
C.lS0l mee/mllical 'ritillg dl':;k
bl' Ciol'al/lli SocdIi is 11I1

remillder of f/ie importallce of
geomelry
desigll. T1Ie dmir couid bejifteli
iJlto tJe Ifesk lo clase il.
L. 2.]1II/7fl 6'1:ill.
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N
eoclassicism developed differently in Europe:
Ven ice, Spain, and Portugal ool)' lme to it towards
the end of the 18th centurv, while Rome, Turin, Genoa,
-
and Naples e,"olved gradually towards classical forms.
The main source of design was French. Giuseppe Maria
Bonzanigo (1745-1820), the leading designer for the royal
palaces in Turin, imitated French forms of the 17705. His
training as a miniaturist carver led to exquisite decoratian
on his fumiture, generally of carved and painted \Vood.
Carved furniture - tables, chairs, commodes, and
mirrors - was both gilded and painted. Roman furnirure
continued its emphasis on bold, highly scu1pted forms,
particularly in designs by Giuseppe Valadier (1762-1839).
Roman tables had thick marble tops, typically veneered
with a gilt-bronze edging. Chair designs were amang the
first to be on a large scale and influenced Jater designs.
The centre of cabinehnaking \Vas Lombardy and the
mast famous exponent af veneered furniture was the
Milanese cabinehnaker Giuseppe Maggiolini (1738-
1814). The shapes of his commodes and cabinets
developed fram Engbsh rectangular forms, their fronb
eovered in fine pietorial marquetry. Follo\Vers such
Abbiati took these designs to Rome and the tradition nI'
marquetry continued. nto the next century.
In the 19th century the French Empire style ,-md 1I1l'
influence of Percier and Fontaine became domin.llll. llll'
Bolognese designer Pelagio Palagi (1775-1R60) .Illd till'
Venetian, Giuseppe Borsato (1770-1849) bolh worJ...l'd 101'
leading members of the Napoleonic regillh', prPlilu:ing
high-quality furniture in a disciplilll'd bul oflt:n
monumental classical style. Paolo t\h\:-.chini (b. 1789)
develaped complex decorative dfec... in 1ll.1rqllclry imi-
tating tortoiseshelt as \Vell as inlric<ltl' 1l1l'Ch,lnicill pieces.
Elisa Baciocchi, NapoJeon's sis1l'r, "t-'t up .1 royal manu-
facture in Aorence directed by 11lL' Jcan-Baptiste-
Gilles Youf, which was the tr,lining grollnd for Florentine
cabinetmakers sllch as Giovanni Socchi (17.1807-39).
SimpJified French designs wcrc gi\'en an architectural
strength, in which the wond, oflen cherry or mahogany
and decorated with ebony, was chasen for its rieh grain.
151
North Eastern European Furniture
The Netherlands, Scandinavia, and Russia
1 TIR' G""lIlf S"foll, Hasa P(H'iliOIl, 5.t'o!dcll,
do!:::igllcd b.l( LOl/i.. c. 1;86. i{'as
illspiwf b!f tlw 01 Gil/lio
ROllltlll()'::: Pa/rl::11 dd TI;. Tllcl//l"llitllrt' Wl5
exewfed by frie Olmllllrk ill lit, l"ti'lll{'
1II/lIIIIl'r. TIII' :::i,k tllbl.' in Fr,'l/eh t,l:::tl'.
2 T/js klismos dlllir ill Si/ll't,<,dl Cib
dl'Sigl/ed by N.A AbifdS'lflrd1M tlle crmm
prinec ill Alllrl/h.'1111org e/l:::!"', Dmll//lrk,
C.1790. Tlle ,t'a::: tllkt'll IfOll/l1 ROII/rlll
.(",11/ p,ili;S puNisJ,.f :li OdIe Antichita di
Ercolano Esposte, 1,55-9:1, 1fll' officillf report
01 t/u.' 'XCrlt'nlioli al Haclllfill,'//lII.
152
D
utch furniture, like German, remained consen-ati\"e
in Neoclassical design, for a long time simply adapt-
ing pre\'iolls forms by changing the ornament to more
fash.ionable antique motifs. It was 110t LU1til the J7905 that
the use of c1assical architectural SOllTces created the lin-
earit)' fOlU'td in Franee and England t\\'o decades earlier.
The cabinct on chest remained an important item for the
Dutch interior and continued to be made in mahogany
",ith Calyed decoratian. Veneered hmliture fram the firo)
of Matthijs HorrL'< in the Hague was Df l high quality,
adapting both French and English fom1s. His marquetT)'
made use DE contrasti..ng pallels of ebony and light woods.
TI1e Gustavian stvle in Sweden, so-ealled because of its
,
association with Gusta\'us m, who admired French taste,
paralleled de\'elopments in Franee. Some of thc most
important examples of Freneh GoCtt Gree funtiture are in
Sweden, where thc designer Jean Fran<;ois Neufforge
(171-1-91) was asked ta pro\'ide dcsigns for both pri\"ate
hOllses and the palaee of Drottningholm. ln 1769 the
eabinetmaker Georg I-Iaupt (17..11--8-1) rctumed h'om a
period in Paris, probably working wlder Risener, and a
year's sta)' in London, to beeome the royal eabinetmaker.
The late 18th eentllry saw the f10urishing of hml.i.hlre
making in RlIssia with lhe patronage of Catherine the
Great (1762-96). The Seottish arehiteet, Charles Cameron
(c.17.j()-1812) introduced the Pompeian st)'!e of Adam to
the royal palaces and David Roentgen eame to St.
Petersbllrg in the 17805 bringing his fine mechanieal
pieees. His innllenee continlled in the ",ork of Christian
Me\'er and Heinrieh Gambs inta the 19th eentur\'. Freneh
. ,
fllrnihlre was also imported.ln the early 19th eenhJ.ry, the
RlIssian designer Andrci Nikiforovieh Voronikhin
looked back to furniture b)' Georges jacob
but lIsed his o\\'n motifs such as intertwined serpents for
the baeks of ehairs. RlIssian eabinetmakers eontinued to
mlke pieees of exeeptional quality and variety of design
throughout the Neoclassieal period, Partieu]arly Russian
is the use of maladlite, lapis lazuli, and ivory to deeorate
fine fllmiturc, In the eity of Tula traditional teehniques of
working steel w('re lIsed in hlmiture.
-----------------------_.__
Northern Marquetry
1
1 AlnlllJijs Horrix (1735-189),
iwkillg il1 file JIngl/l'.
Nt'f/lerinllds, i/l!i't'loJlt'd lis Oil'lI
i'flrillfioll501/ '"e COIllIllOlkjorlll,
<t'/lr CIIJ<,jllg sities gmdntillg lo
tI/( cel/lml IIInrqlll'fr.l/ rolll.
1ft 1,.6111/4.11 9/.111.
2 Glfslni.'1I5 III o[ 5,1\'dell gm:.'t'
tI,;S /II;IIl'rfl! cnbilll'l lollll' prillce
lit' GlIId ill t77+. It im:.'
['11 ('lIU [rito Rl'Im nI/ti
, .
111(111('1'.11 Gl'Org Haupt. Tll/'
II1llfll"drys/ltJu'S Halljll's
clmrae!l'ristic bold d..;iS" 'l'it/Jiu
n-clausular Iltlllt'/';. TIII'/lig/-
tll/lJ/il.ll gilt-lm.m:1' /I1om/ls.
011 (n'lId, Cm;l Gn'e fimll5, ,I'at'
lI/1uk ill 51(1(kllOllII.
Russian Imagination
,
I
1 Tllt' s/ flll1g ::qmlft'llfIck /111.1 ca..xd
dl'coralitm of eI'dir, c. JS:w, 1m' tYl,iml
R/f5Sillll :i-Ilfk. Russiall "ubtll,
. ..
c/rlllgt,.i tI't' sllnpt'$ of Fft'llc1, lIIodcf:; IJlld
nddl'd ridll'r, i'tJ/dt'r dt'com/ioll.
2 Itlh' tSII,-UlIlllr!, kilillt'y-;;lml'l'd Ulltft.'
MMt' illllllil'il'(/(](i Imd l'"r"Id"'lirl, dccomfl',1
,6tlllllnrqm'fry ,/'O(lIi;; (lI1d 11101111"-
of-ltw/, tl,.' "ig/l IJlIlllity t1 RII;;;;iml
'l'tlrk. HI ijflll/:!.9 'i/l,
3 Vorvllikllill IIIl1dllJf tI/t' fllmitrm'

for P"i'lo;;k Palacl!, I/ear SI.

C.1S0j, sud/a;; tbis nJrt,t.'d, Jllillted, llIlIi
gildcd d6k dll/ir altrillllll'd lo tllt' /'arkslrop
llf KnrJ 5C!Il'iue.
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4 A ""1"1 IlIr"illll" ,','1/",,,"/111
f\"t'lillll /'Ift 11 .nlll "1/1 1''''11 "
/lU'IIIII,. '/1".1''''" l/t,' '''M/ .. /""..
"1/'11''''''111 /'"1'110' /l,f,' /1 ,',I'
1""/"1/'/11 1....,' /'11
(."/,, ..II/ 11.1/'./11 ,lw/"ill:,
111 .//
S /111 ,/11.11/ 1,,1'1t' t'l dlf,":nl
.I"lf,d '''''1,'\'''''/ /'1/ \'"",,,ik/Jill,
t "'\", 1,,,,'/.1' ',,,"l'd 1m Fr.'lId/
,II"J'" ,1/ tI,,' I"k ISt// Ct'Jltllr,ll
,/lId rf/k. t, I/h' /11"t,' t!f ti/,
,'///I'r(",' ,\ l"rill l't'tldorO'JHI.
1/1" /'ftllh',rd al tlle It'ss
il'1/" "lit' of ti/(' desio,; /lCJ" ';;

}il '1 '11rIefiu'ms,
153
Simplified Unes and New Forms
2 rile kylix IJ/ol{!tcitli Sil'flgS Of'Cflr't.'S
alld rosetlt':: 011 tIJe ::lIidd-sltnped llflck of l/lis
'nlllllt e/lnir of 1760-70 ,('ns probnbly bnscd 011
lIJe desiglls of Robert Adam. HI 95.3(III/37Iill.
3 Lnd",,' desks SUe/1 as tllis J795-181O
Sn/timore e.mlllp/e /IIndt' of IIInllOgnllY rmd
inlnid Witll sntillil'ood nlld n'dnr ,pere IleH'
forll/s 1lllle lnte 18tIJ cm/ur.'!. T/e ,it'cornlit'e
in eacIJ pallel disp/a.l' c1n::::ica/ toga-
,('0/1I('1/. Ht 15SCm/62/j1l.
4 Demi'/l1le card tnblt's <{'itll rieh/y sraim'll
t'elleers SUc/E n:; "lis O/u' of 18oa-::!o ti'ere oftm
50/d i1/ 1l11irs. TfII!Y 't're nTnllSl'd sYlIlllletricnJ(I'
i1l tlle 1'00111. HI 69.8clI1/271.ill.
3
American Furniture
, Tllt' silllp/(fi'/ filies o/ SI/mue/
Willnnfs c/(l lit/Jill,\: jrolll
Col 8::!2-30 111,' 1'1/ 11Ie
:;/mbtll o{ NI',.' 1:::110,:/1/11/1

sl'tl(ilrillli, h,' /io,;!Itfw1/sc.

\Vi/llm/'" <l'(wks/I(lJl ,l'llS ;1/
Roxllllr.ll, \!ns:'Ilc1l11seffs, /litar
13o"ttll/. D;I/II1. 75.6<111/291.;11.
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A
fter the Revolution in the 18th century, Americans
'were involved in building a new nation that they
hoped would be an ideal republic following the tradition
of Rome. EarI)' Classical Revival and Federal fumiture
provided a ne\\' idcntity that was ideall)' suited to a
yow1g nation. By the last quarter of the ]8th century
Americans had rejected the excesses of the Rococo style,
with its elaborate caIving and cunring fonns, in favour of
the crisp tines and decoratian of the Neoclassical style,
Furniture designed during this period looks light and
delicate, The slendemess and rectilinearity of chairs,
tables, and case furnihtre ofien give them a fragile or e\'en
insubstltltial appearance,
Carved ornament was supersedcd by geometric inlays
and \-eneers in exotic woods_ Mahogany or satinwood
was most favoured for hne furnihtre, but cherry and
walnut \Vere sometirncs used, while birch and maple
were New England substitutes, sometirnes stained to
resemble mahogany. Rectangles, squares, O\'als, and
bands of stringing in the rippling grain of mahogany,
satinwood, or birch enhanced the smooth, two-
dimensional appearance of this furniture, and classical
motifs such as unlS, acanthus leaves, husks, swags,
\'olutes, and the inestimable symbol of the new republic,
the eagle and shield, proclaim the style.
lmported pattern books such as Hepplewhite's
Cnbillel-Mnker nlld Up'olslerer's Guide (1788) and
Sheraton's Cnbillel-Afnker nJ1d Up/wJslere,s Drnwillg Book
(1791--:1:) did mllch to popularize classical design in the
United States. The influx of Eurapean irnmigrants
inclllded craftsmen and patrons, as weH as English and
French hml.iture, and they added huther ideas and
designs. John Aitken (fl.179G-l&.lO) and Ephraim Haines
(177S-1837) in Philadelphia, Jolm Seymour (c.1738-1818)
and Samuel Mclntyre (1757-1811) in Bastan, and Duncan
Phyfe (1768-1854) in New York were among the leading
cabinetrnakers, but many others catcred for an increas-
ingly eager and prosperous clientele.
Allhough Philadelphia and Bastan remained lhe chief
centres of fashionable fumihl.fe, Baltimore now became
155
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2 EurOpt'ntl illJllligrnll/ crafbllll'lI
brollghf he lIei<' motifs nl1d
dtosiglls o/ Ncoc/assicislIl fI'ilf,
ti/cm fa tlle LIS. T/e Seo/SI/UlII
DUllcflI Phyfe, ti/e maker o/ t/Jis
1810-25 ma}og{/JlY sideboard,
JI/ld 11J1 l'xtellsj,l' <l'or/'::;1101' iJl
N/'rt' York Gly_ Ht l52cm/59Jl.
3 TIIC SI'OllldnllmllldfJllb /11/" 18111-r"lItllrl/fllmilllrc is expr6sed
in 111i' T,'l/fl'lt 1>1/ I!/ 11'1' '((101":' I!f l/lis secretary
1........ '''01:'...
1 T/e SlIIoot/, slcl'k SlI1fllCf'S o/
enrly c/nssicnl Jl/mi/lIre were se!
off <l'iff, lIlay:; mIli ''el/I't'rs oj
exotic (lnd ll/I/Iillol/s 'I'oods. 011
l/lis ]813 desk alld /lOOkcnse from
PorlslllollflJ, New Hnmps/lire,
deconltioll is Si"
lIIallOgtlJlY ;11 rl)5eil'ooi lllld bircJ
,'t'llcers willl imry.
Cabinetwork
1

The Elegance 01 lhe Federal Style

Post-Revolutionary Seat Furniture
2
1 Aftrillllf.'d 111 Iflc' alJolm Seymollr.
,1'110Jir::>f s.'ff1c',1 jll 1\ll1ill". fllc'lI ill 805foll, tlJis
/l/ahogall.'! d,jr-/',I(k "df. 't' 1S05-1ollas
jigllrl!d birdl illlm,. HI 1O;.lnll/.p.
2 SmJIIIl!/ e1,.I", /111 illt'rprl'falioll
al tlle Grc!ek klismos cfulir, /l/lIcft> il' 80::toll ill
1808-15, ;:ms file.' jirsllit'' tlmaicml
l/mitl/re.' to IIS'l'Clllil'(I(ld /1" a
e/eme"t. Ht 8.:;(III/n,'ill"
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1 Affer tlle Americll" Re7.'O/lItioll
[llg1isfllllld COlltilll!l1/n/ desiglls
set he!ns/iol1, pnrtiCIIlnrly ill
Pllilnde/pllin. This firme/mil" 01
1785-1815 wtl/ ils
Vl1ck, doublcscoop nrms, 11I1d
contras/illg pnilllcd nnri gildcd
su/Jan.' exclllplifics bol/ Frellcl1
al/ti Britis1l 1If/lIcuces.
]-J1 92 ICIII/361.i1l.
2 Y/Jis 50fa oj IIInllOgflllY (IIlfi
bireh, IIInd(' in Snh'lII,
A!n::;Sllcllll$fffS, 185-15. is
tllIIOII,O;: lfle lI/os1 sfyli:# forms for
n riTmeiug room o/" jltlr/ollr 'I tlll'
jir;;! decndt"S of tJle 19tfl ct'llll/ry.
Ht 97.:wll/;8bu.
156
important, particularI)' for the production of "fane)'''
chairs with their attracti\-e painted decoratian, and
Salem, 1I.lassachusetts, for its elegant secretaries com-
billing a glassfronted cabinet with a pedestal desk" An
increasing \'ariety in chests of dranrers emanated from
the Connecticut Rj\"er Valley.
The Federal or early Neoclassical style was fashion-
able for a brief periodo By 1815 the shift in emphasis frem
decoration to form in classical interpretations gave rise to
the Empire style with its Napoleonic inspiration. Empire
design in the United States continued to satisfy con-
temporar}' tastes into the middle of the 19th century, in
spite of competition from other re\"i\'al styles. The French
fla\"ol1r of ml1ch American Empire fllmiture was assured
as much by the arrival in New York of migr cabinet-
makers such as Charles Honor LalUllIier (1779-]819) as
by philosophicalleanings.
In cornpal"ison to Federal furnitllre, large volume and
sculptllral ornament deri\'ed from c1assical sources
characterize pieces in the Empire style. Craftsmen made
the most of materials sllch as shiny glass, metal mounts,
and gilding to highlight bold sculph.tral omament and to
contrast with the luminous surfaces of highly polished
mahogany \"eneers. Same fumih.tre forms were direct
copies of c1assical models sud1 as the clIntfe and klis11Ios
chairs, but most often the furniture incorporated decora-
ti\'e elements sllch as caryatids, coltunns, ums, and Iyres
to gi\'e a fashionably c1assical flavour to such items as
cabinets, tables, and chairs.
Imported design books as weH as fwnitlue in the latest
European taste aU contribllted to the direct copies as well
as the hybrid expressions of the c1assical re\i\,al. The
proliferation of pattem books after 1800 affected e\'en the
smallest workshops in American llrban centres.
Napoleon's designers Pierre Fontaine and Charles Percier
published their designs in 1798. Other SOllrce material
followed: 1110mas Hope's HOlIseJiold FlIl"llitl/l'e (lIld ferior
Decoratioll (1807), Rudolph Ackermalm's periodical Tite
Repository of Arts (1809-1828), and Pierre La Msangre's
i\!Iellbles et objets de golit (1802-]835) were a11 infiuentia1.
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1 The IIl1pTl'5sh'f jo,,,, (//Id darker
I1InJlOgnllY DI Ibis secrelnry desk
in/nid tt'itll ebollY ITlld bmss, by
Josepll Bnrry, e.181O-20, are
/TUribules o/ fIJe Empire style.
Ht 167clII/65'1.;II.
2 Wlwf file ITllcimt Greeks cal/tri
n klismos eha;r vas kl/OUlllaS 11
Grecinll e/wir il1 tite lStll (lIId
191/1 celltllrics. This sirle cJ1flir
IIInde by Benjnlllill HellnJ Latrobe
of PlJilndelp/lin, 1808-10, is /lot
only n dmlllntic expressioll of
tlle snbre-legged klismos form
blll illc1l1des paillted c1nssicnl
motifs 011 tlle tabIet btJck.
Ht B1.3C111/J2ill.
1 TlIl' curuiefoTm im511
significall! desigll oorroit'f?d
from ClIltiqlfity. T/lis New York
!('rsial! by lile cabinelmaker
PI/y/e jll 1810--2D
;m:orporntcs !fU! eurule slU1pt'
jlllo /lle sirle 51lpports 01 file
eha;r. Ht B2.1CI1I/p.Y,in.
2 /tnliflll mosnic /nb/I.'tops
embodied al!l/ll1t filas nI/fique
nlld AlItllollY Querve/le
oj Philndelplria probably made
tls IIIllhogmzy tl'ipod centre table
of 1825-35 to flCCOllJIJlodnte his
clieJIt's Gmlld TOl/r sOIli'ellir.
HI 76.Scm/3oY.iJl.
Mediterranean Influences
The Impressive Empire Style
-'---------------------
1
The French Style of..;;;La,;;;,n;.;.;n,;;;,ui,;;;,er _
1 TrIe exolic sntillwood {'elleers, tlle pntillnted
doIpllin feel, nlld tire giltbrollZc mOl/llts make
t/is bed, made ill Ne1.l' York City by file Frellell
ill1l11igmllf cmftsm1l11 C/1flrles Hallar
LlI1l11l/ier, i11lpressive, HI 114CIII/45il1.
2 e/lnrles-Hollor Lall1l1lier illcorporated
gilded, willged cnrytids illto pier tnbks, cnrd
fnbles, seltees, nlld nrmellnirs, Sl/ell n$ !Jis {l1I!'
of 1810-19. P1'illted SOllrces o/ e/asio/ml 1110f if...;
were nvnilnble il1 tilc cllr/y 1901 Cl'llfll1'Y. 2
157
Materials and Techniques
Exolic Malerials and lhe Skilled Craftsman
4 Tht' sllrfaCi' 01 t!/is 1772-4
secrtair(' b!J Ll'ft'!/
is cOi't'red ,l'ifll Iligflly
e/abarate lIIarqlletry composed o[
lIIallY diffi:rellt rxofic roods alld
Jillisfll'lf witfl 01'1110/11 II/oml/s jl
the Neoclassical s/yle
H/ 1.)111/4./1 )lill.
1
3 By IIsillg II1n/lOgnl1Y 011 t//is
[llgli::II, c.zSo, ]lllrlol/l' dUlir.
[he crnftsmall could Cfl'alt' fllc
slmderlonlls popular ill the
Neoc/assica/ periOlf.
4
1 AJnhognllY plnllks JrOIll tite
Wt'Sf llldies were Chl'flP fllld
prot'ided British cnIJillelmakers
tllld can'crs wi/Il aJl ideal
/l/a/erial for good-qllfllify
tl/milllre all fypes.
2 TlEe ,vorkshop 01 Mnrtill
Carlill /linde tJlis frellc/1
/Illlsic stand mrd il'ritillg lable,
1777--85- lt illcorporales fill {N/k
carease t'cneered ill !1I1ipt'OOd"
safimPOod, Imd otlrer <l'OOds, (llld
is Jl/ollJlted titlt armo/u fllld fl
Se--llres porce1aill plnque.
Ht 78cm!]oY.ill.
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158
T
he craftsmariship and materials used in Neoclassical
furniture \Vere of the highest quality and \vere
distinguished by complex construction and often
elaborate decoration. In Britain, plentiful supplies Df
mahogany imporled !rom !he West Indies provided
furniture makers with a stable, durable, and versatile
\\Toad for constructing into every type of furniture in the
Neoclassical style. It permitted the development of
exceptionally slender frames for cabinets, tables, and
dlairs, yet provided strength.
Exotic timbers from the East Indies and South America
were also imported into Britain and Europe for use in
decorative veneers which were originally very brightly
coloured. Minute pieces were precisely cut and pieced
togcther to form complex patteros, pictures, and borders.
I\'ory, mother-of-pearl, ornamental stones, and rieh
Illl'l.lb \Vere also inlaid into ,...ooden surfaces.
I'.linlcd and japanned deeoration in the Neoclassical
... lvlL' WclS used extensively, often on softwoods, which
w,'rl' prone lo decay. Techniques irwolved laying a gesso
coating on the woad, applying oil-based colours, and
finishing the surface with varnjshes. In France and
Germany, lacquer paneIs and porcelain plaques couId be
incorporated into the surfaces of tables and cabinets as an
alternative ta marquetry and paint.
Cast-metal mounts, in bright ormolu, 01' gilt brass
,vere supplied by speciaJist fOlUlders, sometimes working
for particular designers and craftsmen. Gilding on minor,
picture, table, and chair frames continued ta be important
for luxury fumihIre. Specialist craftsmen \Vere employed
to apply gesso and gold leaf with oil- or water-based
techniques. Gilders often \Yorked in clase partnership
with glass grinders and silverers, who provided
increasingly large panels of mirror glass.
Upholstery was sophisticated during the Neoc1assical
periad, with refined techniques and materials used to
stuff and cover chairs. After 1800 the work of the uphol-
sterer became more important when elabarate drapery in
the Greek style was applied lo beds, solas, and cabinet-
\York, using rieh fabrics and complex trirnmings.
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8 T//is desigll for afour-post /k'd illd/l,h

sample materia/s. JI is by }O/III
Lolldoll nnd 8inllillghnm, 1816.
drnperies in silks nlld COf/II11S iI'ill'llllnml.'
borders ulldfrillges 1I'<:'r,' (//1 11111'11'-/1111/ f,'l/Iure
ollater Nroc1nssicnl fl/misll/lIS.s,
9 Upholstery it:cfmilll1l'S l/"or.' illr/slmft'd i"
Diderot's Encyclopcd'l' mI Diclionnaire
Raisonn des Sci<'-'IlCl''', '771. U,,/olslerers
el/lploycd sh/kd 1,'; Imll/III'S lo efl'u/e e/ubornle
511111);'5 Jor sml jlll"llillln'.
9
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5 dl'llli/ 01{/ II/I/rqlldry pal/el mm (J
IllIllWf> by TlIOII/I/'io CJipJll'lIda/efor
HI/rt'il'(lOlf Hall:>,'. Ellgland, 1773, shoil>s the
pI't'ci:,ioll I/t,t'lf('d for sI/eh illtrcafe ./'Ork.
6 /11 f1lis desigll by Rowrt Adllmfor a paillh'd
f(fblefar Lord Bntllllrst, Apsley HOIf5e.
Londoll, C.l j. tite detailed omllment
sha't'll is lypCl1f 01Adam';; iYeoc1assicnl style
fllld is perjectfy :wited lo paillted decora/ion
011 fllmitllTe.
7 Detnil o/ all ElIg/islt pembroke table,
(.1780. 01(}{/k nnri Sillimmod. TI/e table has
marqlletry illfays 01mnhogallY alld stnilled
woods, witJ bros:> }alldles Ulld plates. 5kil/ed
cahi/lefmllkillg tecJmiqllt'S, decorat;'(' tmoos,
/ll/d lIIe/a/ //lolmls produudfl/milllre il/a
feUmle NeoclassicaJ styJe.
7 __
8
1 TI,;s Sh'res iCf'-cr('fl1ll eoo/er is Jmlll a
Sl.'n'icc madI' Jor Call1aille Grcaf
c. 1 Ii 1/(/,; lypical dnssical scelll'S en
grisaiJIc a/ld applcd cal/leos, (lIId lite
jigllml/lalldlcs alld baJld oJ lt'flt'l'5 are a/so
il//iJe c/assica/lmdilioll. I-1t 231CIII/9ill.
2 TlII.' lI/t'da[Jio/ls, sU'ags, alld Gn'ek key
J!af/cl'll 011 /!lis Si:Vre5 bleu nouveau vase
al1d COi'er, mad' e.1 76,;. are all Iypical
Ht 3';CIII/13Y,ill.
3 AJormnlily oJ sfmpe call be see1/ ;11 this
Se-vres vase, e.1771, dt'coraled wiITl a bmld
oJ pllfti. Tlle ltnl1dles are simple loops alld
tlle cover is picrced Witll c1assica/
alllflt'mioJl alld Imm'l, Ht 45.7cm/I8ill,
Neoclassical Motifs
Major Continental European Porcelain
1 A Inrge 5h>res bisCllit grollp o/ lIJe
Judgement of Paris, mode/fed
by LOI/;5-5;1II01I 80;=01, C.1780. Tlie lnrge
si=e 01 ffle grollp WflS made possible by
file de-velopmellt 01IUlrd-pnste porce/nin.
111 file ]7605 Se-tlr('S grollps cOlIsisted
I/lostly o/ clJildrell, bul by lile 17805
classical tI/fmes predomillated. Biscuil
porcelaiu ,I'as polished with /mrd sIal/es
for el silJ...-yfilliSJ1. Ht 42 cm!l6V,ill.
ANew Art
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160
T
he Neoclassical style first appeared in ceramics in the
17605 when the French Sevres factory introduced
vases with a strong Neoclassical influence. Although still
painted with RocaeD subjects such as flowers, children, or
lovers, the shapes were NeoclassicaL Of depressed or
ovoid urn fonn, they \Vere symmetrically designed, the
basic shape enlivened by a wealth of moulded or applied
three-dimensional detail, including acanthus, anthemia,
rosettes, laurel garlands, guilloche, ribbons, rings,
swagged draperies, and medalJions. Sides ",ere fluted,
reeded, or gadrooned, and banded with borders of
simulated pearls, bosses, or studs, vitruvian scroUs,
Greek key pattem, or stiff leaves. Moulded handles with
overlapping leaves, Dr formed as sphinx heads, straps, or
cven female figures, "'ere applied to the sirles. Coloured
grounds, partieularly a rieh overglaze-blue (b/eu llOl/Venu),
.,ddcd to the air of restrained magnificenee.
In 1769 hard-paste porcelain was first made at 5evres,
,llld the production of large, magisterial pieces became
p<':-..... ibll'. During the 17605 and 1770s imposing biscuit
figures were made, not as table decorations, but as
rniniarure sculphirc. Throughout the 17705 classical sub-
jects were fashionable, and the art of cameo painting ",as
seen to great advantage in the great Frog service made,
1778-9, for Catherine the Great of Russia, a passionate
collector of c1assical cameos and gems, and even three-
dimensional porcelain carneos \Vere applied. Cylindrical
coffee cans replaced the traditional eup shape, and in the
17805 a new technique \Vas introduced by Joseph Coteau
(1740-1801), which combined "jewelling" in enamels
applied over coloured foils, with rich, elaborate gild:ing.
After the French Revolution, the grandiose maru-
festation of 1 eoclassic:ism - the Empire style - reflected
Napoleon's aspirations to achieve the imperial status of
classical times. In 1800 A. T. Brongniart (1739-1813) was
put in charge of 5evres. He discontinued the manufacture
of 50ft-paste porcelain. Large vases and services were
made as diplomatic gifts and for Napoleon himseU, The
Austerlitz vase, made in 1806, was copied from a Greek
kmter (a type of jar) and painted in Etruscan style with red
161
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3 TJe jl'll'dh'llltt'llll"11/ioll 0/1
IlIis Si''l'''''; f1!({.. (,111/111,1 ",/lI.a,
mnlh' elSI -,:!, dflllt' b,l!
npplyillS S[o/!lI[l''' t'l/tlIl/eI /)
Ilit-."lllIIlptd 1111'1111 {tll" )II l/u'
:'lIrf,Cl' /!J.' 1"1'', smll/ntllS
/11111 (ll/Ia jt'll't'ls.
3 The Three Graces DistTcssing Cupid i!> tll!'
tllemc of ,/lis (.1810 Paris pinte. TI/e IIIfltted
gildiJlg /5 too/ed ;,lIitlt c1fl5siCfll border pnfferJIs.
Matt, bllmislleri, mui tooled gildillg was ofte"
cOJltrnsled JI Elllpin' style. Hl 23.jCm!9'1ill.
2 Tlls IIm-sllaped Paris '(1St!, made c. J 790,
shows the simplicity 01tite Neoclnssica! style nI
i/s 11105/ jorlllal fllld res/mil/ed. TJe cOllfilll101I5
Irmdscape Scelll!, bJll"llislled gildillg, (lllri stiff
ferlt'es embrace NeodnssiciSIII. Ht. 43(111/17/11.

1 Hnrd-pnsle IlOrcdnll ,1'n5 jirst lllrodllced nI

Sfi'rl'S, ,,,IJere tlls C.17S7 coff cnll tlIld SiTl/cer
I'!.'r!.' IIItl1wfncllll'l'lt. Trie om/lll/'dnffiolls,
pnl1tt'd en gris<lille, nlld tlle /JOl'dcrs of
neantlm:; nrt! >en, ml/c/I il/ t/le
, .
c/a::,scnI5Iyle.
2 TJe gildillg 0/1 t/lis coffc/' ca/1 nlld sal/cer
is n fypicnl Nt'oc/nssicnl e1t'I111'l1t, as nre file
scro//work nlld sIHli:'dflOi/W 01/ tlle snl/cer,
'l'l,ic/, r/."$tmblcs n c/nssjml roffered c/jllg.
Border Decoration
1 Napa/eDil prescllted 11Iis $f'i'res ice-crenm
pail. frOIll fl ser..'ice /linde 1810-1812, lo
E11Ipress josep/illc as fl divorce presento Thc
Egyptiflll-sty/e pailltillg i5 bllsed 0/1 Delloll's
book 011 Egypl, 1802. HI 3D3cm!Ill/.
ADisplay 01 Historical Themes

-------------------
I
Vase Shapes Inspired by the Excavations

4
2 3
, Thc portmil of a lady is pnilltl'd 0/1 n dark gral/lid pmlf>/' n(compal/ied
'l'itJl a ricJi, bl/mi$JIl'll golri gral/lid Ol/ t/lis ptlir of t'nSl'S madI.' iJl Pars
CIS20. TIJe IWJldlt'S fo11otl' n traditioJlnl c1assicnf slmpt!. Nt '1 jCm/I71ill.
2 T/is pair of Par/s Vflses, /linde JI fhe Empire style CI83D, 15 pail/ted
with topogmpllicnl semes. Thl? humished gildillg nlld s/wped lumd/es are
typiml of i'nses of file periodo Tite sqllnre bases WI!I'l! iJlspired by lile
eXCfll'fltiolls a/ Pompej; alld Herculal/cl/III. Ht 39.jcm!IjliJl.
3 TIle pedestal,; of t}ese grem-grolfl/d mses, mnde al P(lTis c. J 82. 5. tire
al111o:>t as grand as file bodies of file pases thelllsef,f'S. Tite upright
SiCllIlS'I/I!(/d fWlldh>s are fypieaf of 'he Empin' slyle.
4 TI/e ell/1leO por/raits in profile 01/ thi:; par of blllc-groulld t'I1ses 'wen!
a populal' slIbjl.'cffor he Neoclassical pain/er. HI 33CI1l/l3ill.
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figures on a black grow1d, and represented Napoleon,
crowned with laurel and driven by Victory in a chariot.
Several porcelain manufacturers set up in Paris at the
end of the 18th century. Fine painting eH grisail/e (in imita-
tion of stone sculpture in black, ",hite, and grey) ,vas
used for tea and coffee services, and inexpensive ",ares
were painted with scattered cornflower sprays. Sorne tea
wares and vases combined biscuit and glazed porcelain
with burrushed gilding and innovatively shaped handles.
Meanwhile, in the provinces, stiffly Neoc1assical
iigures were made at Niden1iller, and at Creit founded in
1793, English-style crearnwares were printed in black
with classical scenes and borders.
During the Seven Years' War 0756-63) Saxony was
llvcrrUll by Pnlssian troops, and production at Meissen
l,11llL' ,lImost to a halt. After the ,var, the French sculptor
Villt Ir Acier was appointed to introduce "modem" taste,
111 l-i.1I11pele ,\'ith 5evres, ,vhich had reigned suprerne over
l'0fll'l,lin production during the war. Ten years later in
1771, ( IllInt Ctlmillo Marcolini was appointed director.
By the 1760s the Neoclassical style, inspired by the
excavations at Pompeii tlnd Herculaneum, ,vas becoming
fashionable. Acier designed figures and groups of naked
cupids at amatory pllrslIits, with square bases moulded
with anthemia and edged ",ith Greek key pattern.
Sentimental grOllpS of lovers and drildren sat on Neoc1as-
sical chairs or by classical urns, and their oval bases were
moulded with borders of vitruvian scroUs or gadroons,
gilt to rcsemble Louis XVI ormolu mounts.
Throughout Germany shapes of tablewares adapted to
the new style, with pinecone, artichoke or, impractically,
laurel wreath knops. Um-shaped vases had rams' -head
and mask handles, and architectural gadroon borders
were popular on flat \Vares. By the 1780s cylindrical
coffee cans had replaced bowl-shaped cups across
Europe. The oval mcdallion was a popular shape for
reserved panels, with tooled borders of flat gilding
enclosing monograms, silhouettes, or profilc portraits,
which gave an il1usion of framed miniatures hanging
from a bow or floral garIand.
------
Maslering lhe Medium - The Skill of lhe Modeller
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3 This Marco/in; Meiss/'Il figure
ofCupid, modelled hy Michel
Victor Acia e1775, !Ins n
c/nssica/ eoll/1Il11 Mead o/ a
Rococo free /nmk. Thi' pale
c%l/r pnlette, fIJe recftlllgll/l1r
base, Iilld !Ie slIbject epitomise
Ncoclnssical seI.'crity softelled by
SCJltilllell/. HI14.7CIIl/S'!.iIl.
3
From Curves lo Angles
111
1 TI/e Neoc/assica! Inste for mytllOlogical
chamcfers clln be serll iJl !lis lvJeissclI figrlre
grOl/p, C.1765, 1/lDugh it sfill shows /IIIW!!
e/ell/ents 01 Rocoeo.
2 Morlelled by Micl1e! Victor Acier (/lid Jollmll1
Cad ScllOlllleit, tllis nllegoJ'icnl MeisscJl gral/p,
lIIade C.177.f, reprcscnts The Test of Lon'. It
shows he lovers [I a Neodnssicnllll"ll Olla
pedestal, ll11d he gndroollcd base Itas rep/nced
/lIe Rocaca racky I/1Dlll1d. Nt jOcm/19Y.ill.
1
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4 TlJis Berlill bisClIit grOllp of Frederick tite Gretlt, /IIndc C.1780, SIIOWS
lJiIll IIIOlll1fed 011 !Jo/'seback likc a c/assicnl elllpero/'. Tlle whitc JlIIgla=ed
porcdaiJl SllOi{'S fIJe sClllpt 11m! rlInlity of tlle grollp. Ht 355clII!l4i1l.
1 TiJe allgular Imudlt, 011 /!lis Ma/"co/in; Meisscll chocolate ClIp w;tll
COi'er (lI1d sal/ce/", /IIade C.1775. /lO longa 1m:; tile :;ilI1101I:; ClIrucs of/he
Rococo. The grypllOlls (I/"e c1assicnl, as arc fllc clltil'illed garJallds.
163
The Reslrained Decoralion 01 German Porcelain
3
I
3 Tlfis Frallkent/m/ coffec en" l/lid saucer, madI'
1785,1/(/5 ;"itial:; witIJill ri/IIlOl/I'd II1cdafliOllS
nI/ti n S(alterillg offlO<I'l'rs. /'0111 of iPl/id, are
fypical NeoclassiCll/ eleml!lIts.
211,c decoratiOll of t/,;s Frallkclltlml coffee ((111
nI/ti 5111/Cer, e.IJ80, ;$ rl'Stricled almost
excll/si'ely lo lile central/m/le/ of ti lalldsmpe.
Galle is lile extra<.'tTgallce of /lit! Rococo style.
2
1 A FrankellthnJ coffee cml tllld Sllllcer, 1JI(lde
1775, SllOWillg the skill of fIJe (lrtist. t'ho
ercnlen a trolllpe roei! cllgraping of ti
lalldscape pillllcd fa ti it'OOdell board.
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Naluralislic Painling
1
1 A Viemltl Olml trny, paillten in
1809 i{1jtJI ti bnskd ojflowers by
Josepl1 Nigg, delllal/s/mlcs file
tel1dellcy lo tren! l/le ;ol'ce/aill as
ti CllI1vas 011 w/lich fo ll1illt.
lit 42(111/16'/,;11.
2 TI,;s Ber1ill tIl'o-ltnl1dled
Aliillc/lller 'nSt', ill a tYJ'ical
s/IflJ'l'. is pnillfed
Cl,ifll IO/lOgrap/lienl l'ic'I'S oj
&'rJiIl 0/1 n ridl reddisJI grol/lld.
HI
164
At Frankenthal, a leading German factory, fine,
detailed painting oE allegorical or mythologicaI subjects
after French. engravings "vas seen on solitaires, djellllers,
and tte-{-ttes - tea and coffee sen' ices for one or h\'o
peopIe on a n"latching porcelain tray - th.e last providing
an unusually large and flat surface for the porcelain artist.
The Empire style, which dated frcm around 1800, was
by no means confined to France, and its effects were felt
aH over Europe. TIle cylindrical coffee can becarne flared
at the rim and was supported on three gilt lion pa\V feet.
Borders of simulated pearls appeared, as did high
euning gilt handJes in the shape of swans' necks and
dragons' hcads. Gilding \Vas bumishecl. to a brassy
brightness, matted, bronzed, or engraved for decorative
effect. The rapid growth of the middle classes provided a
market for single, superbly painted cabinet cups, as
opposed to the Imge dinner services ordered by the
ilristocracy, and by the 1820s and 18305 improved travel
links fllrther stimulated th.is market by providing a need
fm high-quality sOllvenirs of holidays and tours to the
beallty spots and spas of Europe. Ovoid or bell-shaped
tea and cofEee wares became fashionable, and milk jllgS
and coffee pots took the form of classical e\Vers.
The icy white porcelains of the German Berlin and
Austrian Vienna factories proved an ideal background fer
highly skilled, precise, detailed miniature painting. Now,
under the intluence of Friedrich Wilhelm III (1770-1840),
the Berlin factory produced Berliller Vedllle1lpor:ellnll,
exguisite topographical city views of unsurpassed
guality. Flowers and portraits were also painted with
minute naturalistic detait against grounds that inc1uded
a brilliant Prussian blue, black, and buff.
At Vienna, Konrad Sorgel ven SorgenthaI was
appointed director in 178-1, and so committed was he to
Neoclassicism that in 1792 his master modeller, Anton
Grassi, visited Reme to assirnilate the forms of excavated
Roman artifacts. Riell plates with coloured grow"lds and
elaborate borders \Vere painted with scenes aEter Angelica
Kauffmann, and spectaclllar plaques, vases, and trays
were painted with flowers by Joseph Nigg (ji. 1800-1843).
---- --
Richness al Colour and Gilding
---- -- ~ ----,
1 TlIe pnlmdlt:s 0/1 I i ~ Ikrllll
mbinet ClIp nlla Sal/ca, c/S r),
mode /llore pral/Dl/Ilad by I/h'
strong pillk gral/lid C010IlT, are
(/ popular Ncoclassicalmotif.
nI'lor/ll oj ti/e ClIp, sittilIg 01/
(/ pedestal ool alld wil/ (11/
uprigllt /GI/dle, are typicnl
classical sl/apes.
2 This C1815 NympllclIbllrg
mal! blue-grolllld cabillef ClIp
nlld sal/cer was paillted by
Christiml Adlcr <vitll a portmit
01 Crowll Pril1ce Ludwig DI
Havaria, Al/sIria.
3 A C.ISI) Berlin gold-grolllld
coffce seroice, wllie/I is fooled mld
has bllT1lished gi/dillg lo g/ve il a
brillirmt fi/lis/. Tfe pedestal cel
(lila erect hand/es are fypical 01
Neoc/assicislII.
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Elegance al Style and Simplicity al Shape
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1 A c.I8IO Berlill t<va-ltalld/ed
eDlI/memora/ive Vlise, witl1
brollziJlg {llld gldillg, applied
with biscl/it projile bllsts oJ
QlIeell Lollise oJ Russin nlld /1l'r
childrell. T/e shnpe oJ /he VI/SC
was illspired by 1ft/' c!nssimllll"Jl.
nl1d t!u: swngs nlld Sil'lI/l-SJIIIJIl'
!/l/lIdles are Neoclnssiml
efemell/s. Nt .8.5cm!19V,ill.
2 Devoid 01 decoration, willl Illc
cxccptioll 01 tlle si/ISIt' Si/l/IIIIIII,
l/lis coJJct' [1011111;; II"II/Y
Ncoc!ns;;iclI/ ;;Im!!(' - witll 11
pedestal 1001, 11Jl'iSIt I 1111 lidle,
cleSl/II1 sJw/ll, alid ji11 ial kllob.
1 2
165
2 TIIf! /I/illimo/isl e/egallCl' of 1111' .;.tylc cml be ';'t'/!II 011 IlJis
C. 1790 IVedg,l'Ood al'a111 il'/I1',' 1///",','11 111 II 1/t'Jlrc:,:''d //1"1/ siln}'/!. Tlle
borders ofpn/melles {'dIO IfUN'fmll/tI 011 Crc!'k pnsl's. Ht 16.6clII/6Y,ill.
1 Tltis IVedg<l'ood Crenl/IlI'nre snlnd bowJ frolll lile Frog ser>ice ,I'I1S
mnde jor Cntheril/e file Crenl c.J 778-<). The l}(/ill/illg en grisaille
al/d gndroollt'd borde,.s nre Neoc/assicn/ e/emellfs. IV. ]1.5CIII/12,/il1.
Restrained Neoclassical Decoration
English Pottery and Porcelain
1 111." ..",., "1 11/1' \\",1,""'.1.,11
(", /1',''/'' /"'I/,'nll
.1',/,,', ,1' ,/,',111/./',/1,'" /1" .. /1111/
'I,4d 1111/'/'" r;':', S;, h
I'Ithl.II,' ,//111,1' 11/" .. /,'11111 jfOlII
/1"./"", /,,./mll .. /.. '''"II/''''
1",' """/S" 111/,1 "'/u/l/III
,l /11,11111/" I,'I/l"'':' di':'l'/fl,ll
N,'", 111... /1111 il/f/I/I'I/'.
2.\ "'I"Odlld"1I 1111
illll .. l/alitlll.!iwlI tI,e IVedg,"ood
"',/1/1il'"f,' flll' /i'rl/ book for
'7./ ..lmil';; sfrollg Neoc1as:,ical
,'{,'II/,'III$ SIlC" 115 the pilleapple
fi"ifll, 'he cmfml Iml slmpe
dl'cornted ,Jitll gndrool/s alltI
//Io//1dt'd fesfooJls, (lIId tlle
Ol'ernil sYllI/lletry of file shnpe.
Moulded and Pierced Neoclassical Decoration
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166
T
he ceramic genius of the Neodassical age was Josiah
Wedgwood (1730--95). He refined the Staffordshire
cream-coloured earthenware (or creamware) to meet
demands of the expanding middle class. In the 17605, he
achieved a pale, thin body by adding Cornish cIay and
china stone to rus Queen's ware. Large services were
made, and in the 17905 nautilus shell shapes were intTo-
duced. TI1ey ,vere sparsely painted \vith borders of bell-
flowers, egg and dart, anthemia, and bands of leaves in
Neoclassical style in sepia, green, or blue. vVedgwood
also developed pearh-vare to create a whiter earthemvare
in 1779. More white day and flintwere added to the body,
together with cobalt oxide, which gave the glaze a bluish
linge to create the illuson of whiteness. It was painted in
llllderglaze-blue or coloured enamels, and paved the way
for Ihe blue-printed earthenwares of the 19th century.
lIt..' next developed a hard, fine-grained black stone-
\\'.1l'L', known as "black basaltes." Trus material had a
ilnd lustre that made it ideal for the crisp
dd,liling (lf ilpplied moulded satyr heads, laurel swags,
medallions, and rams' hcads on vases. Jasperware, a fine-
grained white stoneware capable of taking a mineral
oxide stain in shades of bluf, green, yellow, lilac, and
black, was de\'eloped by vVedgwood by 1775. Other
Wedgwood "dry bodies," as they were called, incIuded
cane\vare, a bllffcoloured stoneware, and rasso antico,
inspired by Roman tara sigillntn (Samian ware).
The Chelsea-Derby factory, formed when vVilliam
DlIesbury of Derby purchased the Chelsea factory in
1770, produced porcelain vases in classica! style. Dessert
services \vere also made, painted with festoons and
husks, lIT1ls, Greek key patteTll, and classical subjects el!
grisni/lf!. At the end of the century, the Derby factory made
vases in classical ovoid, um, and ewer shapes. Figures on
canted square bases, similar to their contemporary
Staffordshire earthenware cousins, also appeared at the
same time. Derby tablewares were the height of elegance,
with tea services based on contemporary silver shapes.
Military, naval, flower, bird, mythological, and landscape
scenes were shown against pale yellow, pink, salmon,
New Materials fmm Wedgwood
Restrained Dry Bodies

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1 Tlts \'cifgil'OOlf J'Cl/I'1WI/I"
Vol/gIl poi. am' 011/ II/lir IIIU'//'
c. J 790-1800. is fl typiCIII
Neoclnssicnf 11m slltlpt'. T/t'
gndroollS a/lti Sil'l1gS aTt'
cOI/traste(( iu <,,/life agaillsl fIJe
dark gral/lid. Ht 3
6cm
/l..ill.
2 COi.'l'red <'itll n porplyry gla::t',
t1lis e.t 775-85 I\'('dgrl'ood ,'ase
is made of wllite terrncotta
stollL'tmre alld applied 'l'itlt
gilded rl/iefs. Ht 30.5CIII/12ill.
3 Made frOIll d{ffeTl.'1I1 C%llmf
/l/arbhf c1ays, alld 1I10lfllted 011 a
/l/arb/e plintlt, fllis c.177
0
-/5
t'tt:::e Ims SIIf1I'S' Itead
, .
Imlldles t/mt 1?IIIl11afe n c1assicnl
$lolle origillal. Ht :q.2cmho'b1l.
1 l'1/cdg<I'OOd'S PegaslIs mnde
ojjaspeJ7mrc C1786, s!Jo;:s tfle
rhe Apotheosis of Homer. T{e
bluf' colol/I' is afiell associnled witll
H'l!dgll'ood. NI 46clII/18 ill.
2 Altllougll I!lis I'\'cdgwood
CfllleWal'(' fl'flCllp (/lid
/linde (.1790, s!Jows n hin! oj
cltilloiserie, lIefluf('(f sities {lnd
/"/!slmined, cool colo/lrs are
typiCfllly Neocfnssicnl.
3 Tlle red m/d Nack CO/OIIT:; 01
tlzis rosso mltieo ,"se, /lUId/'
(,17
8
j, U'l!re iJspired blf Romml
Snlllinll mre. The relie!
decomfioll s bnsed 01/ Egyplinn
tesigll:;. Ht )l/cm/l2/i1l.
Classically Inspired Figures
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1 Tltis 1\'('dgtl'OOd MarI.:
bllst Jlw 1I/",.:.,'I'.'\l"T
of tIJe gatis, ,/W" II/1f,{- ill tll' I,/t"
18th Ct'lItfln" 'I..:.III ....
. .
,l'('re a 1/(lpuMr ,.:.///l{''j
2 A 0..,./11/ .'\mlll', ill
bi:'Cllil, 01' 1111.'\111:1''/ '/'''1/''
Imrcdll/ll, I hl' Ilm..",-'
Gran'.. Dt.,llt..... IIl.; (IIJlU.l,
/lf/a 'I'/JiIlJ/II.":' /'u '\/I.'\d,,
J":IIIIf1/llIllI. il'/IO i/'cWJ",'" /1/1111'
111\, IIlIgIII::cd
Il)fO'llIill ,{,' ofa
IIIi11/'0III/"(' 1111/ rhll' 111pi 11 re.
111 ::'::'.l}ulI/cill,
3 'flie 11It.":'0l'histicated work uf
:-'Ol/wf
n
ctori6 call be seell ill tllis
C. / 775 Challlpioll 's 8r;stu! figure
of Autumn,from (/ sel of the
Scasons. Ht 25,5CIII/1O;11.
167
U1i1i1arian Wares
3 A Flighf tVorcesfer plate from
f}e Hop sen'ice was made for
t}e DI/ke of Clarellce C.179D-9l.
TlIe SlIbtlled c%ur sclleme
emp/lasizes l/le Neoc1assical style,
as does f/e borde/' of paterae nl1d
flJltes nlld file c1assica! figure ;11
file cell/re. Dilllll. 24.6(1II/9'1.ill.
2
2 N,'l' Hall /IIade alis sen'ice
C.1795-8o iVilh sparsely scattered
flower sprigs iJl IJe style oj
col1telllpornry textiles (l1Id n
creoll! jl/g ill t!le sllope 011111
illV/!rteri c/a5sicall1e!lIIet -
e/emell!s typicnl of lile factory.
1 TI/e SI/tl/III.-.' WII/billo/ mI !Ir
gi/t lill.' olld I'jl yrlllkd
InlldsCllI"'s l:ll ....lilk
cmbdli:;/,,'" 1/1,' "ill"'/ lII"p;",'1I
"M'u' 011111" "'//1/1"> (!IUj, (. 799
ka .;,',..p;(,' /11/ Spo'/,-, IV. (/'fllw/,
1/1/l/l/ft' lo "pout) ,/clII!lOf.iJl.
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2 The renlislic /nlldscnpe 011 t/lis
vase S/IOWS a faste for lIafllralisfic
pnilltillg. Tire vase is 011 n
lIlarbled base, relllilliscmf of
c1assical vnses. HI 25CI1l/10;11.
3 Tllis Worces/er jug frOIl/ tI,e
Barr, Ffig1lt & Barr factory, made
C.lSlO, sllows a renlistic pailllillg
of shells typicn/ of file periodo
Tllcy are sel agaillsl a paillfed
background tlml simulates
c1assicalmarble.
Ht 2S.5cm/llV,ill.
.'
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1 TI/e I/ovette10'111 oj tllis S11l1ce tllreell, madI.'
C.1797-1800 af Derby. was a popular
Neoc/nssical s!mpe, (/s wer/! lIJe ear-slmped
JltlHdles. rile /lIwtiCllI 5celle 'lilas paillted 011 a
brig/l! yellow grolllld. Tureell w. 23.5CIII/9'1.;II.
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and blue grounds, and dessert services had fashionable
fruit comports and urn-shaped ice-pails or fruit-coolers.
In 1768 William Cookworthy, a Plymouth chemist,
made a formula for hard-paste porcelain. It was imperfect
and the PIymouth factory foundered. In 1770 the BristoI
factory 01 Richard Champion purchased the Plymouth
formula, and soon the Neoclassical style emerged. Tea-
wares and dessert wares were painted with swags of
husks or flO\"lers and medallions painted en grisaille, and
a number of figures were made. The Bristol hard-paste
patent was sold to potters at New Hall in Staffordshire in
1781. They produced. tea and coffee wares. The Neoclas-
style was interpreted in helmet-shaped cream jugs
t1nd urn-shaped coffee pots with simple decoration.
Other faetories using a hybrid hard-paste induded
\Vorccster, Miles Mason, Coalport, and Davenport.
SlInpk teawares of spirally fluted form were decorated
with gilt sprigs, and borders banded in underglazeblue.
\ Ittll' Jalcr wares moved into the full-blown Regency
t.l ... ll', with vlses based on c1assical um shapes and
painted with topographical views, f1owers, and aUe-
gorical scenes, along with shells and feathers. TIley \Vere
set against grounds realistically painted to simulate grey
or black marble. Bumished gilt handles \Vere shaped and
borders of simulated pearls \Vere added by hand. New
shapes such as cabinet eups were designed in French
Empire style. The Chamherlain's Worcester factory made
similar wares of outstanding quality, while the Coalport
factory produced vases, and dinner and dessert services.
The greatest development of the period was the
Staffordshire potler Josiah Spode's c.1799 invention of
bone china. He added bone ash to the standard hard-
paste formula, making a strong, highly translucent, white
body, whieh served as an exeellent mediurn for tea and
coffee services, as well as f1atwares and vases.
The new technique 01 bat-printing, by wmch stippled
engravings on copper plates were transferred onto
porcelain, was especially suited to the Neoclassical style.
Subjects included mythological scenes, country houses
set in parkland, and scenes of mothers and children.
----_._-------------------------------------------,
Mythological and Dther Figures
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The Peak 01 Regency Neoclassicism
1 Al! ElIglish poftery blllt'-lllld-w/lile //len'
disil, made c.18;w, prillted vil/ Greek figure
salles illspiren by nncien! lJases.
2 Tllis pair of c.18oo Stnffordshre porcelaill
bough pols Wfl5 pain/en tuirl, nllegorical scelle5
Di c/assical figures represen/illg Agriculture
and Commerce. Nat only (lre Ihe lofty
sl/bice/s Iypical o/ c/nssical art, but file D, DI'
lJlllette. sllflpe ~ II/:,U r..:j1l!cIt'if iJl LOllfelllpllr<iIY
ltlbies,jall/igllts, lIlln plnsterwork.
Ht 2ocm/f.iIl.
3 Tlts C/mmberlaill's Worcester chocolate Cl/p.
CenltT, al/n stl/lld, mane C.ISOj. is pnillted uillt
ti NeocJassical scelle depictillg Hope Nursing
Love. TI/e lJiglt-IIIillded sl/bjcef is l/O/ WitllOlIt
n nasll 01 EI/glish scmtilllt'l1fnlity (l/In reflects
file slyle Di Bnrf%z ellgnwillgs after
Allgelica Kmiffmalll/. ClIp Jf 12C1II/41.ill.
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1 T/,;s c..1S1D Coa/port tea serpice is paillted
witli a typical Eng/ish armorial, but ti/e higlJly
decorative backgroulld o/slripes is ti/e epitome
of tlle Regeney versioll o/ Neoc/assiciSIlJ.
2 Oue o/o pair 01 Maso,,'s irol/slolle /J/lIe-
grol/lld lorge uases alld COl't'rs, C1S20.
AltIlOl/gI/ vases were o Neoclossica/ orlll,
t/lis olle is in cllilloiserie sty/e. Ht 54CIII/21'/,ill.
169

ther European Pottery and Porcelain
Early Northern European Neoclassicallnfluences
1 Thi:: SiI'l'di::/1 pnir DI
\ laril'l'Crg <'fijes, e.1785. /linde
I'tnr/{':m.'. T/1t1! an' similar fo
(ollll'lIIpornry IVedgi('OOd ,'I1$'S.
T/t' 111"1/ :i-lmJe, enr /lIl11dles,
1IlC1l1ld'd /l/edal/iolls, I1I1d
/1lI:,k :;il'llgS II/aki' 1111 illlposillg
l/fte/pl! IWIIIIJ/c lIIatcrinl.
JII '0'5(111/16ill.
2 J\ COPl'II}IISt'lI ict'-C/wlIl1 coolel"
fmll/lltl' F10rrl DlIl1icn $t'l""iCt"
1II11/'.fllr el/lllaillt' /f ol RlIssin
C.l ;89-1 SO;!. /1 disJllays lhe
IIr"(:;.e /'olmj(ll "',Irlto ofjlO\',
lmilf/illS tIJa! i"l'<l"
dllrillg /111' St'l'I,:lllssiCd/ ,'TIl. Ench
pitu m:: 1'l/lIft'1 ictll tT
jlC:1t{W. HI 26.5(1I//l0Iill.
3 ns SI. r":,s/"lo.\ .-l/p
fllld Sfll/Ct'r, IIIlldl' C. '790,
/5 pniJlfed ,l'itll pt'lIsa,,'s in
fmdititlllnl (o:'lllIIlt'. Tflt' /lmu1
01dt'comliOlI nlld nl/SI/lnr
IlfIlld/c", nn' I/,oclfl:,:,icn/ly
illspirt'd. /-/t 5'5clIl/n.
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T
he Marieberg factory was the only S\vedish faience
factory to adopt the Neoclassical style, under the
regime of Henrik Sten (1769-82), after which the factof)'
was sold to Rbrstrand. The famous "terrace vases,"
modelled as urns surrounded by a curving staircase, were
often transfer-printed or painted with classical tropllies
eIl grsaille, although the design was still Rococo.
However, by the 17805 ovoid uros were of classical shape
with high earshaped handJes, mouldcd with husk gar
lands and oval medallions hanging from ribbon bows.
The most celebrated of Scandinavia's porcelain
achievements was the Flora Danica porcelain service of
illmost 2,000 pieces, made in 1789 for the Empress
Ciltherine of Russia, and painted with different Danish
llo\\"ers, capied from engravings by Georg Christian
OL'dcr.ln sorne respects it was still in the Rococo style, but
in thers it ernbraced Neoclassicism with its pierced and
... lllddL'd gilt borders and centrepieces of flower-filled
h,hl.-ds ... llnding on rectangular pedestals, each wilh a
h\ll'dl'1" uf (."I<1ssical scrollwork eH grisnil/e. Moreover, the
delicacy Df the detailcd botanical specimens threw the
rational light of scicnce anto the pure white porcelain, a
style already populnr nt Derby, Vienna, and Berlin.
In Russia, the patronage of the Empress Catherine lent
impetus to the imperial factory in St. Petersburg. In the
1760s the factory \Vas producing wares in the Neoclassi-
cal style, notably dinner services for the empress and a
service for her adviser count Grigory Grivozovich Orlov.
This featured rectanguJar handles and gadrooned gilt
borders, \\"ith applied swags of green laurel leaves, with
the count's monogram enclosed within gilt oval medal-
lions, or flanked by laurel and palm branches. At the
private Gardner factory, founded by an Englishman at
Verbilk.i, near Moscow, in 1767, a spectacular series of
sen-ices \Vas made between 1117 and 1783 for the annual
gala dinners of Russia's four supreme awards. These had
moulded. borders of vine and laurel garlands.
Classically inspired table sen-ices dominated Russian
production and, under Czar Alexander 1 0801-25), the
Empire style became paramount. particularly to be seen
Neoclassical Motils
1 Gnrdllcr /IIf1de fJis pinte, Cl77 ,S. 1/"
par! o/ ti 5er<,ice jor tlle Order oI 5/. Gn1t;\,l'
tfu' Orngoll Slayer. lt 5110<1'5 ti RlIssillll
illfl'rprdalioll of ti/e Nrocins,sicnl sil/k. il'ill,
. .
lflC ~ { / l t / l impiJl\, ribboll of ti/e arder elfi/'ilh'd
~ ~ .
,;tl, afo/inh' garlrmd. Diam. :J.-lCIII/9/i1l.
2 TI/e IlOrlrnils iJl t111.' lIIedalfiOIlS f1mt make
IIp parlo/ tite 1Jordl'f muf lit!' Iroplljes 0/111'/115
01/ this pltlll' are sfrictly c1assical in illflm'I1Ct'.
Ditllll. 24CIII/91;1I .
Later Norlhern European Developments
1 This CopeJllmgl'1l p/RIt', made c.l8]5 <l'ilh elabora/e all-ow Ilecorntioll,
sllolt's II [lite/lol'erillg o/ Sroclm;sicislII. Tlle silllll/aleri mil/ro 1II'I.llIl!ioIlS
p,oz,jrie lile 011/.11 c/assica/ a/fllsioll. Dialll. :1Ocl1l/8ill.
2 Paillted il/lIle studio o/ P,i"ce YI/sopa, o/ RlIssia, l/lis C.1S2j-7 FopOl'
plate !las a rose after Redollt. Tlte ill/lllellce 01 tIJe Frellc/I EII/pire slyle is
SCCIl ill lile brmlisfled llOrders (l/Id laurel/capes. Dialll. 22cm/S/,izl.
3 A portrnit olC::.ar Nicho/as / of Rl/ssia appears 011 tlJis c.181O-1j
Cardl/(,/" ClIp alld sal/cero Por/mifs ((Iere popular 111 tlle Nl.'oc/assicnl era.

Figurallnspirations
1 TlIis Gardl1l'rjigllre grOl/JI
o/ MOlljiks.lllade c. 1860,
delllollslrntes file sta/ic poses
I1lld plaill 0,'111 /Jases t/a/ benr
50lllC Inst l'cstiges o/ fIJe
Neoclassicnl sty/e. Gel/re
grollps <1'('1"1:' poplllar ill
mid-19tll-cclltlln RlIssia.
Ht 24C111!9:1i1l.
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171
1

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3

2 Tit:; par 01figure:; 01j1oi{'er

sellers frolll tlle ltaliall Doecia
fami/y, Cl??j, S/IOWS 1/OIIe of
he drama al earUer Rocoeo
figures, alld tiltir pnle sprigged
efol/les are '1uietly restrailled.
Ht 14 elll/j'l.ill.
3 Tltis Naples plate is from tite
creo/al/ese seroice. /IIade c1781-l
a:; a gift frOIll Ferdllalldo IV to
hislafher, Carla /11 ofSpaill. T/u:
celltrepieee was sl/I'J'ollllded by
biswt representatioll;; of tlle
latest arclteological finds ni
HercllfallelllJl. ami Ule central
figllre is illspired by olle al tite
excm,mted <twlf paintings.
Dialll.2jCIII{10ill.
1
1 A Le NOlJe grollp 01 Herwle;;, /IIade C178o-90, wllicll gives tile
illlpressioll 01 a efassicn/ sclllpfllre in its slIbject, the COIIllIllI;;, it;; /nck 01
CO/Ollr, alld tlle Lnti" inscTiptioll "11011 plus ultra." Ht 26.jcm/IoI:iJl.
Italian Neoclassicism
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in richJy gilt and burnished borders with c1assical motifs,
and solid colour bandings.
Perhaps surprisingly, Italian porcelain makers were
sIo\\' to adopt the Neoc1assical style. The Capodimonte
factory was fOllilded in 1743 by CarIo m, King of Sicily,
just olltside Naples, and it produced 50ft-paste porcelain
made with clays from Fuscaldo in Calabria. Early \vares
\Vere in the Rococo style, and it \Vas not until CarIo ID
succeeded to the throne of Spain in 1759, and the royal
factory was revived in Naples betvveen 1773 and 1806 by
Carlo's son, Ferdinando rv, as the Fabbrica Reale
Ferdinandea, that the NeocIassical style became de
rigl/el/r. First based at Portici, and Iater in the Royal PaIace
in Naples, the factory produced services for dinncr,
coffee, and tea. Pieces \Vere painted \vith classical ruins,
landscape scenes, and figures in peasant costume. Sorne
llniqllc jugs were made with trefoil spouts in the form of
Greck oil1ocJlOe, or wine jugs.
One of the most important Naples services was that
nllllmissioned by Ferdinando rv as a gift for his father,
CarIo of Spain. It \Vas thc first service to be produced by
Dornenico Venllti \Vhen he becarne director of the factory
in 1779. Venllti was the son of an archaeologist, and had
been the general sllperintendent of antiquities for the
City of Naples. He \Vas a champion of the NeoclassicaI
style, as seen in the ruins of Pompeii and HercuJaneum,
and he brollght a realism, but also a heroic theatricality, to
his designs. The decoration of the service was executed in
stippIed styIe by Giacomo Milani, director of the Galleria
dei Pittori, and Antonio Cioffi, formerly a painter at the
Capodimonte factory. The centrepiece took the form of a
biscuit grOllp of Carlo ID encouraging his son to continue
with the excavations. Classical figures in glazed and
biscllit porcelain were made under the auspices of Filippo
Taglione, director of the unlikel)' sOllilding Academ)' of
the Nude, founded at Venuti's suggestion.
Another major ieoclassical senrice was made at
Naples in 1787 for George mof England. Known as lhe
Etruscan sen'ice, it was painted with scenes in red and
black, copying early Etruscan vases.
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3 Tllis NyoII tray. /IIade e1780.
S/IOWS 1111: l/se (Jf IlIIsk
garlllllds nI/ti gildillg. cOIII/Jlled
with a borda ofjlowers ill cool b/lle
camaieu 01/ a simple circlllar 511tlpe.
TIle balllster::.ltnped mifk jllg is
pnillted mld gift 'itll rmlllillg
fretil'Ork mld garfmlds, al/d a celltml
cirCIIlar enrloue/le depicl illS a tia,,!,,
wil/ 1111 011101'0115 il/5Cripfioll. Tllis
sl/Iall S,pissjacfory SIfCCesSjll/ly
e/llbraced Ifle Nl'OClassical style.
Tray djam. ].l.7cm/1];;;II. jllg
lit 18.5clII//;ill.


') i?
i .
j
1 TlU! c1llssicnJ O<lQid sJmpe
is l/sed for !le body o/ tlJis
DII/el1 ,'ase, /linde ni Loosdrl'cll
C.lS2-''. Flf/II/boy(mt lIloll/rled
mili':; lt('tld "(Inri/es 1I(1<,c bf.'ell
flJlp[ierl - n,est! are n reCllrrellf
lIIolif ill clnssicnJ nrc1/itectllrt'
(I11/111l'corntioll. Ht 1.5C1/1/ill.
2 Tllis /1011'1. coper, (lIId sla/lti
el1lbmces Neoc1assicism, wit/, Ihe
en graisalle decora/ioll depictillg
alltiqllt' figllres, tl'e l'ag/e-slmped
kllop. al/d ear-slul1'ed mlldles.
3 T/Jis Nrodassienf But'1l Reliro
'{'illt' g/ass riJlioa ims madI.' ill
Spajll el o. /1 rdil's 011 pnjllfl'd
decomIiOIl, 1101 /01"111, for a
Neo(/assiml effl'ct. Festoolls (JI
coJolII't'd jlOitWS. sl/spel/ded l/y
ribllQJI 11001'5. 'ere a CO/ls/ml/
tllemt' to,('t1rd:< ti/e elld of tlle
18tJI untun,. L. 25"II/1oill.
3
1 Parf o/ n c.1790 Doen coffer
seruice. Tl1e slIgar Im:;ill Ims n
depres:;ed l/m slmpe ami mI
IIpstnlldillg rillS as (1 klJop - all
e.mmple 01 Neoc1l1s:;icnl /orll1 1101
fOl/o<.jllgfullctioll. TI/e pailltillg
is typicnJ oj the Neoclnssicnllot,1.'
01n mOllocl,rome paJel/e.
2 This e.1785 Fiirslellberg vaS('
s}ows tlle nngu/nl" uprighl
Jlfllld/t>s fypicnl o/ file periodo
E<,cll lile finjnl is 01ereel
slmpe. Tlle opoiti 'flSt'
sflllpt' js perfect/y bafaneen al/d
softelled by n lIIoulded circular
pallted meda/liOIl Iml/gillS from
n rihbal/ bo1l'. HI 39.5clII/151,il1.
An Exploration 01 Form
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Foreign Influences and American Ornament
American Ceramics
1 1Vit1l lb (11/,,\/1,.. /11 dll /l"//
'111/1'1111111.1/ ,... 1/I ...",-/'li /1I11/
'\/11"//11/11"- d<'Jli, /,'" /"('dil'flrt'
/'S'II'- r'l " /I.lf So!tmJI!
/d', \ .'i;I.I\I'!I'... /a, \lilxillin,
m 11./'/ .. " ...'_ lit 16(111/6/111.
2 11"1111.1 I'rlllrf/,,f jllS::' ,l','n'
1""/ '/"'1,1;1/4"/ il/ /Jrilllill bul after
I '.IIlIl'! l./,'at/'lId, l'isitl."d tJ,, US
ti/Id ..l/Id /11::' Imlll/ds. mriatiOlls
III""mdl'd ill IIII/I/Y stntl'S; tJJij
S!II::'.{ jllg is by Dm,d
I klhkr::'o/l, Jersey G/y, Neil'
(.1830. Ht 16.5(//1/61,/11. 1
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3 T/., s.mgs ofsarlanris, paterae, nlld IIIt"ks 01/ I/tis II/ft, IStIJ-ct'lltllry jllg
Ilre n/l Noodfi5sicnlmotifs, nlt/ollgJ tlu' form of tite jl/g itself is ilion' ill
tlle RocO(o slyle.
4 AII Americall engfe <I'itll n slJidd tnkt.'s n prol/lil/ent place {Ibo,'t' mI
AIII,rimll 11'itll I!u' American flag prvud/y displayed nb01.'1.' {I
l'/lildillg 01/ tfJis 19f1Helltury jl/g ill {I Neoclassimf Jonll.
D
uring the two centuries leading up to the years of
the new republic, the appearance and functions of
ceramics in the Americn colonies lmderwent marked
changes. Many eady colonial households ate from
wooden trenchers or pewter plates, and drinking vessels
were made of pewter, leather, hom, or, in exceptional
cases, glass or sver. But in the second hall of the 18th
cenhuy, when ccramics became increasingly available,
their usage changed. More fine ceramics began to appear
in a greater munber of hOllseholds. Nonetheless, the
majority of ceramics owned by Americans were still
foreign. Exported wares in the late 18th century were
similr to those preduced for British and continental
European use, although the decoration may include
American motifs such as armorials and eagles.
Althollgh the American manufacture of ceramics was
limited and most objects were imported frem
hJropc, there were a few attempts at prodllction and
111.1rJ...eting. There was the odd handful of short-lived pre-
n\nlutiunary factories. Their products are rare in
comparison to imported goods. The designs of American
ceramics made after thc Revollltion not only used local
materials but also catered to the classicl taste that
captivated so many Americans. Regardless of lacation or
scale, the aim was to match European competition, iI not
in quantity and economics then in design and fashion.
Following the war of 1812, bitter anti-British sentirncnt
eneouraged Americal15 to favollr Freneh designo The
porcelain produced during this time and leading to thc
rc\\'aJ designs of the mid-19th centllry dosely resemblcd
French porcelain of the periodo Amphora vases were
favourite forms. These vessels were often omamented
with popular local views, and sorne versions had gded
handles and details, while others had gilt-bronze mlU1ts
and handles. American manufacturers ingeniously
transformed European classical taste for their o\\'n
market. Despite the derivati\'e nature of American
classical ceramics, competition was fierce with the
affordable and desirable English transfer ware designed
pointedly for the American market.
5
5 Aftrilm/.'d lo t'lflCf Tucka {.- 11.-"'1"';1/
or oSt'pl/ I-/c/l/l'lIifl o[ Pllilmll'1pllill. 111111
o/ gilf poree/tliJl ,'n:ie'S 1m:> madt' IS.13-,8.
Tlle bodics (J1'l! 111 fIJe tnl/litiolla/
IllllpllOfa sJmpe. illcorporntillg AmericaJl l'<Ig/,.,
as /ulJIdles (/lid decorated with Al/lNimll
lalldscapes (Inri tllltlu:min. HI 56cm/12ill.
6 Dcpoid 01decomtioll 'if/, lit' exct'ptiol/
al file jaJltos/ieal/mutiles j" '/e sJIlPC o[11
,t'OI/IfIIl'S lxKiy <I'il/, 'illg:> - tT pI/rija/ spJI/X-
1M:; parcelain ampliara .'flse [/'aS IIIl1de ill :Ve'l'
York il1 18J6. Hl 33cm/l;ill.
7 TII;5 lead-gla::ed redil'are ({sil mnde
by George HIIWI1l'r oj \}olllgo/l/cry (O/mly.
Pellllsylt'nllia, 1786./m5 stllli:ed birds
al/ti I/I/ips. popular lIlotifs 1l1l/0llg lite
Pt'I/l/sY/Y1Iltm DlftcJ, a cOllllJlllllily 01
Germall alld oiher I/orll/cm EuropCll1l
imllligrtTllts t1mt sett/I'd in ti/e stllte.
Oill"'31cm/ L!IiIl.
8 rile dL'Comtioll 011 lllis 1817/elld-g/fI"":l'd
tedi/'nre dish is similar to ffll! olle aoo;:e. but
th!' styJi=ed bird 1m:; fJeell tml1sforlllcd il/to
tlle Americnll ('Ilgle illcorpornfillg a sllield ml/1
c/lltchillg laure!, a poplllar American motif.
Oinlll3jjCm/l.ill.

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British Glass
Adamesque
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2 TI'e LJQw/ed mmlllel" willc glas5.
Im/al/ced 01/ i /5 "fell/o/l-sqw:e:er" pedestn/ loot ,
rell/aills lile epitome o/ Briti:;/1 ('nrly Nt'Oc!assicisIII.
T!ls engrm.'t'd e.mll/plt is c.1775. Ht 15clII/6;1I.
3 Amil bo,,,1 decornted tl'i111 Iypicnl ear/y 8rili:;/
Neoc/nssica/ cu/motifs, illc/lIdillg 5wags, star:;, /llld
(1/Jel.'elled \1m! Dyck rilll, Ilnllll.'d njfer t/e lace collars
wom by I/I(my of file arli5t'5 por/mil slIbjecfs.
W.26.cm/lo'lill.
1 Dt'cnlltl'rs file mlll('l' of Neoc/nssicn!
sJmpes nllri lJIotifs ndopted jlY British glnsslllnkers,
c.1o-80. frollllejt: e/llb, Inper, 1m/lIster (lit'Q Ilfl'
511O/11/ here), 111"11, Illld "Pmssin" s}npe$ npp/ied
wil1l n t'l1riety o/slm/loi(' I/Iolijs. TIII.' e/ub, Cllt ,l'il1,
perliea/ brondfllltes, is (IssocintNf Wit11 n 1775l1otice
for "curiOI/:; barrel-slmped dl'cmlter:; wl 01/ mI eHlire
lICW pattem".
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4 /lIt' ;:c(lrk t!f Jmllt'" Gilt':;;
,,/1/1111/1'.1 tllt' Rocol."{' nlld
Xt'oda,.,.iCl/l trnll"itioll, as
."'<'CI/ ill t/1:;; sugar!oofdl.'callter
tkctlrnft'i ;:cith gildt'd JIlosnic
"m". C.I"O. Ht
5 Au opaqlll'-;:l'llite t.'aker
liecorafl'li i" gold b.1f lames
Gi/1'5 ;:{'itIE l'"erallin (ox-skl/l/sJ
"lid i('lIt'd-lik('I/{/tl'nJl.'. t"km
from Gio'm/lli Pirml6i's
01' \\'i/finm Clwmt.'r:;;' ill,,:;;trated
u'Orks 0/1 Romall ardlitl.'cfllrl.'.
C. 1765-o.
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6

6 A tllmbter fllgrm'Cd it'itll
patcrne, portmil 5il1/OI/C(t6,
jestOOl/S, n"d borders pUl/cfuoled
wil/ sJlallo<l'-cul "o[Il!f'S", nlld
file /xz5e Cllt il'it1,II01fOWjlllfes,
kllOI'1I COl/tempornrily as "fillger
bottOIllS", C.'780. Ht 14cm/j'l.ill.
7 A Jnrge, mngJlijiceJlf 8rilisll
,\'I'0c111ssicn[ c1,IIfdia,
CI7J5-So, cOllformillg lo tI,e
priJlciples estnb/is/ted by Robert
Adnm ;11 Works in Archilechne
(1773-8). Hll.S/II15ft 17i1l.
8 A NI'OCfnssicnf cullde/abrJ/1II sl'f
011 n lmse oj fl form pntellled by
file merc1mll t-I/fter \ Vil!(1m
Pnrker ill 1781. TI/e cobnlt blue
g/nss Il{lSt'S witIJ giTdillg are
probably by !flJllf'S Giles fll/d are
npplied ,I,,lt orillO/u
nIId paterae. Ht 50CIII/19%;II.
9 AII Ad<1ll/Lsqlll' IIIl1stard poI
mOllllfed 011 n lelllOJI-5t]lIee::er
base, c.I775. Tlle badIl II'flS bloit'lI
;lIfo 11 1I/0l//d befan: lie decorntipc
l10tclzes rt't'I't' npp/icd. Ht lOCIII/4il1.
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N
eoclassicism has proved to be Britain's favourite and
most enduring dccorative style. Its themes of empire
expressed in geometric sobriety were adopted wholesale
and with remarkable speed after its introduction from
c.1760. 1110ugh initially apparent in combi.nations of
engraving and cutting, its ultimate manifestation, in cut
mitred motifs during the Regency period (c.1790-1830),
brought the rl'Allgleterre from the backwaters to the
forefrant of world glassmaking.
The success of Angleterre Neoclassical glassware lay
in the lead-based "crystal" perfected by George
Ravenscroft in 1676. Possessing greater powers of light
refraction and dispersion than European equivalents,
lustrous lead or "flint" glass could split the spectrum in
sun or flame-light, notably ",hen cut.
British Neoclassicism ,vas influenced by Giambattista
Piranesi's engravings of Roman architecture (17,,:13),
William Chambers' pattern book A Treafise OH Civil
Architeclllre (1759), and Baron d'Hancan'ille's engravings
of the Sir William HamiJton collection of classical vases,
AJlfiq/lits Etrl/sqlles, Grecqlles el ROl/milles (1766-67).
Howcver, its success is almost entirely attributable to the
Scottish architect Robert Adam, who retumed to London
from his Grand Tour in 1758 to set the capital alight with
designs evoking the grandeur of the Roman Empirc, lt1tcr
augmcnted with Greek themes. Adam's domimlllcC' nvcr
prevailing taste was so pervasive that the form of Britbh
Neoclassicism c.1760-1790 is known simpl), as Adam.
111e ,,,holesale adoption of rus themes, as sel out in Robert
and James Adams' Works ill Arcl,;lecllln' (1773-8),
supported James's assertion that Robert "brollght abollt
in this country ... a kind of revollltion in the whole
system of this useful and elegant art".
In contrast to Baroque and Rococo, whose expressions
on glass ,,,ere largely superficial, Neoclassicism influenced
form as well as omamenl. The style held sway over every
form of glassware, notably chandeliers, rummcrs, cruet
bottles, and decanters, their decoration growing
increasingly exuberant over passing decades lIntil
reaching its zenith in the Empire style of the 18205.
177
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Irish and Anglo-Irish
1 AH In;,/ dip-lIIl11l/dt'd
Pm::,silm-s/t'II,,-,f fl'Ill/<'r
l'l/gra'I'11 l'it/I .\ldll"""iCllI
rillbo!1.k"/OOlh illld SlIrdcllillS
/0(1/;;. Tlw [ml'l'/" Iiird jJlc!,
/IlO'I'11 iJl/() bllckl'l-
I//Ill/Id" (Ir ;;IlIlIdllflf
ir/lid/d/",-' lTmflod II/r "t'rlicnl/}f
d,'(lImtiOI/.
/11 26(1II//()/.ill.
2 /'1"1I;;,';;1111 dCCIlII/cr dccomft'd
<I'I/, ,,11111/0<1- ellftill,? ill '11('
e
:\I/gltl-frif./I .\''OC/assicn! sl,IIJe.
,SIO. Ht
3 A S'llf..'/(J;;;;ically j/lIIpl.'d lmckl'l-
/lowlcd /"1I11I11U'r dl.'corafl'd il'illl
AIlf:/o-lri:,11 w!tillg, c.18:w. Tire
[1J1'1 is Cllt 1'itllllOllow cirClllllr
"lIrilltit's", Slllllfillg comb-/ikt'
"bltCt':/' (/lid filie dinmollds, /111'
foo! '{'il/ 11 rndinl stal".
Ht 121(/II/5ill.
4 A jmmd-lJl1sed /npl'l" decal/fa
.pjl/I ligllt clIgmt'iJlg nlld n
"pillcllt'd fargd" slollpa by Ifu'
Cork GftbS COIllp'lIlY, (.1Soo.
Tlle crud{'1/('ss of Iris11 di1-
II/ouldl'd has led lo
SlIggl'SfiOIlS t!lat fIlL'Y ,pel"(' IJhn!'1l
llY <I'Drk/IIl'/1 recntih'd fmlllll(llllc
!aclorit'io. Ht 21.jcm/Slil1.
5 PrJlssial1
dccmlh'r t'llgra'l'd 'l'itl,
.Yeoc/assical COlrlll1llS mld arc1Il'$.
Ht 2''CIII/9!iu.
6 Al! e/ar!'f dL'mult'r,
id'lIt!(iIlNI' IIY ib ('xaSgal1h'd
lil't'Jly (111 dI/
strml'llt'rry II/lIt p'll
flul (':;, c. 18:20. .! S. 5(" 11/:,/1 I 11I.
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The grant uf free trade to Ircland in 1780 h,ld l
profollnd effect in rcju\'cnating its dormanl
indllstry. Previollsly without l single operational
glasshouse, as many as ten new ones were cst<lblishcd
o\'cr the following decades. lrish glassmaking had
traditionally mirrored English trends. Further, wilh
mainJand works increasingly stilled. by the regulations of
the weight-related Glass Excise Tax, rnan)' of the ne\\'
lrish businesses were staffed and even owned by
migrants from across thc rish Sea. Tt is therefore
unsurprising that their products reflected English fashions.
\Vith the taste for Neoclassicism dominant in Dublin as
",eH as London, the main characteristics of late 18th- and
eady 19th-century lrish glassware are simple engraving
and shallow cutting. I-Iowever, barring some notable
exceptions, most of its shapes and themes are
indistinguishable from those made on mainland Britain,
gi\'ing rise to the generic term Anglo-lrish style glassware.
The common belief that richly cut Regency glassware
was an Irish creation is unfOlmded. TIle first steam-driven
cutting machines, essential to deep-profile cutting.. were
no! in Ireland until 1818, almost 30 ycars after
lheir inlroduction in England. Whilst Lrish glass cnjoys
high romantic repute, sllIprisingly little was actually
made therc: statistics prove that its national oulput barely
m<ltclll'd that of Scotland, and a high proportion of its
production \Vas exported to America, the West Indies,
and Canada. Further, Irish glass does not bear a particular
bluc tint as once suggested.
The most disti..nctive Irish \vares are a series of dip-
Illoulded taper and Prussian decanters, sorne branded
with their maker's name on the base, cIaret decanters
",ith exaggcrated spouts, piggin cream bo",ls, and a
series of idiosyncratic bowls, formed as canoes or kettle-
drums, sorne with turn-over Tiros. The extension of the
Excise to Ireland in 1825 and American protectionist
tarilis ultimately ruined the Irish industry, though the
pattern drawings of \-Vaterford master-cutter Samuel
Miller, an Englishman, confirrn a continuation of
Neoclassical forms into thc 18305.
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7/\11 Ilhl" ''-,III( Us ,,'JI/,.,

0/11/ ""X '1','/11
deeply C/lt l'itl, IIll1hllfll
i'cr/ieal prislIIs mul 1/ VI/I/ 1)111 J..
I"illl wif/fnll detnils, C.IS2V."
Ht 2o.6clIl/S'l;iI/.
8 Piggills, repllten/y l/sed as
crerllll 01" lIIilk bOil'ls. nre
gl'l1l!mll.ll H'Rnrded ns nn tris/
forlll, 11U! tIlis henil!! exnlllple,
dccph mi with IlObllnils is

EI/Sli,.;/, C.1S20. \V.2o.jcm/SiJl.
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9 A IIIflssiuc irisll cn!1oe-s!1IJped
bOl1'1 01/ defnclmble slal/d ,pit/
Allglo-Tris/ (Jlt il/e/lIdillS
a \fnn Dyck rilll, faHs, dinlllollds,
l/lid JIu/es. TIII' lermeed foo! is
II/ouldl'd (lIId CJlI. Uublill 01"
Cork, (.1790. Ht jOclII!I91.i1l
10 A disfillctil'c Iris/ bupl forl/l.
l/lis 011t' kilO,!,/! as the kt'ftit'-
dnllll shnpe, d('corafed Wit!111
mnge of f!fpienl Allglo-lrisll (lit
!/lotir::; l/lid set 011 a !emDII-
sqJ/('(':t'1" base, C.1825_
HI2.1.6clIl/S/iIl.
11 Varia/iDlls 0)1 a IICIIIC. A
II1Dllfnge oI cylillder decl1l1fer
pnttemsmm lit' enger of
Watclford IIIflster-CJltter Srlll11lel
Cl82j-35.
Britain, Steam-Cutting, the Regency
1 COlltempomry desig1l5 tllflt
il1l1stm/e tlle dei.'efopmellt 01
Neoc/assicnlly ',spired Britisll
glass-ClIttillg, C.1770--1820.
Fmlll fop: :>oy stand (/litl,
sJIfll/(l'Il':f/lIted mld t'ngrnl.'ed
/101l1e:>, e.1770; botrt-slmped crllel
stalld l'iIIl milis' Ilelld lerlllillll/S
colltllilliJlgflllted alld dill11lolld-
CIIt bofffes, IVllkelin & TII.'Ifor,
Ijj6; sllllld cOllfllllllg declIll/ers
;:{'itll po/isllc:d filCCS mlil deeper
dialllollds, IVII/ker & Rylnlld,
c.180j-1O; slmlll colltnl/il/g
extrfli.'nglllll dinlllO!ld alld prisl//
CIIt declllllt'l"s, (.1815-20.
2 TIl'O sllip's 01" Rodllcy decantas
dl"lIollslrntillg I!le slylislic
ei'o/lItioll o/ Britis1l g/nss'l'flre,
775-183. Left: plnill exCt'lJ/
for t/le alldlOr lIIotif 111/11
l
.. I "PR" r.
!'I!gm:'!'l !m!m.s .. , ,(0'-
H'lS Princess Royal. /flllllclled
ill 1773. HI 25..cm/Joill; rigllf:
deepll, wt ;I'itl, dilllllOllds,
C.1815. HI 2..2CIIl/9lI.
3 Neoc/nssicllf desigll prillcipll's
i1WC IIpplied lo ('wy /01'111 o/
glasswnl'e. / !ere n silr'el"-gilII'Sg
ClIp jrmlll' cOlltaillillg ciglll CIIpS
is C111 il'itlllldmllesqlle brOlld-
fllltes. 11 is hnllmnrkedjol' HCllry
Chml'"cr, 1790. Ht .
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180
British glas5 cutting, which had de\"elopcd an
individual path since c.I7IO, achieved the highest
standards of exceUence and almost universal appeal
when expressed in the Neoclassical style during the
aesthetic Regency periad between c.1790 and 1830.
Rejecting Boheme cutting in fa\lour of nat and slightly
hollowed monIs, British cutting evolved graduaUy over
several dccades. TI1e introduction of steam-driven clltti.ng
from 1789 acceJerated the trend, \vith sliced "broad
flutes", the defining cut of adamesque glassware,
gradually superseded by deeper motifs, typified by
diamonds arranged in diverse peFJnutations.
Cut motifs \Vere applied with increasing depth and
complexity between 1780 and Ul20 as craftsmen became
familiar with the technique, and in response to popular
demand fer ficher ornamento The groupng of prisms,
fans, pillars, relief, and "strawberry" diamonds became
collectively tenned mit:re-cutting. Engravng maintained a
slender foothold during the'period, most cornmonly in
the form of borders, armorials, and inscriptlons.
The consenslls in Regency Neoclassicism was broken
from (.1800 by a Iimited taste for the French Empire style
(see p.183). tore significantly, a schisrn from c.l820 saw
sorne opt for decorative sobriety, whilst others drO\'e the
cutters towards a dazzling, jewel-like complexity that
agan echoed the Empire. The services produced for a
grollp of north-eastem nobles illustrate the division. On
one hand, those made for the Duke of Northtffilberland,
c.1825, demonstrate the restrained theme, cut with
alternanng vertical bands of pillars and fine diamonds,
and adamesque broad flutes. The contrasting group is a
series of increasingly expansive services made by Wear
Rint of Sunderland for local nobles, applied with
complex mazes of diamonds, pillars, fans, and arches.
By 1830, uniformity regained the ascendancy. The
horizontally orientated forms and decoration, typified by
stratified decoration and prismatic cutting, that had domi-
nated since (.1790, vvere abandoned in favour of verncal
equivalents. Broad-flute cutting and perpendicular vessels
carne to the fore in the 1830s,anticipating Victorian Gothic.
----------
5
4 A gl"OlIp of 1Jrili;;iI 11'111,'/ ,'1/','"
cut itl, liml1d l/u.! /'11111/"
orfiddj 01 dillll/ll/ll/;;. TI,,' ,',11/11",/
nt tll/!frollt, (.1790, tht'
back rigill, U8IO, HI (ti ti",
tallesf) 22.-4Cm/9'/JII.
5 A Sheffie/d plated jolly bOllt,
l/sed for passillg decan/ers
arolllld /!Ie dining tab/e
after the mea/. Tlle cylil1der
decaJlter", are Cllt wit!I dimnolld",
aJld pris11Is, L1S15-2.0,
Ht 26.5cm/1O'II,
6 AI1 ice bucket, deeply (lit witll
dialll0lld5 (1l1d priS11IS, typicnl
of ti/(: work acllieved by Britisll
gil/ss wtters IIsillg stcnlll-drivell
Cllttillg Il'll/:ds, C."l815-20.
HI28cl1I/111.;II.
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9 Decorafioll jit for a killg:
a cylillder demllter wil/ an
ellgraved alld se/ective/y acid-
etclled royal cyplter, c.181O-16.
Ht1SCIII/7ill .
00
8 Archctypnl Britisll Neoclnssicai
iidded 11m, e.T81O, ClIt nil over;1/
large di(l1110I1d5. HI 35.2.(111/13'1.;11.
11
7 A brolld-based taper c.181O-15, CII/ ui!/ flulrs, dimllollds,
arc]es, 1111d mi/re cuts ill re/fe!, delllol1stratillg the cut/tr's illcreased
collfidellce (wd ba/dlless. Ht 36clII/14'/,;II.
10
10 A lIIe!oll-s!uzped lIol/cy-pot ftl/e/y ClIt wif/ pillars filld sfrnwberry
dinlllol/ds, Illld 11 dinIl10Ild-clI/ di511 olld 11 sccol1d IlOlley-pot villl orillO/u
1/101ll1tS, al! C182Q-j. J-lt (o! he tal/est) 131C11I/S'II.
11 Desigllsmm a price /isl of fhe leading lale Georgiml/early Victoriml
g/asslI/aker Apsley Pellatt's Faleoll G/assIJoJlse, L1S37, illllstralillg
nlllll('rO/lS broad-Jlllted decallters.
181
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French Empire

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1 Sfi'-C/fl rablllf-lJ/lle e/I/II
lit'cal/h'r il'itll Xcoc/fI:i':i'icnJ Silt
nlld COII/II/ollly
tito/lgltt lo Lit.' rwu:ll, /lIIt I'rollflMy
BoJIl.'IIIlII j'l t//(, Allg/date sl!!/!!
for IIIt' Fn'IIc1ll11flrkd, C.1SlO.
Ht 31LIII/l::!iIl.
2 BaCCI11"111 maul en
plein goblcl I'lll (lit /igMigli/s
ti fll/l-Ilelghf
polycf/l"ollll! slIlphidl' porfrnil
Napo!l:oll BOl/tirarte.
Ht 9.6clII/]I;1I
3 011(' Bncctlmf's:.lS maul
en plcin sL'n,icrs. eOll/billa/iolls
o/ f1t>eply profilcd 1I/()JIld"d
dinmollds. [lfllI/llOO stm't's, sit'ngs,
lmres. ,seu/el/COI/s. alld poiJl!:>,
nccelltllntcd by se1ccti.'t' ellftillg.
nppem"l?d 011 nJllllmmer 01 BncCflraf
glnSSi('{lre I/lItil al IMs! 18#_
4
4 Xt'oc/a:,:,im! '1fl1-:"lwpt'lf ill boulle-de-s\'on crystn/ opa/il/e
1'i11l lIIerr:ury-giMed orlllolll /l/Ol/lItS. TIIl' g/as:" is probably Baceara!. flll!
G/Id dt-sigll/J}I Crt'lIsot. (.18:w. H! 'H.-lCIII/l;/ill.
5 frl'llcJ alllefillfst (llld {'IJite opalil/(' taLLa I/Illlllltcd llll a c1Jased
orlllO{1I foot-ring al/d fitted wit] a pair l'agh's lIS /ml/dho:;. C.1830.
Ht llclJI!-ll.ill.
182
The French glas5 industry, amongst Europe's oldest,
regularly last many craftsmen ta religious persecunon and
war, lea"ing its 18th-eentury products derivanve.
Boheme dominance in Franee was supplanted from 1767
with its leading works, including Saint-Louis, Saint-
C1oud. and Vonche, transferring lo Neoclassically styled
Angleterre lead crystal. Franee regained its glassmaking
dennty from 1810 through various innovations
manifested in Empire-style Neoclassical wares: sulphide
indusions, moulel! plelll pressure-moulding, and opalines.
Glassware containing biseuit-porcelain sulphides was
pioneered by Sevres sculptor Barthlemy Desprez,
1796-8. These are inextricably linked with moul ell pIein
glass moulding. invenled by Ismael Robinet, c.18Z0. and
adopted by Baccarat, then Saint-Louis and Val-St
Lamhert for a wide range of faux raek crystal tablev.!are.
Echoing similar trends in Bohemia, French makers
also pioneered opalines over two decades: blalle laitel/x,
fmm 1823, bIel/ fllrqlloise, 1827, rose opalill and violet, 1828,
and alabas/re, ]844. 6
7
6 Frend, Empire dock ill bleu-
lavande glliss will,ormolll
11101/111:", ('182j. Opnlille glass
gailled its IIlime frolll its fiery
go/d colol/r wl1en .'iett'ed ill
tmllslllitled /ig1lt. 111 33cm/13in.
7 A Frel/eJ, blue oplilille ClIp Ilnd
S(ll/cer, lIe ClIp ({litll mI orlllolll
/wlldle in tlle slwpe of a se/pellt.
'.182j. HI13.jCIII!j'Il.
Franglais Empire
1 /11/ dmuddiel" illcorporntil1g griffill'i- nlld
11011111111'; fnlllJ TllOllU/::: Hopl":' mttem lJo<lk Household Furniture &
Interior Decoration.
2 Prill' (!{ I\"nh':;-sJnI/t"li fecal/fer. part o[n seri'ice by Parin, Gt'ddcs,
lll" 11/1' Ilfill' ill 1SoS. o/le o/ t]e 1110';' t'xtmmgallt exprl',;sioIlS o/ Brilisl,
El1Illirt' glll;;;;i{'tm..'. HI
3 GI'Orge Cmk,;JInIlk':: ,'i(il' oI t!u' P,1/(1' t!f I\'nlt-:- ':, Cllr/ttlll 110/1"'(' 1,,11 /1/.
1S11, teJl Ifny:, nfter tlll' ITl'lIt. TI/e:'/1tes of rO/l/pi /IIJI/S Sfll-:'';I',r., 1114 '. ,/,,-, I
lor '''1' 2.000 gUI-:;I5 proulOtelt (/ faslliall flUlf el/d11 n'l1.(lr m't'r 1/ f,'lllItrI/.
4 AII lII11/Sl/n{ set 01 Britisll d,'cal/Il'r:: (lnd /11
lile Empir.. styk ClIt il'ifft dinll/ollds, fl/l16. fllld flrclled protmSltlil."', Iflt'
I1eCflllt",:" ,/'ilh sfoppt'r:s SflllpltI as tlllenl COrollt'fS. \/aker /mkIlOiI'll.
c.181j-10. HI rdecalllers) I.1cm/6J:ill.
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5 SIHpl'lIdol/s Illrgef-sfoplt'I"'d cy/illda
deran/"r, riellly (lIf 1l'ilIJ dil111101lds, fll/les, I1l1d
prisl/Is. tIIld "III1/11d/l'd ,1,iOll1l1egoriml scel1l'S,
(lit/111 cITllld rl'prl'5t.'llfillg A5inlllld 11 /iOIl for
Afrim. J-Il'rltnJ-l5/llf IVil/inlll Col/il/s, lIe
. .
SIl"alld. LOlldcJI/, C.1S;W-j. HI 2301l/9in.
6 TllIw-liglll cnnde/n/ml/II 1II0l/II/cd C}/l n
blnck b/'OII:" plillfll se/ ,pitll IT liolll1l1d orillo/u
I/IOUII/5. SftllllJ-ll'd \/csst'lIga & PltiPSOII,
C1S2j-30. Nt 6WII/l4ill.
7 Ricf/y cuf Clllld/cstick by Apslt'y Pdlnft,
el 82. j. cOl/laillillg 11 sl//pl1idc IlI/sl of file
Dl/ke 01 I G/ass sll/p/lides llI1d bceH
pafellft>d by Dt'5pre: ill Paris ill 1818, bllf
H't'n' p/ngiarb'd I'y PefJaft rom tI/{' fOIlOll'illg
IIt'al'. HI 18.8clII/lill.
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The Napoleonic Wars did not pre\"ent the adoption
of many of the Pereier and Fontaine Freneh Empire
themes in Britain. Under the ardent patronage of the
franeophile Prince of Wales, renowned for his appetite
for voluptuous omament and prodigiou5 spending,
their style was propagated by the designer Thomas
Hope's pattern book HOllsellOld FUl'1litl/re & Interior
Decoratioll (1807),
The earliest expressions of Franglais Empire glassware
date from c.18oo, but the best known is the service
eornmissioned for the prinee from the \I\'arrington makers
Perrin, Geddes, by Liverpool Corporation in 1806. Its
deep cutting and f1amboyant protrusions were atypieal of
mainstream contemporal1' taste but admired by the
prinee's wealthy eoterie.
The leading designers of British Empire glassware
"'ere 10hn Blades, Apsley Pellatt, slIecessor to Blades's
mantle, and thc fine metah-vorker, Matthew Boulton,
,",vhose designs coupled ormolu and brome with glass eut
at his Birmingham \-Vorks. 6 ... -01
183
German and Bohemian Glass
Biedermeier Neoclassicism
1 Typicnl BoIJelllinn Allgleterre
dril/bug glnsses ll'il/I !acef-CIfI
::;1t'11I5 IWrf gilt .\lcocln$sical
SWlIgS, estoo"5. ribboll5 l/lid
bow$, nnd styli:ed ll/lips. c-1790.
Ht (tn1fcstJ locm//'iJl.
2 AIlOIIYIIIOI/S 801lellliflll pllftl.'rIl-
book dmwillg, c.1790, 01 a
l\h'OClassiml/y s/wped AIlgleterre
Iflflt'r 11ecallfer ClIt Witll/lOl/Oil'
jllftt'S, t'"grnyed with n e/mili
borda (Inri gilded witll I'ibbol/s,
tas:>!'I:>, (/lid jloil'l'rs.
3 Allgtelar!' tapa decallter il'itll
8o/clll' Nt'OClassicn/ gilt1illg b.y
ti/e Spalli:;!1 royal g/nssworks nI
Ln Grallja, c.1810. HI2ocm!'/,ill.
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4 Ca/ouT/es5 beaker cl/flme//ed wil/ a scel1e 01
mI Al/slriml (avnliel' ehasil/g Napo/eoll back fa
Frailee. brlllldislIIg ajorgel-me-lIol, by AllfoH
KofJgasser, e.181j. Tlle scelle is bnsed 0/1 an
Alfstriall o/k sfory. Hf 9. JCIII!J1,ill.
5 Cellfral Ellropeall t'flriatiOIlS 011 tlle Neoc/assical /llelll/!. Frolll hif: bmka l'lIgmved Wit/I Greciall
lIlotifs andfesfool/s by Frall: Alltoll RiedeL (.1810; b/ack I-I}'<llilh beaker wifl! gi/t geolllctric
decoratioll by file Bmuoy g/ass/lOlIse, C.lS20; an examplc l'llalllclli'd wifll it'flllllOt! rl'SCl/iJlg a
distre:;5('d damsel,jrom file epollymOll5 I\'alter Scott lIo'd. by Frall: Allton Siebel, Ht (from
feft to rigllt) ll.jCIII/411; 10<:III/3Xill; locm/J'b".
184
T
he intemational supremacy of Bohemian glassware,
typified by Baroque and Rococo superficial decora-
tion, was usurped by Angleterre Neoclassicism from
c.1775, and disrupted by the chaos of the Napoleonic Wars.
Sorne makers resorted to copying British forrns. However,
with political and economic stability restored by 1820,
sorne 170 factories \Vere again operating across Bohemia.
Bohemia, abundant with fine sand, fue cIay, woad,
and \'vater, had produced glass since the 13th century,
drawing on German and indigenous skills. Formerly
driven by high-bom patronage, its 19th-<:entury output
focused on the Hapsburg Empire's wealthy industrial
bOllrgeoisie, mostly living in Vienna. Centllries of
cxperience \-"ere combined in Bohemia and Austria to
create a dazzling and diverse array of retro and advanced
lcchniques, forms, and colours across the quality scale.
I30hemian makers and decorators at home and abroad
wel'C slow to adopt Neoclassicis01, with early manifes-
talit)l1S simply echoing Angleterre interpretations. Though
nalurally inclined towards extravagant ornament, the
bittemess felt in Napoleon's wake alienated many from
the Empire style, lea\'ing a void that was eventually filled
by an extraordinary range of variations on the Neoclassical
theme. These were generally applied to the sober
Biedermeier shapes predominant from c.1815 to 1840.
In Austria, Johann Mildner rejuvenated and perfected
ZwisclIeJlgoldglns, whilst the Mohns and Anton Kothgasser
achieved lU1surpasscd realism in transparent enamels. To
the north, Johann SigismlU1d Menzel echoed Mildner's
shapes and themes, and COlU1t von Buquoy and Fried.rich
Egermann transforrned the colour palette of glass.
Central Europe's most inflllential contributions \Vere
the colours formlllated at Buqlloy's Gratzen glasshouse,
180C}--l0, and Egennann at Novy Bar, 1828-40. Buquoy
introduced red marbled Hynlitll, 1803, black Hynlitll, 1817,
and a series of fine decorative techniques, and Egerrnann
created new yello\\' and red stains and marbled Litl1yalill
tints 1828-40. Bohemian colours and techniques were
widely adopted across Europe and helped re-establish
the ascendancy of the Boheme style.
6 ill:,pired gobkf
tlll jtlllflllll Alildller witl, a
U1edal/iOIl por/mit of Emperor
Ixopold lJ of Allslria; siglled alld
dafed 1801. Nt 12.scm/sill.
7 Cable/ ,pi,l, filie frallspnrent
t'lInll/e1 decoratioll of 11 IIlOltlltaill-
lop Sc1/1oss by Gottlob Molm, ti/e
SOIl of fIJe glllssbloL'lIIg flllllily,
origillnlly of Drestiell, Sigllffl
lll/d dated 1816. Ht 20CIII/8ill.
8 Benker 't,jtJ/ decora/ioll by
Allfoll Kol!Jgasser. Tllis e.181S
L.mlllple bmrs a Neoc/assical
medllllioll cOlltaillillg sYlllbols
of 10.'1'. N/ 10.jCIII/.l.ill.

6
10
,
-'
9 Rl'd Hyalith ClIp nl/d Stlllcer <l'il!, gildell
e/linoiserie decoratioll by COI/II/ HJI1 BI/quoy's
gIIlSS'OIlSC, c.18;w-37. BI/ql/oy aiso dl"i.'doped
a ml/ge of otiler U1arblt'd ca/our effecfs. Sllllca
[iwlI. 14.jcmisII.
10 Lidded gobiet. set 011 a lellloll-sqllee=er
base. cOllfnillillg illserted lI/ednllioll silhOl/clles
of 1111 elder/y cOI/pie - nlld ec!Joillg tile work
of101/11111/ AJi/dlla - by folJal1ll Sigisllllflld
Aft'll:e/, 'Varllllmmll. e.179S. Ht 26.jcm/IOi1ill.
11 mi/tk 'Y tI'l' Ilflrnre/lO" il'Orks,
&,1I4'/IIill, r/lld '/I'4"4II"11I.-,{ /1.11 rrit'dric1, Egalllllllll.
ufl: t!te exlmordilllll'Y CI/lm Cobkl, l/1ade iJl
lSH /(1 UlIJIIIICIIIOI"ll/t' t1l1' RlIssinll "ictory al fIJe
Bullk ofCI/IIII, lBJ 3. H/ .pcm/r6I.in; aboi't:
I/WIII/lllell/al lIrl't'-lHlrf Nooclnssicnll1nJ witll
fgcnl/alllll"llby staillillg. Ht 44.5clII/171,ill.
:2:
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185
American Glass
Classical Forms and Decoration
,......__.....
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5 AII idiom late d(lssicism, ti/{'
IMplliJl sJ1Ii1'c.' ol l/lis IIIN/I/nisl'
giass c(llJdkslick ni t S..5-65
IiIkes illsJ'inlttllJ fmm cnamic
Clllldit'Sticks JJrt'ltlIfCt'lf iJl El/stand
bul ultilllatl'll1 (mm dcsi\:,' iJl tlll'
e
nI/ci.'lIt Il'orld. 1126.501l/1O/ill.
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1 Attrib"ft'i (l/lte Xt"7l' 8n'lJ1t'lI Glnss /nctory of
101m Frt'dt'rick AlIIl'hmg. l/lis t79J-3 Jlrt'st'lIfalillJl
goblt'f /'flS Ollt! of tlit' fi.,,!' IIccomplis/t'd (I/)jl'(fS
prodHced il1 fll(' US nfter lile r(','ollltioJl. /litas n
dassicnl {onu. bul file is
. L'
in t/II' Romeo stlfll'. Ht jO.lC'III/1II.
2 T/ls 'IImb/er. lIIade 111 Pitls[llIrs;1t by Bnkt''c//,
Page & Bah'ed/, C.lS.U, has n dnssicnlmoWof
n greylEolJJld c1milled lo mi 11m; it {'liS
copicdroll! Europeml g/n:i-Sil'llrt'. Ht 8.&1II/3Iill.
3 P05silJ1y /linde ill Pellllsyf'llllin, c. t 815-35. ,/is
ce/ery '{/;;t' Itl/S 1111 11m!orm witll parillS lip mili
gndroollil/g as pcll 175 n sfyli:ed II/CdlllliOIl 01 pnllll
rol/tls - 1111 of c!nssicnl desigll. HI 28clII/11 il/.
4 T!Iis American jug 01 lS:W-'O las l1/1ide il1 a
/IIollld. TI/{' c/assicnll(lH lIIot!( i50 from CIIt g/(lss;
tite OPl'ral/ 5ollliJle, rel'dillg, and ribbillg.jro/ll
COIJlelJlJlOrnry siker._HI 16.3cm/6liJl.
T
he number of American glasshouses increased
dramatically after the re\'olution. Even ",th political
independence from Britain, the few manufacturers who
\Vere able to make the heavy Lnvestments necessary to
start a glass-making concern still had to contend with
competition frem imported goods. Despite the challenges
of gIass making in the earIy years of the United States -
the need for huge quantities of fue!, the dependence on
technical knowIedge and substantial finances - gIass
from this period disseminated classicaI design to the
masses. The glass manufachuers that flOluished through-
out thc United States, fram East Coast centres to the
Midwest, made available a vast array of utilitarian and
fashionable glass\vare.
''''ares were designed in classical forms or with motifs
drawn from antiquity and then marketed to the burgeon-
ing population towards the middle of the 19th century.
Objects were decorated by engraving, cutting, pressing,
enamelling, gilding, or painting to enhance visual appeal.
Ornament on late 18th- and early 19th-cenhtry glassware
ofien bears Neoclas5ical eIement5 with syrnmetrically
arranged swags, tassels, eagles, and floral bands. On later
Neoclassical wares, from the 18205 until the 18-l0s,
cornucopia, lyres, eagles, and baskets oE fruit decorated
much moulded glass tableware and bottles. Bold forms
sud) as dolphin-shaped candlesticks appeared, reflecting
the 5cime motif in furniture.
The American introduction of machine pressing at the
beginning of the 19th centur)' made mouIded and
pressed glass an affordable altemative to labour-intensive
cut glass. The design on sorne Neoclassical glassware \Vas
based on importcd ceramics, \vhile other forms were just
miniature versions oE furniture. Covered box shapes i.n
glass used for various condiments, for example, referred
to the ancient sarcophagus on which c1a5sical wine
coolers were based. Ha"ing moved from its position on
the sideboard to a Iess expensi\'e yersion that could be
used on the dining tabIe, NeoclassicaI designs in glass
brought the forms of ancient Greece and Rome to a more
diverse audience.
187
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9 TI'-s oillamp 111'I5 a milkl/
,('I/ite opaque gln':$ sfem in a
forlll similar lo a cOlllemporan)
Nroclnssicnl colldleslick.
HI44jCm/J7jill.
10 Dile of a poir, tll;5 1828
decanler is by Ihe Pittsbllrgll
g/assllOl/SI! of R.B. Cllrling &
Sonso Tfle sJll'lpe derh't'Sfroll/
Anglo-/rMI examples, but lhe
IIl1derslnted decoratiou is a
del1t1l"fl/refmm f1u' 1Il'ai'ily C/lf
glnss illlported dllrillg tltl! periodo
HI267CI1I!Jo/,ill.
6 IVIJile /111m}! ".mlllpb of
E1IIpin.' or Inll' N('OCln:.>siml s/y/e
g/nsSil'nrL' tlJOk il/spira/ioll mili
(t'mll/ics /111(1 :::Ui'l'J', il
Empircflll'llilllre rI/(ft illspirell
tl/(' dt'sigll ol //i::: eomport.
C-saoll :'1/llports 0/1 tltt' stem,
llt'nricl1 mili riilllt'd dt'failillg, awl
tlll' tmciclllnrk pnil' fi:t'I 01/
Empire desigll.
Ht 1.I.-lcm!S .il/.
7 TI';;; (oi.w"d caskel cit/ {I fnlY
l'lb pnltiuCt'd jll I/h' ,\lid1Cesf
UI/ilt'd S/n/e:,. J8;0--+0. TIJe
fimll ,miO (ll/t' tnkcJI
/1'011I tl't' c/nssicn/ il'(lrld ami. jll
111/::: /l5Im!CI', it en,: d'':igm'li ill
milliofurt' {(Jr fll,' flll>fl' a,:
. e
a buffer tllll or COl/taill,'r for
cOlldi11lt'II/':. HI 12.-;CIII/jiJl.
7
8 NCil'ly illt'L'lltl'd il1 FrnIlCL' il!
1810, I/e prol'irlt'd
lighl iuitllOlIl Shlldoi'. Alllericall
glns5 1IU1//I/!ncfllrL'r:;, c:::pecinl/y
fllI? Neil' [l1g/nlld G/as:, Co.,
prodllCl'd decorati,e/y Cllt slwdc:::
fa jl/l/millale file /le,l' tccJmology.
HI H.6cm/J Iill.
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6
Silver and Metalwork
Transitions in British Silver
1 Tlle silFu-gilt Richmolld race
trophy, desiglled by Roberl Adalll
i" 1763, i(1as II/nde 1765-5 by
Dallie/ 5111illl & Robert SJmrp
01 Londoll. T/is earlylorlll 01
Neoc1assiSIll is very decorative,
and tlle mryalid 1ml/riles echo tIJe
sty/I' offorty Yl'ars /'arlier.
Ht .8.jcmh91.ill.
2/11 a directioll mlJay from tlle
f1nlllooyant Rococo sfyle, less
of ti/e body of t}is si/ver vase
alld cover is decorated. It <vas
decorated by Jolm Parker &
Edward IVake1i1l ill LondOll,
1770-71. Ht 21. 3cm/8Y,ill.
3 Desiglls for t't1ses cml be seell
il1 lhis etc1zillg by 5tefm1O Delia
Bella, frOIll Rnccolta di Vasi
Oiversi, pI. 6, 1639-48.
T/'s classicnl SOl/ru provided
iuspirnlioll Jor Robert Adam
alld otller desigllers.
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188
T
he earliest mast influential, and prolific designer Df
Neoclassical silver in Britain was the Scottish archi-
tect Robert Adam (1728-92). He conceived silverware as
part of the overall interior design for large houses, and rus
designs \VeTe realized by leading London goldsmiths
such as Daniel Smith, Rabert 5harp, John Carter, and
Thomas Heming. Drawing on the publicanan Df recent
archeological excavations in Greece and Rome, frorn the
late 17505 Aclam created designs for sideboards with
vases, and sets of dinner plate that matched the plaster-
work and carved hiezes Df rinceaux (acanthus scrolls),
anthemia, paterae, and husk festoons. This "magazine of
ornament" he freely and inventively combined \vith clas-
sicol sourccs derived fraro largely 17th-century Italian
prints, like those oE the goldsmith SteEano DelIa Bella
(161 Q---6.l). The urn or vase form was partieularly popular
.llld was applied to both domestic and presentation silver.
Another somce oE inspiration carne via the French,
who crciltcd a heavier, more naturalistically based Neo-
d.l ...:-icislll very distinct frorn that derived frorn Italian
Renaissance and adamesque designs. The sources carne
via prints such as Juste-Amele Meissonnier's Livre des
LgllllIe5 and French silver, notably that oE Robert-Joseph
Auguste (1723-1805), which was imported into Britain by
francophile English aristocrats. The most prominent
designer oE tllis type of English Neodassical silver was
the architect Sir William Chambers (1723-96). His design
for a pair oE soup tureens Eer the Duke oE Marlborough
incorporates an artichoke finial and celery stalk handles
derived from Meissonnier, with a high-dorned heavily
gadrooned cover, Eeatures that recur in French-rlerived.
eoclassical silver. At the end oE the 18th century the
French-inspired severe Greek style influenced English
silver, characterized by the use oE crisply modelled cast
elements of classical or Egyptian derivation balanced
with areas of plain silver. Much work by Digby Scott &
Benjamin Smith (partnership clissolved 1807) exemplifies
this later phase oE Neoc1assical silver. Its introduction into
England has been connected with the pmchase by the
Royal goldsmiths Rundell, Bridge & Rundell in c.1800 01
French-Inspired Classicism
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1 In 111;5 desigll Jor n SOllp tUTeen by Jolm
YCIJIl afier Sir lViJ/i{/m CJalllOCrs, C.176.
ml/llrali:>lic e/eml'lIfs call be St'en;l1 lite
stnlk IJnl1dles llIuf nrlic/lOke finjnl.
tI/272CIII/I0'!cill.
2 TI/ese sal/ce tUTeens by TItOlllflS Helllillg
of LonriOIl. mnde 1769-7, n oond of
pnrtly lliddell be/illd c/nssical mms'
I,cads ndommg fIJe 1II0re e/a/lOrale sfmuk
l./lIlike predeCl'S50rs, Iltl!Se 11IreellS are
sYlIIlIletrica/ il! designo Ht 16clII/6'1.ill.
3 A pclir of sih'er Lyoll-fi1Ct'd ((/lIdleslicks
by BoultOJl & FotlJergill, II/ade
displnyillS Nroda5sicnl fealllres sud, as bolllld
Imlre! 'l'n'afltillg, 5wags, {l/uf 1IIl' Greek key
lIIolij. Ht 311cm!J2'/,Il.
4 A desigll for a mce Clip by J.J. 8oilcall, /IIade
1800. s/lOOs a en/y.. al brondfle511y leal't'S alld
-sYllllllelricaJ. allglllar lIprighl halldles Witll
dearly defi"{'(( jrie:es of OTllalllt'IIt.
3
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The Inlluence 01 Adam
1
1 oj n par of amdlesticks by
fo/m Cnrler, 1767, !lustral/lIg
he l/St' of aeanllms {caves nrOlllld
ils stem, (lIId gllifloc!lc, herldillg.
ami reedillg l/ca' t}e base.
HI )4.3CIII/1]1:;II.
2 Desigl/s for Kellluood HOI/St',
LOI/JOII, by Robe,.! Adam,
i/lllstrnted in the \Norks,
incorpora/e I/rlI-s/lnJlf'd
(011 pedt'S!n/s feft flJld rigJt), kllife
boxes. pIntes, 'ases, nlld ellter;; for
the bu/fet ill 1111' dinillg 1'00111.
No/e file sYllllllctry of tlle desigll.
3 GI/e of {/ pair of -sauce turcellS
by Maltllcw 80llitOll & }ollll
Fotlll!rgill. BirmillglwlII. 1776-7.
witll IIpsR'epl reeded halldfl>::, a
bn"d of ril/ceal/x. al/d bdlflo;:l't'rs
ellloossed iJl fllltt's al/1M amf
bowf. Ht 261C/II/IO;jIl.
4 011," l!f 11 III/ir (Jf I'!egal/t sal/ce
t11"","/1' afta a desigl1 by Robal
AIII/III. lIIadl' 111' }ollll Carler,
Lo/ll/OII, 1774. ft slloU's lwsk
fi'Strolls adoTlliug the body. ;:dtll
/"'flliillg. sliff /t,(wes. al/d a silllple
ril/g-s!Japed kl1op.
NI36.8clII/14'/,ill.
189
-
The Impact of Tecllnology on Design
1 1111" mil( ll11lt' ,',/In'
,/,/dl/. ,/'Ith (I'S"/,'II1.'\
'I/ 1/,""'" /l.I/"II/,,,, I ',"'" _/.
./ ,\,1<11, ''', ',/ ,/, '111.' /oIl ,,',/ , ", ','r
,,,,,/ ,,','/ .f h.,/u /11 I " IJI/ 1/1.
'J , ,1111 I l "111/"111.1 ,'.
1 " l. " 1"11.1"1/ 111<1'1.' tfl,.
l.. {. ,/. ,1111 .Irl 111 '-;3. /l Oh
m"d. /1.",,1/.11/0',/ ..11,','/ ,:.i/YT,
,,/,.1 ,'",/ " '1,lc"d. l/lid dccomlt'd
ji 11/1 "'.'\/I/ ,"' '/Ism..illg DI (1
l.", l ",,1/..,.11 II/II( ellese
" ',1/,' It ,.. lIdOTllt',1 pi/Il a ((1st
1" IlI", ... '""."'{'''' filliaJ. mIli il;;
'/"'1',. f .. /"/"c"d (1/1 tfl/!' e/lests ill
.1'1//. J 1,'</ inlS imporlt.'dfrom
llll111/. lit 8.9CIII/; li",
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3 TII/! dt'com/iou 011 tJ/l'llQ/fy oI
lIis f>,,/IO/, Alldrt'il' Foge1baf
111 177S, reMricted (o nllll'dnl-
lioll nlld tiFO lml/ds of bendillg.
HI I2.7CIII/jlI.
4 Au i1/1/stmliVII of Dile oJ IIU1Ily
cal/dit'slicks ll n S/cffie/d pnttern
book, e17S0. Tl/l.' dL'sigl/
of mi nrl"l1llgelllt'l/l frOIll sct'L'ml
slal/daNi dr.'S wltich could be
coJllblIr.'d lo JOI"I1l a widt' "arie/y
of /!/odlllar mrinliol/s.
5 Ths Icn Itl"ll i{1ns illllslm/ed ill
0/1(' of \ Inl tIIt'lI' 801/ /tOIl 's pnftem
books, C.l7s0. Wndhnm's pa/ell!
for tlle tea /11"11 IIIt'(III//IICI! a 1I('n/-
('d cyUmia co1l1d lit! blli/t ill/o flll'
111'11, iI'if/1 1111' ueedfor
/lI1 ('xlemal !Jea/el', I/ms lIIakillg
for fl more eh'gflllt, streamflli>f

,
Grandiose Regency
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1 T/s desigll for a cml n:pil'Ct' frOIlJ Designs
for Ornamental Plate by Charles Heatllcote
Tatlmm, 1806, $o/m,lIS a l1e,l' illterl'St in
gnllldiox' dl'Siglls pit/ c/assica/ figlll"l's.
2 Digby Scott & 8elljamill Smil/ of LOl/don
made t!lis Si/lw-gilf !l'a 111"11. 1806. Al!
e.mll/ple of the Egyptit1l1 sty/e, it illcorpornte$o a
mflssi<.'l' tripod base o/ /ree ensl II1vnopodin/
sp!lim:r.; <t'itll appfied sc/lmbs. HI 3iclll!I.f/ill.
3 Tlle Tmfnlgar .'ase, dl'Siglled hy Jollll
Flaxlllan, ms made by Digby Scott &
Belljamin Smitl" ill Lvl/doll, 1805-6./or
Rrmddl, Bridg(' & Rundel/. TIJe lorlll is baSt'd
0/1 Attic 111'115 and tIJe decorntioll incorporales
ensl t1Ird fll'p/ied re/ilis,Ht 43.8clII/17'1ill.
4 Rdlf'cca/ Elllt's & Edil'ard Baranf made t/e
sihw-gilt DoJlcaster mee cnp 111 Lolldoll,
1828. T/e sllakt' Jmndlt'S alld rdie! dl'comtirm
01 llflCd'c figures I'IlS appfied lo dOlllt'$otic a$o
H'ell as pre;;elltatioll si!:oer. Ht 39.4CIll115,lill.

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l par of hlreens marle by the Parisian goldsmith Henri
Auguste and designed by Jean Jacques Boilcau, \Vho emi-
grated to England and worked for Rundell and Garrard.
In the mid-18th century new mechanized processes
assisted in the manufacture of modular, symmetrical, and
light silvenvares, exemplified by the silver supplied by
the Bateman famill" Flatting nlills meant that largc
quantities of thinner gauge metal could be scored, falded,
roUed, and soldered to fonn cubes and cylinders - geo-
metrical shapes integral to Neoclassicisrn - at a fraction of
the (05t of hand-raising. nlin sheet could be easily and
effectively worked with die stamps made Df ne", extra
hard steel. Standard mouldings ar beadings could be
supplied more cheapiy than hand carving, and machine
cutting and wire drmving replaced hand fretting for cake
baskets and condiment holders. Thinner silver involving
less labour meant that Iight elegant wares proliferated
and were available to a larger market than ever before.
For the first time provincial silversmiths such as Matthew
Boulton 0728-1809) in Birmingham and those in
Sheffield began to compete with London manufflcturcrs
in the supply of an e\'cr-increasing range of tea and l<lbk-
'\'ares. By the 1780s and 17905 English Neoclassic<ll sii\'cr
became much plainer, often decorated with simple C,1... (
medallions, some designed by Tassie, or lo\\' figlll"ll rdie!
work after Aaxman.
At the end of the 18th century and in lhe decadl's
of the 19th century, English Neoclassicll :-.il\'l'r 1'1ltcrcd a
new phase. Larger in. scale, often gikkd, i1nd gl'llcrally
more massive, designs ",ere oftcn Itlkcll (mm cl'ramic or
marble antiquities (or engravings of tlll..'m) that had been
excavated in Greece and Rume in the lille 18th century
and sold to English Clristocrals. Thcsc, such as the
Wanvick vase, the Buckingham Vse, lIld lhe Portland
vase, ",ere interpreted in sil ver by slIch goldsmiths as
Rebeccah Emes & Edward Barnard, and they became
icons Df designo CH, Tltham's publication of Desiglls Jor
Omalllwtn/ Pinte in 1806 promoted a retum to arche-
ological correctness and grandeur, and heralded what
becamc known as the Empire style in silver.
191
Early French Silver
,
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1 T/e 1760 tit/e page fo Suitc de Vases
compose dans le got de l' Antique by
/osepJA l(frie Vif'11 sllo,l's tllt' l'tl$e /orlll ,itl,
l!/ISil'epl IUlIldles (lllrl laurel wr('alJ, smgs,
c/lflnlcteristic lIIotifs 01 Frcudl Neocla5sicislI/.

2
2 Tlw5e /leaiJi/y decornted 1770 tUTeell,
nlld slnlld alld pnir of ((lJIrilesficks rom lile
Or/off SeT'i'ice. by J/lcq//f"5-Nicolns Roettiers 01
Paris. ;I'ere snid fo lIIark lile f.'lld o/ file GoM
GTl'C sty/e in Frf1lfce. Ht 3J.7cm!J3".
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3 TIJis Brmukl/bmg SOllp f1lrt'CIl,
mnde 1801-0], 1m:; a ligll/er fce!,
wifll n pedC'$tn/ foot (lIld llpiou'ept
lmlldles t1mf dmil' tlle eye
,'erlicnlly ill:;tend ojllOri::oJlfafly.
4 RO/lfrt-/lN'pll AI/gl/ste i:;
rt'spollsibieJor tl1i:; Louis X\1i
:;Ollp tun'cH, Slrllld, nnd covc/: TI/e
mms' 1Jcnds, sU'ngs ofl111sk5, mi
ncorJI kllOp, foliage, nnd scrollillg
/t't" art' /llore tim'Cdilllt'llsiOllnl
IJm" tlle decOrilliOIl fOlllld 01/ fI,e
fllrt't'll far {eft, COlltriblltiJlg fo
ils itt'ai'ier, /llore so/idfee/.
T1In.'/!1I dinlll. ))C/II/13ill,
base dialll . .J9CIII!l9V,ill.
192
The French laid the foundations for Ncoclassicism.
CharlesNicolas Cochin (1715-90). in his Sllpplicntioll nl/X
O'fe-tJres, published in 175-1, pleaded far a return to
"simple rules govemed by good sensc:' and a return to
the "oId style" - c1assicism. Symmetry, proportion, and
classical architectural motifs such as the acanthus leaf,
guilloche pattern, paterae, and laurel s\vags returned.
It is dilfieult to judge the early development 01 Neo-
c1assicism in French silver because plate \Vas melted
down to fund the Seven Years' Vvar (1756-63). Ho\Vever,
its influence can be seen in the spread of the new style
from France to other European countries, most notably
Britain, Italy, Russia, and Scandinavia, via prints such as
lhe engrClvcd designs for VClses, published in Paris in
1760. Robert-Joseph Auguste (]72:>-180S) \Vas an influen-
li<ll Parisian goldsmith working in the earIy leoclassical
... tylc, (lnd from 1736 he produced a series of tureens for
Ihe D<1nish court in the heavy GoOt Grec style. One of the
1.1... l eX<1111ples of this style \Vas made by Jacques NicoIas
(b. 1736) for thc Russian Prince Orloff in 1770.
Surviving dr<lwings and sil ver fmm the Valadier
workshop in TlIrin sho\\' ho\\' quickly other countries
adopted French designs.
This heavy, muscular form of the early phase of Neo-
c1assical silver \\'as replaced in the ] 770s with lighter,
plainer silvcr, as shown in the \Vork of Robert-Joseph
AlIguste's son Henri (1759-1816), <lnticipating the style of
the Directoire and Empire. Large areas \\'ere Ieft pIain,
and sometimes matted to contrast with bands of archi-
tectural ornament. Greek, Egyptian, and Roman motifs
such as eagle heads and sphinxes were published by
Charles Perder (176+-1838) and
Font<line (1762-]853). They reflected the imperial ambi-
tions of Napoleon and v,'ere cxemplified in the silver
designed for him by Jean Baptiste-Claude Odiot
(1763-1850) and that of rus rival Martin-GuilIaume
Biennais (176-1--1&-13), after patterns devised by Jean-
Guillaume Moitte. The large-scale and sculptural fom15
of French silver such as that of Odiot \\'ere adopted by
other countries, as seen in the Portuguese dinner sen,ice.
--------------------------------------j
Stylized, Austere, and Plain Decoration
1,2 Tllis lS94}O eilW
by HeJlri Augllsl .., Paris. Ims rlll
t'fegallt Grelm desigll /1(1$.'11 011
pnttem,:; btl file >'C1/lptor JI'ml
GllillmlllJe t\1oitte fJ N6-1SIO}.
Allslen' omamt:n/ /5 COllfillCd lo
11(111115 mili focal poillf:;, 1t'lll'illg
lmxe arcns 015ih','/, IIl1lkcomfl'd,
il'i!/ a IIUlI/ 5111:f(/(('.
1

2
3 \ dL':::igll for (l rcu/ar sollll
tUTt:t'll/Jy Gill-s.epJN \'aladier
s/lOr's a eOlleelllralioll OJl forlll.
01111'1' filan Ilu' rcediJlg, decoralioll
is /i"lited lo t/u.' liol/s' hmds alld
smgs oflwsks, .t'il/I tllc cye
eO/leclltralillS 011 ti/{' simplc,
!let c/egallt (Un...s o/ tlle IlOd,ll.
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Exotic Empire
1 111 t1lis de:;igll lor a tllrt't'-ligllf CllIlde!n/lnml
(rom Paca (lIld FOII/nillt? Recueil de
intrieures. Paris. J812, ti
I riullglllar-slmpt'd /l{Is' ami IlOm-slmped
Immclle::. are apllflrl'lIt.
2 Tit:; pair of 1814_ AIIsl";m clmll1/4'T
cfllldlcstick,; 15 bnsed 0111111 Odiol lIIont'l.
EncJII1lJ51l sqllnrt'f/nl bast' ['dSt'd <l'it!1 {/ bnl1d
of mtcI" lean?s, 11'lll nsqllnre stem-s/wpcd
rO/l/III11, <['hiel, is chn5cd pit" palmettes il1
IIIn/ted {mil/es l/lid slIppol'fs n clnssicnl (elllale
. .
/Il'ad. HI 2.1CIII/S'l.iIl.
Imperial Ambitions
1 J,99-J809 eofft'l' pot by AlartiJl-
Gllil1mlll/(' Bi!.'lIl/ai:5 a 'a:5l.'-sIJapcd llOtly alld
Iripo<I lmsl' ;:uit11 .r..'"lnk TI/l' 10;:I'l'r pll rt
is r/msl'd ,('itll rl brllld off/lIf1'd rllJd lIIattcd pallll
/enxs alld t/t(' :::hollldcl' is at1p/icd witll of
lallre/. Ht j2elll/Jl'1ill.
2 Parl of 1111' Portllgllf'Se I1iJllll!r st'n'iCt' lIIa,/,'
forl1/1.' DI/k!.' oI I\'cllillglol/ lo el'lt'lwaft' 111,'
.,i(Ionl al Watt'rloo, litis lab/e 'lItrcpi'('c,
dL'siRIlt'd blf DOlllill"os Al/tOlt) d!' 5"I/llt'im
, .
ill 1816, ('as l/y t/t,' Fn'dl.
3 fI,, J1,'lIrr/ 1(',111-
C/,Il/Iit- Odio/, by R(1I>crl Lt'fi''I't',
1//,' pi/h his dmil'ill<'s, rlfllllR

/'111, (l/h' (1( lIi.. dl':'-ISIIS ill I/I,lmekgl"Oll11d.
193

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The Simplicily 01 American Silver
1 1<In /1/!'"'II/IIII"1/ 1'11I" /
l/ni ,., p'/II/ ",',,",," ,'1/1(1'1011 .
OIh' lflm" 1",,,"/lln/l., 111,'
l'I/N" I ,,',/II,. It JI//', 1/
11I" 1m",. /""11/-" e/Ir 1I/lIr
"/'II"I"/I<I",U. 'hIllSl""11
,', (/II,h". ','/t.,,\,- '/lId 11 /IIS/t
,/om.',I, rl,'," "'111,1,111 (11//111.
111'" ,l/I " 11I
') \/111,'11"",1111 ';:<1;; ISOO
",',/1/1 /U,\ /'11 is
.1", ,.,1.1 "1 d.', ('r,,/lelll, t!1I' simple
111111,"11I !ih'clt'd ::ide:;,
"'IIlt/"/II"lIkd II'il1l n simple
1111'.'("'1'/
1/1 u. '11ll/6/i1l.
Fluting and Fancy

2 Tllis c.J790 Icapol by Palll Rei.oere lms a

jllllei Qml body alld lapered cyliJldrica/ spolll.
T/e stand is lo malch tlleJllIled body.
A brig1lf-wt l!ngravcd ova/ cartouche (lJu/
floral simgs adorll Ihe poI. Ht 15.3clII/6ill.
3 Briglll-wt ellgravings ,j'ith swags and
tasse/s decorate I!lis c.1790 JllIted SlIgar IIr1l
by Palll Rei'erc. Ht 22.8cm!gill.

,
1 Part of n 1799 len nlld coffee ser.Jice by
Josepll Ricllardsol1 Jr. o[ P/i/adelpllia. TlJis
,l't'ddillg presell/ is silllp/.lI decomll!d witl,
brigltt-clIl t'llgm'illg Imd vendillg. Vas/'-
Sllllpl'd slIgar /JIlsillllt 27cm/tol.ill.
1

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194
lhe impact of the American Revolution meant that
both the import and home manufachrre of silvenvares
was interrupted between 177.5 and 1783. After the
Revolution, despite the political situation, Neoc1assical
forms and decorative motifs continued to derive from
British sources via imported silverwares, pattem books,
and trade catalogues. No system of assaying and legal
marking of silver was established, except in Baltimore in
1814, although there had been several attempts in
Philadelphia from 1753.
There are sorne splendid pieces of American-made
presentation silver, but it is the domestic tablewares,
particularly those for tea and coHee, which dominated thc
Illarket. Much Neoclassical sil ver was made in
Philadelphia, a Ieader in taste and elegance, by such
goldsllliths as Joseph Richardson (1711--84) and his son
J"scph Richardson Jr. 0752-1831) wltil tho outbreaks of
vdkm' fC\'er in 1793 and 1798. Many, including
gokbllliths, ned to Baltimore, which took over as the
L'piCL'lltrc of fashion. lhe cream jug made by the Boston
silversmith Paul Revere (1735--1818) 1795--1800, with its
plain faceted body, hexagonal base, and upswept handle
reflects the demand for simple, elegant vase shapes
adapting antique fomls for contemporary use. American
silversmiths adorned their silver with bright-cut
engraving, popular in England in the 17705, often in
delicate festoons. 1l1ese light-\'\'eight wares made from
flatted sheet, and sometimes fluted, echoed London-made
sil ver such as that supplied by the Batemans.
At the turn of the century simpler, plainer wares
became more popular, with large expanses of pIain
polished silver. By the early 19th century fornls were
becoming more robust and imperial imagery began to
appear, such as the eagle head spouts, typical of
sculptural castings of this period, on the John McMullin
(1765--1843) tea and coffee service of c.1820.
From the beginning of the 19th century the smaller
workshops began to face growing competition from
larger manufacturing and retailing firms, and forms and
dccorative motus became more standardized.
From Simplicity to the Growth of Grandeur

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2 TI/(" 1790-1810 /1'11 (1/,1.111 /111
folm \lclvlllllill of Plliladt'1J,JI/II
lms a plniJl o.'nl body, lte I/llfy
decomliOIl beillg {/ Jiglif bt'lld.'d
rimlo base nlld COl'er al/ll tl
simple sJie!d con! ojanlls.
HI16.jcm/6l.i1/.
3 loel & Jolm Snyre, probably o[
Ne.lt York Ci/y. madI' Ols tllrec-
picce tea 5ert'iCl' nlld coffee potI
1802-18. TI/e fllltelf Di'nl bodies
are ll(15t'li 011 c/nssicn/lIrJ1 forms
iuitll lzigh dOllled copers. Coffee
IHJf lit 33.jCm/IYin.
4 A cof{l.'e DI" tca 111"11, IIl1ufc bl
.. ,
Charles L. Bodl/lle of Ba/timore,
C.ISOO. 11 Itas n mse-sfmped body.
lt is IIl1adonJed. apnrl/I'o/ll
t]e beadwi bol'das (mi llnJ-
s//{Iped/illia/ <I'itll 1I1lt'lIgle 011
t][, lid. Hf 3i.jCm/1.fbll.
lj
,
2
1 Tllis I/UW-piCCl.' tea seri'ice ,pi// coffce poi H'I:'rl' madI' by IViJliam MOI//toll
of A!nssncJllIseff'i, ISoo-JO. AltJlOugl/ simply decoraft'd, fIJeorll/s hiuf ni a
1II0reJlnlllboymll 5ty!e, ,('it/ angufar 11(1111116 (llId fapt!ml, 5,cllri,t'd SpolltS.
1
3
The Influence of Empire
-

195
1 TIJe E/l/pire slyle cml lit' 5[...'1 ill t]is c.1820
four-piece ka anri coffet' 5erpice by jollll
l\.fcMllllill of Pllilad['/plla, lis imperial
1/e/lIde tite cagle's II{'ad for fhe sporlfs o/I/w
pots alld lIJe /ml/ds o/ c]ased pa/lllettes.
CoI/.:/! poI 11I 2i.3clII/lO/.II.
2 Tlle g/obll/ar /1OW/ o/ litis C.1S16 ml/d,
service by T/lOlI/flS FletcJu?r nlld Si.IIll',I/
Gardiner of Pltiladclpllia vear:; plll/11
si/l'l'r bul sifs 01/ a sI1Jl/JcJrt'II/'I/
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were let into Sheffic1d plate for engraving, and silver rims
were added to shield the plate from wear.
At a fifth of the cost of silver, Sheffield plate became
very popular. Trade catalogues first appeared in the late
17705, and those of Matthew Fenton & Co. in Sheffield
and Matthew Boulton in Birmingham shO\ved the great
variety of de5igns that \Vere available. Much was
exported to Europe, and although the French in parti-
cular tried to copy it, nothing matched the quality of
Boulton's Sheffield plateo By the 17805 many more forms
were available in Sheffield plate, from tureens and covers
to tea urns and toast racks. Perhaps the grandest pieces
were the combined tea and coffee machines, standing on
plinth5, which are reminiscent of the simple and striking
geometrical architecture of Ledoux. Sheffield platc did
not produce any innovation in design, but its popularity
helped disserninate silver pattems more ,videly than ever
before. Sheffield plate omy beca me redWldant when it
\Vas replaced with the even cheaper process of electro-
plating, introduced by the Elk.ington Brothers in ls.tO.

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1 Qlle 01n pufr al e17?5 5/It:ffield-p/nlc CQlldJesticks illspired by Frclldl

\I("ociassicislII. ft htl5 n Grcck key paltem. rallls'llCads, (lIId nflllfcd
IlOz:/e. Hf 29.5clII/11
2 Tfls Cflllri1l.-stick, by Mnft/'l'i:l' Fl'/I/OH, Cl/SO, cOlllbillt'S //lall.'!
dmrncteristics of tIIlllTl/j]'lpl'd sockef, file colrl11l11 pr6sed
witll c1assimlfigllrl'S (llIri Sl'tlgs, t'c/lOed ill fileOOI. Ht 29.)CIII/11/;i1l.
3 A clmllgefrom file sqrUlre fa trinllSI//arfor11l ({I1l be seell ill t/Jis el7N
cmrdlestick, made by MnU]Cil' 801l!tOIl of BlTlllinglJnIJl after a desigu by
James I\'yntt. Ht 29Cl1I/tdill.
4 A <'nriely of Neoc/assim/ C/lIIdlestick deSogllS for SIJe!ftefd plate (ll/ri
silt't'r ((111 be secll 011 this /"'SI' frolll/\lnttJl'lI' BOl/lto,,'s cl7So ptlltem
book, iudllding flllteri tnJX'ring Sft'lII$ nlld plnll COII/II/II$, nJl witIJ higll
stepped feet, some of il'/cJl lIrt' pilln. others decorateri.
S n,s pnge frolll R.M. Hirst S/IOi"S I1mt fhe 51u?ffieid pll1ters I/lIderstood
tlle principIes got'emillg c1l1ssiml lIrcJlitecfllre. TIJe Cfllldlt'stick to the le;ft
is Doric, f!le simplist onu ol co/mllll. tl,e Ollt' i" the middle Irmic. nnri
tlle olle 011 tllr rigflt Corilll1Jinll, tIJe //Ios/Iterora/h'e forlll.

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/,' "'7'/ //',,// ///I///"",,/ ,'", /,' /,'.',
- /, //'f' "..;/;,'/' // ....... /h ,..1, ... ......../ / .... /; /'''' /,/,',
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Shelfield plate was invented in 1742 b)' lhe Shellield
cutler Thomas Bolsover (1705-88). He discovered that
copper fused with silver under heat and pressure, with
both metals spreading at a uniform rateo The wlique
property 01 Shelfield plate that seIs it apart from other
plating processes is that the plating takes place before the
item is formed. However, it was not until Joseph Hancock
(1711-90), another Shelfield cuUer, started making
candlesticks that manufacture began on a comrnercial
scale. Copper was sandwiched between two silver sheets,
harnmered, heated, and roUed, and stamped with steel
dies to produce a variety of designs. There are few exam-
pies 01 Rococo Shelfield plate, but the s)'nunetr)', modular
construction, and repetitive architectural decoration
characteristic of Neoc1assical silver \Vas ideally suited to
this process of manufacture. The same dies were used to
ll1ilke both silver and Sheffield plate, the latter only
recognizable when the copper showed through the silver
aflcr "'car. Sheffield plate could be worked in the sarne
",ayas sil ver apart, of course, from casting. Discs of silver
Sheffield Plate and the Importance 01 the Candlestick

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AVariely 01 Forms
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/. 4. ".t,. fr.- E??_ f'// d.
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5
1 TI/t' C. l;SO illkstmul illc/lIl1e,,; a palmee pOi
il1 fltt' centre. TlI!.' simple piereed decora/iou
lile stand a lig"', elcgmll t-e/illg_
Ht 19.5(111/7/;11.
2 A :::Illl.' boa! (Il1d stand /IIade 111 lbc 1780s;
i 1:;. (1 ff('1l/1n kd101'11/. JIutiIIg, p/ai 11 {/ /"t'as, (lIId
IIps'il'epf lfllldh's I1rl' typiml o/ Nt'oc/a55icis/II.
L. 28.5clII/11 lill.
3 A tmdl! ami fO,. IVil/itl/ll Spooner & Co.
e. J 860, ,('/licl, iIIusl rafes 111.' I/U1II.'! fOrll/5 l/mi
5/11!.(fidd plaf.' took, 11Ie/lIdillg a ({llld/e s/luffa
(fop centre) alld UIII.'l MnJld (bottom rigM).
4 T/lis 1780 1II0l/ftl1 displaY5 nI! /ll1II511f11
wa.'c-slraped rim de:;iglled fo JlOld t/u' stt'IIIS of
l'iJi(' g/ns;;!.':::. TlIe ril/g-../mpe1 JUI/ldlcs dUl/glt-
fr011lliOll lIead 11/01/1115. Dia/ll. 25.-/(m/1oill.
5 In I1lis ndtwl sement for 11 combina/ion o/
lca (llld coffee 1lIf1c/liIl6. /l/1l1I.'! Neoc/assiCfll
c/I.'mellts are appnl'l.'I1/, illc/lIdillg file
gndroollillg, tlle ImflJ.l!f of tite stnlld nlld NVI/
POil' fel'f of ffll' 11rJ/S, t11(' fiol/ mn:;k //(1mfle$,
nlld tlh' fllltl!d ,?loblllnr bvdie:>.
" e
Ormolu: Early Forms
e
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3
3 Follorl'illg a 1758 d>sigl1 by
James "/ttllcllial/" Strmrt for
Kl'd/eslol1 Hall, DerlJysIJire, I/Jis
e/aborale tripod perfulI/l' bumer
with calldelabrum is mnde of:;:ilt
broll:e 011 a stalld ,1'11c1ll1Jatc1led
tlle allO.'e. Ht j3.3cm/21i1l.
1 All tI/c 11ecorntiOll 0/1 t//is 81/11-
mefn/ plnlt' ,{'(Irmer by Vicderieh
Nicolnl/S AlIderSOIl, 1760. fOI"
Ked/estol1 Hall, is madI' of
cOlltrastillg orlllo/u. T/e
c1nssicnlly illspirl!d II/oli/s jllelllde
cnryntids holdil/g Ilnllds, ill
Robl'rt AllfllI/'s Grecinn styfe.
HI 1l''3cm/.Uill,
2 TI/f' Titus dock by \Inffl,fil'
Bol/ltoll combilll'S ,'Ilite mnrb1c
nlld ormo/JI
fllldfigl/rl'. IVirll its cOmbillarioll
of strellglfl filld delicacy, orlllolu
'liS n perfeet /IInferinl for Sllell
</'fin's. Ht 2]'9CIII/l1ill.

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198
The word ormolu derives from the French for grow1d
gold, and it \Vas mercury-gilded anta cast bronze, brass,
or other metals. Onnolu was a luxury material in its own
right, but it was usually used in combination with other
expensive materials such as marble and porphyry. The
supplement to Diderot's Ellcyclopdie reported that while
gold leaf eost 90 livres an ounee, onnolu eost 104 livres an
ounee. It became popular in tile 18th eentury ,vhen it ,,,as
used fer the manufacture of decorative objects, especially
as mounts applied to hm1iture and ceramics.
As a French-associated product ormolu became highly
desirable in Britain, and it was greatly adrnired by the
nobility and gentry. The greatest exponent of onnolu was
thc Parisian Pierre Gouthiere (1732-c.1813), who
perfeeted. the technique of matt finishing to eontrast with
the high burnish. Between 1768 and 1782 it was
l1l<lnufactured by Matthew BouIton (1728-1809) in
I3irmingham, who often combined it with blue john and
mi1rbJe to crea te luxurious Neoclassical vases, perfume
burncrs (used to counter the smell of food), candelabra,
and cIocks, contrashng the glitter of the onnolu with
other precious materials.
Robert Adam, VVilliam Chambers, James "Athenian"
Stuart, and other architects aeated designs for ormolu,
which \Vere realized by Boulton and Diederich NicoJaus
Anderson (d.1767), a highly skilled immigrant from
Scandinavia specializing in om101u work. Adam's 1766
designs for the door knobs and eseutcheons for the
dining room at Kedleston Hall demonstrate the qualities
oE fine casting and detailed deJicate form far which
ormaJu ' ...'as so admired.
The bold shapes, decoration, and contrast typicaJ of
the Empire style \Vere brilliantly suited. to the use oE
ormolu, and trus can be seen on the pahnated copper vase
designed by Thomas Hope 0769-1831) and mounted by
AJexis Decaix, an migr from France. In Paris one of the
most skilled onnolu workshops at the time ,vas ron by
Pierre-Philippe Thomire 0751-1843>' who had trained
with Gouthiere, employed over eight hundred men, and
was much patronized by NapoJeon.
The Papularily al the Tripad Farm

v
1 Tllis "i.lI:Se-sllnpf:d verfllllle bllmer /IIf1d,' /1
t'/Jife IIInrble 1II01lllfed it'ilh ormolll by Boultol/
& FOfllergiJl's 5011(1 I\'orks, BirmillgllnJJl,
C.1777-8 tlle Neoc/nssicnl e1elllenfs
disp/nyed, lile bnse is of fripod forlll.
2 nls On/IO/JI nl/d Nuejo/m mse r.1S mf/ed
file Persian Candlevasem. Mnde by Bol/Ita"
& Fotllergill, 1772, it demOllsfrnft'S Boulloll's
effectii'e combillatiOIl ofpl/rp/isb Derbyshire
spnr (,ilU, gilt bro/!:e scu/plllre. Ht SUIIJ/JIl.
3 Adalll dto,;;glled l/lis 01'1110/1/ mOI/I/ted
door jl/mitl/re jor Kl'fflestoll Hall i/l 1766.
Nofe ti/e sYllllllefry o/ design tllnf rms fypienl
of Adam. Hf 13.9CIII/5Ii/l,
Ormalu and the Architects
1 Tllis e/nborate desigll for a dock 'as em'isiolled by Mnrchnlld,
The renli:ed i'l'rsiOI1 H'olild u/{le incorpornted onuo/u ill /11m/yo/ its
decornled areas, Sl/ell as fi,e wreath of /caves ellcirclillg the pedestnl base.
2 A LOl/is XV/ COllllllOde made ill l/le style of I-'I'eisweiler, wit/ a IIInrble
fOp nlld 01'1/10/11 1II01/111s, il1c1udillg the fema/e figures at /he comers nlld
decora/iou 01/ /he legs.L. 1.61II/5ft 6ill,
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3 TIll' Ilopc "/'l' .t',,,
by Y//{IlIIlb Ilt'l"'l 'S,'.' "lId
1I/IIlIIlt"IIIII' fl"'IlI\
T/I!' 01"11111/" """111/" IIh /uII.. tll,'
111'1',1. foil
,/lid /"'11'''1''''1' '-'"
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2 Tltis [11ft> J8t1I-ulllllry Gml/flI
/ureell ;$ mnde of pCiI'tr:r. ft 11fl:;
llf1limJ Nl'oc/fI$sicfll (M!IIre:,>, .pi,I,
. .
(/ ,/aiu amI body, IIP;;t'l'pt wirt'
/ltllldlcs, tl//d nCflst 11m.fil/in/.
JIt /,I'it11 co<.w) 29.2(11I/11 :/11.
3 /l/lIes Hnrrisoll (177G-97)
/IIadt' tllis AlJIl'rici1/1 1m/ss
omdksl,k. 1t has n silllpleonll,
n/mas' It',.'oid oI decorntioll .{'illt
fl sI/liare Im;;e. HI 1{.8cl/I/7/11.

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2 Glll' 01 a pnir offin' gmf6 mldll'lIdt"'; nttr/lllfed fo Adlllll. The
dt'.;igll l/e/mh>:> '5I.',/-""lIfil/(' .(-lIIft'r,. ill Jlit'fI,."d 111/ flll'lJliOlI Imfkm ';111'1101'/1'11
bl (llIkd COIIllIIll,.. Tllt' {.'/hlt',,. Imt', 'Il f,:ef. Gmfe ,1'. 96.jCIII/;Sl1.
- - - ,
2
11
Paktong
1 \Jade o/ paktollg. el 790, tlli;; s of Cori,,/llm col/11l11/ forlll
1I'il/l skl'lNd Ill/d gadrooned Ims,', Ht 27C111/101./11.
Pewter and Brass
I 11I1//'llm..,; I'0l/lll/lr sihw SIIflI1t'5 lid dlcom/ioll. /11;5 c. 1770 Ellg/ish
1',-,1'11'1" /O/'I/YO ba.. s ami inlorlll fll1d decomted witll mI o,'n/ (nr/vl/dlt',
/'''Slll-tlll t'IIgrm"l'd /flurellxmter, (md bt'aded IlOse. Ht 10.5[11I14;11.
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The high cost of preciolls metals rncant that cheaper
slIbstitutes were desirable. Pewter, an allov of cad, was
,
d1eap and couJd be polished to a sil\-er-like sheen, while
brass gave a gleam. Objects made from them
copicd the fom1 and decoration of sil\'er and gold, and
disseminated fashionable design among cOllsumers who
could not afford the originals on which they were based.
These base metals were superseded by new, improved
alloys invented in the 18th cenhlry that were harder than
pewter and easier to ",erk than brass. Paktong, an aIloy
of copper, nickel, and zinc, "'as imported from China in
the 18th century. lt was tarnishresistant and ideal fer fue
grates - several were designcd for Adam interiors - as
weH as fer candlesocks. De\'elopments in smelting pro-
duced harder iron and steel. The Carron ironworks in
Scotl<lI1d specia lized in the production of cast iron and
:,tecl grates cast with fashionablc Neoclassical festoons
and paterae to match the interiors for which they were
destincd. In Oxfordshre and Birmingham, steel was cut
and polished to make buck1es, bllttOns, and sword hilts.
\Vhile Britain led the field in developing new metals,
the cut steel factory at Tula in Russia was one of the few
to challenge their ead. Staffed by foreign workers, it pro-
duced decorati\'e wares such as candlesticks
that combined cut and bumished steel with softer metals
such as bronze, brass, and wruch were d1ased and
gilt. In Pars, steel was combined with gilt-bronze to
produce exotic, highly \\'orked fllrniture. The hardness of
the material meant that it could only be worked by highly
skilled crafsmen, making it expensive to bu)'.
At the cheaper end of the market there \Vas a fashion
in the later 18th century for painted base metals. At
Pontypool in Morunouthshire a process oE dipping iron in
tin \Vas combined with a ne\\' \'arnish to make Pontypool
\Vare, or tleware. By the 17705 it had become popular,
and followed Neoclassical shapes and decoration.
Seen as exotic nm"eltes, the design of objects made in
these new materials always foUowed fashion. ll1ey \Vere
admired as much for their llmm'ation as for the material
from which thev were made.

The New lron and Steel

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lo nCCOl/IlI/odaf<' c/nssimf
TlIisfil'l! grnh' 1';'.1/
rol/llde/s ami s<l'ngs ill /gll/l/lId
delicnt' re/hi, mili t/le :::;/et'1 mela
is (lit fa IItnke il /igllt aun
cOlltms! <litll tI/(: CfIst roll. By
Cnrmlllrol1works, (.1790.
2 A l'air of :,tet'/ :,110/.' bllck1e;;,
/linde in BirlllillghmJl e.1780,
w/lidl imitnted /llore expel/;;j'(
dialllolld om';;, bllt wen'
las/liollable ill tlteir 0il'1I
1
1 TlIISC.1785-1SoostCl'l
CllJldlestick ,/I;11t npplied gi/t-
brOIl:' dt'corntiOIl WflS made
nI flll! Tufo laclor!! ill Rr/ssin.
Slnffl.'d byjorgll tl'Orkmcl1.
desiSI1:> dai'crolll tllt' 1't'Stem
EllropCflll fasfliolls t/lt'H llro/lg1lf
,PifiE ti/cm. HI 31.8clIl!l:zlill.
2 T/s LOll::: XVI FWICII MM!'
im5 /liad!' 01 stceltllld gi/I/mm:e
ami giliil'd ill tlm't' folles. Th,.
polisl1ed slcel H'flS 111l0'eIt1f,
'('iIlS diffiCll/l fo il'ork ,itJI (fIld
(xpt'llsi'-'l!. TI//! iJl::-et \'crde
antico tal' ,as atlded al a [ah'/'
date. IV. q60Jl/5,:ill.
Gilt-Bronze Decoration
1
Painted Metal
2_
n

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1 TIJis late JSO/-UlltIlTY Dllldl CTllt" sfm/d ims IImlle DI peil'/er mui
pnillkd. lt 1m,:; n "fmllped off10rnl fl'stoo/ls nlld pi/nstl'rs, nlld
Grct'k key rl'ith Iml fiuin/s.
2 A pnir ol enrly 19th-Lell/IIT.!' Vd,,11 japmlllnf Icwter c//6tllllt ImlS
<pit/ disfled lids nud tnll Jillil/k TlIl' /lf.I/l'$ an' I'niu"'d j!itll rIIml ,,(l!IIes
nl/d ndorw:d ,pit/ /iOllll/ask nl/d ril/S }lIl1Jdlt's. Ht 3lCJl/l:!l.ill.
201
;
Textiles and Wallpaper
Architectural
1 "Got1jek" s!IICCQ-l'ork pllpa, M'?ffal-Lndd
House, POI'ISI/10Ilfh, Nerl' Hnll1psl/irc, (.1760.
Nl'oclnssica/ tl'nllpaper pallenl:' deril'cdmm
milI/Y SOllras, in l/lis CflSl' din.'Ctly fr01l/ pln,,-
tt'nl'l.lrk, IJ/ he so-<aJkd Ca/llie 5tH!!" 2
'",-
2 The trnde card of lvfntt1as Dar/y, mllter,
ellgra,'er, nlld {1{Ipt'r stailJer. ShOi,illg mllpa-
Iltrs ill "\,Jooem" (Neoc/nssica1), Gothc. or
C/llt'Sl' lastes, LOlldoll. C.176o-70.
3 Pillar-{lIld-llrc11 palJt:r, slelll:ilft:li allli block-
prilltl'd, pro/m/lly BostOIl, 1787--<]0, s]owillS
thl' uf/1II'IIce 01c/assical arclli!cctllrc. SUc/1
papas "'ere IJfll'tiCII/arly poplllar il1 AlIlaica.
4 Block-pl'illted "dcmy" (feferril/g fo ile lilllit-
ed cololll' Im/ettc), cofton ehilll:, BllIlllislel'
HalL Lnllcn:;IJirt'. EI/g/mul, C.1805, witll
Golllie pillllrs illc1l1dl'd ;1/ tllt' (Iesigll.
5 IVillialll KillJllI'll dt':;igll forflll"llis/lillg
c1/illt:, \Val/lIglolI, SlIrn'y, ElIglnlld, C.1791.
Hae, plastcll'ork dt'mcnls prol'irle lile orgnlli-
:ntiOllfll sfrucfllrr for IT floral sfripe.
6
6 La tvlarchancle d'amours, roller-prilllrd
cot tOIl, O/lerkampf, fouy, Fl"I1IIce, 1817- FrOIll
C.1795-18:!O. purists fOlllld illspirlltioll in
origillal sol/m'S slIdl as deglls Jor Nroc/assical
1,/aster.l'Ork (Sl'e 2, bo/tOIll grollp, oppositeJ.
202
M
an
y
Neoclassical pattems overiap in time with
those of the late Rococo, but are distinguished
fraro them by the prevailing characteristic of a light-
handed formality and the inflLlence of ardlitecture and
plastcrwork, a feanlIe that it is particularly noticeable i.n
"scenic" textile designs. The organizational strucntre
becomes simpler, even though the final effect roay still
appear complexo This .is a style based on swags, trellises,
stripes, and their related arrangement, grotesques.
Despite this, it is also the period when naturalistie ren-
derings of fieId and garden Amvers reached their apex;
such free-flowing dcsigns co-existed with those employ-
ing both realistie and stylized blooms forced to conform
to an over-riding strueture.
Se\'eral types of arcrutecturaJ omament appear fre-
qucntly in Neoclassieal textile pattems. Imitations of stue-
eo or plastenvork in wallpaper are a logieal extension of
thc suppl)' of papier-mkh omaments, wmch was also
part o( thc wallpaper trade at this time. Plasterwork roa)'
provided a framework fer floral motifs. From about 1760
to 1810, depietions of colll.m..ns and arches \Vere also a
SOLHce of partems. Towards the end of this period both
elements are combined in trolllpe J'oeil Aoor-to-ceiling
waH eoverings known as deor or fresco papers, and the
same principIe can less often be fOlUld at work in \\laven
and embroidered wall-hangings. 80th Gotllic and ciassi-
cal architectural feanlIes are sources for all these types of
pattems, which remained popular nto thc 18705.
However, the numerou5 illustrated accounts of rediseo\'-
ered aneient si tes and artifacts gave ciassieal omament
wider circulation and it is thcse that domjnate during the
Napoleonic period,
lllustrations of all subjects ",ere cuJled for seenic
designs. Aside from temples and ruins, operas and plays,
wildlife, politieal events, trophies, and both real and
m)'thological figures are the m05t typical subjects. Their
arrangement falls roughly into three periods. In the 17605
and 17705 patterns are orgaruzed around "islands" or
Scenic Islands
1 Lethe, or Acsop in the 1,la/'-
priIlledjl/sl fin i 11 ehi 11/1 bluf! pi/11 Sl."t'lle, Ji. ,,,,
II 1,1ny by Dnl'id Gnrrick fllld fig//rt'S fnl/ll
prillts by Cnllriel nl/n A. A!osk.l',
J 66---.. eoltoll al/d [il/ell. The c/assic X'/e
pnttems, knOil'lI as toile de ]ouy, aJlJlI)lIgh
a ft'e/miqlle al copxrp/ate prilltillg
Je1lecfed illll't'itllld by 1752, H'ere ofl!!/!
eoml/illalioll:; of Romeo illfOI'IIIt1/ity t1lld
Nl!OClnssical SCf.'lIic dl'lIIellfs.
2 Block-priJlfl'dfllrJIishillg chint::, Pcd & COo,
CJllIrcJI &Ilk. Ellglnnd. t8u. TIle fastejor
erocdillg fIJe $Ce/les 011 textiles tl/tlt dl!i.'t'/ollt'd
jrolll tlle 1790S is t':'pt.'cinlly 'i.'idellf ill tlle
,"t'piml of scellic "is/nlld" desiglls, oftell
ellilloist'l"ie ill sly/e.
Framed Scenics
1 Yl7l1pllper by AppldulJ
Prel1fiss, BostOII, 1791. As IJe
Neoc!assicnl pcriod progressed,
arrnllgt'lIIl.'llts oj sce/lie J'lltfems
becalllt' /llore ordered t}rollg/l
rile illfrod/lctioll 01mI/u!;;,
cnrfollc/ws, OT rOlwdl!ls. SI/eh
fnlll/l'd pl1/1ems lIIigllt bt'
large 01' SlIIfll!, aud nlso appcared
0/1 iI'eflt'es al/d 011 ,m/1paper5,
as heTeo
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2 Dctni/ oj a page depicfillg plaquesmm
/osepll Bt'IIlIal's Designs for Architecrural
Ornaments (Paris, C.18t3). SI/ch origillal
solfrce lIlaterial illllsfrntillg allcimf sit,>:; m:;
faitliflllly illc0'1l(1rnfed by sollle fextile
dl':;igl1ers.
3 B/ock-prillled cofto", Fmllcis & (roak, (01'1'111
Gardm, LOlldoll, 1792. T/1I.' lmckgl"lllllld
of orJIalllt'lltatioll. ill kel'pillg il'it/ CtIllI'IIIJ1
ornry tastf. SI/ch sepnrafedfmlllt,.I/1/o/!f... ,1'1'1",'
ideal for co'ering c!/tIir SI'a/:,; mld 1"It-/,;.;. .
, .
.. 1'"" ., l.
"'".".
2
4 L' Allgorie aI'amour Cupidon and
Ps\'che, rolfer-printc:d ealfoJl, Fa.'re, Petitpierre
& Cie, Nalltes, frailee. 1815_ TI't' trell.l tOttYlrds
dellsityfrom fIJe fnle 18t/ cnlfllry len lo scenes
e/ose/y sel 011 bnsilyfigured c%ll1"t'd grollllds. 4
Swags
1 NI.'cdkpoilllllll ,', '\1,,\1'10'/11
FrmU",'.l'.I-S, '",'""," ,-/11/,'
.. I"f' .1/,' ' ... , /,/ ,JI /1/
tl,nl .I/U/"''-'' It ,1 111,1/1' " l/t.
"''''/'./1 1,11, 1/,. /"
,/ IlIlwr",,/ ../ 11,. ,1.1\ 1/1111<1. I
1/ 11, J

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4 Silk dflllllJ,;.k by Lac05lal &
Cit' for Ver:,ailli'';'. 1812.-13. TI/e
:;img,;. Ol! fIJij dallll'/,;.k are tn:atl!d
a,;. sfylb'd flora/boil'er:;, I'/lId
/IIH'{' a 1,/nstertmrk-Iike ,;o/illity
l'lItirl.'1l' compatible i{'itl, pur.'
Xl'tlC/assical rlesigll:i-.

3 Block-I'rillte.j cottOIl
(olllllel"mIlC, joJm He"SOII,
P/ilnddpilin, 1790-1800. Oft('ll
dep/ol/l'd as /lordel",:; ;'1 /11;:;;
I'aiod. simss //l/da tlll'
oI.\'eocl115$icaf r(',:;lmillf C()I/M '
,'/'n/ su!Jtl'.
3
2 Cn.UO.I/ dtlllmsk-sfylcf/ock.',f
paper, prolmbly Britis/,
C.1750--60. More l/In!! amI (),!le/"
/l/o/!f. Sl'dgs dl'lIlOlIstmtc tI/c
i 11fl'r-re/ariol/sll/p /lt./ 'Cl'l/ Romeo
mili .\'l'OC/assim{ /l'1/tt'm::.
illlrodl/' n Rtl((J(o tOlleh ha,',
n'l/Ift'Tl'd n'i' bl/lltillg.
2
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are a150 aspect5 of Rococo design5. Dl1ring the 17805 ano
17905 a more ordered format prevail5, with motifs
contained within cartouchcs, 0\'aI5, rotmdels, and the
like. Early in the 19th century, the hcight of printed
repeats is often reduced, resulting in designs, whether of
the revived island type or plaster\\'ork-inspired, with a
cramped appearance.
As a source of pattern details, swags and draperies
based on real fabric treatments \Vere the principal
altemative to plasterwork struchues throughout the
periodo From the 1760s to 1790s these most often imitate
sl1spended bunting, espeeially in damasks and
style papers. Less overt variations depict floral bowers
instead. Thc very small background patterns often
incorporated into printed wallpaper designs - of this type
,111d others - is also in imitation of textiles, replicating the
lin-Iy surfaces of minutely patterned velvets and laces.
A... 1800 approaches, the cun'e of the s",ag becomes very
... h.ll1o\\', only gradually to rehUI1 to a more generous
proportion by abol1t 1810 to 1815. Faux draperies \Vere a
feahlre of many wallpapers and borders, but can also be
found depicted in all typcs of textiles.
Trellises and their natural accompaniment, sprigs, are
perennial pattern types that nevertheless were
particularly popular in the Neoclassical periodo Their
treahllent may incorporate a suggestion of ribbons 01'
architech.ual ornament. However, even when the design
appears complex, such as a lattice-work intertwined with
vines, the struchue is cIear. The single sprig 01' spot
patterns that are often positioned within trellises \Vere
also widely used as all-over patterns. These were
particularly important for cotton textile printers who
were graduaUy mechanizing their production ITom the
1780s onwards, and beca me the stapIe for dress cottons
for more than a ccntury thereafter.
Stripes of many types are 3ssociated with this periodo
Often it is their inclusion in a pattern that defines it as
being Neoc1assical rather than Rococo. The evolution of
an asymmetrical \'ertical pattem into l symmetrical one
indicates the same trend; it is not uncommQn to find
Swags, Trellises, and Sprigs
1
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5 Snlllplt llook 01 rol/a- nlld b[ock-prilIted caltol/s, !ollat/Iflll P.'e/, CllI/rc1/
Bnllk, LnncnslJirl!, 1806-J7. Sprigs 1'hellllSt'd afolle il'tW oflm n/iglll'd
nlollg crossillg dingoJla/hl/cs.
6 Desigll fol' iJ/ock-prill/ed chin!:, Bnlllli5fer Hall, u1IICflsllirt'.
1806. Tre1liS6 f1fpicnl/lj becnJ1le II/on.' prollliJlellf as tll/.' Neoc!assicn!
. .
periad progrt'$sed. 205
I
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ti !i
11

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5
Stripes
1
1 Brocnded silk, FrnllCt', 1;60-0.
5tripes /'Ot11 simple nlld mil/JI/ex
{'ere i/le/l/ded ill ll/allY
Neoc/assical desiglls. A fa'OlIrite
IIIOti[ slmred {'itll/ale Romeo
JlatleTlls {'as a stripe cOlllposed o/
illterlillked II/l'mldcrs.
2 The One Slripe Net.>dlc\\"ork
Flower Pot Chinlz Border,
block-prinfed by 8mlllisler Hall.
Lallcnshire,for RicJlard 01'ey,
LOlldoll, 1805. Frolll a[ouf 1790
fo 1815 mld beyolld,florn/ stripes
n/lolll/di'd. Tites.' could be as
pide liS 35clII/J31.i1l, liS t/lis
border delllollstmlcs.
Intricate Stripes

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1 Domino C.li50,
Frailee, bfack-l'l'illled (l/uf
stellcil1ed 01/ }mut/llnde pnJwr. 111
l/lis ,'ariant 011 stripe:; composed
oi interlillked lIIenJlders, tite
armllgl'IIIl'lIf ;5 /lloreol"lllal {lnd
ti/e IIIc(lIIders {1ft' cOl1lailled
pit/lill aMiliolla/stripc;;.
2 Block-prill/ed cottOIl, Le:;(mrd.
Allgel"S, Fml/cl', 1786. Tl5/all'r
Nrocla;;,;icnJ lextik "dI/des
COlltorted meal/das t/JfII apllCilr
Ntrappt'd" ,dtllh, a slripe.
1 2
206
similar pairs of asyrnmetrical/symmetrical designs fr0111
about 1760 unol the 17805. In weaving, stripes are easily
added as a background to other motifs, a device that
gained in popularity from the late 17505 onwards.
However, from the eady 17705 thc motifs tend to be
positioned within the stripes, rather than across them.
The stripcs themselves also become less varied in width
and number and, by about 1780, settle nto an
arrangement of h"o roughly equal-sized stripes, one ,vith
a more distinct pattern. Double suipes also emerge in
printed fabrics and wallpapers, although their relative
scale remains varied. Many stripes were designed to be
used as side-by-side repeats and, cut away, as borders, a
flexibility reinforced visually by the inclusion of a narro",
edging suipe.
Related to stripes in their strong vertical emphasis are
patterns. Typically incorporating images of
fi.;ures or Clnimals, they were inspired by the elongated
dL'signs found in Renaissance grottoes. At their most
e1,lbori1te as wall-coverings, they are related to dcor,
with no repeat from top to bottom. A master of this genre
was }ean-Dmosthcnc Dugourc (1749-1825), a designer
who worked in several European courts and in 1782
published a series of engravings cntitled d'AmbesfJlIes
(designs consisting solely of curling flowers and foliage
are today known in English as arabesque patterns). 111C
fashion for grotesques existed from the 1780s until the
eady 1800s, although latterly they appear more typically
in large borders, rather than as all-over patterns. Their
legac)' remains in post-18l0 Empire designs with
elongated forms.
Towards the end of the 18th centurv, two factors
,
brought naturalism to the fore. One was the Romantic
i\lm'ement and its concern with the relationship bctwcen
pecple and their nah.tra} environment. 111is favoured the
depiction of field and forest flowers and foliage, arranged
to suggest random growth. The other was the increasing
issue of hand-coloured engraved plates iJlustrating
botanicaI specimens, many depicted in their habitat or as
informal posies. V\'hile flower painting had long
.' ,
'-,


3 Blockprillte,j JXlpt'r nlld borda. New
ElIg/nlld, 18oQ-lj. Tlle DlIfer eriges ofjloral
sfript':> gradllal/y bccnll/l' /llore fluid (l11d
I/n/umlistc dl/fillg tlle period, rn/her t!UlII
sfrnigllt 01' Ilcnrfy so.
4 De:;igl/ by jeallDe/l/ostJ,t-Il' DI/gol/re
Jor Amlljllt'=. Spaill. C.1786, 'hic/
incorpora/es grotesqllc pnttems nrOIlJld
dcpictiolls of !tn/imwlc SCCIlf'S. TI/e pertical
!rmllc1l'o/'k d,idl's t/u.' pI/l/e/ n/o pllal are
csscl/tia/ly Il1Ig.:, (ompkx s/ri/h's.
4 5
5 Blod:-prill"'d JlII/'I" ,1'1/11
Egyptinlll11olif... .IlW /111'
drnl,illg mOIll,
Bt'ltfordsflirt', ElIg/al/d, ISO(l_
Tapien! desigll5 apJ.Il'aml ill
slriIJe:;alld i('al' C'spt'citllly
!as/Jiollab/e as borders, com/liunl
iPi// Ireflis or sprig pll/tl'l'lI::.
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3 Block-pril/fl'd chilll:, II:lli
Moon and Sen:,n Sllr..
Furniture, Jlrill/j'll'.I( HIIIIIIl"/,'
Hall, Lallfll::/irl', (". l. /,lId
Qpl'Y, 180';. 1.111,'1'
d6igll:: P'fl' IIIdd'f,'' ti 1111/1,.,1/"
for cnn. ...d I'i/II....
4 Frt'llfll .... i/k ",/,...I. 1111' 1<1/,'
gmlc......JII. 1111111'1" 1II""III'lf
IIY /,III""/,,,n',k. 11 inh 11... 11 ,11
lile Uy..... ", 1'11111.1', f'an..... i" rS.;8
I/IId 11/ l.m/,IIIIC'OI/. CIS50.lmd
111/11(1, ..... !l/l' uf
IIr'wll I '1III'i",' IliSI/:=.
4
2 Embroidcred salill aJ'plifllld i('itil slU/ded "e/'cf {//J(f chezil/c, a/l,.ibllfcd
lo /C{//I-Frall(ois &my, Fral/U, 1795"""'9. Se/dolJl el/lire/y SYlI/lJlelricnl,
cmphasis 1ICi.'Crtfle/esseU 01/ fIEl' groft'Sl]lIc pnttem's ..wlica/ celltre filie.
2
1 5ilk lampas (COllllJOlIlld 1'Clli'C). LYOIIS, 1790-2. Grotcsqllc pnltcms
ll'ere g{'//crally cousslent witll tl,d,. illspirntioll, illcorporntil/g
scro/lil'ork, (ameos. c/lerllbs, frophies. (l11d l/le like.
Grotesques
1
Naturalism
5
4
1 D'sigll for ti prill!ed fexli/e
by IViJlifllJl KiflJllrJI, C. T790.
Nnfl/mfiSIIl , lile J\h'OC/t1'Ssim/
period '11'/15 Ilor simpfy tl matra
o[ rt'nlisJJI JI ti/e drn'illg. but
n/50 Ik'rtnil/l.'d fo tl1e strucfllre of
flllflltem. IJI nll--OPt'r pnttems.
lIIo/ir... appenr fa ml/der o<'('r tite
sl/rfna f7l1d l/u.' n'peal is oltell
disglli:::ed.
2 Embroidery fllld nppliqll Cl/!
tulle (lnd falfeta. FrnIlCt'.
C.1795-1805. AltJlOl/glI sddolll
illtenlJiJlgled. /lntl/mlisric
pattems ('en' plan'ji ndincmf
lo ;;trile/l/mi repl'llts slIdl tlS
Sfa/e motift.
3 Bordafroll1 /OSt'pl1 8t'lIJltll"s
Designs for Archileclural
Ornaments (Pad:;, elSI 3'.
E,'clI I'//{'I/ dl'sigllcd 1/5 boniers,
a IlfltllrnJislic nrrnJlgeml'll/
is 'l:'id('II' ill Ibis p/atc,
4 Block-prilllt'd rmllpnpcr,
Frrlllc;', C.1S00. Despile ,!ldr
tll "1'1'11i/IIt'llsiolla! re IderilIS,
flornl sprnys and 'les -uere
typically p!aced agaillsl millllle/y
pallemcd or solid-c%llred
gl"t)/mds, I1ms clllplznsi:illg tI'O
plallcs - fislI re mul grollluf -
mlll!!r Ilmll mI o'crnll trompe
l'oeil !!ff!!c/.
5 Silk damask, Cnmill!!
I'entoll for Sailll-Cloud, 1801-5,
SUell eloll/, witil a dOllllllall1
IInturnJistic pnllel"ll o/ n sil/g/e
p/tlllf /01"/11, ill tlJis ense file onk,
oflt'lI ('lIIplwsi:cd tllI.' sen/e al1d
I,roporfiolls of-{'(1lfs. ClIrfaills,
alld funtisJlil/f?S.
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infom1ed pattero design, these plates were far more
widely available, Sorne ",ho produced them \Vere also
designers, such as the English calico printer \,yilliam
Kilburn (17-15-1818), The illustrator best kno",n for his
impact on pattern design is Pierre-Joseph Redout
0739-18-l0), who supplied plates for various \Vorks from
178-1 and his own volumes from 1803-24.
An informal quality obtains in the patterns thus
influenced, whether arranged. as all-overs, borders, or
bunches, and sorne plants and trees were especial1y
favoured: roses, strawbenies, thistles, clover, and acorns
and oak leaves. ll1e emblematic siglficance of such
motifs was still widelv understood at this time, with
,
imagery from oak trees, for example, recognized as
dcnoting permanence and strength.
Even at the height of the fashion for naturalism,
floml patterns were created, many influenced by
tL',ti!cs from the Indian subcontinent. However, in
kl'l'ping with Romantic notions, the result often suggests
Ci1S11illly tossed leaves or sprigs. In addition, realistic
depictions of plants and flo\\"ers \\'ere sometimes
employed as the internal decoration within leaves and
petals. Coral and vermicelli, with their equally lively
forms, were also elements of the designer's repertoire,
The most lasting of internally decorated shapes is the
bote/ (meaning flower), evolving among Persian and
Kashmir shawl weavers bv about 1790 into its distinctive
,
cone shape_ Scarce and cO\'eted, these shawls by about
1805 to 1810 had initiated European imitations, hom
which arose the manufacturing speciality of Paisley, in
Scotland. As a result, now known as paisley patterns and
then also called cashmeres, such exoticized floral fom1s
became an important aspect of European designers'
visual vocabulary. In particular, their stylized sprigs
(used aH over) and borders appear in many repeat
patterns, During the Napoleonic Empire, stylized
Egyptian-inspired plants also adorned designs but,
Kashmiri motifs aside, the lasting legacy of floral patterns
to the following decades was realism, which even
softened architecturally inspired late-Empire designs.
Nature Rearranged
1

2
1 Fn'llcll "ilk r/nUln5k /'!I 01ltilliell (Inri
Tili/eyn' fin \1t'fsni/lcs, 1811. TI1e:;e file/l/Y
distribl/tt'd I'<)sit'=' are 1U'wflll'll'S::' tren/ro
l/ni IfmlsI icnfJ!/.
2 J. (Germm}
Hl'lIri Hnr/,:/, 1;9,. /1/ock-prilltt'd
HtWS:i-IJItWII, Logdll(/cf, Camal/Y. fmm tite
<'flCtllmlnry olllldiaH textiles Ctlmi' :mcfl lt'nr-
dTO!' boleh fOnl/s.
3 Block-pl'illlt'd l'IlfJpapcr bQl'dt'rs,
C.17So-1STO. Tile proliferntioll ofprinted
mI/papas (11/(1 textile:, dllrillg l/lis perlad
enwl/rased ti wide I1lld illi't'I1/;"t' tnnge vf
pl1tfems lm$rd 01/ p/nll! lije.
4 Si/k dall/u$k, proollced ill FmIlCt' (01" he
Pnfn:::o dd QuiTilla/e, ROl/u', 1813. Higllfy
stylb.'cf plul/t orll/s SUe/1 tlS pnPY"''' (alllldillg
lo Xapl/col/'s ((mlpaigll} 'l'rt' lIIost
oftell rt!$t!ri.'('d.{or grotesqul' mUerm.
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5 Rosettesfromfoseph Bt'//I/jlt'..
Designs far Archilectural
Ornarncnts (Pars. C.1ST.,J.
Here. styli:t'd.floT<1f fortl/:'
nppenr n pl/lsh'ncork-fiI'
desiglls. f'm .;,tI, ,/iS/I! 111I.1
/pe1tl IOllclljlft'l"l...
6 Brocndcd .. ji/.:,
COl/sill & /301/!/ JlI" VI'I",;rlin,,;,
1812-15. Ul ' I/h' ro';'I'lIe"ji'lllll
BeII! 111/ '" poi /c'1'II I/Ouk, 1116('
,;,'11Ii, 111/11mIj .. / h- {loml for",::,
ft:fa I(! /,II/,:,/c'rnwk 1'1l1l<"II;;
t!f Iflt' IlIIlt',
209
Furniture 214
Gothic Revival 214
Eliz<lbelhan Revival 216
Aenaissance Revival 218
Aococo Revival 220
Exhibrlion Furniture 222
Tcchniques and Materials 224
Ceramics 228
British 228
French 230
Olher European and American 232
Historie Revivals
Design during the 19th century was inlluenced by eclectic historical styles,
the pervasive effects 01 the Industrial Revolution, and the international
exhibitions that showcased design trends. Writing in the House Decorator's
and Painter's Guide in 1840, H.w. and A. Arrowsmith observed that "the
present age is distinguished Irom all others in having no style which can
be properly called its own." Certainly by this point in history, designers in
Europe and the United States had an increasingly bewildering variety 01
styles from which they could draw as they responded to the latest fashions.

G1ass 234
British 234
Ott1er European and American 236
Techniques and MateriaJs 238
Silver and Metalwork 242
Textiles 244
Upholstery 246
Wallpaper 248
e
OIbWl1ers couId choose from l ,afiet)' of objects
created in a range of styles, fmm Gothic Revival to
Modern Grecian or from Elizabethan to Rococo Revival.
The past \Vas pillaged, through engravings and publica-
tions, to provide inspiration for designers bus)' trying to
provide for a public which (according to the 1849 ouma/
of Desigll) had "a morbid craving for novelt)' without
regard to intrinsic goodness."
For some the choiees available were too confusing. In
response, works such as J.e. Loudon's Ellcyclopaedin 01
Cottage Farm alld Villa Arcllitectlfre alld Fumitllre (1833) and
the American A.J. Downing's TIle Arcllitectl/re 01 COlllltry
HO/Ises (1850) were published with informatian about ho",
the new styles could be used and where they might be
appropriate. Downing, for example, felt the Elizabethan
taste to be ideal for the houses of collectoTS, or those who
had recently moved to the US from the OJd World and
wanted to be reminded of the homes they left behind.
Both volumes featureci furniture in a bulky classical
taste, termed by Loudon "the Grecian or modern style,"
which he described as "most prevalent." Despite the
altematives, classically inspired design continued to play
a part in furnishing tastes throughout the century,
providing consumers "'ith, on the one hand, a range of
salid unpretentious furniture and on the other with
elaborate reworkings of ancient or Neoclassical motifs.
But the trend to\\'ards stylistic vmiety was not ne\\'o
Eighteenth and early 19th-century design, although
dominated by c1assical sourccs, had begtUl to take a greater
interest in a more varied cultural past.ln England, Gothic
motifs had been periodically fas!lionable during the 18th
century, but had been of a light, almost playful nature. By
the 19th century, this whimsical version of Gothic was
slowly replaced by an increasingly scholarly approach.
Publications such as Thomas Rickman's AtteJllpf fa
Discrimillafe tlle 5tyles of Ellglisll Arcllitecfl/re (1817) and the
writings and dcsigns of A.W.i\". Pugin ga\"e the style a
gravity and moral importance that appealed to high-
minded people in Europe and tlle USo However, for
many it \Vas siropl), admired for its picturesquc qualities.
:'ft: elabomfe floml
dt'(ornliOll, fllefil/ial. mili tJ/l'forlll
of t'lis coffi-e poi, from a fl'tl
aJld cofji:e SCJ.'icl' made by Sallllle/
Kil'k & SOIl in Bnltimore,
Manl/and, (.185, is in the
Neo-Romeo s/y/e. Tile s/lp al1d
sl'1lfrol11 tOll'll nn'11Op"far
ti/emes (lll American
H/36cm/ql..ill.
Opposite: tlle Crent Ex/Jibitiol1
01 the IVorks 01 /I/dusl ry 011'111
Naliol/s, 11/01'1' cOllll1lOl1ly klroI'1/
as lIJe Creat ExIJibition, :pas u'M
in J8jl al tlll' bllilt
Crystnl Palaa in London. 11
illc/lldl',11lJis Medie.ml COllrt,
by tf/e progres::h't'
Cathiei::f A. IV.N. PI/gin
(1811-52), hiell di::pla!fed
eee/esiaslienl alld dome:;lie
IlInJi::Jillgs b.l' h'ndil/g mnka::.
Gol/le Rei.'hnlla,,/e ill al1 ib
glli:>es m:: Ollt' of ti/e /1/0::1
:;tyles i// 19111-
n'lllul"Il El/rapt' alld the US.

-------------------------------------------
1 Crc(1/edforf/(' o( PI"jH(6Se \!n/hi/de in the 18605, lIis
RCIU::Snll' R,,'ir'(ll ill/trip/, d('((lrrl/('d ill riell coJollr:;; nna jllmisf1ed
pitll 11IIfiqlll' Jld IllOd,'m IIp//(J/stcryfabric5 (md mllique
IIIctn/l'ork (/!/d g/II."" ((lU/Jllh' cl'itll 111"1110111" lo SiI,c n I"DII/nutic 151/- fo
1611-alllury./I//'OIlr /(11/11' rlol!!.
2
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Drilwing-Roolll Companion oI
SH /111 G/l'II:;OJl, tlli:;; AmL'l"icn!1
feror i:; dmllllllted by fhe NL'O-
aococo fa:;f/'. E/abomte :;;cro/li:l'Ork
defill/':; t}efllmtllrc and lIIirrors,
C!Ii/c t!le upllO!stery l/lid cnrpd
are clli'l'I"cd <pt!1 lIatllm!i:;tic
f!om/Ol"l/alllt'111.
3 Cla:;:;icislII, /101/1 Greck and
ROl/1I11l, c()nfilllled lo be part oI
tlll' dC:;('\;III!1"':; repl!l"toirl' iJl flIe
IS.;O:;. Thi:; American interor i:;
flIe dOllble par/oHr in flIe JollII
Cox $/(>'CIIS /lOlIse, d6igllcd
l/y Afc.mJldl!l" Jackso!l Dm.,is
hSo3-92), nl/d it demol1:;tmte:;
1111 rlllcolllprolllsillg e.mlllp!e of
Grcek Revill7! d6igll.
212
Same styles \vere adopted for political reasons. In the
1820s, the aristocratic British fascination with French
design of the 17405 and 17505 is often ascribed to a nostal-
gic interest in thc former Bourbon rgime and the oId
arder, which \-vas svvept away by the French Revolution
and supplanted by Napoleon's Empre. By the time it
reached a wider audience in the 18305 and 18405, these
connotations were replaced by an appreeiation of the
luxurious appearanee of the Neo-Rocoeo styIe and its
suitability for use on new and cornfortable hrrnish.ings
sueh as the spring-uphoIstered sofa.
Styles also had literary inspiration. In England and
Franee, the Elizabethan or Troubadour styIes were partly
inspired by popular noveIs, whieh identified the period
with chivalry and high ideals. People wanted objeets that
referred to the romance of "olden times."
Sut eraving for novelty pIayed a part, too. Classicism
in a variety of guises continued to survive into the 19th
eentury, especiaJly in Italy. The Industrial Revolution led
to the growth of the middle c1ass, and these new rieh
eonsumers wanted choice and novelt)r; designers were
happy to supply them. As onc comlnentator remarkcd of
a eoUon printer in 1849, "the very instant his hundred
patterns were out he began to engrave others." The
variety of styles available heIped to satisfy this rapidly
growing, aspirational market for ,<\'hich ornament was
often synonymous with beauty.
Design was aIso shaped by the new teclmoIogy. It
should be remembered that from the 18305, objects couId
be produced more quickly and in some instances more
cheaply than ever before. The oId-fashioned approach,
where an affluent patron vvould commission an object
from a craftsman, \Vas still viable far the vcr)' rieh but,
increasingly, mass production \Vas the arder of the day.
By the 1840s the \Vallpaper, textiIe, and metalworking
trades had all achieved a degree of meehanization.
------------------------------------_..........__.
Furnitl.lre trades still practised hand working, but this
\Vas no\\' augmented by ne\\' equipment that a11o\\'OO the
thin cutting of vcneers or the roughing out of carving.
Devclopments in materials such as cast ron or papier
mach prompted the design of furnishings that cauld be
reproduced guickly. In response, manufacturers \Vere
increasingly seeking designs that wauId sell in large
quantities in arder to justify mass production. It was also
a periad of intense innovation and experimento New
techniques such as the development of the larninating
and steam-shaping of woodwork, pioneered by the
furniture makers Michael Thonet (l/96-1871) and John
Henrv Belter 080+-63), ",ere to lav the foundations for

2Oth-century furnihuc production.
Styles "'ere also increasingly cosmopolitan. Revolu-
tions and wars, coupled with improved transport
systems, moved craftsmen and designers around the
world and loo to a greater exchange of ideas. In addition,
the early 19th century saw the begnnings of the concept
of international exhibitions as a means of stimulating
trade and designo In 18-19 international shmvs were
planned in Birmingham and Paris but both failed to
attract exhibitors from other countries. However, in 1851
London was the venlle for the Cryslal Palace exhibition.
Intended as a showcase for international manufacture
and design, the "Great Exhibition of the Works of
lndustry of AH Nations," or the Great Exhibition as it W(lS
popularly knmvn, al10wed nations to view the work of
compentor nations and to be infillenced by ne\\' trends.ln
countries such as Britain, it gave extra irnpetus to the
existing provision of design education, whcn British
manufacture was seen to compare badly with the output
of countrics such as France. In Europe and the United
States, it set a trend for international exhibitions that were
to last another SO years. These included Ne", York in
1853, london in 1862, Paris in 1867, Vienna in 1873,
Philadelphia in 1876, and Paris in 1878. It also spa",ned a
ne'" breed of object: the c:\hibitillll picce. Created in thc
grand manner to sho", off lllanufacturing skill and
design virtuosity, exhibition picccs oftcn llsed inno\'anve
materials and techniques to achie\'c cyccatching results;
just as often they \Vere highly conservative.
Out af the stylistic diversity af the 1830s and 18-10s
carne a serious approach to revival styles. In 1856 O",en
Jones's Gramilla,. 010mallleJlf was published, followed. by
Heinrich Dolmetseh's Ommllelltellsc/mt: in 1887. Both
were seminal \Vorles, atternpting to instruct designers in
the true nature of historie styles and to encourage a more
academie use of historical motifs. In manufacturing this
was paralleled by the glass and eeramie industries, whose
productions were increasingly charaeterized by the
recreation of historie styles, often realized by using
historically accurate techniqlles.
Mass production also caused a reaction. The
increasing tlse of mechanization led designers such as
\I\'illam o r ~ s (183+-96) to htrn away from industrial
design to coneentrate on eraft produetion. This in turn
\Vas to shape the highly influential Arts and Crafts
Movement that emerged in the 18605.
Historical styles eonnnued to be lIsed and re-invented
throughout the century. ln the 18705, the Aesthetic
Movernent fOW1d inspiration in the furnihlre of the 18th
century, which \Vas previollsly criticized as rneagre or
sparse. By 1880, furniture in the Chippendale,
Hepplewhite, and Sheraton styles \Vas part of the usual
stock-in-trade of the commercial furnisher, together \Vith
Freneh-style "Louis" pieces and "Renaissance"
evocations. For the 19th-centllry conSllmer, variety \Vas
almost a style in itself.
4 Books sue/las Richard Bridgl'lls' Furniturc with Cnndelabra and
Interior Dccoration proll/ott'd n:i.,i\.'fll stylt's Plllis}l'd il/ LOl/do" il!
1838 (211d editioll). tlle book's illustraliolls co,t'/"l'd /l/nI/Y nspects oI
jllmitllrt' dt'sigll ill tlle Eli:nllt'tfwlI Inste.
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4
Gothic Revival Furniture
Architecturallnfluences

1 2
1 111 tht' 17505 Hornee VValpok
Iteeornh'd }is !lOlIse al Stmwb,'ITII
Hill, I\.liddbex, in file Go",ie
-st.'lle. T/is decorafit'(' approac11
cOllfilllled fa be poplllar illto
tlle 1911/ cmtllry. "Tlle ga/fery"
ceilillg tmeery is based 011 tlml
;11 tlle Hellry VI/ chape! i'l
\V.,,;tllli"ster Abbey, LOlldoll.
2 Golflic 1m5 0111' of tfle lila".'!
1I,;'d fa ado,." f"mitllrt'
lllld .1t'corafiOIl iJl file TS:!oS.
TI,s !ollr-IJostc,. bed .las
JlIl/ll;..lll'd ill lS26. Tlle
i,; d{'(on1h'd witll slyli=ed fen<'t""S
ami tll,' po,;ts .1';0, cnTi'ed 1I/1l1frl'-
foil 1111 ill:wired by
AkditTl11 nrelliteclllre.
en
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3 PI/gin sllOU'l'd tllis cabine! in/Jis Ale1licm! COIITI al /1//: GrCllf
Ex/libitioll in 1851. AltJollgll decornfed wifil ct1l'villg, lIJe onll7l1u.'lIfl1tioll
is restrnilled Illllf e/ose/y bnsed OJI historienl profofypes.
T
he Gothic taste in Britain had its roots in 18th-cenrury
design and the influence of connoisseurs such as
Horace Walpole (1717-97), whose villa, Strawberry Hill,
was decorated and furnished in the Cothie manner. With
details derived ham Medieval architecture incorporated
into modero furniture shapes, it was essentialIy l
superficial style admired for its decorative and romantic
qualities, and during the first quarter Df the 19th century
it retained l certain prestige. Features in fashionable
magazines and l growing interest in antiquarian subjects
hlelled enthusiasm for the Gothic, and it began to be seen
as the British national style_ This status \Vas confi.rmed
when the style was chosen for Sir Charles Barry's ne,,-
Palace of V\'estminster after the fire of 1834.
Gothic was characterized by the use oE architecnual
fe<ltures such as crockets, pointed arches, and pinnacles
carved from oak or other dark wooos. These designs
became so fanciful that A.V\'.N. rugin (1812-52) was
moved to comment that "a man who remains... in a
modern Gothic room and escapes without being
4
4 Elaborate "p,me//.o; 111 111,' Co/llje la.. I' ({'al' {/ featl/re of l/u' Grt.'at
E.rhibilioll of IS.:;/. /,';"I1l'I' {...- Austria SlIblllitted tllis pas! oak
d,'s;g",,( /0 look likl' 1/ c/wi,. Ma/l, as a gift for QUI!<'II Victoria.
",ounded by some uf its minutiae may consider himself
extremel V fortu n<lte."
>
In Europe, by thc 1840s, the French Gothic Reviva]
taste had ta kcn on a ne\V character through the work of
Eugnc Viollct-Ie-Duc 0814-79). lnformed by a scholarly
understanding of Gothic fumiture and architecture, he
published a series of highly influential \Vorks including
the Dicliolllmin.' dlf Mobilier Fral(;ais (1858-75).
In the United States, the Goth..ic styIe was promoted by
publications such as Robert Conner's Cabillet Maker's
As:::istallf (18-12) and the writings of Andre", J. Downing
(1815-52). Downing worked with the architect Alexander
)ackson Davis 0803-92), who designed Gothic furnish-
ings for ne\\' mansions.
The fancifllI Cothic vvas supplanted by an increasingly
seriolls approaeh led by the British designer A.W.N.
Pugin. His designs, which were derived from extant
examples of Gothie furruture and the principIes of
Medieval constructional woodwork, were ",idely eopied
throughout Britain 'llld Europe.
Furniture Forms
1 /III'lfillins rOOIl/ ni IV1l1d:'or
mIs l'qllipp...d wif/t n lIew
';/Iilt' o/ e/mir::: iJl f/t' 18:105. TlIey
('t'rt' dl'sigl/I!d by t/1;.' yollllg
PU,l:ill. ni If,is lime ;:{'Grkillg in n
Cn"slIl Golflic molle. Usillg
m:"I'i/'OOl1 .'meers by
SildillS' tI/I.' ella;T backs are bnsed
011 ljtll-cmfllry ;;('illl1o<l' tmcery.
Tllis is lile typt' o/ desigu tllflt
Pugill Inter lo critici:c ill
lis pl/bUcaliolls. Ht JIIl/39/,j'l.
2 [k-:;iglltW lo be kl/dl 011 for
Jrtl.lft'r, tIJis FrtmcJl priMieu,
('J8.;0, is canm Y1rioIlS Gothic
lIlotifs Ile/udillg arcndiJlg (lJlri
Cffrt't'd fn.foil:;. rile bnek Plfltei s
Jlt1ill/ed witlt tI/(, Virgill tllld Cltild.
afier Rnplmel. Ht 8lCJlI/3lI.
3 Tllis fmcery-llt1cked dmi,. is al
n IY/If kUO<t'lI iJl Frtmce as la
ctlthdrale. Crockt.'ls n/uf
pil1llf/c1es combine fa crl'nte
n s/litably spiky silllOuette in
tllh,: I'OlI1fllltici:ed recrl'atiol1 of
tllC Golitic Myll'.
4 PlIgill'S publisllcdfumillll"c
dcsiglls illspil'l'd IJis Gol/lic
nnllc!mil' (Jf 1864, Mndemili
cnl1'l'rl oak, t/lt' cilnir i;; e/aborate/JI
lI}Jhohtacd ill fabriCo
(/ r.'ficct;; PI/gin's lIJorc seriol/s
nppl'onC!1 lo Gotltic nfter lile 18205.
Ht 1.l2/11/;ft 7;/,j1/.

5 Tllis lIIid-\lictorinl/ Gol/lic Rl'i'htll

tnb/e re/h'S 011 cOllsfmctlII ",/ha 0,,11I
decora/ion Jor its iffi'Cb. Tlll ' 1/:'(' of , ...llIlld
constrllctioll, u ns Pugiu tt'TIIIC" il, 111/
illl/lOrtmlfllC(' Sfralld;'1 tI/" Gol/uo l{l,'i...I/.
I'1Jic1, ((//1 n/sobe $0.'('1/ i/l tlll' d",,,. '//.'\/II'..
publicntious iCeTl' higllJu m/1l/ml",1 11I HIIIl/1II
mlil in ElfrDJ4' aud t1l,' liS. Im.l 111,'
fOl/lulntiOlls for tll.' I\rl" ,11/.1 (''''1//0. .\ IlI, ../I/nll
nI/ti illspirl'd ,,, flldmS 1\";1/1'11I1
Surges (J 82;'-81 J. l. l. ( 1,'i;S Sil,
11I111 I I (ISlf> 1'/0/>1.
TtI/J!e l. I.;)m/:;/I . 111/11 11/ 1111/1/1 ll,
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The pubJications available to makers at this time
fuelled interest in the Elizabethan style. Henry Shaw's
Specmel15 01 AllcieHt FlInliflfre, which illustrated many
examples of Elizabethan design, was published in 1836
and re-issued in 1866. Richard Bridgens' FlIrllifure wifl1
Cal/de/abra alld II/terior Decomtioll of 1838 included plates
of appropriate designs, many of them illustrating how
motits eould be adapted to modem furniture types.
Ln the US, the Elizabethan taste found new admirers,
supported by the writings of Andrew Jackson Downing.
Delighting in the "mingled quaintness, beauty and
pichuesqueness" of the old English house, he described
the "curiously carved furniture and fixhlres" of such
buildings and revelled in their "romance and chivalry."
He particularly reeonunended the style for the decoration
of parlours and sitting rooms.
The French equivalent of the Elizabethan Re\'ival,
known as Troubadour style, drcw mainIy on Gothic
motits, but was similarly inspired by notions of chiva1ry
and historieal romance.
1 Tllmed IIprig1lts cllflrncteri:ed
1II/1e/1 Eli:n/;ethnll Rei'h'nl
fllmitllre. T/js e.mll/ple. proll(lbly
d{'Siglll!d by Riclmrd Bridgt'l/s {l/Id
mnde 1/1 t/u.' it'Or!G}ops ,!fGl'IJrge
BlIllock. c.181j, ,I'as 'xew!ed ill
pal/ted (}(/k <pill1 gild'd dctnilil1g
(Il1d a Ju.'ralrlic ellos! abOi:t' t/u.' Ilflck.
lit 9ocm!3SIiIl.
2 By tite 18'05, the Eli::abet/lflII
sty/e beCa/lit' 11/0'<' ('Iabomll'.
Can'ed nlld fllml'd decomliou 01/
c1U1irs tike l/lis om' proi'ided ti/e
pafi'c! jrall/;?{'Ork for t!u.' IIt'I'
Berlill <{'oo/(('ork. SC<'I/ /at' 0/1 ffn'
sea! (mil OO(k. Ht 1.0tlll/3ft 3lI.
Fancilul Furnilure lar lhe Romanlics
Elizabethan Revival Furniture
3 Cltnirs of l/lis typt" ,lwe kllO<l>1l Sean or
c1tnirs. TlJe.tf m're c1wrflcteri::ed by
talllJ{lcks (1111'1 t'ist-lllmed I/prigllts. Y/Jis
cxtllllph' im,: dt'Sigllf'd for tI/I.' Scott 5//11/1/1('(
lOl/se nI BIICkillg/UllIl Pnlnce ill IS.u.
4 QIIt'el/ Ad>/aidl"s bedroolll, ill "'Iaml/ead.
Dt'i.'Oll, I'a:, desiglled C.IS30 by Al/lltollY
Sa/,ill fJ 99-1SSIJ. TJe suite (Jfjl/rlllfllrt!
is /IIade o/ oak WiIJl illciSl.'d alld cnn'ed
decomfiOIl. T/Je I/lTIIl.'d legs af Ihe coI/eh aJld
1//1.' clIn'l'd slrelc/lcrs il'en' illsJired by later
1th-cmt11ry f1l rIl i t/I/'l' desig//.
4
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ir Walter Scott's historica1 romances and l growing
sense of nationalism prompted by the aftermath of
the Napoleonic "Vars \Vere sorne of the influences
persuading British designers to adopt the Elizabethan
style after the 1820s. laek of detailed historieal knowledge
meant that makers \Vere unsure about the true nature of
Elizabethan design, and they also took motifs from
furnihlre no\\' associated with the 17th ccnhlry. This rieh
mix generated fanciful creations of strapwork,
arabesques, spiral twists, and elaborate can1ing. George
Fildes, an advocate of the Elizabethan taste, confessed in
18-i-!, "there is no style... that affords a more fatal faeility
than lhe Elizabethan for the exercise of bad taste."
Materials sud1 as oak and walnut "'ere seen as rnost
.lppropriate for Elizabethan-style fumiture, but cornm-
L'rcial makers \Vere keen to use the latest technology and
lllilteriills to add novelf)'. The fashion 'lIso prompted a
dL'lllilnd for real and restored mtique pieces. Historieal
Ir.lglllL'nts sud1 as pallels and carvings were used as a
... l.ll'ling point for ne\\' fLUlliture.
1
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7 Real fmglJlellts of ]6tJ-
(/lId 11/-'lIll1rH U'ood.!'Ork
(illc1l/(lillg (/11 oi.'t'rJII(/Jlte1 (//1(1
oakfloorboards) 'I\.'re (rl.'(/Ii"ldy
combilled fo /link!.' IMs bookCll51',
ft ;s nfallciflll cOlIIl'i[(/lioll of
xlI/ptl/ral (/Ild IOil'-rdit'f
cllf.'illg, ",itll spiral II/millg alld
illfarsia pnllel5. Ht :J.,39111/8ft jill.
217
8 TI/e l./,/,.,tl"1I/ ,j'J5
lbl'" (11/ :'l"",,.,,1 511,1,1'11 111
ti/, Gn'lIt Lr!Ii/litioll, Lfllldoll,
;11 1851, If 1/51.'.1 lo
dt'co1'llt.' JlC,1' of objl'ct
511dlll:, tbis IJitlllo by Ernrd.
Cnl1,,,.d pilns/t'r5, sfmp,'ork
nlld gndroollillg (/rt' cOlllbillf.'d
for mnxilllulII impacl,
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6 7"1lis bookcnSl' l'asl'reSl:II/{,j lo tI't' siJlgt'I"
mJlY Lilld IIY Nt"l' Yorklin!/IIt'I' il' 1850.
MaJe frolll fnsJiollnble rO:'CiI'OOtI, il mixe5
Eli=nbetlJaIl nllJ Rt'l/nis:<llll' lo tle/I(','i'
17 IlCiI' h',ci of l'clt'ctids/II, Ht J .0111//3fl ..ill.
5 T1Iis 1835 d;IIill8 room nI C/mrli'colt'
P(/rk is ill t/I.' Eli=nbl!tI/(/1I 1(/511', Tlle 17th
oak e/mirs art' "J'holsll'/"t'd il/
red C1/1 tt'!'t'f,
Renaissance Revival Furniture
ARelurn lo lhe 161h-Cenlury Renaissance
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1 Tlle Re/1ni:':'{/llce stylf' mIs npplkd fa ('stablisllcf !OTI1IS SUe/1 as /11"
TII is desi(! 11 of 1 8.J, 7 il/e/ lides Cfl/1wi th,,'e-tIIIf'IISh'llfl I frui 1, lcm:l's. (illd
groh'SlJlI1! auimal 1Jcnds.
T
he 18-1-0s sa\\' an increasing intcrcst in thL' litL""ltllrL',
art, and arehitecture of 16th-cl'lltllry 1I;lly. Newly
termcd by crities "the Renais5<1nCe," it bCgtlll tu providL'
inspiration for American and European furniturc
By the time of the Great Exhibition in London in -1851,
almost every country had contributed something in lhb
taste. Subsequent internationaI exhibitions promotcd it tlS
a universally important style, its motifs poplllarizcd by
the weU-illustrated catalogues of the period..
With its roots in arehitecture alld scu1phlre, Renaissancc
Revival furniture \Vas characterized by brokcn pedi-
ments, deeply carved surfaces, applied. cartouches, and
semi-nude figures. Makers used various materials such
as bronze, marble, and ivory, along with walnut, ebony,
and mahogany, to achieve la\ish results. The royal nadie
commissioned by Queen Victoria was a splendid example
of this sty1e. Carved from boxwood by W.G. Rogers
(1825-73), it resembled an immense chest or cnssolle.
Continental Europe sa\\' the Renaissance Reviva! style
take on national overtones, especially in pre-unification
2 By tI/c tilm'oft!ll' Gren! Exh/litiolJ j, 1851,
AlIIl'ricnll II/nk'TS l'ere/ll/y adept nt tlu' l/Cit'
51l(le. T/lis illlnid rOSt>'OOd $teiml'fllf

piano of C.1857. lIossibly by York /IIakas
Herter Bro/has 01' Ah'xflllder ROl/x, s!lm/'5 tln'
/l/por/nI/ce uf CfIr.,jllg iJl nc1Jiei'illg tlJt!
tiffiti. L ::>..-l9111Sft Till.
3 Frmcll /l/ah'r:; 'al' f/lli(k fo adoJJ! 11 style
,'lIie}, tite!, flssocinlcd 'lit he illle of
Ht'lIri 11. This ('x!/iNtion :,iIIl'ix)(Jrd 01 18jI
nll 1111' kl'.' fll liT,':': fis"rt!S, sI rtl/J<l'ork,
SlIdroclllillS, (/1111 dl/bom!,' can.il/gs, 111/ hr!ld
111:..:d/.,. by ,1 ri...:: id/.11 (11"r..-j ilt'LllIl"IIl frllll1ciI'ork.
/J,,' ,;jfl'/lf. ...lrd '/'IIS IIIndefrom ,,nillllt.
lltll\' .llld CL'rmany. Idcntified \\'ith the past glories of the
lamily i1lld the Germanic late Middle Ages, the
:-.tylL' renJized in Italian ivory-inlaid ebony hmlihire
<l1ll1 Cerman carved dark wood. In France, the style was
J...no\\'ll "Henri ll." Pieces were orderoo for restoration
pl"lljL'cls tlt imperial palaces such as Fontainebleau (1860).
1krl' thL' fllrnishings, all on the grandest scale, were sup-
pliL'd by Guillaume Grah.
In the US, the style was recommended by A.J.
lJowning in the 18505. After the Centennial Exposition of
1876 in Philadelphia, the revival took on new strength. As
in Ellrope, its emphasis had changed. Chairs and cabinets
were now deeorated with rows of small hlmed balusters.
Elaborate ivory inlay or incised and gilded tines appeared
on doors and panels. 1 iches and shelves were used in the
design of cabinets and overmantels to house the growing
collections of ornClments. TIs led to the revival later
being caricatured by Goodhart Rendal as "the bracket
and ovennantel style." Versions of the "Free Renaissance"
taste continued to be made into the 20th cenhlry.
4
4 PrillCl' AIl\'rt's llferi'5/ iu lIe Unfinl/ laste
call1le "(t'/I in the ro.l,nf eradl/' madI.' by \V.G.
RogeTs. /lIfll/l.'Ilced by Rf'l/flisSfluce 10mb
j(/I1pfl/re flmi tl'l!ddillg clle;;!s. il rcflects file
llIor' serioll:; c/lflrtlcteT o/ Tt'l-'i"fl/ f"misllillS=-.
5 Tl,s lrmoire a deux corps, mnde by /.B.
\'aTiIlS iu 1862, has fl brokeJl pedimeut
illcorporntmg semi-Iwdefigure;; flud fl
cartOl/du' iJl IIlt' 'lItr... T/f' lm:'ish, swJpfed
decora/iOIl 01/ fIJe nrc1liteclurnl fOTIII are fYlJical
01 fIJe Rf.'l/flisSflIICe sl!lle.
,



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9
6 Hollfllld & Sal/S' colllbil1rd
chullleypiecf' fllld bookcllsl'
illcorpomtcd SO/lit' lIie/les for
omnIllCIl/S. T/c sltnlloll' can'illg
conlms!s <pilIJ he riclmess aflhe
rdie! can'ing fa fIJe pilnsftT:'.
7 Tlle 18605 alui 1870S saw
n:flll!lIIt'lIfs fo fhe RI'JlaisSllIlce
slyh'. CurvillS becmlle shnllower
aIUI'IlOre colI/rollel/, f/5- 5-eell ill
tlle 5-lIbtle cnrtOllche lIIotifs 01/
t/Jis :.o.fn /linde ,I Nn/' York.
L 113111/jfI8ill.
8 Part o[ a Rt',wisSfIIlCt'-styh-
iledmolll slIite, tMs 1876 /J'd
ms ade l/y 1/1(' Bl'rkl'Y & Gny
Fllmi/I/re (0, ;,/ Crnlld Rflpids,
\,Iliclligall. Nt 2.jlll/8ft ll .
9 Tlle Rellnis5f1!/(t' styh' rms /akclI
/Ir ill/he 1870s-80s by tlle Ar/s
flnd Cmft!', nl/d At'stlll'tic AJOl't'-
II/el//S. Tllis roswoorl cnbiJlI'/'U'itll
i 1 1 ~ 1 ill/ays 11.11 Stepltell Vrbb,
C.1SSj-9D, is atlribllted to Collill-
$(J11 & Lock. lit J .98m/6ft 6hl.
el)
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Rococo Revival Furniture
Dld French Stylc
1 I\'!mlf (1;;-;-1853 f de5igllcd tl/t'
drnil'llg room tll TnttOIl Park iJl tln' 1820:'. TIIl'
dlrlir:; ami sofn:f. wt'r..' , /11(' "Loll;;:''' I"t'i.,jm/
stl/lt, ,'itl/ r!a[omtdll cU/1','d /eRS, ftlld C- mili
, ,.
S-servil:: witi ::'/ll'l/ motif:: allli gildiJlg.
3 Omilllli'HtnJ mbillt'ls ','no aH illlJl(lrtallt
part 01 file IImkt'r's l"t'pi?rIO;rL'. T/lis
1850':: .\lCr!' )'rrk cxal1lplc c:
r
cllIixd fSl';:coJd
il/corporales mirror pnnel:: tmd is topl,,'d l'.I, n
flt'Sh." Rococo cartOl/che.
3
f
,
,
2 TI/JIIl<lj KilIg',:. JS.flllk:oi:S1l jll lit' Qld Fr.'lIdl
St.'l/l.' ('11111/0.'1" scn1flillS ROC(lCil C!II,'t';; toflrlll
tI't' W.fclfnlllli'. Killg's dt"5iglls I/:'I'd gi/dillg lo
(o,'e" a CCll1sfructioll ol c011lposititm fll1d ,l'ood
lo gii'!' tlle sllOwh'sl elft'cI IOI" tlll' len.. costo
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M
any examples of antiquc French furruture arri\'ed
in England afler !he Freneh Re,'oluhon of 1789, By
the 18205, the style associated with Louis XIV and Louis
XV had becornc popular. The original stylc, no\\' known
as Rococo, was characterized by scrollwork, naturalism,
and asyrnmetry using exotic woods and gilding. lts
imitators gave it several names including "Old French"
and "Florid Italian." TI1e style was supported by pattem
books such as lhomas King's Modenl 5ty/e ofCnbillet \I\'ork
Exe/llplified, reprinted from the 18405 to the 18705. As King
pointed out, "carving will only be reqll.ired in the boldest
scrolls." The rest of the design \Vas made of composition
and co\'ered with paint or gilding for cheap production.
I-Io",e\'er, there ",ere aIso cxpensive altemati\'es such as
thc Im'ish recreations of the work of Louis XIV's blIiste,
t\ndr Charles Boulle (1642-1732), famous for fumiture
i..kcorated ",ith complex metal marquetry, and high-quality
of 18th-century French pieces.
By c.1850, rurniture shapes were defined by the use of
f!orid C- cll1d S-scrolls. Although not as asymmetrical as
18th-century Rococo, the ne'" "Louis" 5tylc embraccd
gilding, marquetry, painting and naturalism, Another
aspect of the style was its cornfort. By the 18505 the "Old
Frendl" taste had combined ",ith new upholstery tech-
ruques to pro\'ide furruture that reflected relaxed trends.
The Rococo was seen as appropriate for drawillg rooms
and boudoirs becausc of its feminine d1aracter.
Many critics hated the Rococo, considering it debased,
but it remained popular. In the US it was championed by
J.H. Belter (180+-63), whose lanunated roscwood fUllliture
combined new technology with high-quality carving.
Following the re\i\'al in England, interest in Neo-
Rococo design grew in France, especially at the start oi lhe
Second Empire, \vhen imperial building projects fea tured
fumiture and panelling in the scrolling Rococo laste.
The 18605 and 18705 saw a growing interest in the
production of accuratc copies of 18th-century French
furniture, often llSing the best material5 and craftsmanship.
By the 19005, many houses were using a refined and more
accurately observed version of the Rococo in fumishings.
4 A ligill 'JIy" dTfl<l'iIIS rOOIl/ dtair, d/:;lIcd b.l! tlll' flrdllk(/ 1
1
/11111'
Hnrd'l'ick, 183-1, {lJId I//{I/k by 1\'. & C. I \'i1kill;;tIIl.flr / /,11/.
Tlle e/IIJir i" of mn'l'I l't"....11 icitll 'hit!.' millf rmd gildillS. Hf 8,.:;1-11I/; 111I
5 The l'fl1fo(mll(lck citair im" Qm' of tllt' ,,1I(C6X'S of lit!.' Old Fm/'I, ,.:./yll' ,,,,,1
COI/Id fOlllld !l /unII11rc (nfnlogll!.'s i11fo /he 1900S. Tld" Fr<,IIe/1 ".\"<111//1/'"
c.1860. i;; o/d1QIlY ;(,itll mi IIplJolstercd l'tlck mul Ht 'ill.
6

)1
4
6 Nntllm/islI/ nl/d t!le ROClJCO Sfl/C ill Ihe wn',ICl'IlIl" {onu" o{
.' ..
fllis Tlle illlrodlfCfioll o/ 1f1'/lOblt'ry sJ'rillg;;, ptl5f-1830,
nl/d del'p /Jllffonillg, nllocl'(fllrllitlfrc lo rcne/IIle;:I' Iieig/f" of
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7 TlIi:=: (ahille! [ll/ H{lil'flrd 50!!
'ti:' 0/1 disp!m, nI file Creat
Exllibiliol1l1wl :=:1/0,1':' Uu'
"HortiCIIllllra! Sc/w(/I" (f!Je
disparagillg f'rm coilll'd II!/ erifie
R..\". \'Orlll/lIl JI 1851) nI il:;
Itdght. A /ln:;i, Roco(o :=:fJnp' i:=:
em!wllisJ'd 'it/ cnn'l'd fiou'l'rs
mIli fmil. if'f/iI/? :,upportillS
((lll/IIIII:' sprOl/t illiyrft'd nClliltlllls
!cm'6. AlirrOf:=: 1't'''I' :=:cf jl/to tlu'
SlIr{aC6 lo cffl!ct.
. L.. o.
8 H'llri DIl:':"fJ1l (1825-<)6) IlUl''
ffJi.s (Opy of LOII/:=: X/V's /IIt'da!
cnl,jl/e! in ISla' Frcllc1ll1U1kt'rs
l'xcd/cd illll("(lIratl' rt'llllJl.l1/ctioll:'
offilll' a11tiql/Cf"Tll il 1/ re. TIJi:=:
e.mll/ple i:: oi tlll/,-
il'ood. mili fl'd 1IIlrb!c ,('i/1I gil/-
{roID' I/wl/Ilf::. Ht 91(11I/36;11.
9 By lIJe 1890:', (l Jig1Jter ,:el':;illl
oll//l' LVIIi:=: sty/I' m:' INri ill
faslliollllbh' dm'l'illg room:'. T1Ji:;
LOlldoll illferor 1111;; gildt'il Loll;;-
sofn" mili dlllir" n/ollg"de
pnillfcd Rococo SCfCCIlS.
221
Exhibition Furniture
AShawcase lar lile Talented
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1 This engl"lJvllg s!lO'ws fhe
Alllerican sectiolI of LOlllfol1's
Crea/ Exhib/ion oj 185"1. The
exhib/ioJI proI1ided 11 S/IOWLnSC
for Il'Orld 1IU1l1ufncturers lo
display fhei,. ow// prociucts aud
lo see file Il'ork of otller I1l1tioll5.
2/I1Cksol1 & Cm/m!!! (rented /1Iis
In/se-sen/e cavillef Jor /III! Pars
Exllibitioll of 1855, OW 40
CraftSlI/Cll i('ere im'o/vcd ill jls
I/wl11l!acfllre. Tlic c{'mll/ie
p/l1q1l6 were by Mil1/ol1's oj
Stoke-ol1-Trellf, nlld he muilld
incorporate:; (/ IICIl'/Y jns/liollable
p/atl'-glllss mirrOl". Ht 4,311//1411.
3

3 \Vl"ight & lvlalIsfidd /linde t/lis

enbinet fOI" tile Pnris Exhibitiol1 of
1867. AH car/y e.mll/ple of Adall/
Repipnl fHmifure, tlle cabim:t is
II/ade 01 satinwood uit/ insd
pallels by IVedg'ood alld gi/ded
l'Jlricl/!//Cllts in cnn.'Cd :/'Dod.
Hf 3.371!1/nlt liJ/.
N
ational exhibitions such as that held in Pars in 1849
\Vere soon to be replaced by grander projects. The
Great Exh..ibition held in London in 1851, like the New
York Exhibition uf 1853, started a trend for international
exhibitiol1s that was to iast for over half a century.
Popular with the public, the exhibitions gave furniture
makers from around the \\lorld an opportunity to show
off their talents in the fieids of design and manufacture.
Accompanied by illustrated souvenir publications, they
allowed new styles, tecimiques, and innovations to be
seen by the widest possible audience. They were
regarded as a shop window to the world.
In response to the exhibitions, makers produced
oplllcnt pieces intended to cateh the viewer's eye or
rL'inforee the prestige of a campany. Exhibition items
tended to be on a larger scalc thm ordinary domestic
tllrnitllre, and lIsed materials and labour at a level that
\VI Hlld not have been cost-effective in normal production.
J 11 l'vL'ry sense extraordinary, exhibition furniture (like
lllllllll"l' tashion) offered an opportunity to experiment
with new styles and ideas. The london lnternational
Exhibition of 1862 gave the world its first glimpse of the
work of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., soon to become
the perceived leaders of the Arts and Crafts Movement.
1l1e Paris Exhibition of 1867 showed, in the v,rork of
London makers vVright & Mansfield, that the 18th-century
Neoclassicism of Robert Adam \vas due for revival.
The exhibitions reveaied the progress of manufachlre
through the variety of new materials and teehniqlles that
the 19th ccntury was to discover. They also displayed a
certain eccentricity in demonstrating the ways in which
hlrnihlre could be adapted to solve l number of everyday
problems. For exampIe, London's Great Exhibition
displayed versatiie tabies that hlrned into bedsteads, a
padded ottoman (a type of stooD that was aIso a coal
scuttle, and a piano that couId be piayed by four people
at the same time. These exhibits, like many of the other
design ideas being displayed, rcflected the 19th-century
passion for novelty and inllovation. It was l passion that
wouid ultimateIy iead t rcaction and reformo

4 D6igllcd l/y fmm'S 01 Ncil' York, /111'
Pat,'lIt DOI/NI' Grl1l1/1 Piano nl101I'l'd fOl/r
peop/e, fwo ni cad, el/d, fa plny nI file 5111111'
tillll!. 11Il'l'lIti'CIle:;s was 11 S(,?I/ificrmt fentllre
of ill/i.'mntiollnl exhibitOI1 desigllo
5 Usil1g t/Il' [01"/1/ 01(I/l lIpllOlstcn'd armc!mir,
James HeatJ's bnlll c/wir is lill'ish/y cnrpcd
(lIui pail/led ,/ 'he fas/e. T/e w!u:els
H'en' df.'sigmd fa nllml' lI5as In pro!,,,1
ltcm5eh'e:; amI/mi n rooll/ I/llaided.
6 T/is fauteuil, 01" armell,,;,., rms 111m/e by
A.]. J0111'5, of DrMin. (!lid di5Jlnyed lI file
GI'I.'nt Ex/ibitioll 011851. {l/tended lo il/usfrnft'
irisll history, flllel1t :mrriors ndom he bnck
(Inri fhe (lr1l/5 are ill tl/I' 101"111 o[
\
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7 uli'isIJ CTlIfrsmnlls/Jil' ims o/1m
nfi'{/flm! of exlJibifiol/ JlImill/re.
This pnilltcd (lIId gildcd ulltn'
tllbll', by Ole roYIII
decora/ors, George AlorlllJ! &
Sons, 11/ 11,(' Grellt E:dlibitioJl 01
1851, is SlIpported 01/11 tripod
bllset'ntl/rill,'? t/ree ,,'itb 11
celltml iflnr cllfi'ed ,pit/ I'1/slt/'S.
ActulII tllblt' "1 .cm/29ill.
8 Tlll.' IIIl1ill figllrt'5 o{fltt'
nn' f1'prt'Selltcll 011 tllis
ell/'SS tnvlt', w/Jiell 'ns mnd' vy
Grado" o{ DlIvli" mili SIIOWII n'
tite Gn'nl Ex'Jibifioll oI 1851.
Tllcfigllrcs, enn'en ill i1'OI'Y, <'al'
slIpplied by n LOlldol/ cm/blllnll.
9 This stn/e /lI'd 1'aS cxlJi/lih'd
nI the Crcal Exhi/litioll (JI
1851 by Fnlldd & PIJiIliIS
of LVI/doll. It il/e/I/des nl/d
dnbomfl.' t'lJIilroidcmt blltt',ld
IlII/I Itml'i;illi>s.
, "
10 ligllt Illld grnccfllll'rIlss
ellIll1dt'1it'f il'flS desiglll'd (lIId
ex'lil.itelt by Cor'ley & /,ll11t':- fl
crenft' mI d/u'/"t'lll fec/illg ill a
dm</'iIlS 1'0<1111.
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Techniques and Materials
Carving
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1 Ela/lOm/e cnn'illg aentllrt' o !III/dl mid-
1901 n'ut 11 ry fllmitllre. Thi:; 1853 exmup/e by
\,\'illiall1 (ooke al Waril'ick is d"fllmtcd ('itl,
gallle 1II1d troplJies '1fllt' IlI/lIf.
2 1\'11od-cnri_'illg mac!lillCS. as tlJis mode!
of lordan's patellt 'asioll. il'l.'rt' dl'1'isl'd fa 1IIl't'f
l/u' grol'ing markt'l for em"t'li on/alllt'1l1
}'rcmIJ,ted ".'1 tlll' n'.'j'a/ s(llles.
3 T.8. lordall's Pall'lll Cm,'illg \Iac//illl' (Sl'l'
allO"t" (('a;; II;;1 lo Cl"t'aft' Ibis :,cr'll {or
LOl/doll':: Gn'af Ex'i/Jifioll of 1S51. Can'illg
lIIac//ill,'s 't'rl' ll$t'd for rt'1lt'af Pl1ttl'rI/:: al/d
(ln/allJellt. Tlley TOlIgJlt'd 0111 tb!? ::11lIJ't"S 1I1l1!
,(mM tlleH b.'.fillisflcd l'y IUlIId.

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T
te 19th century saw innovation in aH aspects oE the
furniture hoade. Frcsh materials as \Vell as new and
revived techniques made it a period of experimentation.
Fumiture makers worked hard to sllpply the public's
constant demand far design novc1ty.
Carving lUlderwcnt a revival in the early 18005, partly
due to the demand for Elizabethan and Gothic furnihlfe.
"V.G. Rogers oE Londol1, Gerrard Robinson oE Newcastle,
and T.H. Kendal and William Cooke DE \ Varwick \Vere
sorne oE the mastcrs DE their arto Much DE their can"ing
was uscd to tell stories on the \"ast sideboards and
cabinets that "'ere in '"ogue the mid-19th cenhrry.
The demand for can-ing led to the de\'elopment of
can-ng mad\ines. Bet",een 18+! and 1848 no less than
British patents ",ere taken out for this kind of
m<lchinery. Hamessing steam power, they ",ere used to
rollgh out the pierced backs of Elizabethan chairs or the
of Inouldings. Although this reduced the le\-el of
:--killl'd I<lbollr needed, and thus the cost of the fumihlre,
fini:-.hing continued to be done by hll1d.
The 1830s sa'" the introduction of ne", steam-dri\'en
machines that could cut \'eneers more thinly than by
hand. Once introduced, they allowed a greater economy
in the use of expensive \\'oods. MOlmted on softwood, the
new vcncers gave a lllxlIrious look to even the cheapest
furnihlre. In response, the word "veneering" began to be
used as a term synonymolls with shoddiness.
A more attracti\'e use oE veneer was developed in the
18205. Called mosaic or TlUlbridge ware (after
Tunbridge \'Vells, Kent, where it was made), objects
decorated in this ",ay were especially fashionable from
U,e J8-lOs to the JS70s. The technique used thousands of
minute colOtued hardwood sticks, which were assembled
in blocks to match an ornamental pattem mapped out on
graph papero Thc sticks were glued together and thin
lavers "'ere sawn off to be mounted on work boxes, tea
,
caddies, and other small itcms to give a colourful,
decorative finish.
The American funuhlre maker John Henry Belter
(180+-63) used thin layers of wood, gllled together to
E
Veneers and Papier Mach
1 Costfy it'()(lr.ls col/id be 161'd
more 'collomiml/!f che" I1Cil'
'clleer-clIltillg lIIac//il/e:; ,l'('re
Ifsed. TlIis 1878 combilled

U'Qrk (lIld gmllf'S table l/51'S

enll/ut ulld ulIIl'oYllfl Yllea$
/l/ol/I/fed 0// {/ pille carease.
HI 71C111/lSill.
2 EI/d-gmill 1II0:,(I;Cgat'e 11
(OIOll/f1/1 Jius/l fo s/IInl/-scnil-
fllmisllillgs Sl/e11 as flli;; Tilllbridge
mm' l'ritillg
U't'f!' S<lmetim6 tnk'lI frolll
Bt.'r/ill 1'(I(lIcork
pnttems. Ht 8.j""/3l.i1l.
4
3 \Iicflfll'/ TflOllet's Gn'al E:rllibilioll elltry ('as 11 m:'t'lI"OOf.f laiJIe lI:>illg
llis grolllldbreakillK :oh'I1IJ1-beJliiillg tee/millllt', Tfl/.' ill/nid Mbit- 101' liftt'd
lo rei't'a/ 11 semi-cirCII/nr stomge eOJJlmrllJll'III.
4 Papiel' mch 'I'as aH ecolloll1icn/meall5 of prodllcillg rept'al ornall/ent.
/11 Ihl' 1840S C!lflr1l's Hielefe/d s1/pplied pnpier-lJllk/u' detnil fOI' /Ie enJlOPY
uf tlle 11mme, dtosigued by Pl/gil/,111 lit' HOIISt' of Lonfs iJl LOl/doll.
5 LigMfllrJlillln.-, SUe/II1S ,{'hall/ols, ClTe ilkl1lly slIit.'d lo J'l1pit'T mcJu.
Tllis exnlllple i5 paillled 'l'Ub "l'll'5 oI Colltie miliS I1IIli dt'Comll'd l'itll
Ilpp1'd penl'ls!Jel1 tilltcd 'illt tmllsl'nrellt gln=c5. Hll.37J11/4!f 6iJl.

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225
6
6 }e!lllCIIS & Beftl'idge o/ Birmillg/nl/1 wal' Dile o/ lite /nrges/ IIwkas o/
papicr-lIuicllfllmil l/re in El/g/mu1. TI/r OilY DrClmer cllail" 01 1851
1151.'5 pail/tel! mili lacquered dl'comlioll 01/ file JJlOI/ff'(/ Il(lper JOrlll.
7 &cm/x' of jls fragile /lnfure. papier mJe/lr a'as rnrd.llllSt'f for /nrge-ser/h'
"j{'Ces o/jllmilmr. Tlti::: J850 Ih'lfslend I/SlS papier /linchlar litelool allli
/cndll(lnrd. T/e bl!dfmlllt' i:o lI1adefro/ll pailllcd irOIl. IV. 1.6111/5ft 3il1. 7
2 Soml! //lakers 1/5ed pnillled
slate lo imitate cost/y I/larble
tab/e tops. Pain/ed in oil(llld
tftCII ...amislled, tltis e.mll/ple,
C.1S-l5. is decora/ed i('itIl
floIl'ers alld exo!ic birds {//llOllg
Rococo foliage.
Diam. LOIIl/3ft -lill.
3 This gardel1 seaf made by Carral!
01Stirlings/jre in 18-16, s/,ol>:; file
sopllislicntioll o/c l s l ~ i r r l l desigll.
Ca/hie mili Rococo motifs are
eDlI/bincd fo101'11I he fram/!work.
Cnst-iroll desiglls often /tlld long
productioll T1/l1S; /11;5 model
cOlltilllled fa be IImde illto ti/e
18go5. W. 1.63111/5ft 3 xiII.
4 CasI irOIl WIIS made fa imitnte
a vare/y 01 materia/s. TIJis
e/mil', desiglled by Charles
Greell alld made bl{ file Masbro
Sto,-'e Grale Campal/Y, copies a
woodeu pl'ofofype. eomplele
witl! deep-bultoll IIpllOlstered
sea!. lt is carefllJ1y paiJlfed fa
sillllllnfl: tIJe real /hillg.
Ht 1.27111/4/t 2ill.
could be decorated with pearl shell. Jennens & Bettridge
of Birmmgham \Vere famous in this field.
More expensive \Vas the inlaid marble furniture that
\Vas briefly successful in Britain in the 18405 and 18505.
Centred. in the marble- and spar-producing areas of Derby-
shire and Devon, the industry produced table tops inset
with flowers and stylized. patterns emulating Itallan pietre
dure. It \vas 500n imitated more cheaply in painted slate
by makers such as E.G. Magnus of London.
Metal furniture was popular throughout the 19th
cenh1ry. Cast iron, often painted to look like stone or
wood, was used for hall furniture, garden seats, and beds.
Admired for its durability and hygienic qualities,
improvements in the technique meant that by the 1850s
whole items could be made from a single casting. Iron
and brass began to be used for bedsteads in the 18305 and
became the norm for the rest of the century. Metal tubing
and springs were a150 features of innovative design, and
American and English makers produced strikingly
simple rocking chairs in this material in the 1850s.
aeate a kind of plywood or laminate. Each layer of woad
had its grain running in the opposite direction to the one
before, giving l material of immense strength. Belter then
steamed the wood in moulds, allowing it to take on
gracefully curved shapes that w-ere light yet strong. These
w-ere then used to create the avish Rocaco Revival
furniture that Belter caUed "Arabasket."
In Austria, Michael Thonet (]796-1871) used a similar
steaming technique ta bend solid beech or rosewood
rods. Bent into fancifu.l shapes, the rods were combined to
make innovative, cheap fumiture. Aat-packed for easy
transportation, rus furniture was sold all over the world.
Materials such as papier mach found ne\V uses in the
19th century. First developed in the 17th century, it was
made either from damp paper layers that were set into
moulds and dried in a stove, or from \\'ood pulp which
"'as pressed by machine into moulds. Once dry, the
papier mach panels couId be formed into furniture,
lIsllally in combination with a wooden or metal frame to
give them strength. The surfaces were then painted or
1
3
1 Ualial/ tedllliqucs were copied fo create tlJis
EIIglis/1 ;"laid /1larbJe tnble topo Prodllced by
SaJ1lllelBirletj ;111862, lite lab/e is decomted
Wit/I a rolll/del o/ RellaisSilllce-illspired
ornalllellt t'Ilcirc!ed by "all/mUstic flOll'ers.
Stone, Metals, and New Materials
226
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5 JollII HeIll"l Beller aJld llis
cOl1h'mpomries l/sed a mixture
ollall1iuafl.'d wood alld stemll-
prt'ssillg lo ac/:..'e 5;11110115
Jl/mitllre s/mpes. Tltis fo.'{' seat,
C.JS50. has e/aborate can't'11
and pierced OTllall1eJlt.
IV, 2.J2Ill/lt 61:ill.
611/1-' American Cltair Compal/Y
of Nl'tl' York COl/5<'lf a slir nt tIJe
J&5
1
Crl'al Exllibit;oll ('it/ IItr
progress;'c CentripctaI Spring
Chair. Cast-;roll Rococo OTllalllel/t
nl/d e/aborate pail/ti/'ork COllceal a
g;nl/t spr;lIg fltat al/oil':> the cltair
to rcel;lIe DI' till.

9
7
7 J/IIomti,'e 115<' ofme/al il'rlS afeature of mid-19th celltliry dl'Sigll, This
e.mll/ple is by Pe/el" Coopcr OfTI"C1Itoll, Nfil' Jel"Sl'Y afta all EI/glish pl'otot!fPl'.
TJl.' silllph' sfmpe is forll/ed11"0111 bmss stmp paillfl.'d to si/lll/laft' torloises/lelf.
8 IlIIitatillg lIel:(> fasllio/ls ill il'oodcnn'illg, this sidebonrd is madI' /1'0111
glllla-percJm. a material deriped frOIll wood sapo Culta-percha if'liS SOOl/
ablilhfolled as a I/eif' lIIaterial w!Jell il begall to disilllegmlt' ill IIS{'.

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9 IViI!field's of Birmillgltallllllade tI,;s inm alld bmss 11t."dstead, T1/('I""'"

use a l/en' lIIeta/ cxtmsiOIl syslem, ('/lid/ alloil'ed ,.
be dmil'lI Ollt as simply aud as illexpt'lIsh't'/Y as J,Jaill 01l('S.
10 TlIe Viellllese firm of A. Kitschelt dispJaY('d tlls Rococo-illSI'il,',1
tublllar lIIetal fl/milure at ti/e Creat Ex/libitioll ill J85 J, TI/I'l' l/l."
prodllced desiglls illllOllow...cnst ::';IIC. a material discoi'emf ill tll,. / .... .
227
British Ceramics
Foreign Influences and Inspiration from the Past
4 PlIgi" dr:sigllt'd 11 I'Illlge 01 Cofltic-stylt'
cemll/ics ror MilltOl/, tabletl'llrt' (lnd

filt's in ti/e el/clll/Mic fecfmiqlll'. TI"s t'.\"I11111'le
is a \lil1foll brl'lld p/afe, C.lS-l9.
DilllJ/. J}(1II/I3ill.
5 Poplllar ill tht' 18th (ellllm!. red cnrtIlCII1l'lln'
copie:; al Elmscml pot;; l/lldertt'l'nl a re<'imi il'
fI,e 180105 alld 1850s. Al t/u.' Creaf Exllibilioll
01 lSj 1. TlloIIIllS Bllffllm fl'crea/('d 1111 EtmscaJl
fomb fa display 'Ilres iJl t/js My/e.
Ht 36.5clllh-llill.

"'" .

.,
.'
1 1"'11I ";'" /., 18.",
'.j. ""U ,11/.1 //.
1'" I,/JI, .'./ d./h',,/lr- 1,, .... -,1
"'"/.'oIl"h"'' /." ..,',/ "11 18111-
,,'''1/111/1 .o'lIlll1l'I'It'ioIYI'6. Y/lis
, r.'i l" 1"'/ ,'011/11 di;,:p/nys
11, .. /,', /"'1/" flO1I'1!r
/',mllll/.'\ ,,','UI!,; 1l}'plil'df1ora/
NI lSCIII!l1ill.
2 IJ,,' l':'omglUlIll factory mnde
liddd i'nscfor WiJ!;alll IV,
("S>o. Gilding, mamellillg, (Il1d
I//I/umlis/ir OfJl(ll1fCllt cae lI$t'd
1.1 en'nte ,1Is Rococn-illspired
tO/lr-dejorce. HI 9SC11l/3SIiIl.
3 Slip-ca'5f stOIl'it'flre jl/gs {/lId
'capo/s ,{'en' oftell decDrnfcd
ptl, fasl1iOlIl1/t!t' l,fltl1ic
C/mrlc"5 Aldgll oI Hrlllfey /IIadt'
tlJis )Jrk Alillster jug in 1846.
Hi 201.:",/8;11.
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C
ontinental European ceramics and lstorical styles
played a major part in shaping British ceramic
designo From the 18205 to the 1840s, the Rocoeo styles of
18th-eentury German makers sueh as Meissen inspired
the Coalport and Roekingham factories. Heavily
modelled with flo\Vers and Rococo scrolls, their pieces
\Vere elaborately gilded and enamelled. They set a trend
that \Vas soon copied in France.
Gothic design also influenced ceramic production.
Stone\Vare jugs of the 18405 often included details such as
arcading or tracery, usually as moulded decoration. The
designer A.W.N. Pugin brought historieal accuracy to the
genre by creating designs for tiles and d.itmer\Vare for the
Minton factory. Taking inspiration from surviving
Medieval decorabon, many of the je\Vel-coloured \Vares
\Vere produced by the encaustic technique. The Worcester
faetory also produeed these \Vares.
As the century progressed there \Vas an increased
intcrest in the ceramics of the Renaissance periodo By the
18505, Minton \Vas producing Henri Del/X ware, which
copied, in enameI, the inlaid ceranllCS of Renaissance
france. Minton ",ent on to appoint Alfred Stevens
0817-75) to design \Vares emulating 16th-century tin-
glazed earthenware.
Perhaps Minton's most impressive \Vare was majolica.
Developed by the Frenchman Lon Amoux 0816-1902),
this involved eolouring relief-modelled decoration \Vith
brilliant translucent glazes. Taking the Renaissance
ceramIcs of Remard Palissy (c.1510-90) as a starbng
point, the \Vares soon included contemporary themes
such as a giant fountain fer the 1862 London Intemational
Exhibition. Competing faetories such as \Nedgwcxxl. went
on to produce majolica wares into the 19405.
The 18505 sa\\' a revived interest in 18th-century
5evres porcela..in, with faetones such as Coalport imitating
its rieh colours, original shapes, and enamel decoration.
Historic styles were augmented by ne", tcchniques.
Franee introdueed pte-sllr-pte, developed at Minton by
Marc-Louis Solon (183:>-1913); and the Copeland lactory
produced the white unglazed figures of Parian porcelain.
6 Frellc/I RellaisSflllCl' ml,lid
pottery </'Os imitated by Alill/Oll
lteavily ollt/illen Ilflillfclf
decora/ioll. VaTes il'ere markel'1
as Hcnri Dcux (I/Oil' kl/oil'1I
as Saint-PorchaueJ. TI';,;
e<1'er i"l'as sho.t'll al ti//' LOllnoll
Jlltel'llatioll(f/ Exhibirioll 0/1862.
Ht 4ocm/I5t.ill.
7 Aifn'd St:'CIIS (181-7j) u'as
(f lendillg arc/ih'cf (fl/d de:>igm.'r
.dJ() 'l'Orked ill t/e sty/e oj Ihe
High Rel/aisSllllce. He prool/Ct.'d
.'ariol/s de:>igmfor 1\ lilltOIl fJlI1f
I'l/mJafl'd /taliall Rellai';5allce
lIU1iolicfI, illc/lldillg tI,;s
i:'fIse, /lltII//'
1864, Ht 42.jcmh6l.ilI,
CI)
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(
10 Frt'llc/I de:::igller Afarc-Lollis
501011 (1835-1913) d:'eloped the
pale-sur-pate tccJmiq/lefor
Millfoll, 5eC1I her/' ill Jti::: hm-
halldled i:'fl5e ami COi'er of 1886.
DeJiente e!fecf> Tt'lIlillisct'llt ol
cameos <('ere adJi:'ed by paillfing
ill lralls/llcellf layers ofShiJ (Jiqllid
day). TIJe slyle is slfifed to
cJassicnl slIbjects. HI 51CIII/20ill.
11 Copt'!alld produced t/is Parlall
porcdai/Jfigure oj Alimllda, 1S77,
0111.' oj Shake:::peare's cJmmcters.
Pariml is n pl/I"e o/lile, IIl1g/n:ed
parce/nill rt'milliscellt ollllarbll'.
FrOIll Ihe 18-1-os il ms IIsed lo
make sll/nl/-sen/e oj
poplllar s/ntlles. Parinll
I"ef!ectcd mI ollgoillg il/ler,,::/ ill
c/assicn/lomls nnd im:: il'idl'ly
copied. HI 39CII/!1j'l.ill.
= '"'
8 TIIl' Al i 11/011faclory lerlllt'd /flcir ricfl-gfa:ed -!'(In's "lImjolicn." Fi I':::t
:'/10<1'11 at tllt' Grc'a/ Exhi!JiI iOIl. 1851, /lle lec!mii] lIe ms lI:::edfol' 111mIy
itellls, like tlzis pair of /It'dl'stal-Jorm gardell seals, C.l 875. HI ..6clI/h8ill.
9 Produccn l/y t/e Coa/port jactory C.1850, I/es(' 1'n:'t's arl' vI/sed 011
FI"('!1c!, porcelaiJl. Origilla! SCNes ("V/ollrs are I'cCl"cated, toge/hel"
willl Cl/alllc/ pal/('/::: after the lStll-cmtllry pailltcr Frnl1rois BOllclter,
3 T/lis Sh:res Roman dock 01 1845 Teflects
(/ grotl'illg illterest ill ReJ/aisSflllcelorms
combilled 'l'itll Cothic details. Ellflmelled
plaf/ues, !listorien/ 5CClles, alld sill/1//nfl'f1
n/nbnster display t/It' fnctory's tec1l11ieni ski/k
1 Gotllic-illspired decomtioll
jOlllld /s lay ol/fo fi'CIVday
domestie tem;; sI/el! as l!Ji'S fea
:;.el. Made C.18-l-O, Ca/le lIIoti/S
'll<.'re clll1l/1clled ol/fo n parcelnil/
sen'ice o/ COIH't'llliOlln/ JOTms.
2 TI/Is tea mTmer, or \'ei1leuse,
II/ade in Limoges, C.lS]o-40,;5
ell/j't.'Jled by I1pp/ied Gotllic
Ol'lll1l/1l'/1f bnscd 01/ nrcllifectllml
de/ni/o Tlle pierced willdo'i.l's nlld
sirles ,POI/id Juwc beell i/fllluill-
n/eri by lig!lt /rolll tlu' s/Jiril /1111117
jl/side. Ht l.26111/.ift'1I.
Revived Styles, New Techniques
French Ceramics


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P
allowing the Napoleonie period, Frcnch porcclttin
production \Vas adnlircd for its lllstcrc ccramics,
which \Vere lavishly enamelled in imitillioll uf fine oil
paintings. Themes ",ere taken from Medieval Fn:nch
histary ar lhe Renaissance, bul lhe scale \Vas tnlly Empire.
The 18305 saw a change, as the Rococo Revivll taste
began to influenee ceramic designo Factories such lS th<lt
of Jaeob Petit (1796-1868) went into produetion, Il1flking
whimsical omaments in imitation of 18tl'lcentury proto-
types. Enamelling, modelled flowers, and gilding were
used to create a good-humoured caricature of the style.
Petit was saon outclassed by the long-established St?vres
factor)', which took on the revived style with a ereative
seriousness. At the request of the Empress Eugnie,
original 18th-eentury sh<lpes and colours were faithfuJly
recreated, while new designs in the Rocoeo taste sought
to rival or surpass historie originals.
At Sevres, the mid-19th eentury was a penad af
i..nnovation. During the 18505 and 18605, experimentation
at the factory led to the discovery of the pte-sl/r-piUe
technique, 1<ltcr developed at Minton's in Britain. Thin-
bmshed layers of liquid clay were built up to aeate
di<lphanOlls ornament reminiscent of cameos, and lhe
tcchniquc "'as used to reproduce c1assical and Renaissance
fOTlns. AIso fashionable at tItis time \Vere vases in the
Pompeian laste, which reflected the ongoi.ng interest i.n
thc c1assical past and the court taste in decoration.
The Pouyat factory of Limoges produced undecorated
"'ares. Using a rehned ",hite porcelai..n known as blallc de
POlfyat, their exhibition pieces were sculptural in
character and shO\v a 19th-century passion for naturalism
that reflects contemporary silver designo
Meticulous revivals of historie styles \Vere an
increasi..ng feature of eeramie production from the 18605.
Re",orkings of designs by the French Renaissanee potter
Bernard Palissy ",ere made by, <lmong others, Charles
Avisseau and el. Landais of Tours, and the Paris factory
of Barbizet. lnspired by a heady mixture of historicism
and naturalism, these makers produced exotic recreations
of his plant- and amphibian-encrusted \Vares.
(

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5 Pompeinl/ tns/e H'ns JlOJlII/IIIl:::,J
by t'ell-pllb/ici::ed decoratin'
themes sueh as that fol' Prim,'
Napo/eoll's Ilol/se. Usillg maft
c%llrs 0/1 a biscuit poree/ail/
body, Sh'rl'5 pere ab/e to rttert'n1l'
tlle s/y/e ill certllllc form 011 t!lis
Adlalde mse. desiglled by
Le/oy alld madI' 1852.
6 rile Sevrl'5 jaclory developed
the pate-sur-pte tecllllique ill
fIJe 18605. Paillted by J. G/y, tlle
vase is a porcelai/l copy ofa
16t1I-CelltIlTy rock-crystal <'esse/
in tJle LOllvre.
7 rllese ormo/IHllomlfed Vllses
nlld COi..'ers pere made n/ Si;<Jres
111 1869. usillg tlle pate-sur-pte
tecllllique 011 n mmWf grOlllld.
8 18th-cell/llry prolotypes iL'ere
caricatllred in porcelaill by tlle
}acob Petil [aclory. c. 1850. TIJis
perfume battle illcorporates
modelled fiott'ers (lIld lJierced
porcelnill 0/1 n base o/gilded
Rococo scrolfs.
4 Tlle 5evres factor!! made 11
1H/IIIWr ojnltempts fa imitnte
16tl1cf'lItllry Limoges ennmc/s.
\Iade ill lB.p, t/lis 'ase s
decorafl'd lith bnl/ds of
RenaisslJIw? omnmel/t tnken
from !Iistarie e.mll/pies.
7
"
9 TI/I.' POllyaf facfor!! tif /

"
-
-
,
produced {l pur'" l'1lc (",'mllll,
,
,
,

".,
bodlf klloWI/ as bllIlC ['011\,.11
.
-
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'-
Desiglll'd by fI'I' I'lIul
COII/o/ern ill 18,:; for 1/,,' /'llIh
Exhibilitll/, 01(""('/111..",,, t' .1I".r
-,

tite 19t1H"'1I1111t
""
/ln/IIT<' 11.. lrlllllllt,,,t
HI 6I]rllI/::!
'" ..
10 '''1'1111/'' "/lIt "
1"lldl'flJ
j
Cl,,,,,,,,,/III'"" ", Jlt" 1f,I1H''llfllry
,
/ /"'/11/111/'1/1 il," l/1m/ fllllissy.
1,,'('111.'11111 I"ollll'Oll',,,.' l'itll
-.
tI'/If,; ..,.:111:1'''' l/t,' ltisIJ-rt'lief
-,

by UlIIdlli.. 0/10/11",.. combillen

l.
,
IUltiollnfislj" Ii.. /tlridslII ,dlll
231
9
,

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/U1f1m,lislII. /. 53.jCm/ltill .
Other European and American Ceramics
European Wares
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3
4
3 Oesigl1cd bIt E.N. N>lIn'lIther
ClSo6-S2.) for he NYlllp!lcllburg
jactof!!, !I/se porcelaill pitchers
collllJiIlC Mediwnll1lotif5 luit/
I1l1turalistic detail;; suc/ as
lelwl!5 l/ud figll 1'1:5. TI/e.!! ,l'crc
SIIO<I'!1I1! fhe Grl'nf Exhib/iOn Il
LVI/don ill S51.
5
4 This Rocoeo pOl"cc!ain taMo,
madI' by \;leissel1 in 1853, is
decorntcd ,('itl, Iznnd-lIlOdel/ed
birds al/d jlOil't'I"s. Re'iml pieces
'{'re poplllar fllroJlg!u){/ Ellrope;
L1Idwig II of Bamria liad a plro!c
1"0011/ decornfed wit/ Aleis,;cn
porce/ain in tlle Rveoeo fa,;te.
1 Elllpite stylc5 ccn' sli!! /leins
prodllccd by I!w!ly (oll/pl/llie;;.
T{I.' ltnliml Oocc;a faetvr!! 1'nS
fflll/O//;;/or il:> 1!Ill1!IIcJled
decora/ioll, o/Iell cOl'iedmm
Q/d Aln::;fer pnilltlIg.;. This
e.mll/ple l/56 n gilded borda fo
fmlllc n milliatllre r,roduc/all of
n nuvens scl( por/mito
2 Made by/he Ficl/na factor!!
in C.1S3.f., tlJis fray s}Oi:Pj tlter
COlltillllCd illtcrcM ill detai/ed
e/mil/el pail/lillg. Tlle llOrder
IIses ctcl1(;d gi/dil1g, illspircd by
Neoclas:>icislIl. L. 29C111!11/,ill.
5 Torc!li, a Flon'lItillC compal/Y,
drcw 011 ltalian RCl/ais';IlIlCI..'
dcsiglls fo ereate t!lis di",/ ill
,S75 Tlle dl..'corntioJl c/'!ltres 011
11 creatil'c interpreta/iol/ of 16t/-
celltUI"Y srotesqut' lIIotifs.
American Wares
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5/11 Iflt' 1880:', Ott & Bre;I't'r
prVdllClyf gla:ed Paria!1 'il'(lres
11111111'11 afta tll/' Iris/ Bl'Ile/'k
("dIJrl/. TiJi:- tii",iI i:- denmltt'd
I'it/ Ct1101lmll1lltlll"l'
Tl1e Paril1l1 fcdmiqflt' IIJI/y/m'/'
bl'i'11 /nk('1l Iv IJe l/S by JOItIl
HnrriSOJl. mi t'x-/'IIIJlloY"e of tll<'
ElIgli..11 Cllp<'1alldfncfory.
4 :'lIcll as
11uftaJo Ilcad:, 1lJ1J1t'af mi he L/ilioll
Pllrct'lI1;1I I\'orks' Cellft'/II/a/ Vax'
:( 1S;6. D..j;pl"j y G.r/li"lj-
I'lll"ll f<,lr/ ,\ ludhor. lile ',Ix' a/:'(l
iIlCOl]JIlI11/ es 11 r.-/it:f-/1Iou/dcd frie:e
s/wwillg I,(/ssases frvlII AIII('riCtlll
M:,tory. Ht 56.5clI//24-
1 \Indt' as 11 ,ccddillg g!ft 111
1838. tltii> IVillit/m E!lis Tucker
pol'cdaill /.'(1 jo'r<'ice :5110;1'5 f!le
;;iIIIJ,I ifit'd :-'" fir'{l/l red
'Y tlt,' Amaimll lIInrkt'/. TIt.'
l'lJit" b(ld!! ;:5 rllrl11ccd /'!{ :5l1Jn/l-
scnh' c!ns5ir:n1 simgs nlld gildillg.
Tl.'llpot 11/ 21CIII/81.;1I.
2 TlIcka dlTt'/Opl'd hlrd-pll:;ft
IlOl'cdnil/ I'ftJduclioll in file LIS iJl
l/le lS:WS ami 18;05. S/lI1pes
SUe/1 tlS tlUit of tI,;; 1828 jllg un'
l'''s,'ti IlI/ Eml'in' protof!fl't'S. oflt'l1
d,'cornlt'd citl t'I/ITmdkd.flmYT
pnillfillg tl/' /nlldsctlp6.
3 Desigl/l.'d I'y salle 81"0011/<'. !le
Baseball Vase (ombim',;, c1n:,:,iCII/
lIIofifs SI/cl/ll;; Inurd 'rt'fltl:;,
{'il11 fi<>,l/rt'S in mMl'nl dn';;;;.

Tf1is sopltisticlltcd Parall-ente
'IlSl! !'aS /lInde l/y Off & Bn."('t'T
for lIJe PI/ilndelpflill Ct'II!t'lIIlin/
Exlti/litiol/ or 18,6.
Ht 8TC1I1/3:1l. 3
T
he chaos that followed the Napoleonic Wars left
man)' European factories in a state of disarray. The
ensuing years were to see a nwnber of closures, with some
companies forced to make industrial goods to survive.
TI10se that did sluvi,'e clung to old styles and fashions.
lany factories, such as Doccia in Ital)', and others in
Gem1any, Austria, and Rl1ssia, continued to make Empire-
style pieces where rich gilded decoration framed elaborate
enamel paintings. By thc 18405, German factories sl1ch as
Nymphenburg were producing pieces in the Gotruc and
Renaissance styles imitating 16th- and 17th-century
stonewares. However, it was the Rococo Revival that
revitalized many companies. At Meissen, original moulds
were pillaged for ideas and 18th-cenhtry models copied.
As weU as figures, they produced porcelain furnihlfe such
as tables and mirrors, enemsted with fully modelled
Rococo flowers and scrolls imitating 16th- and 17th-cenhu-y
stone,,'ares. Other recreations included Renaissance-stvle

dishes in tin-glazed earthenware from the Torelli factory

of Florenee and lustre wares fram Escofet in Spain.
The ceramics industry in the United States \Vas beset
by problems. lmported ceramics from Britain were chcap,
making eompetition hard, and the American Ci\'il War
interrllpted the development of the indllstry lI11til tlll'
1860s. Tluoughout this period, imported British
and European craftspeople were influential in
design, and historical revi\"als prevailed.
attempts were made to produce poreebin, not.lbJy by
''''illiam ElIis Tucker, wha establishcd <l (.Klory in
Philadelpla from c.1825, while at the IOn'cr l'nd o( the
market, Fentons of Bemlington, Vcnnonl, m.lde scn'icc-
able earthenwares with rieh bnnvn glazcs.
As in Eurape, Parian porcdain l,l ... hion<lble mid-
centur\'. From the 18/05, ambitiou.... ccr.llllic n'ares were
-
being produced by campanil... "'\lch .1 ... Ott & Brewcr.
Established in 1871, the)' l'lllploYl'd seulptors
ta work on prcstigiou:> logcther with Smith's
Union Poreclain \Vorks, thL'Y da//lcd the public with
objects decoratcd ",ith American themes at the 1876
Philadelphia Centennial.
233
British Glass
Cut Glass and New Technology

,
>
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1 GolI', Jorms lbe
(IIftillg of tlIis 18405 decanter
mnrle JI Stourbridge. Tracery
Imftems o/ l/le 14/1/ celltllry
illspired the Cltri'illg gtas:> ClIts,
alld flu' diagonal strokes imitate
willrlotl' leadillg.
2 F. & e Os/er eren/ro l/lis
Olfll/nill. a combil/fltiOJl o[ Clfl
aJld II/Dulded glnss. for LOllrlOll'S
Grent ExlJibitioll 011851. Os/er
'{'ilS IT lending make, in tI,;s fie/d,
speciafi::illg in large-sm/e
eDlI/missiOIlS alld elaborate IigM
.fitting!> SI/e/I ns gasoJiers.
3, 4 Ric1/nrrlSOIl 's olStollrbridge l/sed e!abol'llte
I:IUlll1ellil1g lo decorate tl1ese opa/ille vases,
c.1850. Paill/ lIg tecJllliques ,l/ere oflen eopied
11'0111 cernlllic sty/es (inri occasionally l/sed file
same opemth'es. Plall! 101'1115 <vere especinlly
poplllar al tltis time. Ht (01 botll) 30.5clI1/1 n.
5 George Bncc!lIIs & Sons of Birlllillg}m/ll
/linde cnsed glnss i/l the Bo/u:milm fas/e. TJis
decnllfer oI 1850 l/ses nl/-opa C1/tlillg fa gir'e
n c/u'qllered slIrfan' pnltem.
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D
espite the importance of revivll styles, cut glm.s in
the grand manner retainOO an import;ml huid (lll
19th-century British taste. Already populClr in 1800, the
opulence and i..nnovation of cut-glass design loo many lo
see it as Britain's most important contribution to the
world glass scene. There ",ere occasional falls (mm
favour - as in the 18605, when Iighter styles "'erc
preferred - but cut glass reinvented itself to reach new
levels of elaboration in the 1880s. Although described by
the critic John Ruskin (l819-1900) as "barbarous," British-
designed cut glass was an admired element oE the
intemational exhibitions. For example, the centrepiece of
London's Great Exhibition of 1851 was a 20-foot high Cllt-
glass fountain by F. & C. Osler of Bimlingham.
Designers also adopted teclmiqlles such as engraving,
enamelling, and transfer printing to create revival
designs. nn engraved or etched omament was used to
apply a c1assical touch to water jugs and decanters.
Enamelling and transfer \\'ork hlrned milky opaline
vessels into Grecian urns or Rocaeo fantasies.
\ Vhen the lax on glass manufacture was repealed in
1S..J.5, the lrish glass industry (which had been exempt
from the tax) floundered, and the English manufach..uers
foulld a new freedom to experiment. [ncreasing numbers
of companies \\"ere making home-produced imitations of
Bohemian o\'erlay and flashed glass, whose rich colours
and novel techniques became highly popular.
The 1860s saw an inereasing search to re-aeate historie
styles in an authentic manner. In later decades, manufac-
turers sueh as Webb of Stourbridge made cameo glass in
the Roman style, using it on Renaissance and ciassical
designs. At the same time, developments revcaled that
glass, cut engraved, and polished, couId re-create the
beauty of Renaissanee and oriental rack crystal.
Industrial glass production saw advances too. In the
wake of American developments, 8ritain was producing
pressed glass from the 1830s, at first in the Midlands and
1ater in the north east. Designers imitated cut glass or
created lace-like patterns to conceal the unsightly
lines left by the moulds.
--------------------------------4
235
en
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9 8rilai" quid; !lIlldoll'
II'dllll1/clSII_ HI'
t/,e iu 111,' 110rlll
t'ilst 'c'rc'/lTlIt/UOIIS tlrtllllll,'ulol
illld /lIlldil"'tll IlIc'l ,':- i 11 el rtms,'
elll.!
tl,;:< l'ullt'/' di:5k
C. 'SS:;, 1/111.11' /111 GI'm:""
L/'Id:-olll C,l., 111 Gntt':'1tl'nd.
IIf 11(111/./ :iu.
" I
7 1880s ((....,..,01 in CIIf g/ns:;
lea lo objecls tlCillg decomted in
1/11' /lriflimrf<lIf Mnde
l/y St('i'c'IIS & lVil/imll5 01
Sfo/lrllridgl' ill c.1880, l/lis
S,l'ceflllcnl di:;1I l/ses (1 vnril'ty
01ClIttillg slyl!!:; fa oc/lit'PI! n
dinlllo/ld/ike gliller.
,
. ..
-.
.-... - . '
.---
'.
., .'.
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--
8 Rock-c')/:,tnl engrnc_'l'd mrcs
'en' dccomfed ill n ,'oriety of
sfllcs, {nslliollnl>1e

RCWlissllllce omnml'lIf. TJe
Bolll'llIinll illlllligmlll lVil/iolJl
Frit;;(lle (C.1S53-T92') mnyd
l/lis ew DI C.1SS0 {Ol" TllOlllflS
I\'ebb & SOll:; alStourbridge.
Ht 2jcm/Joill.
6 Renctillg aga;lIsf /lu' fasle for
(lit g/n,;;:;, lIJe desigller Helll"!!
Cole fJ 8(18-811 (J{l51.' ('/In1I11'1lerl
dccorntioll fa complete IfJs miel"
camfe. T/e onlfllllellf is basca 011
rel,d:; nlld il'nterfloil'erS, mi
npproprinle desigll t/mt SII;t:;
tllI,? l'('ssel's l/se.
7
8
6 L:.-.--==-_""..-
Other European and American Glass
European Innovations
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3
B
ohemian glassmakers exerted a major influence in
Emape during thc first haH of the 19th century.
famou5 for their overlay, al' cased glas5, with its brilliant
colcurs, detailed wheel-engra\'i.ng, and enamelling, their
Rcnaissanee- and Baroque-inspired wares \Vere widely
imitated by Freneh and German glassmakers. Designers
such as franz Paul Zach (1818-81), for example,
continued the tradition into the 18305, adapting it to suit
the re\"ed c1assical taste.
Bohemia \VnS also an important centre for technieni
uUlo\'atiOI1, particularly in the field of coloured glass.
Friedrich Egermann (1777-1864) i1wented a rieh red
colour stain in 1832 and in around 1830 he de\'eloped
lithyalm, an astonishing opaque glass thnt imitated the
<lppearance of serni-precious stones.
France soon became an increasingly impartant centre
fOl" !1e'" designo At the Baeearat factOl)' ne", productions
sllch as opalme glass, with its c1ear, fresh calour palate,
"'tl::; fully exploited and llsed as a basis for grand c1assical
OrJlll11Cnt. More Iight hearted \Vas the dc\'elopment at
1 Frkdridl dl','('/(ltt'd
n 11I1'1l1l:'. kllotl'lI 11:' JitIJYII!in.
lIIixillS opaqul' ;.:la:,,, ill
((l/lllr:; t(1 mifnh' pn'Citlll:' ,,/lu/,':'
11:: 11.'11/:' :'1/ ..11 o:' l/Ji:;

C.lSjo-,;O CtI,yrc,1 ;n,. I't'rt'

dccomlcd l'iIll /lnlnd (Jn'l CII!::
lo "//Oil' off tll,'
.. ,
2 TI/t' GaJllf1ll gll1:':'mtlh'r Frmc
Pmtl Za(/ pn1dl/Ct'11 t'/a[lomt,/,
('Ilgrm'cd pi,'':' 111 tllt' 8[1{1.'lIIinll
::!ylt'. Tit::. of lS55 is
dt'comtt'd 't'itll a frit':t'
(lit n Im/t'/" tl( ,JIII' 'I!/tl:':'.
. ..
3 Semi Inm::/lIccl1t opn/hlt' g!n::::
,1'(1:: /l/l/dI' by IIInllY EIIHlJ','m
TlIl':'(' Btlhl'lIIinJl
l'.\"(IlIIp!6, lS]o-,O. ::110;:1' tlll'
rIllI,?!' of CO/Ollrs fl<'lli!n/llt'.
, .
4 GotlJic lit'comtiOIl sudl a::
trefoi/s mil [I' ::t't'1I mI t/,;s mily
ora/a.lr 'nse mili cma, madt' ill
Boliemin LISjO, mI ,-'"ml/p/c of
tllt' qua/il)! of delail tlml mil b,'
fOl/lld 011 8011<'lI/iml glns::'I'flI'.
HI6'CIIIjil,.
5 TI,,' ::lmjl" of t/lis mi/ky ,l'Jlite
opalillt' glas:, (';:{'<'r, ma,i> ill
Fnlll({', i:: derir.,..dfrolllll
dl1::::icn! forll/, ;:/'llilt, f/tt'
IInfl/m/islic dCI/J('IlI:: ::lIdl
tlt.. SI/Ilkt I'llfl'illillS nnllllld tlll'
//(Illdl!' nl1d fIn' 'd<;:ill,?

aroul/li tltt'll(ldy nn'
l'.lf Ibt' ROCJ((l.
5 __
American Advances in Glass

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4 Prod/fced in lS611lf the
Do/:fliJlger Glnss Co., tllis hem'y
Cl/t deC(lIlfer ti/(, ClIt-
glns:> J"t'7.,iml of the IMe-19th
ulltrlr!!. Oeeper Cl/ts exnggernte
the dl'comft'd Ol'cnlltl'r
J ..p.jcm/J6"';1I.
3 TfJis decnl/ter IIY t}t'
Dorfliuger Cfns:; Co., IV/tite
Mil/s, PeJlJlsyf'mJin, Ims n simple
forlll, l'itiJ l'llgrmwi decoraton of
folinge. Ht :!9cm/11 /ill,
dinm. (nlltnse) .jem/3"'1.
4
1
1 TlI/! grolllld cO/OUI"S of tfJis
col1l.'dioJl of 19fJ,cclltlln, Jlfl'''''l'd
. .
slns:; l/elude yd/Oil' (11/11 ti
rerirlisll pillk kllOll'll il/ lIe llllih'd
Stati'i' as
2 T!Ie fina! oi tM" eOIllI'0rl ilJ
l/le Wesh\"ard Ho! I'flttt'rll,
/l/adt' by jtllJll':l Gi/fillda & 50/1::',
i::. afigure of fI l//l/h'/! Aml'rien/!.
TlIe IIICII/t' is COllfillUl'll (,jtll dt'CT
cirWlIIl'l'lIfil1g ff/{' liad!!.
1ft 29CI/1/11 lill.
this factor)' and at St louis and Clichy of lI1il/efiori paper-
weights. Mif/ejiori was an old glass-making teclmiqu
revi\"ed for ne\\' uses (see p. 2-10).
Serious historical re\"ival \\"as to take centre stage in
18605 Ital)'. Here, the Venice & Mluano Glass Campany
(originall)' founded by Antonio Sal\'iati c.18.59 and
known as Salviati & Ca.) revived 16th- and 17th-century
Venetian glas5 designs. Made ",ith colotued and IntticlJO
glass, their creative evocations of historic glas5 fOtU1d a
ready market in a period of historical re\"ivals.
Across the Atlantic, American glass design was
irluenced by the whole spectrum of European produc-
tion. Bohemian glass was imported, appreciated, and
intitated by manufacturers such as the New England
Glass Co. Cut glass in the English taste was lU1i\"ersally
admired and made, taking on grander proportions in the
United States during the 18805 than anywhere else.
In the early part of the 19th century, historical styles
were less important in the United States because they
COtud not be satisfactorilr produced using the cut-glass
teclulique. However, in the 1820s, advances in the field of
pressed-glass mantacture brought a new medium to the
fore. At first tllis early method of mass production wa:,
used to imitate the grand malUler of the glass-cutters' art,
but it was not long before inventi\'e mould l1lakl'r...
applied the whole repertoire of Neo-Gothic and NL'tl-
Recoco omament to create in\'enti\"e pressed .... h.lpL' .....
These styles 'Vere soon accompanied by uniqul'h
American motifs SUd1 as the eagle and the l1.1g.
By the 18-405, American adwlIlccs h.1d illlhll'l11l'd
world production. Exports were so ""'lIcn'........ lul 111.11
Bohemian glassmakers became incn....1:-.inglv l t !lIt t'l"Itt'\"1
that they wOlud be eclipsed by th llt-'WCI )llll'r 1\1 1IIl' tldd.
ll1e 18705 saw the developlllcnt nI ,1 dl'ttlr.lh'd gl.h:'-'
type that is uSllally knowll a:- i\ 1.11'\ (:rt'glII'Y, ,1111,.'1' ,1 gl.1:-:,
decorator who is said lo h.l\t,' \\'llfl...t'd ,11 t11l' Bo:,lon &
Sandwich Glass Ca. Al th<)lIgh thl' h.... tl 11'\' .1111..1 ,l ttribu tion
of the ware is unccl'l,lill, 111l' ... Ivll' (whidl in\'oh-ed lhe
enamelling oi I\l':-.IIll'lic i\10\ l'lllt'nl figures and
landscape dcllib un .1 l-pIOlll"l'\ gl.l:'-'S ground) is
llnmistakablc. TIll' IL'dllliqtll' \\'.1 .... U:-'l.'ll to imitate more
costly call1l'O gl.l,,",s .1nd \\'.1,,", L"portl'd across the warld.
Thc wan::.. induLlL'd dL'Ctll",lli\'l' \,.l:,l'S, jugs, and soU\"elur
and COllllllL'lllOf,lti\'L' pil'Cl's.
237

1 Britis!t mt glnss ,!'aS imitnled 'I'or/d('idc.

This "iew of tlle SIIO,'I"OOlll of tite Birlllingllll/ll-
bnsed eomlmllY F. & C. Osler i!lllstmfes tlle
mllge of wnres umilub/e from ti/e firlll, (.1860.
TI/e stock illc1l1ded c1lnllddit'rs nlld I!/ubornte
ClIt-gluss lustres.
2 Baeenraf proollccd tltis dl'$igll for u glusj
Mlllellnir, probnbly fol' nll IlIdiul1 prillo!,
nrol/Ild 1888. G/uss fllrllilllre, ofiell impired by
Re1lnissullce Ret'i'u! jltnpes, wus lIIadeIroll/
ellt ulld pres::.ed-g/us;; collllX)IIeIlfs.
2
vitality by the introduction of elaborate pinwheel and
geometric patteming. It was also popular in Europe.
Pressing developed as an inexpensi\'e \Vay of imitat
ing cut glass. In American factories, two operatives \Vere
involved in making each item. One inserted molten glass
ioto the metal mould. TI1e other then activated a plWlger
to press the glass into the mould. After the 18605, steam
mechanization was introduced. Press moulding was
important to glass industries worldwide; designers used it
to experiment with decoration and formo
TI1e 19th century saw the revival of a number of his-
torie glass-making techniques. Opaline glass, a semi-
translucent glass first developed in 17th-century Murano,
Italy, was achieved by adding calcined bone ash to the
glass mix. Baccarat re\'ived opaline in France in the 18205,
and created colour by adding metal oxides. Calours
ranged fram pastel shades to deep blue or coral.
Individual pieces ,vere ofien gilded oc enamelled in
imitation of porcelain or antique Greek portery. Classical
forms \Vere used for Wldecorated wares.
G
lass marle in the 19th century \Vas largely defined by
method rather than style. Far example, techniques
such as cut glass could rarel)' take on the fluid shapes of
Neo-Rococo designo Instead, cut-glass designers devel-
oped their own repertoire of matifs independent DE
historical styles. However, for those \'vishing to re-ereate
revival tastes, surface-decoration techniques such as
engraving and enamelling \Vere increasingly available.
In the second hall of the century, manufacturers focused
on reviving a range of glassmaking practices from the
pasto These teclmiques (which included cameo- and rock-
crystal-style glass) allowed designers to respond to the
nced for more accmate re-ereations of historie designo
Cut glass \Vas created by marking the vessel, roughing
out the decoration on a V-shaped wheel, then refining
l!ll':-;l' cuarse cuts on a copper wheel or sandstone. Wheel
poli hing or immersion in a hydrofluoric acid bath
lini lh'd lhe picce. Cut pattems induded fans, flutes,
bLl/l... , .lnd diamonds. Following the Philadelphia
t \'lIlt'lllli.1l Exhibition of 1876, cut glass was given new
Glass-ClItting and Etching Techniqlles
Glass Techniques and Materials
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3 RI'gt'IlC!' gla:::slllakas IS-tablisl/ed
11 ro!po!rfoirl' of pI/l/al/s acJtiepab/e
/1.'1 il'llet'1 ClIttillg. Used illa
mril.'ty of cOlllbillatiolls, they I'erc
illfllll.'ntiaf fllrol/gllOlIl tlle 19t/l
cel/tur}!. nis extllllple is a cut-
glass :;:mter jug, 0820.
Ht 20CIII/8ill.
4 Oriental oowls it't're a Wllru
of illspimtioll for sOllle of tllt'
1lf'<1' rock-crystal mres of
t1lr! 1870s. De:::igl/r!d by JoJm
.\fortlm'00<1. tls e.mmpll.' ol
1884 SIlOi!'S tlle l/lldulnfillg
sl/rfnce ac1lif'<'ed byellgraiJillg,
t1lm po/isllillg. Hf 1l.5CIll/SilJ.
3 .... _

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,
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5 Tlle prvcess of Clllfillg file dt'ComtioJ/ 011 a
cl/meo g/ass I.'tlse is SJIOWII ill t//s lI/1fillis//ed
exampll', possiblyJrom Jolm Nort/nt'O(xf's
tl'OrksJlOp. L1875. Dark arcas represellf pate/u.'s
of l/l.' rt'l/lo..d l/ppa layer. Ac/l 'as sollletimcs
l/sed fa I/cce/era/e fhe rellloill/l process.
6 J. T. Ferelay l/sed Rellaissflllce moti/s 011 t/is
call1eo glnss >ase of 188.J.. COlltmstillg coloufs
of ulllber alld wllife 'ere achie-ed by layeril/g.
fI/el/ el/ftillg fhe g/ass. Ht J8.5C1lI/7/'ill.
7 Sfer.'ells & IVillitllJ/s of 5tollrbridge I/sell acid
etchi/lg lo create /!ler Death of Socrates <'ase,
c.186j. Classical sl/bjeets ",ere ftts/liollttble ill
tlle lIIid'19tJl cel/fllry alld glusslllakers vere
illspired by Greek mses. Ht 3OCIll!I2ill.
8 Machilles wefe l/sed fa speed /lP etcJled-g/flss
decoratioll; Illey Il'ere especittlIy use/I/I ill
creatillg lile /ooped fllld scrol/ pattems seell 011
tllis goblef, ill t'Ogl/e ill tlle 1860s.
9 TI/e nmewedfasllioll for copper-wheel
eugrnr,illg ,I'as illfrodllced by Bo//emiall
craftsmell. Elnborate scelles were eopied from
Old Master paillfillgs; 011 t1lis t'llse /lIIri cot>er
mnde by Al/gl/sl BO]III ill 1840, the scelle is
based 01/ tile Lebrtlll paillfillg of AJe.wlIfder
defeatillg lIe PersiulIs, wlticll is'in file LOIlVre.

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239
Decorative Materials and Techniques
3,4 BollI.'lIall-ill:,pind glassl'ill"l:
lISl!d I! "llriet}1 o/Iedm/Iles
i Ilcllldi 11gjln.;hI/g, slai 1/i liS:,
eJlgmpillg, nlld t'llal/lt,l/illg.
Brillinllf CO/Ollrs mut elabora/e
delai/ /linde I}ell/ popular/mm tlll'
18-1-0:5 to tlll.' 1860.;.
2 BIlCCllrn/ lIsl'd opll/hu: gllls::;
ill pll:,tt'/ Admirl'd/or
if:, porcelllill-likl' fjllisJI, imres of
. .
Ifl(' 1860s. SI/e/IIlS t/Ji5 :'1.'1, (lWr'
oftell decornled ,1'it11 GrCl'k
!l/Id /lIld c1llssiCllJ forllls.
- -.
1 Cn:'<t'd fllld g/ns:; ,,'n:::
dl',t'lopt'd by E. Vnmisfl & Co. o/
LondOIl in 'he 1840:5. G/a:;:; ll'{/'::;
MOit'lI wit/ {I cm'il!1 lito ,l'Jlicl,
sil'erillg se/u/ion m,; pOI/red.
T/e :'l/rfna ,{'liS ol/m flnslled
/'i// colol/T nlld ClIt or t'llgrmxd.
HI23CIII/gill.
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240
Acid etching was used when glass \Vas too thin to be
engraved 011 a wheel. The tedmique lln-olved covering the
glass to be decorated in wax, an acid-resistant substance.
1l1e pattem \Vas then cut mto the wax 5urface and lhe
vessel dipped into acid, which bit into the unprotected
areas. By the 1850s, English makers began to patent
stencils that could be used to paint the resist pattems. ln
the 1870s, ]ohn Northwood invented a machine that
applied templates for making geometric patterns.
Mi/lefiori (a thousand floH'ers) invoh"ed embedding
slices of coloured cane in clear glass. Practised in 16th-
century Venice and in the 18-+05 by French faetones such
as Baccarat, millefiori was applied to papenveights and, at
Stourbridge, to glasse5, perfrnne bottles, and jugs.
lnterest in Venetian wares led to the re-introduction of
crackle glass (known in the US as overshot glass). This
in\'olved pllmging the hot blown glass into a bath of cold
\Vil ter. The crazed glass, when reheated, retained a finish
li"L' cracked ice. Exhibited by the London finn Apsley
1't.:lI,lH in the 18S0s, it was called Anglo-Venetian glass.
Bohemian glass was imitated across Europe and the
United States. One type, known as flashed glass, was
adeved by dipping a cJear glass vessel into molten glass
of a different colour. This outer layer was then cut to
reveal the contrasting layer beneath.
The 18705 saw the revi\'al of carneo glass. Used by the
ancient Romans, the technigue was familiar to Victorians
through the discovery of the Portland Vase in Rome in the
16th century. The approach used clIp-casting, in wlch an
outer case of coloured glass is blown and placed in a
mould, before a new contrasting layer of colollred glass is
blown inside. The two layers are then heated lmtil they
fuse. Thkker than flashed glass, the auter glass skin was
carved with relief decoration, exposing the lower layer.
Engraving and polishing were combined to simulate
the Medieval and oriental techniques of rockcrystal
carving. Developed in the 18705, its water-like Mish was
used fer marine sllbjects as well as far direct imitations of
c1assical, Renaissance, and Japanese art. Press-moulded
shapes \Vere later lIsed to speed up the process.
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4 lI'orh'd ill mirs fa IIInke
prf"'i.St'd glns:;. fll l/Jis COII/clllpornry
iIlus/m/ion, 1I10/tt'J/ gln::::; is loil'('rt'd lIfo 11
/l/ol/Id bt:.forr fI pfllllga prl.'sSt's ir illto :.-1/(/111'.
5 T/e IIIl'taf-s/wpillg de.jee S}IOil'lIllerL' rl'ns
l/sed fo Sl" SlIlnll xc/ious of coloured gln;;s enl/e
illto (kar g/fl;;:;. S,'ctioll:; oJCO/Ol/red glns;; 'il'l're
nmmgt'd iJl n pnlft'rJI. Ib"1I slrl'tcllt'd /() [orlll
(tlm'S, ,1'/lic1 lIwe lI:;cd fa produce mil1efiori
papl'rwt'igilt5.
5
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I \
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n
g
,
,
1
4
6 Cnm' glns:; 'l'I15 l/sed fa prol'ilic eDil/pie.\" mil1efiori decornfiOIl for
pnpl'nlL'igllts 111/11 ol/Ie,. oiljt'ct;;mili fIJe 1845. TI/ese eXlllllplt'S rl'fleet lb/'
J9tfI-Cmtllry il/teres! JI lIor'elty {lllri pnttem. Dinlll. 9cm/3bll.
7 S1Inrl' mOl/Id lilles oftell disfis"red m?Sst'd {'ares. A/ollld /IInke,.;;
il'Ork'd lmrd fa desigll O<'l'r-fl1f decoralio" fo cOl/n'al all.'l impl.'lfl'ctiolls.
T/lis jl/g ami goblef are e.W1l11ph'S o[ /f,r nrt. Coblct lit q.jcm/jl.ill.
8 T/w FI'l'IICh cOlllpnllY 8ncearal cOlllllil1l'd press 1II0llidillg 't'itlll'telJillg
fo pr0l.1l1ee /ligll-qllalily ollj('clslar fi,e 'ealfll!!, SlIC/ as lI,is ice bl/ckef al l..:::...:.. ..
1876. 'hiel, i;:,: necomft'd witJ Romall sa//(';:,:. 8
241
___________________________n
Silver and Metalwork
Inspiration from the alder Styles
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1 Copil'dmm mI ElIglis}
stollc<mre jllg, l/lis XI.'iI' York-
madI,' pitcha 01 oS.;.) is by
lalllloll Bostwick (porking
1845-52). As iu l/le Cl,'l'tlIlzic
original. tlle sil1es of tllI: <'051,'/
are decorakd cil/I om,lllll'llt
ba:;ed 01/ Colhie IIrchitectllre.
Ht 27.5clII/1oY,;II.
3 ....._--:;-
2 /oJII/ Hardmflll o/ Birmillghalll lIIade mclIIy o/ PlIgill'S melalwork desiglls
ill tlle 18';05. Hl!re, embossed (md ellsmved decornliOI/ is sel offby
('IWlllcllillg, gildillg, (lI1d semi-pr..dolls stolles. (haUce ltt 26clII/IOY,II.
3 Th.. Frmch firm o/ Frolllt'lIt-AJellrice l1roduced tllese RenaiSSIlllce-
illspin:d il'tlrt'5 for llie Creat Exllibitiol/. TlIe ClIp is in gold alld silr.'t!r
tllld il/corporalt'S religiol/5 scelles ill el/ame/.
242
E
uropean silversmiths \Vere quick to respond to the
many shifts in taste that characterized the 19th cen-
tury. Within the first half of the century, Rococo-, Gothic-,
c1assical-, and Renaissance-inspired pieces \Vere available
to a broadening market. Internationai exhibitions 5how-
cased prestigious centrepieces as taste moved towards
ever mOfe accurate recreations of historie styles.
Prometed by the court of the Prinee Regent, Rocoeo
style ,vas an important part of the English silversmiths'
repertoire by the 18205. Fuelled by books such as Klliglit's
Vases and Oma11lellts (c.1833), makers produced a variety
of Rococo-inspired items. Some v/ere direct copies from
engravings of 18th-century designers such as Juste-
Aurele Meissonnier. The end results were naturalistic,
metamorphosing plant or shell forms into tableware, or
fanciful, covering everyday items with a mass of C- and
S-scrolls. In the U5, the taste was absorbed from pattern
books and trade catalogues. Critics disliked the style
bccause they felt that even an untrained artisan could
produce something frem the wide repertoire of motifs.
Neo-Gothic had its roots in early 19th-century taste. By
lhe 18-105, exponents fell into two schools: those ",ho took
architectural details and incorporated them into every-
day forms, and those with an archeological approach.
A.W.N. PlIgin was in the latter category. \!Vorking with
10hn Hardman, the Birmingham metalworker, he
designed items that followed Medieval precepts.
By 1830, the Renaissance style vvas the international
favollrite. Continental designers such as J.B.J. I<lagmann
(1810-67) and craftsmen including Antoine Vechte
(1799-1868) were leading exponents. There was increased
interest in embossed decoration and in niello work, an
inlay technique perfected in the Renaissance period.
New technologies affected silversmithing. Steam-
powered machinery (ouId now turn out vessels ready
formed, and mass production was on the horizon. During
the 18305 and 18405, EIkington's in Birmingham patented
elecrroplating, using Iow-voltage current to silver-plate
objects of a lower value metal. It superseded Sheffield
plate as a way of making silvered wares economically.
4 1\ fade by SaJIIlld Kirk, tlJis coffee pot,
(.18-10, (o//lbillt':' Neo-Roco(o mld llatl/mUs/ie
onlrllllCllt tv opu!mt effect. Amcricalll11a/.;as
I'cre qllick to re"J,olld to tlle El/ropeall tastt:for
tllt' "Old Frt'lIc!I" stylt'. lit J].jCIIl/J Yill.
7 Elkillgloll & Ca collllllissiolled tlle Miltan
Shield ill 1866. MadI.' from gold, iron, alld
elll/Jossed siker, tlle origilla! it'/lS easily copied
btJ ell'Ctroforlllil/g, a mriallt 01 tlle ell'Ctrop!atillg
proces;; dCi.'eloped ay ElkillgtOIl. \-'11. 67'5cm/26'II.
5 Edicnrd Fam'U prodllmi IlIis Rococo Rt'i.'iml
tl'apot in 1833. Shdlfl'l't al/d tlle scrolliJlg
1Jmui/e ami SpOllt an.' takl'l/ from 18t1I-cl'IItllry
"rototypt"5-. T/e l'JIgra''!?lt decomtiOlls art'
copied frOIll ltll-uJltllry Dlltcll sCt'l/t'S.
8 A'lfoille Vccllte madc file Jupiter or Titan
,'ase ill 1847- Usillg JJalld elllbossillg, VecMe
ims aa/e lo crente re/ief decoratiOIl o/ alllrt:illg
deptll. His desiglls reflect a growillg illtere,;t ill
Rellaissallce eraftsmallsllip. Ht 75.5elll/29'1il1,
6 1\ fof!{s takt'll ro", Gn'l'/'; ,'tISt' pailltillS
lI'l.'fl' IISt'll to decoratc classiml/y illspin'd
sil"'!'r wssds. T/i;; t'xalllpfe by IV. 5issolls.
1871. IISt'S ('Ilgra'illg to reali:t' tfl!' dt'Sigu.
9/0111I111I f,;'1I1 HI,....lIrd (b.I ..../o; ,'.\ltibilL'd a
1"IlIIX"'I'{ 1/11I1 ""illlll''/ ltll-'llfllfl/

Tlli .. ,'in'/ .'f 0:. ,"'So II:'1OS l'lIgrm'ed
rOf/'; (/lid t'wlllldlfrf ... ilwfaitlifully
to /''tr,alt' Ht 23(II1/9ill.

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Textiles
Carpe! Trends
1 AIllt'l'icflll por/mil:' ofllJe 18405
ami 1850S often lI1ake ajcature
I/n' fllllli/y carpe/o T/le SII/il/
fnlllily gnmp, pnillted by Ernsf1l5
Field (,1860, is s/mldillg 011 a
mednllio/l-pnttem carpe!
de:;iglll!d lo fit tllt' roolll.
2 TI/e /iL1rnry ofCarito/1 Towers,
)'ol'ksIJirt', flIlce:;trn/ 1/01111.' o/
file Bral/llloJlI ami/y, ;PIIS
nfllrbisl1cd ill lS-l4. TI/e Jlt'il'
Brussds mrpet WflS spl'c1af1y
il'O'/'JI for the 1'00111 il'ith n rept'fl/
i'nllem oI llera/die sl/ields. 3
2
3 Cnrpl!! ricsiglls w!'re often
carded 01/t lIi/ially il!
",nlneololl/' OH sf/lInred papt'l".
W!IiIpcll & Ca. of Kcmfnl made
t!lis l'.mll/ple ill 1SH. Romeo
dt>5iglls were n stnple pnrt of tlu:
cm'pellJlaker's rl!pertoir...
4 Tltis ('ntereo!allr 01 Iflc Royal
dft'$sillg rOOIJl ni Osbome HOlIse
;'11851 SJIOw5 Ibe effects
nc1Iif."i.'lIblc witll Rococo-jllf>piJnt
CIITpetS. CII'11t?tS il'l'Te f>pt'IlJlI/
il'O,''1I lo /lllItc11 dccornti'C thelllt'f>
jI! gmlld f,OIl$t'S.
244
P
itted or "plaruled" carpets '''ere an essential part of the
19th-century interior, until they were supplanted by a
re,'i\'ed interest in oriental rugs in the 1870s and 18805.
The desire for integrated decorative themes led designers
to produce carpet pattems reflecting the eclectic tastes of
the time. Gothic, classical, and, increasingly, Rococo
themes were realized in carpets throughout the century.
By 1850, customers had endJess patterns and styles to
choose from. Gothic motifs were particularly popular in
the ]83Os and 1840s, using architectural detailing as a
salITce of inspiration. Elizahethan Revival tastes loo to the
production of carpets that took up heraldic or other
suitable symbols. Scrolling Neo-Rococo patterns were in
fa\'our at alllevels of society.
New technology brought carpets to a wider audience.
In 1851, at tl1e Great Exhibition, Erastus Bigelow (J81-79)
exhibited his new power 100m, capable of weaving a
Bmssels carpet. vVith patcnt rights soon sold to European
makers, the yardage of revival-inspired carpets began to
flow wlControllably, responding to ever shifting tastes.
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4 IVoo/icurk patterns ,'crefirst
produmi ill Berl" 1'Y Pltilipsoll,
a prillt sl'lIer, c.JSO-l. Colol/ud
by 1I(11ld, t/11.'5l' e/m,-t::. I'I.'I""
.'.\pellsii'r' lo produce but, by the
1835, <t't'l"t' ami/able iJl El/rope:,
Britaill, al/(1 ti/e USo
TI1e rise of Berlin H'oohvork in the 1830s and 18-1-05
introduced to Europe and the United States a needle\\'ork
style that was soon praetised everywhere and lasted \\'eH
into the 18805. The technique used a simple tent stilch in
wo01s (at first supplied from Berlin), worked on <1 (<111\'<1:--
grOlrnd. It was simple to do, quiek to progress, ilnd,
augmented by printed design cards, allowed .llmo...1
anyone to produce an elaborate piece of embroidL'ry,
v"oolwork \Vas used to decorate a rangl' oi objL'cb
inciuding ehair upholstery, firesereens, and t:ven :--eltces.
By the 18505, glass 01' steel beads were incorpurated into
designs. AIso in the 18505 carne the introduclion Di new
chemical dyes in brilliant colours such as magenta and
mauve. These were preferred to the less lurid ,'egetable-
dyed wools. Design5 could be ambitious, duplicating in
wool SUdl celebrated paintings as Edwin Landseer's
MOllare/ 01 file Glell, or portraits of famous people such as
Ceorge Washington, Eehoing the Cothie and Elizabethan
revivals, many designs iIlustrated moody ruins or scenes
after Walter Scott's novels.
3
3 fmlJll.'d by ti PlIgil/l':'lfl/e
firexrt'r.'I/, tl1is w'ed/ework
palie! dt'Picfs I \'fllter Scott in (11/
Eli:alJetlul1I illterior at Abbotsford.
Old Ellglish alld Gotl1ic slIbjects
HWt'faslliol/able Olellll.'S il/183OS
and 18405 l/ec.'dlC<t'Ork.
2
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":::' ,'.",' '. '.' ., .. '. '.', '.'. '.' '. '. .. r.;::J.;;;.Hma.::::ii:::s.:!?
oo. :--i!ffiffi:==. :''-:!-'::
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;."7,:;;- __ar.....,;...t
The Increasing Popularity 01 Needlework
1 N('edh'il'Ork ,l't'/"<' aflell l/sed lo 1'llli"<'1l plnill e/til enrpe/5. Tflis
fllg/i::/i e.Hlmple of c. 184-0 IIses tlJick ('ool ill eross :;titell 011 (/ cOllrse
dOl/b1c-llm'lId cmwns gl'OlIJld lo del/iet nlmil f.!ffl//l-bloil'll roses.
2 Rtti5l!d <f'OO/il'Ork. or 1,/l/s1l stitcll, ms u$l'd lo crtnfe n t/r....-riil/u'llsiolln/
efft'ct, 05 in tlJis ('.mll/ple, C.1SjO. 'IJic/ nl50 b..ads. LooJt'd pile
!'aS trillllllcd iI'itI, s550rs fa errofe 111(' ClIm: ol rose pc'tIl/5 nI/ti folingt'.
5 This Berli" 'OO!;:t'Ork palie! of c.t8jo IIIf1Y hfl.'e veell ill tlle Greflt
Exhibitioll of 1851. The IIntllrnlistic Oml1l11ellt is ill lite NeoRococo taste.
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Upholstery
Furniture, Drapery, and Patterns
1 Rct'i'nl 5fy/ ill fumi/u re ,{'ere malchen by n dCl1Inl1d for npproprintc
abric desiglls. Thl!Sl' LOllis Re<'h'nl arllle/mir::; of 1855, e:dlibited by the
Frl'llc! IIpllOlsterer Lnl1glois, nrl' c01'c/wf 111 Rococo-illspil"l.'d eut veh'rf
aud silk damnsk.
2 Ca/llie lIIotffs cen' rlsrd Ollllllll/{'I"OUS CIlrly 19tJI-ceJltllry chillt: designs.
T!Iis 1340 exmllplc l/ses nrchitecfuml pnt/f!nlsJrmlled by Ilcra/die OmmlIl.'lIt.
3 Fn!l1c/1 CIIrtnin dcsigns rl'l're HlliI'ersnlly admired. TlIis J 839 desigll fOl" (1
partiere, 01" door eurtaill, [{'as described as LOlli::; QlIil1:e ill sty/e. /t l/ses
elnborntc frillged alla applied trillllllillgs fa ncJ1ic<.'c Il SlIIIIptl1011S e[fcct.
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246
T
he importance of the 18th-cenhlry decorative theme
allowed the upholsterer to continue to exert a major
influence 011. interior decoration into the 18605. During
the 18305 and 18405, advances in upholstery technique
led to the widespread use of springing for seat furniture.
Superlatively comfortable, such couches and chairs
exuded a rounded, overstuffed appearance. One
particular type of low armchair was known as a cmpnlld
(toad) from its bulging look.
Upholstery fabrics included Italian cut velvets, woven
silks, and hand embroidery. Precious fabrics \vere usually
protected with durable case cover5 uf glazed cotton or,
after the 18605, creta/me (a heavy unglazed cotton).
Curtains went through a period of elaboration with
Irllnbrequins (m ornamental pelmet) used to finish off
window arrangements. Trinm1ed \vith rich fringes and
braids, French curtain concepts were admired in Britain
and the United States. Published curtain designs were
widcly circulated, providing a useful source of infom1a-
tion. In meeting the upholsterer'5 needs, textiJe designers
were aided by improvements in textile-making machi n-
ery. Pattern looms, invented by Lyons-born Joseph-Marie
Jacquard in 1802, were used in the industry by the 18305.
Roller printing, often augmented by hand colouring (or
"painting"), had been available in Britain since 1815.
Designs ranged from a continuation of 18th-cenhuy
fabric patterns (espeal1y in the silk-weaving centre of
Lyons) to new responses to revival tastes. Gothic, Neo-
Rococo, and Renaissance motifs were aH realized in
prillted chintz, cretolllle, or in the woven silks and cut
velvets of the periodo
Gotruc taste was refined by the productions of A.vV.N.
Pugin, who used examples of Renaissance and Medieval
fabrics and wall paintings as inspiration for his woven
and printed textile de5igns.
The 19th cenhuy was dominated by a pas5ion for
realistic floral ornamento Often criticized by design
theorists, flower prints from the 18405 to the 18805
5howed great virh105ity and invention in transforming
natural forms into two-dimensional designo
247
6 Prodll(l'd by .\lnlfll'lIIll'l
Blllmmi ill LyolI:: iJl 1868. f/Ii"
Rl'//I1i::SIlll'-st!!h C/lt y/'et
jlll)'ic ms ill::pired by 16tll-
'lItunl pl'ill/l'd Omlllllt'll/.
7 BII the 1880". Fn'lIch

liad Tt'liC]cd thc pt'llk (!f
Itat 11 ra/isfk flOil't'r-iIl5pin'lf
desigll. Prodllced;1I \lsl1cc, tlli:;
abric de::igll i" dL'corntcd 1'it!1
spriukliJlgs ofgarcft>1l floi:tws.
8 Floral tft'Coratioll ms a featllre
ofprillft'd/,bricsfroll1 tbc J8t1l
(/.'11/lIl'y.lllll /ook (/H11II illrr<'I1:"t'd
illlportallct' {mili tllc 1830S lIS
{'Sigll:' /'l'mlllc Ci.'l.'l' /llore
Ilntllrtllislic. Tlli:: t'.mll/plt'
prodl/ccd iJl EI/slal/d iJl 1851.
8
7

4 IVO'I'II il1 t'ool dnllla5k (.18-1-7,

tfzi5 dcgll i::/1Y PI/gil/. TII!'
]lattl'rll en:" ill::piTt'd bu Akdil7.'n/
l/cedll.'il'Ork al/d tlle fnbric en:"
il1ft'lIdcd fo/' JlSt' a5 C/ltlaiIl5.
5 Pugill pmdu'd "l''cml
lit'Sigll:: for '{l,'I'1I 5ilk. T//i"
/lrOCllIl'1It' lt'as /I/adl' ill mdoll's
SpitnljicMs for f1lc decorator .G.
CmCt' alld "I/Oe:, /l/(,
!tafiall Rt'IInis$rll/cc :,ilk mltems.
Wallpaper
Naluralislic Scenes and Golhic Decoralion

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1 Sal/ie <l'nllpnpcr$ ,'('re (1/1
importa,,! parl 01file FrCIlc/1
wnllpaper seme. TlIey ;:pCte
exp0l'tcrl fa he US, wlll,'l'(' tlley
tI'el'c' l/sed in Iml/s, pa55tJges,
fl/ld d1"flwil1g 1"00/115. Prodllccd
ill 1861 lJy Desfoss el Kar//,
tllt! Dcor Eden iL'flS prillled by
/tnJld IIsiJlg 3,642 woodcll blocks.
Bl! lSiD, sudl decora/iOIl 1111d
/al/l'll jl'ol/l /(1..'011 r.
2 rile lltosigllel" A.IV.N.
PI/gill IJ(/f<'(f sIIJI<'rftcia/
Glt/,;( tJrlJllI/lt'l/lllIId jI:; l/S,' of
/lrd,,/,'<!lInll fimlls. I {OnTa.
Golh;.
"XliII/l/k, C"S"H-jlJ. rOIlIlIIl,''/
11(1J'1//lIr tJmIllS'/tlllt I1lt'
3 PI/gin produCl.'d I/tis Fleur-de-
lis desigll for he HOll;;!!!> oj
Pal'lil1me1ll i/l lS-li. rile styli:ed
pltlll! 01'1II5 (llIri tcxtilc-Iike
desigl1 are ;11 marh'd COl/lmst
fa /llore poplllar Ilppl1l1lcllt'$ lo
l!le slyle (sre :!J.
4/11 LISiO, tlle desigl1e1' OWt'1I
JOI1l.'5 produced !lis Oil'/I Catllic-
illspired papero Here, styli:ed
plant (/lId ll.'a!/or/lls sit ill a
/ol"lI1a/ .liapa pnttem.
3
4
248
T
hose wanting to buy willlpapcr in IIR' 19th
had a bewildering range of to from.
Hand-bJocked imports from Franee and m.1chine-mi1t"k
papers from England all took up the fashionilble st)'ll'''' of
the day or illustrated the grand manner throllgh their
lavish scenic papers.
Developed in the early 18005, scenic wallpapers were
intended as complete room decorations. Known as
pnysnges ricors, they were block printed and reqllired
thousands of individual blocks to complete l pattern.
Papers of the 18305 showed an interest in natural over
rnythological subjects. By the 18605, affluent buyers could
recreate the Carden )f Eden in their hall or drawing room.
ElIropean avidly produced historical revival
styles. Gothic decori'ltion took the form of what Pugin
described as the "Ivretched character of a pointed
building," that is, Gothic architectural detail. French
versions of the taste varied the repertoire by offering scenic
views of romantic nUns. Pugin was quick to supply
improved versions of the Cothic taste, as was the
O",en Jones 0809-7-1). Based on stylized plant
forms, diaper patterns, or Medieval textiles, these papers
mc1Tkcd shifts in taste from the 18-105 to the 1870s.
The Rococo style was easUy adapted to wallpaper
design, uniting e- and S-saolls with brilliantly coloured
tlowers or fruit. Sorne designers turned to the paintings of
Antaine \,IVatleau 068-1-1721) to enliven the scrollwork
with figures in fanciful18th-century costume. Renaissance
ornarnent was adapted to the sarne formula, with
strap",ork encapsulating printed landscape views or
naturalistic bowls of flowers.
Throughout the period, French dcsigners produced a
dizzying range of naturalistic papers that imitated s\\'ags
of lace, buttoned upholstery, or giant bouquets of flowers.
Satisfying the public demand for novelty, papers were
soon recording moments in history. Buyers in the 18505
and 18605 could purchase wallpapers depicting the
opening of the Crystal Palace or the aunch of a roller-
skating rink. Designs proliferated as inexpensive
wallpapers fed a hWlgry market.
Flowers, Borders, and Documented Events
en
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5 Tllis LyolIs Slrpl.'d wnllpapl,'I' vordef WI1S
produced il/ EI/glrmrl by Willialll IVool/nms.
1837-52. /1 follo,!,$ '"c Frl.'lIc/l fas/loll for
papas tlml glWI.' n trompc-l'oeil rCl/difioll
offabrics slIe/ a5 Illce 01' si/k.
6 A.lnllllfactlll"ed by HeYt.'OOd, Higgillbottolll,
& Smitll aTOl/lld 1853. tltis im//p"pl!r rlepicts
pit.'W5 o/ lile Cry;Mn/ PnlflCl? Papas ;11 tll/:
18505 (Inri 18605 illclYnsillgfy recorded Iocr"
01' /lafiDnnl t"i.'I!lItS.
3 ~
- , .
~ .,.l''Pi,
4
1 Nnlllmli:Mic rcpresclltatiol15 01flo.!'cr:> pere
n rC8u/nren/ul"' o[ wa/lpapcr desigll afia '!le
18305. Tllis LOllis-sfylefloral stripe Ellglislt
cxnmp/t.> dates frOIll 1860. TJw ar! i5f (lIId
desigll reforllla Ridll1rd Redgrave (184-88)
cl1anlcteri:ed SI/e/I pnper:; as 'jlorid
nl1d galldy_"
2 Atlrihutt!d fa ti//! fn.'lIcll designa Hippolyte
HCI/ri, IMs LOllis-stylc paper 01 1840-45
dcpicfs children ill falle!! rireS5.
3 Rellnis5(1/1CI? slrnp1l'ork ;5 used /15 11 decora!;...e
!rnllll:work 01/ t!Jis e/aborale pnpe" dL'Sigllcd by
ZipL'lil/5 nlld 1I/ade by Zuber ill 1843. TIJc
rlt'Corntioll H'IlS eJl/lal/ced by sih't'r dllst.
4 Tllt' 18605 S/lW n Pague il/ Frmlee for blnck-
groulld mp",s (/Ild!lIm'sllillgabric:>. T/Jis
extlmple seis nn/lImlist;c r056 agaillsf (/
bnckdrop ollbws olla grris.
1
5
6
249
Furnilure 254
Reformed Gothic 254
Britlsh 256
American 260
Ceramics 262
European 262
American 264
Glass 266
Melalwork 268
The Aesthetic Movement
ABritish and American phenomenon al the 1870s and 1880s, the
Aesthetic Movement was acult al beauty which sought to elevate
the status al all objects to works al arto Designers re-interpreted and
combined sources, including historical periods and cultures, and exploited
industrial processes, both new and established, to create an entirely new
style. The Movement began in Britain, where in the 1850s and 1860s the
designers Owen Jones (1809-74) and Christopher Dresser (1834-1904)
codilied the theories which were to lie behind much Aesthetic designo

Textiles and Wallpaper 270

C
entral to their philosophy was the idea that nature,
togethcr wilh the best designs cE different eras and
cultures ncreasingly lccessible through public collec-
tions and exhibitions, and studied in design schools),
should serve as J110dels to be appropriated and adapted
by the l110dern designer for contemporary use. Jones's TI/e
Grmlllllnr oj Omnlllcnf (856) illustratcd various design
sources, including Greek, Egyptian, lslamic, and Chincsc;
and Dresser, l botanist fascinated by plant struchlre,
developed a fOrtTI DE conventionalized plant-based
ornament expressive of dynamic growth. Both believed
that design should be appropriate to funetion, expressed
dral1latically in Dresser's starkly geol1lemc electroplated
silver tableware; and also in fihless of purpose - for
example, that the decoration of f1at surfaces, such as
textiles and wallpapers, should reject the illusion of depth
in favouT of hvo-dimensional patterning.
japanese design profoundly influenced Aesthetic
Movement designers (Dresser himself Ysited japan in
1876-7). japan had on1y recently opened up to the \Vest,
and japanese artifacts, inc1uding blue-and-,,"hite
ceramies, cloisOlllls, ivories, bronzes, lacquers, and
textiles, ,,"ere shown at international exhibitions in
london (1862). P.ris (1867), and Philadelphia (1876),
and \Vere ayailable from retailers such as Libertv & Co.
,
in London (est. 1875). Manufacturers and craftsmen
were drawn to the high quality of workmanship, and
designers to japanese geometry and abstraetion, novel
to \Vestern eyes. Western design tradition \Vas
ehallenged by devices such as the apparently arbitrary
cropping of shapes and asymmetry, ,\'ith the result that,
as Clarence Cook declmed in his book Wlmt SJm/l We Do
WitJI Ol/r IVal/s? (New York, 1880), even "the c1assic laws
of symmetry and unity are no longer to be eonsidered
the absolute rulers of the field of decorative art."
japanese and Chinese forms \Vere \'Vesternized, as seen
in the Japanese architectural elements adapted by E.W.
God\Vin (1833-86) to crea te his Anglo-Japanese
furniture. Oriental shapes \Vere adapted for use in
ceramlCS, as \Vere straight-sided vessels or shapes
Lt:ft: tllC of tl1is fnicl1Cl'
c. 1813. bll t}c Pnris
ccrnll/idsf loscpll-TflOtfore
Dl'ck, is l1eri'cd froll/ a Chiuesc
bro/D! /l/miel, il'/j/I' 1111' apl,'icd
lIatI/rolsiic fo/iagc lormiIIg lile
I/audles a/ld sl/r/aCl' decoratioll
bdrn.llS lapallese
Ht -I8.jCll//I9ill.
DI/pesifl': Lady's Chamber
by ti/e Brilisl/ artisl \'alter
CrallC n1'prored a:, tlle
frolllispil'cl' to lIJe A/l/ericall
Oal"l.'II(1' Cook's popular 1101/51'-
decorofillg /l/mil/al, The House
Beauliful h8/S). TIII' /le/lISiOIl
of so /l/allY Alostlll'lic IhcIIIl's ill
fhc 'ood eJlgrn,'illg - file lady's
Al'stllefic liress, bluc-alld-white
orit'lltal porceiaill alltl Jalmuese
lalls 01/ 1111' IIImllell'il'Cl'.
1gIlt<l'gllt t'boll i:edfl/milll1"1.',
tlll' fiaf patferllillg of tht: papert:d
mI/s, g/a:ed cabil1ets (jl/st seell)
ShOil'Ig off Cl'romics, al/d the
I"el.'imlist 18tll-celltury ten
st:rrice 011 1111' f{llJ/e - lI/ake
this a virtual icol/ of fI/I.'
At:stIJdic MOI'l'lllclIl.
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2 TlIis geame/re electmp/ated si/,C1' {il/d ebol/Y ten poI by Cllristoplier
Ore55Cf rollS /linde by james Dixoll & 50/15, C.1879. Ht qcm/6'bll.
3 Bf1Ice Talba!'s fille ebolJi:ed, carved, gi/t. (/lid burr ('oad cnbillc! jor
J'vlnrsll & fOlles of Leeds, late 18605, incorporate:; t'llIbossed Jnpnl1ese
papa (lnd lacqller ml/els. I-It 2.301ll/7ft 6ill.
derived from Chinese metal\\Tork. Conversel)', lrVestern
forms \Vere orientalized, u5ua11y by the addition of
Japanese motifs. Silver and plated \Vares \Vere
particularly strongly influenced by oriental motifs, led
by Tiffany & Ca. in New York. The influence of Japan
\Vas felt in Europe, particularly Franee, where JnpollislIIC
flourished in ceramies, glass, and metalwork. The horror
VflClli (fear of emptiness) characterizing most later 19th-
century design \-vas occasionally tempered by blank
areas of space opposite an asyrnrnetrically arranged
motif, aUhough taste often favoured objects embeUished
with a profusion of designs associated with tbe Orient.
These included animals (frogs, bats), birds (cranes,
storks), insects (butterflies, dragonflies), plants
(bamboo, pine branches, cherry blossom, chrysan-
themums), objects (fans and circular family crests
knO\vn as 1Il0IlS), and wave patterns. Other motifs \Vere
lilies, bulrushes, artists' palettes, easels, peacocks and
peacock feathers, and sunflO\vers, \vhich came to
epitomize the movement.
The Aesthetic Movement reached a wide audience at
tbe international exhibitions held bchveen 1871 and 1878
in London, Vienna, Philadelphia, and Paris, and at the
3
1 In the Morning - Three
Young Ladies in an Aesthetic
Interior. 1877, ti ,l'tlterCO/Ollr
by GlIsttlFIIS ArtJlllr BOl/piel'.
Like I'Valfer Cmlle's lIustration
(P.251), tllis is (/// II/(Ige ful/ of
Aestlu:tic lIIotif;; b!lIe-alld-w!litc
porce/allJ. a Japtlllese fo1dillg
scrcclI. alld clllbroiriered pea(ocks
0/1 ti/e lab/e COI'er.
shm-\'roorns of furnishers such as Morris & Co. in London
and Cottier & Co. in New York. TI1e movement was
popularized by a series of hOllse-decorating manuals
aimed at the public, such as Hil1ts 0/1 HOJlsellOld Inste
(London 1868; Boston 1872) by the British \Vriter Charles
Locke Eastlake (1836-1906), which encouraged
consumers to discriminate when furnishing an artistic
interior while taking into accowlt their individual means.
Eastlake helped to popularize the refonning design
principies of A.W.N. Pugin, Street, Shaw, and Seddon (see
p.254) by advocating tmtb to materials and honest
constmction. Bmce Talbert (1838-81), in his Gof!lic Forllls
Applied fa Fl/mill/re (Birmingbam 1867; Boston 1873),
provided the furniture trade with designs inspired by
17th-century Jacobean furniture, utilizing straight wood
and revealed construction, and emphasizing surface
decoration of inlays, lo",-relief, or incised carving which
were taken up by the trade in both Britain and the United
States. lllis Art or, as it becarne knovvn in the US, Eastlake
furniture, ",as often ebonized and included cabinets ",ith
a profusion of shelves to display Art objects. In tbe 18705,
Gothic and Jacobean designs "'ere gradually supplanted
by the English Queen Alme style and its American
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-
5 As its II(/ml.' suggL'Sls. tI,is
Nagasaki illOi''-'!' silk dmunsk
de-sigllcd b.l/ Brltce Tnlbert for
H'nrllcr, Sillett & Rnmm of
Brnil/trCf. EsSt.'x, C.J87', Oire:; lo
/apal/c:'/! desigll tllt' see""llsly
rmllfOIlJ oiwlnpl'illg of letli'eS
nl/d f/oil'ers.
Renaissance, or Egyptian origin - or aH three. Unity \Vas
nevertheless also aehieved because the appreciation of
the sensory qualities of materials encouraged a neH'
freedarn in the mixing of media, resulting in painted
panels, stamped leath.en,'ork, ceramic tiles, and cloisOJ/Il
paneIs being incorporated into furniture and dock cases,
for example. Textiles and wallpapcrs benefited from the
emphasis on flat patterning and the use of a variety of
sources. They were produeed in subtle secondary or
tertiary COIOlUS, particularly green and gold, which
aimed at a subdued and rich effect. TI1e flat, floH'ing, and
eurvilinear naturalism of some wallpaper and textile
designs ,,"ere precursors to the French Art Nouveau,
while a reaetion against the rieh density of Aesthetic
interiors eontributed to the reactionary simplicity and
minimalisrn of much early Modernist designo
During the Aesthetic movement the laws of the market
economy affected the production and promulgation of
designs. Firnls such as Morris & Co. built up archives of
stained-glass cartoons which couId be adapted to new
eonmussions. Paintings by artists \\'ith Aesthetic lealungs
sueh as Albert Maore (18-:11-93) were copied from
engra\ings and appeared on ceramics, stained glass, and
other media in Britain and America, aften without
acknowledgment or permission. In an attempt to prevent
copying of the designs for which th.ey had paid,
manufacturers aften registered their designs at the Patent
Office, indicated by a diamond-shaped registration mark
on their goods. The cult of the industrial designer was
bolstered by Christopher Oresser, whose name or
facsimile signature appeared on a nurnber of the pieees of
metalwork and ceramics he designed.
,
4 FIl'Ilc/' fllld /nptlllese forllls
combilJe ill tI"s 11IXlIriOllS
mbilll'l mndc by Herlcr
Brotllers ilJ l\'Cit' York, C.187j.
COlIstntcted of el1olJi::ed nlld gilt
cllerry it il/corpomte:: mnrquetry
of'."tlriolls tl'oods nl/d decomti<'e
ptlper. HI 1.j2m/3ft.
5 __
equivalent. known as the Colonial Revival, \"hich
predominantly drew inspiration from English 18th-
century prototypes.
An unprecedented urban expansion, together with
an increase in mechanized manufacture at aH levels,
created l strong demand as weH as capacity for Art
objects of aH types. Even manufactllrers not tradi-
tionally associated with advanced design employed
freelance designers, or opened Art departments for
the production of artistic furniture, ceramics, and
metalwork, to mention a few. New or revived manu-
factllring techniques encompassed every sphere of
production, and included an interest in artistic glazes in
cerarnic manufacture and the emulation of the oriental
technique of c1oisollll by metal manufacturers. 1 ew
materials carne into vogue: cast iron and rattan were
increasingly used far furniture, and media sllch as
stained glass and ceramic tiles were incorporated into
dorncstic settings on a scale never seen before or since.
In his influential manual Tlle HOl/se Benlltiflll (1878), the
American Clarence Cook 0828-1900) stressed the
im.portance of selecting from different periods and
harmoniously cornbining disparate elements to create a
coherent, beautiful whole. The remarkable stylistic unity
which resulted was partIy because many of the key
designers produced work for the whole gamut of
decorative arts such as ""alter Crane (18-:15-1915),
who designed furniture, ceramics, glass, metalwork,
textiles, wallpapers, and book illustrations. Ceramic and
rnctalwork design showed a typieally eclectic approach
and often blended different themes, so that a vase \Vith a
Persian shape may have had deeoration of )apanese,
Reformed Gothic Furniture
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Muscular Golhic Forms
1
1 Pailf/l'd (md iJl/aid onk !wkcnx'
blf Ric/J(Ird -,"orll/ml
. .
5Tmil' al/d /linde by Imlllos ForsyiTl
iJl ! 56!. fl ms SJ/oit'1/ at lTlt'
Lolldoll llllC:nltlfiOlla/ Exllibitioll
ill !56l.. Ht l..30m/9ft 2;1.ill.
2 BI(f/e/ ll(/sed 011 n d',;igll ill 81'11ce
,. TnTlJel Gothic FomlS h56),
de,;cl'ilJc:d as tl "side tnblc. " Madt' of
onk ,,/aid ",itl, eboJ/Y, wnTIIII/,
lltlXit'OOi1 {md otfler l'y
Hollnlld & 5011'; ill Lol/dol/,
Ht l..14ll1/ft.
3 AIl {'nr/y e.mll/ple of Refonlll'11
Co/hie fllnlitlll'e. tlJi;; onk side
e/lnir il'itTl boM gt'ollh'/rie lIl(lid
ll(/ck It'tlS desiglled by file tlrc1Jitect
IVilliam IVhile for /h.. rc?ctory lit
5/ Co/wIIII COl'llil'nll,
(.JSso. Ht 9I ..JCIll/36ill,
254
A
rt Furniture of the 18705 developed fram lhe
Relonned Cothic 01 the 18505 and 18605, a style
advanced by a number DE innovative architect-designers
in England who "Reformed" or re-interpreted the Gothic
style. The seeds weTe 50wn in the ]8405 by A.vV.N. Pugin
(l812-52), whose simplest furniture designs sho\\' an
understanding 01 lhe underlying principIes 01 Cothie
form and construction, ideas which were encouraged in
the publications Df the Freneh architect Eugene Viollet-le-
Due (1814-791. England the Eeclesiologieal Soeiety
advocated a reruTn to early Anglican church ritual,
leading architects including George Edmund Street
(182-Hll). William Butterfield (181+-1900), and William
White (182:;-1900) towards the massive forms of 13th- and
14th- century Gothic in their ecclesiastical and secular
fumihrre. Often large in scale - it is sometimes called
Muscular Gothic - this furniture featured revealed
construction, architectural elements such as sturdy stump
colwnns and chamfering,. inlaid geometric decoration,
and prominent hardware. At the london International
Exhibition (862), fumiture designed or deeoraled by
Richard Norman Shaw 0831-1912), 'William Burges
0827-81). John Pollard Seddon (1827-1906). Philip Webb
(1831-1915), and IVilliam Morris sholVed the
revived interest in medieval parnted fumiture.
By the late 18605 the Relomled Colhie style had laid
the foundations for the Art Furniture of the 18705. Two
seminal publications, published and circulated widely in
Britain and the United States, set the tone. Charles locke
Eastlake's Hil1ts 01/ HOl/sehold Tnste (1868) \,vas aimed at a
\vide audience and addressed the importance of
practicality in the design, construction, and decoration of
furniture in the context of an artistic interior. Even more
influential were the illustrations provided by Bruce James
Talbert in his GollIic forlll5 Applied lo Fllmitllre (1867),
which successfully drew on 17th-century English
vernacular prototypes to reduce the massiveness of
Reformed Gothic to a more domestic - and cornmercially
successful - scale. Both publications paved the ",ay for
the popularity of Art Fumiture.


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Reformed Gothic Shapes and Motifs
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5 T/lis desk wns desigllt'd by Fmllk
FlIm6s nl/d /liad" o/ AlJlcricllIl
b/nck wa/lll1t blj Daniel Pnbst in
Philadelphin c.1875. // display"
lIe darillg, play/ul, nlld higJlIy
imngillnti1x tren/mcllI oijorllls
c!lnmctaistic Di lIJe nrchitecf's
work. Ht 1.Sm/5f111ill
6 Tlle ante-room lo the drmvillg
roOIll ('"trlmee al TlIe Grave,
Harbome, /lear Birl1lillg/talll,
I'C1I10de/led nI tlle arcltitect 101m
Hellry C/tnl1lbcr/aill, 1877-8, is
of illlnid, paillted, {l/Id gilded
sycalllore alld oak.
3 rhe hooded ((1II0py afl/lis
<,bOHi::cd, pain/cd, mld par!
gilded cOn/er cabillct, alle 01n
pail' desiglled by Tnlba!, c1870,
lends it a stmllg Gotlzic j!auour.
TI/e bfi'elled mirra!"s bllCkillS file
l/pper "heh't'd :>('ctiall lucre a
COIII!!lOIl jcnl 11 re. Hf J. 11I/6ft 6hz.
4 \Va/JIu! nrmc!ulir desiglled by
lo/1/l Pollnrd SendoJl, pail/ter!
<pit!r he story o/ Pynlllws nIId
Tllisbe, nnd exllibitcd j/1 tlle
Medinfi'al eDllr! 01 lie LOl1doll
Tl1fenwtiolln/ Exhibitioll in 1862.
Ht l.04-ll/!Jft jiu.
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1 Carl'ed alld gilded [{'a/llIIt
comer ha/-l/al diglll'd by lvlm
Pollard Seddoll ill 1860 nJld
probably I/tnde ill LOlldOlI by ltis
fa11l i1y's cabi Ilcfmaki119 Ji 1'111.
Ht 1.71111/51t 6il'.
2 All outstalldil1g exnmple 01
Relorl1led Gol/tic desigll, tltis bed
"il'ns desiglled by Cltnr/es 81.7.'nll
c,1866. lt was probnbly lIIade by
tite tceds fil"lll al Mmslr & mIes,
alld bll1 01 syenlllore il1laid willt
amboYlla, purpkU'ood, eboll!!,
lIIa/lOgany, alld various o/her
poods. Ht 1.92111/6fl 3;'1.
------------------------------------------
British Furniture
The House Beautiful
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t Robert l\'. Edis':; OU'Il lig/I/Y (lrti"tic hOIl//? seri'ed n:" 111t' IIIMel for
~ Dmwillg Room Comer. ~ tlle frolltispiece fa his Decoration and
Fumiture of Town Houses (LoJldon 1881).
3 /eckyll proi'ided (111 il/tricnte :;('rit's 01 sheh't'S lo display /J/lIf-flIld-i"/life
porcelnill for t!le Pencock Rool/1 ;11 fhe LOJldol! 110IIIe o/ lile slppillg
IIIngllille Frederick Leylfllld (110,0 j'l lie Freer Gal/el}1 of Arl, IVnsllillgfoll). 3
I
n the 1870s l fashion developed for ebonized and
painted fumiture, stemming partly from the much-
exhibited versions of a cabinet designed c.1871 by Thomas
Edward Collcutt 08-10-1924; see p.25?). This cabinet
boasted a Talbert-derived architectural framework with
Gothic details, such as the canopy over the upper
stTuchlfe. 111e cupboard doors were inset with painted
figurative panels and complemented by profuse shelves,
one backed with l bevelled mirror to reflect the Art objects
placed on it. There was none of the heavy carving that
Talbert and Eastlake rejected, and much of the decorative
effect was derived instead from mouldings.
These features were to be found on mueh Aesthetie
eabinet fwniture over the next fifteen years, when other
items suitable for showing off objects, such as overrnantles
ineorporating numerous shelves, and hanging cabinets
also became popular.
Fumiture designed during the 18/0s also refleeted the
wide variety of influences to wruch designers were
exposed. The marquetry devised by O\ven jones adapted
2 T/oll/as Jeckyll's illlnid onk table. desiglled ill Ihe mid-186os jor a c1i'llt
lI )'orksllre. is a s k i ~ f l l jll!'iClII oj fas/cm and Eli:abetlll1l1 jorll/5. and
m5 probnbly mnde l'y Jncksoll & Cm/1I111l ill tondOIl. Ht 73cm/28 Yo;n.
elements from an edectic range of saurces including
Moorish and classical prototypes. A knowledge of ancient
Egyptian prototypes was demonstrated by the painter
William Holman Hunt (1827-1910), who in 1857 designed
a Tllebes stool (named after the site of Egyptian
exeavations); sin1.ilar designs were produeed by Ford
Madox Brown (1821-93) for Monis & Co. and were
patented by Liberty & Co. in 1883.
An interest in japanese art prompted W.E. Nesfield
(1835-88) to design a folding screen with Japanese motifs
in the late 18605. Thomas jeekyll, who incorporated
japanese motifs in his Jacobean oak furniture, exploited
both Japanese and Hispano-Moresque themes in the
attenuation and complexity of the built-in shelves he
designed for the Peaeock Room, named after James
Mo eill Whistler's (183-1-1903) japanesque painted
scheme. Tl1.is led to God"in pioneering a type of furnirure
influenced by oriental sources, published by the London
eabinetmaker William \Natt in Art FlI/"Ilitllre (1877).
Godwin's Anglo-Japanese style adapted decorative and--- _._-

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3 A //lodcl of I'\'il/imll C. COdllll1l1 '5 ebolli:ed,
paillfed, incised, al/d gilt Ilal/gillg cnbil1ef <vas
5/101011 by file LOl/doll firm of Cox & 50115 at
file LOl/dOllllltematiOl/al ExllibitiOll of 1874.
Ht I.24111/4ft lin.
5 TI/e sopltisticated desigl/ alld qllalify of fhe ill/ays adomillg fhis break-
frollt 'itrine, C.1S70, slIggest file llames ofOwelI fOllesalld !acksoll &
Cm/mm as designer alld mmlllfactllrer respecfivl.'ly. lf 10as retailed by
He,,,etsoll & Mi/ller of Tottellhalll COllrl Road, LOlldoll. W. 2m/6ff 6ill.
2 This ebollizerl wood screm by -V.E. Nesfield
is dccornfed Witll fextile-derived gilt jreht'ork
(Inri incorporates Japallese pnil1led papel' pallels
01 birtls 0/1 bnmcfzes. Made by fhe cabil1etmaker
Jllllles ForsyllI i1l1867_ Ht 2.08111/6/1 1Oill.
2
Later Aesthetic Furniture
1 This desigl1 by TholllllS Edward
Col/cuu, mar/t' by Col/il/sOIl &
Lock, wns SllOiI'lI nt utema/iollal
exllibitiolls ill LOl/dOIl (l87l),
Viel/lUl (J873) ami Pllilndelphia
(1876), alld he/red fa populari:e
ebolli:ed {/lId pailltedumi/un'.
HI 2.''OIll/7!t 9'/,;11.
4 TlIe desigl/ of tJlis ebolli:ed (lIld
pnil1tcd bredi sirle e/mil' is
nttribllted lo folm 1'-'101/1' 5!11ith.
lvlnde by Cm & Sons of London,
(.1871, il shorl's Gn?ck ns wcll as
GotJlic in tI/I: allstady
oj its stl"1lcfllre. Ht 8].8clII/33il1.
Unity Through Eclecticism
1 TlIe QlIeelJ Alll/e wa/IIHt wall
dock, by T/lOlIIas Harris for
Howcl/ & fallles & Ca., was a/so
desigl1ed fo sen'e as a /mllgillg
tagere. AI1 eXl1IlIple <:Fas S/tOWI1
at file 1878 Paris ExpositioJl
UlIiuerselle. Hf 99CllI/39ill.
2 Tllis 1111Isic cabillet by Stephell
Webb for CollillSOll & Lock of
LOl1doll, C.lSg0, is //lade of hlonj-
illlaid rosewood. lts restrail/ed,
elegallt proportiolls recal! tlle
18tIJ-Cf'nfllrYflll"llitllre by IJen 50
fashiollab/e. Ht I.45m/4ft 9ill.
3 Tlle tallt, Si/lllOllS f01"ll1 of tlJis
i/l/aid rosewood occnsiolla/ table
leads fmm Godwill to tlle Art
N01l<.1eall mOl'elllellf. A1nde by
Lalllb of Ma!lcllestcr, c.1886, fI/e
dcsigll is attribllfed to C!lar/es
Edward Hortoll. Ht 66clIl/26ill.
2 3
25
Japanese and Aneien! Influenees
1 Dl':'iglll'dl'y E.1\'. GOd;l'ill
ami made by
I\'i/linlll \'(lft ill wlllloll.
C. ISSj, tllt.' Ift":'igll of tlti.;. -dU'l'"
;1'11:' Oll/l,o:;( oI
Grel.'k f1/rol/tOS nlld slool:;,
(I'/lid, GOdl,jll lIIay 1m.'!'
nI /fu' Briti,.I, A III:'t'//III.
HI J .Ojlll/3ft ",,'/,;11.
2 COffil'iu de"igllt'llli:' 1JI1lc/1-
mi/nl"i taNt' amI/mi
186. Tl/I' of I/Jis
e.mmp/t' i,. nttribllted fo !\'iffiflll/
I\'nlt. lor ,('1101Il IEt' :'lIl1plit'f
des;gll,.; ((mll/h':,:, (Ither
mm/llft/dllr..,,. IIImll' copit':>
of 'fl rt'fi}/l'IIIt'11t .
. .,.
HI6Q.jCIII/1:; (i/l.
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3 TIlI' l'llillkd
Four 5easons cn/Jilld,
1'1/ G(llfl'ill, C.JSij'.
. .
Illlillli 1'1( 'i{t" tll('
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L/'t'n' a 11(1)1//111r 111!1/i( 1('r
Ct'rlllllic tiit':" (:"t't' 1'.16J) dl/d
gltl:";; n;; ('di (I-:'Imil/lnf
fl/mill/re pall{'/;; dllrillg tllt'
\J0<'l'1I1l'1I1. Tltt'll('fI
:=/Iflll('d larrict' (!( I/l' 10,l't'I"
fllld fin' ;;frllcflll'l' f0l! mil;;
l/re dcrit't'rl fl'lJlII
arc!lilccfurc, l'ill /fll' J'ril1f;; of
Ho/.:u:"ai. HI J.iiJII/5fl 70ill.
4 T!lc Buttcrtlv en/'illt'/ m:=
dt';;igllt'd l,y GV,f"P;'1 mlll,mil1fl'd
'l'itll d(,(('I'IIIlm-:.l,y
jmm-:: \ IcN// \ V/j;;t!t'r. \ Indt'
1'.1( lVi11iaJl/ I\',ft iJl wlldoll, I/It'
loa't'I" Ct'lllml :'t"t-/i(1/I ori;;illn/l.l'
illmrlll)mft'd a (ir"J'/I1' mld 11'1'
idlOh-form'd llEt' Ct'lIlr'J'it'
al tlll' ISiS
EXI'O:'ilioll .
Ht 'j1Jl/cJft lOill.
258
COllstructional devices gleancd from Japanese prints
illustrating domestic fitments and ",oodwork to (reate a
series of highly rectilinear deal buffets. They were
ebonized to rcscmble oriental lacquered furniture and
were constructed from symmetrical arrangements of
straight horizontal and vertical lines, lChieving their
eHect, as he put it, "by the grouping of solid and void
and by more or less broken outline." l.n these, and in his
other Anglo-Japanese designs, surfacc decoration was
minimal and confined to panels of embossed leathcr
paper and geomctric, incised gold lines.
By the mid-1870s the Queen Annc style, an inaccurate
title referring to architecture inspircd by
English design as well as other sources, had begun to
influence fllrnitllrc. pediments and
complex glaLed fronts appeared on display cabinets by
designers such as Thomas E. Collcutt.
Thc rC\'i\'al of interest in 17th-century ornament,
sometimes known as the Wrenaissance after the
architect Sir Christopher vVren, led firms such as
Collinson & Lock to produce delicately scaled i\'ory-
inlaid rosewood cabinets. Godwin dcsigned polished
mahogany and walnllt fllrnitllre with attenllated,
cllrving lines and slender, tapering legs, lending objects
an increasingly Jightweighl appearance. Meanwhile, the
work of commercial firms, sllch as James Lamb
of Manchester, produced fllrniture reflecting thc
la test fashions.
From the 18605, fllrnitllre detailing becanle e\'en finer
and the complexity of cabinets increased, with more and
more elaborate panels appearing in the ",ork of H.\V.
Batle\' and Thomas Harris. Conunercial firms sllch as
-
James Lamb of Manchester b1cnded the fashionable
designs into their work. From the 18605, the birth of the
Adam Rcvi\'al stvle, named after the 18th-centuf\'
- -
architect-designer, led many manufacturers to re-
interpret or re-introduce forms of that period, often
vcnecrcd with satinwood. The style gathercd
momentllm in the 18705 and remained popular until
beyond the turn of the 19lh century.
Godwin and Dresser
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2 A dt.'sigll ieoll of 111/.' ArMllf'fic
Afo<"l'IIIl'llt, tllis t'l!rsioll o/
GOf.il'ill's AlIglo-JnptJlIt'Sl'
sidl'bonrd 1m;; mnde il/ Lollcfoll by
lVillinm \'alt & Ca.. c.186'-70.
lt is mnde of f'iI(lJli:l.'dmallOgaIlY
with sifl'l'rplnted fiffillgs nlld
l'mbossed Japnllese leather paper
illserts. IV. 2.56m/S{t .ill.
1 Detnil o/ pinte 6mm Art
Furniture (187;). Dt'Sigllcd by
Godil'ill anri mllJllifnctl/rcd by
ViIIilllll IVatt. tllt'lmlll!! t'n:>
offm:d for stlh'l'llOll:ed or;1/ ook.
3
3 T11e rlt'Sigll 01 t1li5 I/pllo/stered
}/;,'11O.\:'1I/.11 "'SY ellnir, pnJ/1,bly
mll/factllred by C O l i l l ~ I &
Lock il1 LOl/doJl. c.1S2-j,;S
nttribllt<'d lo GOd'l'ill.
NI SlCIlI/3211.
4 GOdil'il1 (It'sigm'd '!lis e/olli::eri
e(lsL'/ lIjt!, stnmped nI/Ji gilded
katllt'/" palie/s. (.187; he
reCOIIII/It'I/{fed "Iigllt, eas!y
//Iom/ll/! ensi.'ls 01d((ft'rt!/It choice
tl'oods lo IlOld e1lOice drr,illgs"
;11 t11e drn1l'illg rOOIl/. It Il'I1S
probab/y made by \Vi/linlll IV/llt
& Ca. Ht 1.67111/5/1 6;11.
5 Strllctllral silJl/'Jicity
distillglfis//f.'s Cllristopl/l.'r
Dn:sser's e!lollb'd dillillg dmir,
dt"Siglll:d c.lSS3for lit' Art
Fllrllitlln' AI/iallcl.', ,'l,id, lu'
fVl/lld'11 iIlISS0./t ,ms mde by
ClIII/III & Ca. lar rl.'tniJ ill t/e
Allinllce's sllol' ill Nl'iI' BOlld
SfTl"l'f. Lolldrlll. Ht 88.5cm/J5ill.
6 Ollt.' of n Imll/lltr of cnsf-iroll
dt"Siglls by DresSt.'r IImlll/factllr"d
b.1f tll/.' Coalbrookdafe iroml'Orks
ill SlIrop:;lIin. T/e Myfi=.'d
fo/ingt' mul Gothic nrcilit"ctllra/
detni/s OIlllis Imll-stal/d are all
typicnl of f,is IIIl1dlilllitnted
Sftl/I'. It i ~ MalllJlt'd l'itl, a I'atl'llt
rl'gistrnfiol/lllnrkfor 7869 /11 all
nffl'lIIpt to prt';'l'llt piratillg of tlll'
designo /lt 2.31111/7ft 7il/.
259
American Furniture
The Eastlake Style
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1 AH e/xmi=ed clu:rrywood Eastlake cnhillet
/linde by tlle Neil' York cnbilletmakers alld
jUrIlishers Kill/bel & Cabll5. e.1880. Mooris/l
infll/l'Ilces. ,liel, abolllld j" tlle horseslloe
aTclles (lIId lile ]uwd-paillted Ambic-illscribed
frellch tiles, are combillcd wilh promiue,,!
Ca/hic stmp-hillges. Ht 2111/6fl 6il1.
2 Paillied Pflll/'ls SUe/1 as tllis,from mI
ebo,j=ed cherrywQod cahiutt mude by Kimbel
& Cabus iJl New York, c.1876, were nf1lfmced
by ti/e poplIlnrfy 01 paillted Art Fum/uTe
111 Brilail!.
3 TlJe bold arcililectllra/ /umi/llre /linde by
Daniel Pabst, SUe/1 as tI,;s walllllf CIIbillcf willJ
Ilickel-pfated Ilard>f1re, c.1880, sl,oPS file
illflllcllce 011 AmeriClIII desigll o/ Brllce Ta/ber!
(Inri CJristopfler Dresser. Ht l.Sm/5ft l1ill.
260
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n the United States, the British design refonns ofTalbert
and Dresser were expressed in the designs of Frank
Furness executed by Daniel Pabst in Philadelphia.
Eastlake furniture, the American version of Art furniture,
with its rectilinear fonns, panelled construction, tumed
uprights, and spindJed galleries, eontinued in popuJarily
throughout the 18705 and 18805. Renaissance decorative
elements were also popuJar in the US, employed by firms
sueh as John )elliff (1813-90) in Newark, NewJersey. More
innovative was the furniture produced by George
Hunzinger (1835-98) in Broaklyn, New York, wh.ieh
played on the ingenious massing of complex turned
elements. Materials popular in the US induded bamboo
fum..iture and imitation bamboo marle froro bird's-eye
maple. The teclmique of woodcarving, less prevalent in
British furniture, was employed in the naturalistic motifs
adopted by the woodean-ing schoal that flourished in
Cincinnati,Ohio.
Opulent materials and skilled craftsmanship were al50
characteristic of much American Aesthetic hmture.
Herter Brothers of New York adopted a restrained stylistic
vocabulary that drew on European - particularly British
and French Empire - sources, often executed in ebonized
d1erry or gilded maple, with flat panels of intricate,
sometimes asymmetrical, floral marquetry. The Anglo-
Japanese slyle popuJarized by Godwin flourished in the
work of A. & H. Lejambre, which manufactuIed tables
with asymmetrical shelves and mahogany tops inlaid
\-vith mother-of-pearl and metal inlays. Other fashionable
styles such as the Celtic and Moorish revivals inspired the
fumishing of the interior of the Seventh Regiment Armory
in eIV York 0879--80) by the Associated Artists fonned
by louis Cornfort Tffany (1848-1933).
The Moorish craze of the 18805 and 18905 was
popularized in Britain by Liberty & Co., and in the US by
Tiffany & Co. After the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial
Exposition, the counterpart of the English Queen Anne
movement was echoed in the US by the Colonial Reviva!,
inspired by its colonial heritage, which encouraged the re-
introduction of 18th-century fom1s. ._-----------------_.
Art Furniture in the US
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1 A cell/re {ab/e by Herler Brofll/.'rs, c1878-80, in w}ic! l/le sopllisticated
desigl1, ls stylized cqllille leg:;; fcrl1lillnfing witl1 JlOojed eel, is realized in
sl/perbly exeel/fed lIlarqlletry (Inri low-relie! carving. W. 1.42/11/411 8il1.
2 AltllOlIgh its doors are /ollg gOlle, Ihe slrollg desigll of t!lis Herter 8rot!lers
cabiHel is 1II1dill1!l1is/led. TlIe carcase is vel1eered <vitll ebol1Y alld illset <vitll
Japal/ese /acqller, copper pal1e/s, alld brass in/ay. W. 2.4111/7!t l1il/.
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3 TlI/: ;I/fluence of Godwill '$ Allglo-Japal/ese
JUnlilllre (sce I!videllf in !Ji:;;
copper, lIIotllcr-oj-pearl, (lIIri bms5 ill/nid
lIIaJognllY tcn fab/e made by A. & H. Lejambre
oj Pllilndelpllia, c18So. Tite in/ay 01/ fhe lap
depicts (1 dragollj7y in Jligilt IllId a web-bolllld
spder. Ht 68.5CIII/27ill.
4 T/e case 01 t1lis ,mil dock dCIl1Ol/sfrates tlle
robllst, wlfuralistic can./illg produced ill
Cillcilllw/i. The pnrt-ebol1ized lOn/llul case was
made ill file eire/e of SelIlI PitllJ(1/1, c.1883: fIJe
dial is 01 partinlly silvered brass.
HI 62CI11/24'!ill.
5 A Queell Al1lle /1l1l1gillg cabillet of Americall <va/llut, c.1880. lt re/ies
fOI" its decorative effed 011 tite illcised strap-/lillges,jretted gaIlery, mld
sllbtly I"eeded 1/10u/dil1gs. Ht 1.14111/3fl 9ill.
6 Frog-de-tIOlIrillg lIerol1s provide t!le theme for al1 oak dillillg ta/JIe desiglled
by Fral1k FlIl"Iless al1d probab/y mal1lifaclllred by Pabst il1 P!li/adelpllia,
c1875, as part of a dil1illg-room sc!leme. Dia111. 1.6711l/sft 6il1.
2(
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European Ceramics
Britain
1 T1Iis pie/ud (lIId gilded japall6ruc
porce/nil1l1ight-lig!lt, made by Ihe
Royn/lVorcesler Parce/nin ell. in
Si;, imitnks asectioll alCl/ri.'l.'d
l'amllOO 01/ a CJ'illl'Se-iJlspin.'d
stand. Ht lj.jCm/lOill.
2 Japonisme abollllds ill tite
l/l/gil lar J/llIId/e al/d in fIJe styli:ed
allli s('elljllgJ.II nrbilrnry croppjllg
al f{e lrnllsler-priJlfl'd alld lJnJld-
cofOllred jo/iage 011 tlJs f1(Jsk mm/e
l/y Pillder Boume il1 Burs/l'IIl,
Stnffords!lire, 1881. H/l''CIII/9'1ill.
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3 TI/e jallcijlll ::ool/lorpltic qlla/ity 01.{'1lielI
Dn'55er ,/'nS cnpab/e is nppnrent
;11 lIJe go/d figllre IJnlldks 01 Ibis I'rJ5e. witil
poin/ed flornl pafferlls ill imitalioll oj
doisonn; /linde blj lile O/d Hall EartI1CIl<l'nl'C
(0.,0880. Ht 35.jCIII/1.
t
iJl.
4 Afilie e.m/llp/e o/ 1\lil1/011's "/I/ell-admiren
;mifafioll c1oisonn decoraroll, /flis jardnien>
ims mnde iJl Stoke-Oll-Trent jll1888 for ti/e
LaunaJ/ retni/ers Thomns Goode & Co.
H/3 2cm!I2"Il.
5 Persinll il/j1uence il1spir.'d lileform o/
paillt"lj eart}emre pi/grim bottle (01' lJ/OOll
flash /tnfinll RCJlniS5flllce maio/iea lile pillette.
aud /l/edicm/ nrt lb.. slIbject mafter. Desigl1en
by He,,'"!! Stacy Alnrks, arigiHally for A1il/toll's
Al'/ Pollery Studio, ml(f made by MinlOIl & Co.
ill Stoke-OII-Trcllt, 1877. /JI 3j.jCIII/qin.
262
T
he most pervasive influence on Aesthetic ceramics
"'as japollislIle. The firm of the French ceramicist
]oseph-Thodore Deck employed designers such as Flix
Bracquemond (1833-191-1), ,,,hose ,\'ork used motifs taken
from Japanese prints, placed at seemingly random
inten'als. Bracqllemond's concept "'as copied in Britain,
",here any elements remotely oriental ",ere often
profllsely (even indiscriminately) applied to ceramics to
create the rich effects demanded by the market. These
motifs ",ere applied to forms from the European, lslamic,
or Chinese repertaires, sometimes in sharp angular planes
drawn fram Japanese ceramics and metal",ork. Oriental
elements such as bamboo-shaped handles ",ere often
incorporated; oriental metalwork also inspired surface
decoration, such as the c/oisOIlJI effect emulated bv Minton
,
& Co.'s much-admired enamelled and gilded porcelain.
In the 18705 and 18805 Minton developed the French
technique of pilte-sllr-pfite, used to embellish ornamental
pieces with predominantly Neoclassical themes fused
with japollislIle. Minton and Wedgwood also employed
freelance conunercial designers such as Christopher
Oresser fer their industrial production, and created
special Art pottery deparhnents. Doulton's Lambeth
Faience Co. produced delicately incised salt-glazed
stoneware based on earlier European prototypes and
Minton's Art Pottery Studio made hand-painted
figllrative paneIs with subjects from contemporary
painting in a flat japanesque style. Oesigns by other
artists such as Albert Moare, Walter Crane, and John
Moyr Smith were widely disseminated through transfer-
printed table\vare and tiles.
Tastes varied greatly. Majolica was produced in a
variety of naturalistic fom15 in bright colours
l
in contrast
to the austere Dresser-inspired geometry of Watcombe's
unglazed terracotta wares. Dresser's other contribution
was at Linthorpe, where he and Henry Tooth developed
art pottery with coloured, ofien running glazes dripping
down forms drawn from a variety of near and fareastern
forms, prefiguring the studio pottery of the Arts and
Crafts Movement.
1
3
Tiles and Plaques
3 Ka/e Grl!l!lltlwny,fnIllDlIsJOI" l/a c/lildrell's
book iIIuMm/ious, probnbly desigl1ed
Sumiller, {1 trnllsfa-prillted {I/zd /lnlld-
colOl/red enrt!Il:l1wnre file madI! by T. & R.
Boa/e ill Bifll/l/g/mlll, 1883. Ht 15.5clII/6/1I.
4 Siglled by IVillinm Stl'p/iell ColenulIl
(IS29'"""IgO-lJ, l/lis enrthellimn' plaque ,,,tlS
mnde ill ]87l nI lile s!lOrt-/it'ed \lin/Oll':, Ar!
Poltay S/l/dio;1I Lol/doll O!il>hic11 he WI1:i lIJe
Arl Oirete/or. It entures ti clas,;imfly illspired
ree/inillS l/l/de relldered iJl ti Jln! /aptml!sqllc
lrentlllelll witl" ti i'ugllefy Eas/cm seUillg.
Ht 30.5CIIl/tIl.
French Influences
2
1 TJe Tilmbourine Plaver.
frOIl/ 11 series of eig/ll c/nssicnl/y
illspiredJigllres I'itl/lllusical
liS/fin,,!!,,!:;. d('siglled by 101m
\loyr Smi// tmd procil/ced by
\lilltOIl Chilla I\'orks, c.t86.
A..'oi/able ill cO/Olml'ay="
desiglls sudl as /fli" pere adapfed
by ofller for
d(fferelllll/cdia, nlld l!le ti/es
fllelllsef,o it'ere l/sed to decomfe
dmirs, alld imsfl-stnllds,
etc. Hf 20.5clII/8ill.
2 Gllilll".'tn! ,t'ears a /rose
Hellellisfic gOil'll in f1jsllailltt'd
enrlllellimre lIenrfll, llrobn/l!y
dt'Siglled by Dnllit'! Cottier nlld
madI! by Cottier & Co. ;n
LOlldoJl. TI,e tilt'S n[Joy arefrOIll
1\ loyr Smitll's Fairy Tale series
dt'Siglledfor Millfoll, 18/3-4-,
mrd fflr JireJ,/n((' in
G/l'II"i/!t/' All1llsioll, )'ol/kas,
Nr'l' )'ork, lmill (.1876-7.
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1 111 porcf'fnill seTt';US sudt ns
tI/I.' Senice Rousscau nl/d ti/{,
Ser".ice Parisien (il/lIstrall'd
Itere), SOlllf of lfl/.' enrliest
exprfssioJls of Fn!lIcll Jnpollisll1e
aere mnde. Dt.'Siglled by Flix
Bracqlle/llolld nlld 1II(l/llIfnclured
Hn'i/nlld ill Limogt':>, 1876.
DitllJl 25.5CIl1/10;1I.
2 TI/{' pt'ilc-sur-piHe tedmiqul'
i,lt'o/i'ed file npplica/ioll of
sllccess'e t!liJl /nyers 01 slip
Oiql/id dny), n s/ow tllld eostly
process, Itere tlpplied fa n qllirky
t'xperil/lellfn/ poI /IItlde by \/Joore
Broflters ni Longloll, C.1875.
Ht 12.5CIII/5ill.
2E
....-------------------------------------------
American Ceramics
The Pursuit 01 Beauty
1 AmlOJl Faienu eagfe-spolll
pitcller mnde by lh;> Cllesnpeake
Pottery. Bnltimore, Alnry/nlld.
c.lS82. Tlu! form 01 fIJe SpOll1 ;5
ecJlOe,j in lile eagle JItad wJicll
forms tite lIpper part o/ fhe
lumdle. HI 10(111/4;11.
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2 Lmup base wif/I mI arrnllgelllellt o[
orcrlappillg lJIotifs il!spimf /I.'! J!lp!mesc
de:;igll (compart' <('itl, . opposilt') decornfl'j
by A. Da/y nI lite Matt Morgml
Art Pottery, Cillcimlt1ti, OJio. C.1SS2.-J.
Ht 19C111/7'1.;1I.
3 Hllllgllriml FaiCllce l!il'a J1Illdc by !Jlt'
CiJlcillllflli Art Pottery Ca. C. 1SSo.
Cillcillllflti's illlportllllCl.' IlS 11 Ct'lItrl' a[ art
pottl'ry productiall enll be trnCt'd ill pllrt lo
tlle ejforts 0181'111I Pitmflll. all ElIglislmUlII
;:1'110 iJl 1873 begflll tt'OOd-cnn';lIg classt'S (se"
p.261)lofloit't'd by c1/i"n pai"tillg classes iJl
1874-; batll eJ/joyed tllI? strollg
slIpport 01 10m! womell. Ht 26.jcm/1OY, ;11.
4 BlIjf mSt' decorated ;j,;t/ /x.'t'S alld s;:twl-p,'as
by Jalle Porter Dodd of tI/I.' Cillcillllflti POllery
Club. 1881. Tlze club wasfolllldcd in 1879 by
Iwe/IC 'OI/lt'II piza /lt1d sttldied /l/da Bellll
Pi/mml, alld wltose <l'Ork dr/!il' illspirntioll
jrolJllllltlfTl' as ('ell as JIl/H1I1t'Se prillls.
Ht qcm/sl:ill.
264
T
he years 187.5 to 1885 witnessed the development of
the manufacrure of art pottery and tites in the United
States, following the British precedent. Karl L.H. Mi.Uler
(1820-87), ..vorking far UniDn Porcelain Works, Brooklyn,
New York, sought to develop an American style in
ceramics clistinct from European moclels, resulting in an
eclectic range of symbols, usually from literature or
e\-eryday American lile and applied to conventional
forms. ManufachJ.rers such as Ott & Brewer developed a
type of eggshell poreelain applied ",ith Japanese motifs
chased in shades of silver and gold, and the Faience
Manufacturing Ca., Brooklyn, Ne\-v York, produced exotic
fom15 \vith Anglo-Japanese dccoration.
The development of artistic glazes was exemplified by
the Chelsea Keramic Art Warks, Massachusetts, whose
designers and craftsmen were inspired by oriental
ceramicists to create glazes, including a 50ft celadon
green, and a dry glaze produced by firing a high glaze at
a low heat, which resulted in a matte grey-brown
resembling polished bronze, and applied over a low-relief
honeycomb surface resembling hand-hammered metal.
The Rookwood Pottef)f Co. in Cincinnati developed a
sophisticated series of glazes painted with lffiderglaze
decoration of whimsical animals inspired by Japanese
Htnllgn Uapanese comic books) and the J. & J.C. Low Art
lile \I\'orks, Chelsea, Massachusetts, produced thickly
glazed tiles with relief decoration, which were sometimes
incorporated into objects such as dock cases (see p.269).
Hand decoration \Vas also highly valued. Tile clubs,
sud, as that fOlUlded in New York in 1877 under the
patronage of the painter Winslow Homer (1836-1910),
encouraged the fashion, popular in Britain, for painting
on ceramics. AIso in New York (after training in England)
John Bennett (1840-1907) painted ceramies ",ith flat,
linear, stylized flowers executed in a strong palette of
vitreous enamels inspired by Persian ceramics and the
work of \lVilliam Morris. Relief decoration was also
praetised by artists sueh as Agnes Pitman (1850-1946;
daughter of Berm) in Cincinnati and Isaac Elwood Scott
(1845-1920) at the Chelsea Keramie Works.
21
3 Orielltnf &etltell lIIetn/lI'urk is rectll1ed il/ tlle
1t00leycolllwd surfaCt' of this /ctld-gltl=ed
I'flrt111'Jli:l'tlrC ,'tlS(' IIltldl' tlt Clte/setl Kernmic I\rt
1V0rks, OU'/SI'(I, AltlSSllcllllsettS, C.1879-8;.
Ht 19"CIII/71.ill.
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2 The Pastorall'tlst.', ,dt/ its cltlssi((l/
icollogmp/IY, 'tlS d.'sigll.'d tll/d lIIodel1ed by
Istltlc Broo",c ill 1876 (l/lli mtlde of ((1st
termcotttl-colol/l't'/I porcl'1tlill by Ott & Brt'il'er,
Trt'/ltoll, \k't, Jersey. Ht 4,CII//I 7
5 A fi'at of gi/dillg and pnilltillg,
t/Jis cartllclIWtlr.. co.ltred 'nse
,l'as decomted l/llder tI,,,,
slIperpisiol/ of Ed1l'ard Lycett tll
/he Faiellcc J\>ftll1lljnctllrillg
Compal/Y, Grecllpoillt, Brook/y",
Nei{! Yo,.k (.1884-90.
HI4oCIII!l,'/,ill.
4 TYI,;cnl arc I1lc
wi/fllf aSYlIIlIIl'fry nml colllpfex
i1/IISiOllistic o>erlappillg offorll/s
011 tlJis g/a=ed enrtlU'lIimre tile;
desigll n/tribllted lo Art/lJlr
OSVoltrlll', madI.' {IY tlu' J. & J.G.
LOi{! A,.t TUc Works, Che/sen,
Massac!ll1set/s, J881-4.
Hl1,cm/6ill.
1 AJI ctlrtltell'il'flrt' plaque ptlillted by Jo/m
BI'IlJldt ill Neil' York, 1878. Blltter(lit'S (llId
&ees 'lIcirch' blossoll/ ill Dile of B'llIletf's
ilion' j(lpnJlcsqllc desiglls, ngaillst n
crnckh'll-icc backgrouJld derir.'ed frOIl/
orienttl/ cemll/irs. Tllc sl'llsifi.,,,
ol motif." tlmi sopIJistiCflf..d
Ja1l>ttl' a/"l'/wl/I//tlrks of Bl'llIlett's iL'ork.
Dinlll. ;6CIII/141,ill.
4

Glass
Brilain, France, and lhe Uniled Slales
3 El/mul!/It'd mili /JIoH'lI-glnss jl/g
illllk,/orm vfll (iJd.;ad. /I/,idc by
Tltolllns VebiJ & Sal/s. I/t'ar
5follrbridge. c.1879.
HI19clII/7'1:ill.
4 A sl/perb CXtllllple of Acstllefic
Frt'derick AS/li:('ill's
pllilltcd- Illld It'ndcd-Slllss pl1l1el
dl'picfs file Di:lwning of Ihe Las!
Day;fol'luer/y lIJe 1101"/11 frlll/sl'pt
,1'illdol' of tllt' cJ11Il"cJ of St
Btll"l1ava::, Hellgol'd. Slll"op5l1il"e.
dtllillgJtOIll 1871.
3
o
6 Edwl1rd 81/1"11('-101/1'5 dcsigl1cd tI/t' fisures l1lld
Pllilip Webv fin' (jllnrrit's for Ols N!orris & Co.
wil/dow,jor tl Refresillllellt RoolII ill f!le SOl/tll
Kel/sillgfoll M/151'1/1I1 (I/OW tlle Victoria &
Albert MIISCIIIII), i-olldoll, 1867-9.
6
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5 Probab/y desigllcd by Valel (offer I/Ild
made by Cotter & Co., LVI/don, c.1875. file
pnilltl!d- mld enried-glns;; Harvest Girl s un
/r(II//(' 01golrlell qumTies produced by sih'er
sinn (sodilllllllitrnte). Ht 66.jclI1/26'll.

'0
1 TII!! }Joil'dt'l't!d gilt specklillg file gmrlunted
8rt!Y Sl'ollluf o/ t!lis glnss ,'(lse,
prnduc.:d by Bnccnmt ill Ulle, c.1SBo,
elllll/n/!!;; fhe e/fect fOlll1d 0/1 japallt'se
/ncl'/lIt?J'. NI 19jCIII!7'1.ilJ.
2 Popular At'sthetic de:::.iglls, SUe/1 115 ti/ese
pre:i:HIIOlllderl g/nS5 cnkc pIntes s/wped like
]npnm'S'/fIIIS, cOl1tillued fa be produced IIlItl
file l'l1d olllh' 19th ccl/fu,-y.
4
266
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LOlldoll ,y Jllllle:' COllpa &
SO/lS of Gla:'goil', 11Iis
alllOrpllic grt:'t:'1I :'a=-e ,/'itll III!
opaqlle sil'irl ,{"l/S 11t:':'iglled
llY ClIrislopfler Drl'Sst:'r alld
P!pdl/Ct'11 c.1880--<)6. Tlle lIIottlt:'d
or 1mbbkll gla;;s I'as illspired by
t'xeni.'llled ROlllall slass.
Ht 2.:.jCIII/9/J1I.
1 OatillgfTOlllaTOlIlld 1870,
Cllri:otopller Dn's$t''-s Frost
t1t>sigll for a staiut:'d-g/ass
,('i.hM' ,{",b il/:-piri by skttdl(s
1lt:' JlIld made offrosl 011 IIis
1I'illdo<t, :'Olllt:' 1-1 yt:'t1rs l'lIrJier.
Ht:' reconll/le"de.i Il,t:' pattem lo
decorafe gla;;:, ill sllbSt?q//t:'lIt
(JIIMient iO! 1;;, dell1Olls! f{/ fi Ilg
!lis ;;kili ilI ada(Jtil1g IIIltllrn/
for1115 to IIppropril7fl? 11:'(':'.
2
T
he 18705 and 18805 wihlessed an explosion in stained
glass production for domestic and public settings,
partly an offshoot of extensive church glazing schemes,
Figtuative panels designed by leading British artists,
notably Edward BUrlle-Jones (1833-98) for Morris & Co.,
translated into glass the Aesthetic fine art motifs of
languid maidens in aJlegorical guises, executed in golden
yellows and earthy browlls with flashes of h.uquoise and
ruby red. Flat background patterns composed of quarries
(small, geometric panes) with com-entionalized leayes
and flowers or pattems, stressed the two-dimensionai
nah.ue of the panels, while admitting light to richly
decorated interiors. Hand-painted or transfer-painted
panels, usually of flowers and birds, proliferated in the
doors and hallways of urban dwellings where the new
tedmique of sandblasting was used to create a series of
matte, or frosted, fOffi15 against a c1ear background.
Christopher Dresser's geometric stained-glass designs
illustrate his belief that a window should "never appear as
a pich.ue with parts treated in light and shade." In the
3
3 Au iIll/s/mtiOIl from C/lIIrJ.'S
8fXlf1":5- :\lodern Surface
Omamenl (;-......1' York 18"J.
8000, i'l/S IlQm in Li,'t'rpoolllllll
IIctirt:' ill Xt:'i:I' Yorkfrolll I/I"ol/l,d
187j-80. Hi:5- icork "JOiI'S /l/l'
t:'xlt'lIt /0 iI'hiel, A6tfletic
partiC/flar1.1f l/le <t'ork oj
CllristopllI!r Drser, JlIId
pt'1'1I/('aft>11 Amaimll d6igll
l/le lI1ill-18;0:5-.
United Sta tes, Charles Booth (18-1+-93), interpreted
Dresser's geometricized plant forms with windows
executed in a predominantly aquamarine, amethyst, pink,
and pale yellow palette. 1879, john La Farge deveJoped
opalescent glass and pioneered plating (layering sheets of
glass) to create combinations of texture and colour, also
exploited by Louis Cornfort Tiffany, allowing subtlety that
\Vas tmprecedented in shading, tone, and density.
Aesthetic motifs, from nah.lfalistic flowers, \'ines, and
ferns to japanesque devices, were painted, gilded,
engra\'ed, or enamelled onto opaque and c1ear glass
hollow-wares. Clear or colonred pressed table-glass \\Tas
popular. A number of teclm.ical de\'elopments were
made in tl1e USo In 1878 Frederick S. Shirley patented
la\'a glass (1a\-a ash created the black body colour),
embedded with chips of coloured glass and enamels and
blo\Vn into simple shapes i.nspired by recent European
excavations of Roman glass, Other techniques resulted in
the subtle gradabon of colours, sLlch as Amberina glass,
and the Chinese-inspired Peachblow glass.
26
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Metalwork
Naturalism
1 Casf-imll Jire slIrrOlllld
desiglled in 1878 by TlIomfls
}eckyll for fIJe NOII'ic1, fOl/ndry
of Bamard. Bisllop & Bal'llards.
TJe illjlllellce of japallf.'se desigl1
avol/uds ill tile trentnl/mt of the
virds perclted il/ tlle spalldrels
nl1d tl,c mons arOlllld fhe arc!Jcd
grafe. Ht 96.5cm/3Sill.
2 The Botanic, a coppl.'r-p/ated
brass cool scl/Hle alld sItO"e/ l'it'
a fin filler 011 a wrollg/lt-iroll
stalld .ms maJmfactl/red by
Bell!Ia/ll & Froud in Loudoll.
u892. Hl 58.5clII/23il/.
Geometry
1 TIlI' strikillg geometry of tllij sill'4!r teapol,
desiglled by CJlristopJer Drl'sser {llld madI.' by
HllkilI & Henth il1 Birlllillglmlll 111 1879. i5
n:/;('7.'1:d by lte el/mue/kd cabad/GIl'; studding
t}e j1attellcd s/lOulders, wlJile lIe mfll1lel/cd
/l/Id gilt bOll(' disk 01lapan!':;/' orig;1l scl ;lIto
file /id sigllifies /l1l! designer's debt fa Japmll.'S1'
art. Otller El/gUsl1 firms 511eh as E/bugtoll &
Ca., ,t,/lid, dei'eloped tlle sihw dectroplntillS
tec1miqll{', nnd ]mlll'S DixoJl & Sal/s, (St'C
p.2- j:!.) nlfo"it'ed DrL'SSl'r fa desigll fi'tll ilion'
strikillgJy nl/gll/nr {llIri Sei.'ere proto-lIIotiem
desiglls for ten x-ri'ices (lnd e/arel jl/gs. wllicJl
took he colltl'lIIpomry illterest ill geo11letry fa
extremes. HI 10.jCm!4Y.;II.
,...._----_..
268
A
esthetic metal\Vork \Vas extremeIy inventive and
strongly infiuenced by Japanese and other Near
and Far Eastcrn designs and techniques. Japanese motifs
featured heavily in the design of Thomas Jeckyll's cast-
iron pavilion which was "decorated in gold and orange,
to the desgns of. .. Whistler," and shown at the
international exhibitions in Philadelphia (1876) and
Paris (1878). The design for the balustrade, \vhich
consisted of stylized swlowers, icons of the Aesthetic
Movement, was adapted for use as cast-iron or gilt
bronze andirons. Jeckyll also designed a series of Anglo-
Japanese fireplace surrounds consisting of low-relief
1/10/15, often overlapping and asymmetrically arranged
on diaper-pattern grounds. In France, interest in
Chinese and Japanese art during this period was
reflected in the designs manufactured by firms such as
Christofle & Ce. in Paris.
In the United States, Japanese as well as Moorish
influences were developed in the desgns of Edvvard
Chandler Moare (1827-91) designing for Tiffany & Co.
from the 1870s. Tiffany's japanesque slver typically
combined organic forms, often with attenuated spouts
and handles, and hand-hammered surfaces. The surface
of the metal was embellished \vith Japanese-inspired
motifs, which were chased and engraved or inlaid with
copper and other base metals (knmvn as Ilie//o work), a
practice outlawed in Brtain. Much commercial British
and American Aesthetic sil ver consisted of straight-
sided or very simply curved vessels decorated with
engraved designs of Anglo-Japanese natural plant and
bird forms.
Techniques inspired by the Near and Far East, such as
c/Oi5OJlIl enamelling and decaration imitating Japanese
komai work, were developed in Britain by Elkington &
Ca.. Cast iron was also increasingly used for furniture,
and brass was among the metals used for items such as
dock cases and light fittings, particularly in the U5,
where Dresser-inspired stylized botanical ornament was
incorporated on cast-brass plant stands with winged
feet and angular decoration.
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American Designs
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4/npnllesque water pi/cher
desigl1ed by Edwnrd e MOOl'e,
witl! si/ver irises, Cllrp, Illld
dmgollfly il1lllid in brOlce. lvlade
by & Co. il! New York
abOllf 1877, Ht 2001l/8ill.
3 Probably desiglled by Emile Reiber, /lIis part-gilt brol1:e bow/ was I1lnde
by Christofle & Cie., Paris, c1870. Theforln is based al! a 17th-cel1tllry
Chilles/.' censer; the bllluboo decomtioll 011 C/1i11lse 1I1etnlll'ork. Ht 13cm/5il1,
3
,
,
1 Covcred bowll1wde of casi
brom:e alln clmsed wil/ daisy
heads el/tang/en jn spiders' rbs,
blf M. Louisc McLnugltlill o/
Cillcill1wti in 1884,
Ht 13.5C11I!j'l.ill.
2 Broll::.e mal/le/ dock case
il1corporatillg gln::ed eartheuware
tiles by tllC J. & J.C. Low Art Ti/e
Works, Clle/sen, Massnc/llIsefts.
TI/e works are n/tributed fo fhe
New HaveJI C/ock Compal/Y,
New Havell, COllllecticlIt,
HI 305cm/lll.
3 Dile of tlu' mos! bi::.arre
cren/iolls 01 lIJe AestiJetic
Mo<.'clIICllf ill IlllljlllCdilllll, his
po/is/lcd Cl1sf-bmss p/mll stfllld
illset {'itl LOIIgwy Iles, WIlS
probab/y made in Meridcll,
COIlIlcctiwf, alln re/ni/ed by file
Meridcll Flillf G/ass Co. nrOlllu!
1880. Ht 85.5clII/33'1;;II.
2
1 Qlle of {/ pajr 01 cloisonn el/ame! alln e1ectrogilded broll::.e vnses; he
desigll is allributed to Albert WillilllllS, fhe III1l11l1fllClure to Elkillgtoll &
Co. of Birlllillgllllll1, ClSl5. Ht 355clII/14ill.
2 Tlls Cllillese c!oisonn vnse WIlS illlported to Pllris, where it WIlS
Ilssembled ill/o Illnl/lp, complete 'lI'it!l si/ver IlIld gilt glnss g/abe, by
$lIsse Freres, ClSSO. Ht (ine. c!llllley) 725clII/2S'/,!1I.
4 Brnss, pewter, Illld vnriolls woods Ilre illlnid Ollnll ii.lory-grOlllld
jllrdil/iere l11nllllfnc/l/red by F. 01lvillnge ill Pllris, c1870, T!le orll/olll
11101llltS nre ofClll/ese inspimtioll. \'V 31CIII/12Y, ill.
France and England
Textiles and Wallpaper
Textile designs al the 1870s
1 CO'l!lItiollali=cd spray:, 01
{lOH'CI"S ami (I!I//rcd diapl.'rs, tlle
sf1apes of [{'JI ie/ are dt'l"il'cd fl"Om
Islnlllic mld a /h'ely
dnsf, /olflis /'O'CII iI'oo/-nlld-$ilk
fexlik d6igllc.i ".'1 C/rist0J,'cr
Drx'r ami lIInde I'y !nlJ/es l\'. &
C. \\'nrd ('1 Hn/{(.n il/ 1S;l,
2 TI/e dl!$igll of tlu' pencock ill
IfJis cn'ilt'!-;:/'Ork pnllt'/ is
nttribl/ll'li lo PIJilip IVd,b. l/u'
saol/illg .'ille bnckgrolllllf fa
IVilliam \Iorris. lt cns mndl.' '!!
MOI'I'is & Ca. ill LOllfiol1 arOIlJld
1880, 76 x 1.01(11I/30 x 3ft 3il/.
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3 T!lpicnf oI hi" del/::t' .lid Ih.'dy
lililfluidflaf Jl(lfferu,;, Brucc
Tan1at',; Fruits and Foliage
wn,; dl'siglled C.IS5 nlld
,'(l,'ell ill silk l,y \"11m,'"
& RnulIIl, Londo/!.
56.5.\' ..6cm/2:!.'!;.\' 1Sil/.
4 Ddail oI n silk nlld I'ool
jilCfll1nrd-m,'eJI partiere {'illt
pnsxmcllferie l1ecomliol/,
I'roll(/l1Iy de,;iglled 'y Tallll.'rt nI/ti
milite l1.i11. & .5. Tt'lIIp/dOIl &
Ctl. in GIIl,;go<l', (,18;0. Desiglled
foill' Jlllllg 0/1 n .mll llr (1$ n
C1/r/nil1 neros" fIJe bllek al/l1100r,
ir n:flects fhe fnsllioll fo/' dh'ittillg
('nI/s JI tu hori:cmfn/l}(l!lds.
35 x 1./5!11/11ft 6il1 x 5/1 9ill.
270
T
extiles played an important part 111 Aesthetic
interior 5chemes, from carpets and curtains
to upholstery, as \Vell as in dress. By the 1870s
the influence of Owen Iones, ",ho published designs
based on Etruscan, Greek, and other SOluces,
in addition to designing textiles for commercial
production, was being felt in Britain and the United
Sta tes. Christopher Dresser also designed textiles
indebted to Tones, which followed his principIes of
using convcntionalized motifs from naturc. The stress
on suitability of ornament steered designers aH'lY from
three-dimensional illusionism towards linearitv
-
and f1at patterns based on what Jones termed
"geometrical construction."
Gi"en this emphasis on fiatness, sophisticated
methods of disposing 5urface pattero were gleaned
from Japanese art, which particularly captured the
imagination of designers such as E. W. Godwin and
Bruce Talbert. Some of Godwin's patterns utilized
repeated circular motifs derived fram Japanese
blocks, whereas Talbert adapted Japanese and lndian
sources in his textile designs, which included a number
for partieres. Like Morris's designs, Talbert's floral
motifs owe their li\'eliness to his careful studies of
na ture. The fluid lines of sorne of \'Valter Crane and
Lewis F. Day's textile and wallpaper designs prefigured
the Art Nom'eau mo\'ernent which followed.
In contrast to the approach pre\'alent in textile
prodllction in the 18505, japanese inflllence also helped
to simpllfy the colours lIsed in textiles. Many of the
textiles prodllced lll1der the direction of WilJiarn Morris
(183-!--1904) were rnade lIsing \'egetable dyes in colours
inspircd by lndian textiles, in part a reaction to the
strident colours prodllced by chemical dyes in the
preceding decades, and his firm's printed textiles
re\'i\'ed the lost art of indigo dyeing. Encollraged by
designers slIch as Morris as wel! as E. \ V. Godwin and
James McNeill "Vhistler, subdlled secondary and
tertiary (dllbbed "greenery-yallery") colours came to
characterize the Aesthetic interior,
Japonisme and Beyond
1 jllC(llIllrd-H'oPl'lI Butterfly brocndc dcsigl1cd by E.\ V. God1l'ill nlld
III11(fl' b!lIVllrl/er, Sil/di & RI1I1l111, LOl1doll, C.1S74. /t ,('as Jl'v/J(lb/y
by COllillSOIl & Lock. 51 x 55C1U/:W x
3 /11 J,is Batt il'OVCJl si/k desiglll'd C.lSS0 for Onllil'1 1Valte,.:, & SOl/S,
Gcorge Hait !lns ll$cd ol'alnppillgjluttWS, rcctnngles, nlld sqll(lrl's
clllb/n:OIU'd witllnllspiciolls CI1incse l1111s.
2 Detail uf tl/t' Large Syringa silk dr1lllllsk desigllcd 11.11 Godwill. 1S75.
{lnd writ' by IVllnler & RIlIIIIII ilI LUI/doll. Co/i;t'in OWI/l'd n {npnlll.'5c
ovo/> oj mOllS t/mf jl/spired file desiSII. 3.30 x 1.701ll/10!1 10il1 x 3ft iJl.
4 Confillentn/ Art Nom.'call is m'figul'cd in l/lis (ktnil uf n prllft'd
Tussah "jlk depictillg allegaricnl ftSlll'6, degllt'd by Loll Vicfor Sohm,
C.1S93. 2.86 x 1.69111/9ft 5ill x 5ft ill.
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Wallpaper: Frieze, Filling, and Dado
3 Apple Blossom .pnl/papa
dt'SiglJcd by Leil'is F. Ony (lila
lumd prillled by Jeffrey & Ca.
for NI.8. & SO/l:; ;11
1878. Day's colH'illcillg
illll5'ioJl of mndom/y scnffered
bJossolll COllcl'n/s n tiglltly
orgnlli:ed dl':5igll.
2 A rllytllllJic pallen! of bcl'5 alla
bloswlIl decorates t/js detail ofn
'{ln/lpnper SC}t'1II1!' dei.'ised by
Cnlldflce -,'!Jederfor he,. .{'IIJliIlS
Cllfl'Y fa llll 'tematlona/
lcal/papa desigll competitioll ill
S81; flu' sih't'T of
tllejiUillg conlnillrd go/dm ce/k
1 Frie:e,jillillg, nlld dado
desiglled b.1{ Bmee Talbert (lna
madI." by tllt' Lolldoll jirm of
leffrey & Co. in 1877. A Jllllllber
of file ,{'nI/papel" sc/lemcs lit'
dCi.,ised eOIl/mS! fI flowillg ji/l/lIg
fl/!'Sigll wit/I a /llore gcolI/'fric
dado }MUen!.
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W allpaper carne into its own as a medium for
creative design during the Acsthetic Movement. An
unprecedented interest in the most suitable methods of
decorating wal1s led to a number of prolific and
versatile cornmercial designers being commissioned by
manufacturers to produce patterns. The walls of the
Aesthetic interior were llsllally divided into three
sections, comprising a frieze, filling, and dado. As with
textiles, sllbdlled tertiary colours predominated, and
papers were prodllced in dfferent colourways to assist
matching, with designers employed produce entire
complimentary sets.
Natural motifs predominated in waUpaper design at
this periodo William Morris designed wallpapers (as
well as textiles) depicting scrolling and flowing
organic motifs filtered through the art of the Medieval
and Indian textiles which he admired, while designers
such as Lewis F. Day, Dresser and Godwin drew
heavily on Japanese 3rt for innovation in their designs.
British wal1papers enjoyed popularity in the United
States, particularly those produced by Morris & Co.
and the designs of Walter Crane, who brought his
superb control of linear mohfs to the medium. In the
U5, Candace Wheeler (1827-1923) produced patterns
combining naturalist plant forms with geometric
Japanese-inspired patterns. Wheeler based her designs
on American flora and fauna, and superimposed carp
on formalized spirals oE rippling water in her textiles
and, notably, swarming bees and blossom against l
honeycomb lattice in the fill of l wallpaper designo
Machine-printing \Vas widely used by this stage,
and technical advances allowed firms such as Warren,
Fuller & Co. of New York to apply bronze powders
in a liquid state, producing multi-coloured papers
highlighted with gold, sil ver, and bronze tints,
\vhich created a shirnmering effect of illusory depth.
Lincrusta-Walton, l composihon material evocative
of 17th-century embossed leather waH co\'erings
and often gilded, satisfied a demand for high-
relief waUpaper.
-------------
Rhythm and Line
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JapillI C/Iris/ap/la Dresser
dcsiglIed Ilis AlIglo-Japilllese
<ml/papafrie:e hielI ms
lIIallllfnctllred by lVil/iam
Cooke & Co. il! 1878.
2 The Bamboo 'lmllpnper
desigllcd by E. W. Gonwin il!
1872 nClllolIsfrntes (1 free al1n
ho/ti Ilse oj Jnpl1!1cse lIIolifs wllicJi
<un:: reproducen in ho/n,fln!
c%ur:: il1spired by Jllpl1!lCSe
'oodblock prillts, 01" ukiyoe.
5-+ x 5.fCIII/21'/., x 21'/;11.
1 Al! nteres/I/g (01/1pl1l"i501/
,pilll Cannace jVlleeler's desigll
(opposite), Brlle.. Tn/bert's frie:e
iUOS porl of a Sc!leme designed for
Jeffrey & Ca. in 1877. A SCI"ollilIg
c!oud lIIotif derh/cd {mm ariell/tl/
tlrl pro.'ies a sublle bulliile/y
background lo tlle designo
2
3
Friezes
1 ClIrisfopller Dress['/" 's dcsiglls for l'lllipnper (lnd frice cOlllbillc fiat
Ilbstrnclen plan/ fOl"ms wi/h, in l/le fillillg, Ce/fic intcr/acing. rhe
/1l1l'l1l0niOlfS colol//" 5chelllc rms enlCIIla/en l/O/ lo o<'erpower lIterior:..
3 TIIe rlIythlllic qlla/ities al ille (lre IUI/ens/len in Wa/ter Crnnc's
watercolOllr l1!1d gOl/ndle SWilll dndo dcsigllcd ill 1877 fa IlCCOIIIP(IIl!! Iris
Iris and Kingfisherl1/1ing. 53.3 x 53.3CIII/21 x 21 IJ.
1
Furnilure 278
British 278
European 283
Amencan 284
Cerarnics 286
Glass 288
Silver and Metalwork 290
Textiles and Wallpaper 294
Arts and Crafts
The Arts and Grafts Movement began as an English decorative arts movement
in the second half of the 19th century. It was arebellion against the Victorian
fashion for inventive sham and over-elaborate design and it made aconcerted
attempt to break down established barriers between artists, designers, and
craftpeople. As well as astyle, it was a movement of ideas about work, art,
and society, developed by eminent writers, architects, and artists lrom Thomas
Garlyle (1795-1881 j, A.w.N Pugin (1812-52), and John Ruskin (1819-1900)
to William Morris (1834-96) - the lather figure 01 the movement.

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n 1861 Morris and his friends set up Monis, Marshall,
FauLkner & Ca. to design and produce domestic
decorative arts together with ecclesiastic stained glass.
The architect Philp Webb (1831-1913), the Pre-
Raphaelite artists Ford Madox Brown 0821-93), Edward
Burne-Jones (1833-98), and Dante Gabriel Rossetti
<1828-82), as wel! as Morris himself, a11 designed for the
firmo From the 1870s, trading as Morris & Ca., the
company was associated with a number of younger
designers including the metalworker, ''''.AS. Benson
William De Morgan (1839-1917) designed
tiles for both Morris & Co. and the Century Guild
founded in 1882 by A.H. Mackmurdo along
similar lines. Although its output was limitcd, Century
Guild furnitllre, waUpaper, and textiles int111enced CEA.
Vo)'se)' and other British Arts and Crafts
designers as well as avant-garde figures such as Henri
van der Velde (1863-1957) \Vho \Vere more closely
connected with Art Nouveau.
Morris's writings, lectures, and the force of his
personality had as much impact on the next generation as
his practical example. In 188-1, architects, designers,
artists, and manufacturers set up the Art \Norkers' Guild,
which "-as the first of several net\' cross--disciplinary
organizations that attempted. to create a fresh approach to
the design and making process. The associated group, the
Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, \Vas named by the
bookbinder, T.J. Cobden-Sanderson (1&10-1922) in 1887,
and his plliase, "Arts and Crafts," became the generic
title of the movement.
The Arts and Crafts Movement was based on simple
forms, an almost sensuous delight in materials, and the
use of l1ature as the SOllrce of pattem. The generation
bOrIl in the 18505 and 18605 \Vere at the forerront of the
movement. 111ey \,'ere passionate abollt the decorati\'e
arts and the processes of making. 111eir \\"ork could be
highly decorated but \\-as often extremely plain, taking
inspiration from vemacular traditions. The roughness
and simplicity of some \,-ork could be cnlde but the
richness of many interior schemes and individual designs
Ltft: C.F.A \lo.IfSf.'Y, Brilaill,
.ksigll for a elock cnj(' pail/kli in
oils. '895. V01(,;n,I illcorJJOrated
IIIOttOl.':i j'lfo his tmrk, ami
jl/n'sll'li /l/otif;; 1111'
free al/d do,'!' ,,,ir/ sYlllbo/ic
IJIt'nllillgs. TJ/t'5!' eJell/ellts lll'CflIlle
pnl"l of tht: desigll rocahl//nry of
IIJi' ;irfs nlld Cmft:.; MO'l'lm'lIf.
Ht 78.5C11II;IIl, i('.56clII/nill.
Opposite: file n'frcs/tiIlS
silllplicify nmi (lf ml/ell
Arts 11IId Cmfts .t'Ork l//(Ilil' tf
plTrtiC/l/arly apprvprjnft' fllT t11('
dOll/t'sfk il/ferior. l\'O'l'1l alld
pril//'i fextiles blJ A!orri:, & Co.
art' sho'l'Illtm' .t'itlt pottay /ly
ti/e! \Iarlin Brotl/CTs nlld IriJ/ialll
De Alol:.\'nll, mld a sih't'r-I'/nfed
C(lJldh'sfick by IV.A.S. B'IISOII.
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1 Emes! Bnms/ey. he Jibrnry ni RodlllnrlOIl
J90g--26, 1(1(11/ (lfIk
nl/ll ,;fOll' pro'id". tll". betil'tYII
file IlIlIdscnpe, the IIDI/se, tllld ffll' fllmifllrl!,
crentillg n spnrfnll ye! restflll atlllosplu:n'.
T/u,' gardell beyoud ;:/'0'; lreafed as 11 '5I.'rit'50I
Dl/tdoor room,; it'itll fOTmllUty 111,'(1' file llOl/se
gj'illg ;:L'ay fa 1II0re IJafl/rn/ pltllltillg.
2 A.T.]. Cobdel/-Snlldasoll, Ecce Mundus:
Industrialldeals and the Book Beautiful.
J90... prillh'd by tlle Dope:: Press fllld l/DI/lld
by lhe mttJlO,. Cobdell-SnlldeT$011 dl'i.'f'lopcd
cmff skills liS a lJook/illder, l/sillg untllml
[orll/s alld geome!ric pnttems. His illtelh'cfl/nJ
aud litemry skills fOil lid ill Hle
Dopes Prt'5$, il'/jcJ,lleaml/fel! /'iH, EmI'r.'!
Wn/ker iJl 1902.
276
\Vas visually shmning. Ordinar)' domestic items for the
middle-class hame - kitchen dressers, kettles, and
eurtains - \Vere considered worthy of serious artistic
endeavour. Amateur work, often bv women, \Vas
,
encouraged ",hile the female role as consumer and
decorator within the home was increasingly valued.
The Arts and Crafts Movement \Vas a rehellion of both
substance and style. Its pO\\'er came from tile conviction
that art and eraft (ouId change and improve people's
lives. Some cf thase involved with the movement were
socialists and many more had a radical approach to art,
work, and 5ociety. TIle written \Vord and therefore the
associated book crafts played an important role in
establishing and popuJarizing the movcment. With the
printer, Emery Walker (1851-1933), Morris sel up the
Kelmscott Pres5 in 1890; others in Britain, Germany, and
the United States followed suit. The crafts of
bookbinding, lettering, and typography "'ere developed
and, through the work of Edward jolmston (1872-19+1)
in particular, these impacted on design throughout the
frst half of the 20th century.
Arts and Crafts designers were concerned with
methods oE productiOl1, partIy as l reaenan against the
shoddy nature of much Victorian mass-production and
also to provide creative and satisfying employment.
Sorne designers sl1ch as Voysey and M.H. Baillie Scott
(1865-19-15) entntsted their designs to l fe\\' reputable
manufacturers. Machine production and technology
\Vere embraced ",here they performed l llseful role, for
example in the precisely engineered metahvork DE W.A.S.
Benson; hQ\vever, hand craftsmanship was particlllarly
valued both for aesthetic considerations and because it
could provide satisfying work for craftsmen. Craft gllilds
or workshops emulating Rllskin's Guild of St George
were set up. CR. Ashbee's Gllild of Handicraft
(1888-1908) and the Haslemere Peasant lndustries
(1896-c.193]) in Britain and, in lhe US, the Byrdcliffe
Colony (1902-15) are typieal of the range of workshops
whieh provided training and employment.
The Arts and Crafts Movement believed in learning
from tradition. Historie and foreign styles \Vere studied,
absorbed, and llSed in the evollltion of new designs.
Designers sueh as De Morgan and CR. Ashbee
(1863-19-12) revived long-forgotten techniques such as
lustre glazing and lost wax easting by a process of both
research and trial and error. The architcct and designer,
and for many individuals the Arts and Crafts Movement
provided an alternative to urbanized dwelling and the
resulting 105s of autonomy. The main areas of craft
activity incJuded the eastern seaboard from Boston
southwards to Philadelphia, the central region around
Chicago, and southem California. fndividual designer-
makers set up studios alongside craft colonies and large
semi-industrial workshops.
Arts and Crafts influence in Britain, the United States,
and continental Europe encouraged the use of design to
improve industrial manufacture. In many cases nual
crafts and foIk art were also revitalized. The reappraisal
of native foIk traditions as part of a seareh for national
identity linked the Arts and Crafts Movement to popular
nationalist movements particularly in Nonvay, Finland,
lreland, and Hungary.
-111e Arts and Crafts Movement has made a powerful
and contribution to international designo Art
5choo15 and technieal college5 5uch as the Central School
of Arts and Crafts in London played l significant role in
fostering the movement. In turn the Arts and Crafts
approach influeneed the teaching of art, cralt, and design
in Britain, the United States, and, to a lesser extent, in
Gcrmany through to the 19505. lts inf1uenee on design
rllns from Art Nouveau through to the Bauhaus, the
Modern Movement, and contemporar)' eraft practice,
while many rurnihlre makers working today still see
their roots in the work of designers such as Baillie Seott,
Gimson, and Voysey.
4 1-\/illiall1 Monis, sketches, 1893. His doodles of plallts (lIIdj70'CfS 0/1
asocialisf leaj7et abollf tlle pligltf of fI/e IIIi,wrs illdiente tlle dyl1tllllic
re1aliollsllip belil'WI file Arfs al/d Cmjts. ll'OI"k, mul socil'!y.
Emest Gimson (1864--1919) deseribed the Arts and Crafts
approach, writing '1 never feel myself apart from my
own times by harking back to the past, to be complete we
must live in aH the tenses, past, future as well as present."
Following Morris's example, the medieval period with its
rich narrative tradition "'as an important source of
inspiration. Designers echoed the Aesthetic
Movement's admiration for Japanese art as weH as
looking to Renaissance Europe, India, and the Middle
East for their creative \rision.
In a similar manner to Islamic art, much Arts and
Crafts decoration was based on plant fom1s. Both Morris
and ohn Sedding (183&-91), ",hose architectural office
provided a training ground for many leading designers
including Gimson and Henry "Vilson 086-1.-193-1.),
emphasized the importanee of drawing from nature for
its uplifting qualities and to avoid staleness. The natural
rhythms and patteros of plants and flowers were the
refiection of a purity oC approach. ll1e Arts and Crafts
designers reacted violently against the distortion of
natural forms adopted by Art 1 ouveau in continental
Europe. Symbolism, however, played an important role
in both movements. \llotifs such as the heart or the saiJing
ship which represented the journey of life into the
unknown reappear with regularity throughout the work
of the Arts and Crafts commuruty.
The British Arts and Crafts Movement found willing
converts in North America from 1890 onwlrds.
Following rapid industrial expansion in the post-Civil
War period, a eentralized, urban, and industrial society
had emerged in large parts of the Unted Sta tes. Between
1860 and 1900 the number of office workers had tripled
3 Comptoll Pottery. plallter.
C.1910. 11I5pired by tlle
Arts alld Illdustrie:; AssociatioJl,
Alary 5etoll {Vafts (1849-1938)
set IIp craft cfasSt'S for local
pl'Ople ill tlle 'iUage of COII/plol/.
lIear GlIildford, 5l1rrey. TlU!
sc1u)(}1 sold ils gardeu ornameJlts
ill grey alld red ferrncoffa,
decornted <l'itI Ceftic motifs,
throllgl Libert!!'s in Londoll.
1V 51cm/2oill.
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British Furniture
Celebrating Woodworking Crafts
1 \,\lillinll1 Alorris nl1d OmIte
cllni!"s, 1856-.
T!J,' d6igll, iJl5pin:d by \ Icdi'7.,tll
IIIflll1l5crpiS, ent11n's sfmell mi
de/ni/s sI/eh (/5 piullen ioilIts
(lnn /(11/ clumifl'rl'd upriSflls.
HI 1..fIll/..ff Iiu.
2 C/Jnrh's Remtie dt':::J.;
fllld clJnirs.ftlr flu' Glflsgotl,
Se/lOO/ olArt, 19]0. Tlll' Sfflill('d
0lPre:;.s sI/PI'0rfs 01(!Ji:: dt'sk roe//
l/tI<'c (1 diffl.'rt'I/1 dt'Sigll rd(ltillg to
tI/t' (lrclli(ecfllml
Des/.: 111 1.36111/.ift 5ill.
3 Erie 5/10111(', ook sefft'l', C.1929
Arls mld Cmfts dt'Siglli'rs lJnti
(1 (mllilioll ol illcOIllOmliug
COIIS( rIIet illlml/i.'(Itllrt'S ;,/ tllr
jl/mill/rt' dt"$igl/s. L. 1.75111/5ft 9ill.
5
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5 fmesf GiIllSCII, sidebonrd (Inri
pInte stand. 1915. Arfs (Inri Cmft:;
desigllers l/sed wn/llul fol' ils filie
gmill al/(f lillks ,(,itll e/assic
Ellglish 17'11- nnri 18tll-celltury
desigll. He,./! it ;5 strikillgly
cOlllbilIt'd witll IIIflcnSS1l1' l'/JOIIY.
Ht 1.54111/5ft, w. 2.05/11/6fl 81.ill.
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4 5idl1t'Y Bnrlls/ey, oak dillillg table,
1923-''. Tlle Bnrllsleys adapted
fmditiOl1nl 'OOdl'Orkillg tec/1!liqllt's
fo (Inri nriistillcti1.'e erige lo tlteir
desigl/S.f lte chnlllfl'rt'd
1I11delfmll1iIIg dai,'t's mm Ihe
Ilnymke. 80<1'1 by Powel/
(sce 1).287). Table 'o 195111/6ft 5ill.
3
278
Decorative Treatments
1 "'-__-t........_
1 Pe/er \Vaa/s, de/nil (/ c!J61 al drmi'ers.
c. J 9.20. Thc c/1twljcl'I:d dc/ni/ing /0 he dmwcr
frol115 mui I!le li/les of gOl/ged decomtioll reflcct
tlle light IJlld ndd ,'gollr /l/lIi IIIOVClllf'IIl lo tllis
IIl1polislled oak pica.
2
2 Artlwr ROllllley GrcclI hS72-19.J.5), de/ni! of
n ches! 01 dmiPC!":;, 1920S. Normal/y 0111 01.
sigllf, fhese benlltijJllly (lit d01.'dl1ils ell/mnce
tlle desigll, Iike lile contmstillg onk 1lOdYllm/
he figured IIIncnssnr cbol/Y drm:l'eI" rollf. 3
3 LO!lisc Powl!/l nl/d Pe/!!r \'\'nals, ddail oj !le
VVoodpecker cabillc!, 19205. The dmweI"
frollts of l/lis pieee JeFe <'el/caed in sntimcood,
. .
prol.'idillg n dapplcd bnckgrolllld for LOlli:,!'
Powell's oi/ pl1inted desigll.
4 5
4 Gl'Orge \'Valfol1,
c1899. WaltOll added fl/e
lIbiqllilol1,; ileart-shaped wtOllt
motij lo all efegant jorll! iJlspred
by 18fil-celllllry desiglls.
HI 1.04!11f3jf 5!1.
5 C.EA. VOl/sel, Kelmscott
Chaucer ca/Ji!lcl, 1896. Tl1e
n.'clilillear desig!l co!!l/Jilled ,l'ilh
Ihe dislillclil'c eapped 'CJ"ticnl
lies is ehmrced 'Ilhe restmilll.'d
lll"nss nlld sl/ede decomlioll.
HI 1.33!11/4f1 -in.
6 "'.A.S. Bellsoll nlld G.
Heywood SI/lIIlli'r. cn/Jinel jor
Liberf1. LOl1doll, 1905. This
mahognn!/ cnbinet combillcs
slrollg IlOri:olltnl mrd 'erticnf
filies willl C!cgnllt proporliolls.
Ht 1.67111/5/1 6ill.
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T
he phrase "good citizen's furniture" coined by
William Monis in 1882 expressed the intensely
moral character of the Arts and Crafts Movement. It
emphasized the central role of simple domestic pleaslues
and the populist audience at which the movement was
targeted: the middle classes rather than an artistic lite.
The Arts and Crafts Movement was based arOlU1d the
home. lhe Gotruc style adopted by High Victorian
architects such as vVilliam Burges (1827--81) and by Philip
Webb in the 18605 and 18705 \Vas not particularly
appropriate for a domestic scale. A nev.,' approach was
developed based on simple lines, exposed construction,
and rural carpentry traditions. ReveaJed joints such as
beautifuliy-cut cogged dovetails enhanced the decorative
quality of the ",ood and fitted in with Morris's ideas about
honesty. His comment that furruhue "... shouJd be made
of timber rather than walking-sticks" was taken as support
for framed-and-panelled construction in solid wood. Large
tables vvith stretchers chamfered to the design of the
traditional farm hay rake were both decorative and
practica!. 111e striking grain effects of planks of quartered
oak OI figured vvalnut panels meant that, for Arts and
Crafts designer-makers, additional decoration was often
superfluous or was restricted to carpentry techniques such
as chip-carving and gouging which could create a rich
effect on the surface.
The strong vertical and horizontal lines of much Arts
and Crafts fmniture reflected the emphasis on simplicity
and fitness for pllrpose in the architectllre of the periodo
The most influential designers - CK Ashbee, Emest
Gimson, and CEA. Voysey - were ardlitects, and funlihlre
v..'as an important part of their interiors. TI1ey shared the
interest of the Aesthetic Movement designer EvV. Godwin
(1835-86) and Ford Madox Brown in )apanese art, llsing
geometric effects such as lattice work sometimes softened
by chamfering. Even Charles Rennie Mackintosh
(186&-1928), whose work grew out 01 the Arts and Cralts
Movement even thOllgh it is more often d1aracterized as
Art Nouveau, produced designs in the same idiom.
Features of old v,rork, particlllarly the chests and cabinets
27
Design Classics
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2 AmblUSl.' Hl'a/, JHlrl 0[11 dillillg slli/('. 1938. A
lafe t'.mmp1e iIIl/stmtillg tlll.' eudllrillg appea{ oj
ti/(' Arts fllld Cra!ts approoch loJl/milllre. Heaf
slIccessjl/lly promolt>d desigll"
lo fl middle-cJfl':;$ IIInrket. Ht 91. jCm/36iJl.
,
1 5idlley Barllsley. slatiollery
box, (.1905. TI/e crsp geometric
in/ay j'l //lof/u!r 01pearl 011
ti,;:; oak box H'as inspired by
BIf:milillc arc11itectllre fllld
decoratioll. L :!9C1Il/u/ill.
2 Regillflld BlollljieldJo,. Kelltol/
& Cv., cabille! VII n sIal/d. 1891.
TIle decoratil.'t' geomelry o/ tlu.'
Jronf (/lid tite tmsioll be/C!?!?ll rile
rectilillear dL'sigll oj Ihe cnbillf!f
and tlu: pl't'Cisely tlll"llf:dfrollllegs
oj lile stalld Cr<'t1te astl'Ollg impacto
Blollljield dreil' illspimfioll /rolll
18t!I-CClItury illlaidfi In1il 1l1'e.
Ht 143111/4ft 81,ill.
Influences
1 C/lnl'ft's Re!/llie v!ackilltosll, (flrd !nble, 1898"""'9. A /lncfiol/al yel potl'l!lfllf
dcsigl1 bfl5l'd 011 vemnClllar frnditiol15 ofwoodrt'orkillg. TI/(! piacen (/l1(t
cnri.ll?d 11I0lif5 Iln! deriwd 1"01II Hn/um! OrllI5. 1/1 61 CIIlh4i11. 2
280

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3 CI/Ilrles cn/jlJ('/ 01/ fl
C191(l. A tt'IIc!/{'r nllllr'
Lolldoll C<'lltml SclIOO! o/Arls
{/lId Cmfts, 5/,001/1.7 l'mp/Jasi:ed
tlll' dOS<' n'/ntiollsllip beltl'Cl.'lI
desigll fllld cmft. Ht t.:qm/61/ill.
4 AmbroSt, Hen1. Kewkn
[wdrOOJll jl/mi/ur!!, C.1S9S.
Tllt' woodcuf by lIJe are/lite,!
C.B.H. QJlCIII1e/l he/ped fa
I/1l1rkd Ibis muge of p/nill onk
bfrooml/milI/re by seUillg ir
;1/ ir:; Arls nlld Crafts colltext.
5 \V.R. 'thaby. Jmll fab/e. ctS92.
TI/I.' seale fllld I'roportioll5 01 t//is
1II1I/lOgan!! lab/e are basel! 01/
medil.'i
'
I1/ protolypt'S. Dl'spite
ils degalre/! (!lid res/mili! - tite
illlaid dols /"()//lId tlle edgt: 01 file
top lI'ere 11 fi.'II/III"l.' 01 Le/lmby'::
desiglls - ilmakes fl poi/terfui
..slIal impac!. L l.HIIJ/Sfl.
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of the 17th and 18th centuries, \Vere also absorbed and
distilled into new rectilinear forms. The radical approach
of these architect-designers influenced the Wiener
Werkstatte (1903-14) and the work of the American5,
Charles P. limbert Co. (1902....J-l) and Creene & Creene, as
well as the fumiture 01 Cordon Russell (1898-1980) who
,vorked at Broad,vay, Worcestershire, in the 19205 and '305.
Although simplicity was the dominant feature of the
Arts and Crafts Movement, it was an adaptable style.
\I\'alter Crane (18-:1:5-1915) wrote in 1913 abollt "the
simplicity and splendour of theMorrisian method" ,vhile
Morris jllstified "the blossoms of the art of furnitllre as
much as for beauty's sake as for use." Ecc1esiastical
conunissions were an obviolls area where designers could
give free expression to their love of pattem and rich
materials. But in addition, Morris and rus friends had
painted pieces of domestic furnihJre for their OWIl use in
the 18605, ",hile the simple four-square chests and cabinets
produced by designers sllch as Baillie Scott, Gimson, and
Peter Waals (1870-1937) were particularly sltable lor
painted decoration, \'eneers, or decorative inJays. As weH
as using patterns inspired by nahJre, designers also looked
to India, the Middle East, and Byzantium for decorative
inspiration. In the fll.miture trade, small detajls sllch as
inlaid floral rnotifs and heart-shaped cut-OlltS created an
inunediate impression of Arts and Crafts style.
Certain types of hmuture were regularly used in Arts
and Crafts interiors. Medieval pieces 5uch as settles,
dressers, long tables, and benches were still found in
country ums and houses. Such pieces ",ere associated with
cornmunal living and their simple lilles foerned the
inspiration for new designs. Settles and dressers by Voyscy
and Baillie Scott ",ere sometimes built in to eliminate
awkward corners and simplliy cleaning. Dressers with
plate racks were designed by Gimson and Sidney Bamsley
(1865-1926) and "'ere also produced very successfuliy for
a mass market by Ambrose Heal (187
7
-1959).
Thc importance of music and conununal entertairunent
to the Arts and Crafts Movement encouraged designers
such as Bume-Jones to produce decorated pianos. A range
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Country Furniture
1 E/"IIt'::.! GiIllSOJl, dresser il1 oak stailled black,
C.1902-5. Likc lile se/l/e, tire dresscr it'/lS mi
aJ'chelypal picce 01 Arls al1d Cmfts fllmitllrc.
Fealures sue/1as Ihe lntc" ha1ldles (l1Id lile
cllip-cnn'ed /locura/lm1 d('rh'l.' Ir011l tlle
I'mwCIllnr Irndilioll. HI 1.68111/5// 6lI.
2 C/wr/t'S ReJll1ie t\lnckillfosll./ndder-lmck
e/mir (or iVilldlIJil1. Ki/lllnlcoflll, 1901. As
. .
celias lIis 11101'1.' illdh'idllnll'ccfifillenr picCl..'S,
Mnckil1/osh prodl/ced 11111/lIIber o/ 1('Siglls
iJ/flllCl/ccd by frndiliO/lnl comlfn) c/Ulirs.
Ht 1.03/3/' 5iu.
282
of innm'ati\'e designs were developed by Baillie Scott and
Ashbee with the firm of John Broadwood & Sons.
Morris & Co.'s success with the adaptatian of a light,
adaptable Sussex chair was emulated by many Arts and
Crafts designers. Simple rush-seated chairs were designed
by Ashbee and the Scottish architect George Walton (1867-
1933) among many others. Gimson, working in conjuction
with Edward Gardiner (d.1958), was the most prolific,
producing nwnerous designs for ladder-back chairs.
After 1900, ~ n chaies became a popular choice foc
conunercial and domestic settings. Harry Peach (187.1-
1936) introduced a nc'" range at the Dryad vVorkshops in
Leicesler designed by Benjamin F1etcher (1868-1951) to
compete with imports from continental Europe.
The 18905 sal\' painters in central Europe join.ing forces
against the art establishment and developing hvo distinct
approaches to the Arts and Crafts Movement. One of these
\Vas based on individuality: The Belgian artist, Van der
Velde, was influenced by Morris's and Crane's theories
about the unity of the arts. At Mathildenh6he near
Darmstadt, Emest Ludwig, the duke of Hesse had
conunissioned work from the British designers, Baillie
Scott and Ashbee. In 1899 he assembled an artists' colony.
Young designers such Peter Behrens (1868-19-l0) and
Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867-1908) produced simple
fumiture based on British forms which was characterized
by their painterly sense of decoration. As weU, in places as
disparate as Russia, Hungary, and lreland, craft centres
were set up in country areas by philanthropic landowners.
They brought local craftspeople into contact with artist-
designers to enhance the rural economy. Basic skills such
as woodcarving were taught and fumiture '.vas produced
in tune with the Arts and Crafts spirit, based on traditional
craft forrns. Intricately carved and painted pieces were
decorated with syrnbols of folk. and religious imagery.
The second approach \Vas a contrasting one. vVorkshops
such as the Gerrnan Vereinigte WerksUitten championed
design fer machine production. Richard Riemerschmid
(1868-1957) produced elegant fumiture using veneers and
larninates which vvere sllitablc foc batd\ prodllction.
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3 HCIlri mil de \fe/de, dillillg ehair, C.1S96.

\ '1111 de: \ 'e/de: ,1'115 ,1 propoilcil/ oi the po,n'r of
dcsigll lo illlprv,'e saciety. He desigllcd I/lnllY
oj t/le fllmisltiJlgs for 'is IlOlIle, Blocmenwerf.
il1c/urlillg Ilis cltair. Ht 94CIII!)7il1.

6
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5 Richard Riclllersc!mld, oak
illm chesf, 190.2. TJls pieee
n:/nles lo Arls (lIId Cmfts desigIS,
bul t/le lItrimel o( the lIIetn/
hillges is pure Arl N01Il.'CtII1. Thl.'ir
abstrnel yet I1nlumlistie pnt/cm
dcrh'cs 1"01II pOJlllnl" botWlicnl
drm.,illgs. HI2.1111l/6ft lIl.
6 Cnr/ Lnr5501l, The Artist's
Studio, 1899. This mlcrc%ur
oi Lnrssoll's eottllge il1110rtllem
SI'Cdell depicls umiture nl1d
textiles erented bl Lnrssoll nlld
!lis arli:;1 Knrill.
2 Lcopold Baila, mbin!'! JOl" 11
postcnrd c1901.TIJc
onl! (Inri ilaid decora/iall uf tllis
Gerlllall (l1bil1c! SllOll' he il!{llll'/Ice
oI El1g/i:,/ Arts nlld (mfts
desigllCfs Sl/ell as AS/lbec, Gi1ll501l,
aud Voyse:. /-ll 90CIII/35'II.
4 Peta Belm'!1s, drcsserfor tllI!
DCllt5che lVerkllllllri, C.1907
TlIis nS5ocinfiO!1 ojil'Orksll0pS,
(/lSig!lfrS, O/Id nrcl1ifects trien
lo nf/IIt'lICe mnss-prodllclio!1
tllro1lgl1 !JI.' I.'xalllplc oi SUe/1 we/l-
desig!led rieees. Ht 1.9!11/6ft ll.
4
European Furniture
1 atto Prlltscllcr, /111m/el dock, C.J908.
Prufscher ilYIS illf/lII.'!1(cd by Ihe il'ork oI tlle
G/nsgoi(1 Se/IOO/. TI/e distillcli,'c fl:clilil1('(lr
forllI is C11ll1l!1ccd l/y /le geol1lt'fric ill/ny:> iJl
l'Ood nd 11101111'1' of penrl. Ht ]6.jClII/l,!ilf.
Funclionalism and Decoralion
1
American Furniture
Arts and Crafts lar the Wider Market
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1 Gu5lnv Sticklelf, Ivlorris chnir, C.1901. T/ust'
c!wirs ,('('re loosely bnscd 01/ ndjllstablc-back
I"t'ndillg c!wirs prodllced by Jvlorri::; & Ca. rolll
file 18605. Ht 99CIII/39;11.
2 Gustal' S/ickley, ab/e C.1910. Tls ol1k lab/e
,!'aS lie de1.'eloplllt'lI/ 01 n popllla!" desigll from
1901, sold <"t!1 dl/ler n <!'Dod 01" len/hcr lop.
Ht 76clII/30ill.
3 CcO/ge lVnsllllgtOI1 Malle,., armc1mil; C.1912.
Ma/ler's enrlyOl/dlleS5 for cm"t'd decora/ioll
,l'nS lIIodified IIY llis appreciatoll 018ritis/lllJId
AlIstrillJl designo Ht 1.17111/3ft 1Oill.
4 Roycroft 511Op, lady's lIIa/lOgan.!! writil1g
desk witJI copper ml/dles, (.195-12. Roycroft
fumitllrc was illflllcllccd by Britisli de:>ig115. Tlle
/J1/l/IOl/S "lvlackllllmio" cct WI'rt' IIml1l'd afta
ihe 8ril;5/1 designa. Ht 1.12111/3ft tbll.
5 Hnruey E!lis for Gustnz Stickley, musir
cnbille!, c. 1903. E!lis joilled Gustnv Stick/ey's
Crnftsmnll Wor/.:shops ill 1903, n:spo/lsib/e fVl"
il1troducllg lighter, I/Iore elegnlll fonlls ,pil/
distincth'e illlnid II/otifs. Ht l.1.1.!Il/4-ft. 4
284
1
nspired by British examples, the United States '<vhole-
heartedly embraced the Arts and Crafts Movement.
British joumals such as TlIe Sllldio and TI/e Cubil/el Muker
n/Id Arl FllnJisher introduced the work of Morris,
Mackmurdo, Baillie Scott, Voysey, and Ashbee to
American audiences. Craft corrunmtities were set up to
promote crafh-vork. In 1901 the ardlitect William Pricc
(1861-1916) set up workshops in a disused textile mill Jl
Rose Valley near Philadelphia. Ralph R. Whitehead
(185-1-1929), who had met Morris at Oxford, established
the Byrdcliffe Colony at Woodstock in 1902, and the
Roycroft Comrnunity at East Aurora near Buffalo ,-vas set
up to market the Arts and Crafts philosophy as a business.
Gustav StickIey (185&-1942) combined elements of
Arts and Crafts design with American vernacular
traditions to create the popular "Craftsman" or "Mission"
style. His factory in Syracuse produced solid wood
funtiture in quarter-sawn oak fumed to emphasize the
grain. Strong vertical lines and visible constructional
devices characterized the designs. A short-lived but
important contribution \Vas made by the architect Harvey
Ellis (1852-1904), whose well-proportioned designs often
included the use of inlaid floral motifs. In 1901 Stickley
established TIJe Crnftslllun, an inflllential magazine wltich
promoted Arts and Crafts nationally, providing drawings
for furnitw'e as well as artides about design and social
changc. A consumer culture fuelled by such magazines
ensured that good design reached a mass audience.
Frank L10yd Wright (1867-1959) worked in Chicago,
where he became the central figure in the Prairie School,
and In California. HIs furnlture echoed the strong
horizontallines, traditional materials, and vemacular style
of his architectural work. Most was macrune-made to
adtieve the desired dean-cut effect. In contrast Charles
SlUTUler Greene (186&-1957), working with rus brother
I-Ienry, was enthusiastic about hand,vork and employed
skilled craftsmen to create pieces with curved lines and
pierced shapes. Both vVright and the Greenes produced
bealltifully proportioned furniture and interiors that
combined elements of Japanese and Arts and Crafts designo
0.,0
000
Architects and Interiors
1 BmUlrd A1nyllt'Ck. Greyoaks.
frOlll I'Jltrlf (Inri ;;tnil7l'm,. 1906.
. . .
Local fl?dil'OOd lilll/'<'I" left
comp/de pitl, l!Je IIInrks of file
sn<t' dUlllilm/t':> tlu' illfl'rior tfJis
Califomi/lll cOl/lltr!! "Ollse llllilt
b,lf Aln!fll('ckfor tllt, 1;111/11'1"
1/I/l;?JIn/c, .H. Hopps.
6 CJlflrh'S P. Limbal Ca., onk /nble. c.1905. Lilllhat populnri:ed Britisll
/ll1d Ellropl'ml dl'sig!15. TJe ,,'e/allgl/lnr wt-Ol/ts (111 tI/t' cross-supports
echo tlle gl!OlIIctric desigll5 of Bnillic 5cott all/i Alnckilltos/. Ht .6CIII/l8ill.
7 Dnrd HUllter, Receptit:m RoolII oflhe Rayerof! /1111, C.J9JO. /111'111/1-"51'
prillts iJlspirt'd HUI/ter'", styli:ed l/se 01 b/nck Dl/flilleS, fin! c%llr, ml,j
/111 tmgled ,j:'l'poilli.
2 fn1l1k Lloy' IVrig/t, high-
/1tlcked onk c/Iflir for f11/! Hil/sidl'
HOII:,<' 5cll001, IVi5COIISill. C.lgOJ.
IVrighf il'ns inspired by lite
Jorl1ls oJ]npnllesc nrt, Tfle dcsign
ce/lOes tllc strollg 'crlicn/lille:;
nlld p/mlt'5 oj 1Iis nre/titectuml
,,ork. Ht 99.5C111/39Y..ill.
3 Chnrles rmd Hel1ry Creme, lile
dillillS roOI1l, Cnlll/J!l' HOJ/se,
Cnliforllin, 198-9,
Tlle Creme:; combined tlle
mld Cmjts npprOllcll witll elemenls
Jrolll nrcllitcctllrt'. Tfi(.'
pOQd pnnd/iug nlldJI/mitl/re
t'rt'llt, n (()COOIl oJ il'nrm n.'pose.
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Ceramics
1 AlartiJl Bro/has, 'II:'(',
1885-1900. DI/I.l! Ilmil/orify
Arls tllld I"Jltel"s apjlll'Cintl'tl
tflt' p/astici(lf of cla.l{. T/js <'<1."l',
<I'il/I lIIolM/t'd mIli illci."lYi I/Olilfit,:,
applit'd to I/h' l'tl"i}f. rt:fll"ll:, t/lt'
.\'al'/ill Brot/lt'Ts' illdi'idlfal
al'l'TOllcJl mili il/lt'n':,f ill {lrgllllic
forllls. Hf 26c1ll/10/ill,
tiam.l,;clII/;I1I.
Modelled Work
1 I\'illja/JI DI' \ lorgall, rin' dis/I 1t'nmlt.,f by CI/llrh>s Pa:;':5-I'/lgtr, c. '900.
Islamie l/lO! nlid tI'l' ., Pl'rslm" (ohll/ r ,mkttt' c('n' 11 /l/(/;or 1/('//(1'
(1/1 De 1\-lor';:flJl'':; cork. Diam. :;11.
2 A(fn:d Pan'lJ.lidded poi lOI" l\'t'dgrn'l(lll. 19.20:'. rile Ptlil'd/:: paiuted
tiin'dl!! 01/ fo f!le poral/s, IIIlgla:i'd t'art!lt'I/'l'(ll't' lady. {/ kdllliqUl' //111/
lIl'ct's::itated rnpid lIJ1fli'sitlltil1g 111"1/:::/Hl'tlrk. Ht 1ocm/.
t
ill.
3 LVII st' Poccll. CicaJor W"dgrn1od. c. 19.2 O. tO/lSt' POI 't'!! fOl/l/d
illspirntio!1 for botll n!!d flornl ill po/tay
nIld E IIg1isll 16t!I-ct'IIt / ry ('111broidcl"Y. H t 3 OC!II/l1 !.i 11.
4 Roycrofl ClIp n!!d snl/m; Bu.ffalo Poltcry COl!lpallY, c'1910. TlJis
fea/I/I"es tJI!' !llnrk oj tlle RO!fcrofl ((l/mI!' dl'l"j-'Id ,y Elbert Hl///l(Jrd
from a \lt'IIeliall 15th-alltur!f I/Iolij. HI SClU/2/.i!1.
5 Ha!!s Cllrist irmst'll, desigll for a cr,'CJ'cd 1901.
vI/e of the palIters nt the colol1!f al Dnrlllstadt 11'/10 tUfIled llis skills
fo domestic desigll. TI/e e/enr cololl rs nlld flo<,jlls pl7t1ems of
tllt' EIIl:/iSIt r\rts ami Cra{ts Aloi'!'lIIcl1l are reflected Hlti:. curk.
. . .
5
6
Painted Decoration
6 C1!ftOI/ Pofta.ll. Imlllll jllS.
e. J 9J o. Olle of IIlflllCroll:, smal/-
:;;cnil> tlrt 'Ioft.'ri.':' 5('f Ifp iJl fIJe
UJlitcd Stak-:;, /In' Porta!!
l/se,! l/nIki' AIIIl'Timll lOlte,"!,
mm Ari:m!tl as illspim/hlll
for /fll' pltilltt'd dt'wmtioll 0/1
ir:, "ll1dirm"
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Modelled Decoration and Glaze Effects
1 EIIS"III' Litlll, Fmll', til'O
Cl1rf!ICl/iI'(1J"' '11:'/.'=-, c. 1890. Lioll
H'n:, 1l1l/lJIIS II nrti:;.t:: ni
$nillf-Alluwd I/etlr Dijoll tl'JIO
11t't'loJ".'d 11 Sf.lr/t' of drip-:;:/ll::ed
d.'comtioll illspir.f by /ll/lfl1l6{'
POftt''',I/. Ht ,NOII/lJ :ill mui
515elll/20/;1I.
3 SIIO;i HllIllndn, sIOIl('mn' ,'os(,
/'tI, n lemmoku SIrCI'. 192.3.
Hall/ada, pilO I'ork'd 11'illl
Bt'mnrd I..mcJl il1 1920 nI Sr fr6
in Corllimll. t':>fnMi::1t'f n cmll
cololl}/ ill Aln,;Jlko, lal<.,. Jn/mll,
ba:'{'d 011 lI:' EnSli::;/ 1'.\pait'lIc.
H116cIII/6 jl/.
2
2 RIISkill mres, 19:!j-fJ. A 1ll/llII't'r (!f art I'0Hajes. i"dlfdillg tI/l'
RlIski pone,"!, iJl 511l<,tflil'ick, EJlgflll/l1. sl't'ali:t"11 iJl Jliglt-h'lIIjlt'rtIlllrl'
gfl1:e eflec!s oflic/I Wl' illspiml by C/I/l'St' lJ/<mOf:ltwlllt' alld sang-de-boeui
II{1ftt'ry. H! :!j.jc''/lOiJl.
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arge manufachtrers had almost complete control Q\'er
the production oE ceramics because cf the complexity
and C05t il1\'ohed. Competition encouraged established
finns in Britain to use artistic designs for industrial
productioll, sometimes setting up smal! studio \\'orkshops
such as that at Ooultons in Lambeth, or specilic art pottery
ranges such as Pilkington's Royal Lancastrian.
TI1e 1\ lartin brothers, who had worked at Ooultons, set
up one of the fe\\' smaU-scale potteries in 1873. They
worked in stoneware, producing vcssels and figures with
modelled, ineised, and relief decorabon. TI1e designs by
Robert \'VaIJace 1\lartin (18-13-192-:1:) "'ere based on plant
and animal forms, or abstraet geomorphie decoration.
Indi\'idual designs \,-ere also produccd by Edrnund Elton
(18-16-1920) in Somerset, George E. Ohr (1857-1918) in
Biloxi, tvlississippi, and by the leading American potter,
Adeloide Alsop Robineau (1865-1929), ",ha produced
porcelain ",th laboriolls incised and rdicf decoration.
De Morgan began decorating tiles and potter)' in 1872.
He experimented \Vith glazes, particularly the lustre
effects of 16th-century Hispano-i\ 100rish pottery, and rus
bright colours and flowing nah..tralistic designs \\-ere
",idel\' emulated. In 1903 Alfrecl Powell (1865-1960) and
,
his ",ife Louise (1882-1956) began a long association with
Josiah \Vedgwood & Sons in Stoke-on-Trent, England.
Their designs ranged from abstract repeating pattems
based on plant fOffi15 to detailed buildings and lands-
capes, From 1906 they created a range of simple designs
for the ne'" hand-painting studio at "'edg\\'ood. The
small-scale repeating pattems ",ere adopted at Oannstadt
and by many eraft potteries in the United Sta tes.
European and American pottcrs also experimented
with sluface decoration, looking to oriental examples fm
inspiration. In Franee, potters sllch as Eugene Lon
de,'elopcd dramatic glaze effects for their simply shaped
pots, a style adopted by Bernard Moore and the RllSkin
Pottery in staffordshire, England. The de\'elopment of
smaller kilns in the ead)' 20th century helped to crea te the
unity of approach to the forrn and decoration of cerarnics
which led to the stlldio pottery mo\'ement in the 19205.
28
;
Glass
/
I
2
Drinking Glasses
1 Phi/ip IVl'hbfor Jnlll6 Po.!';>!/ & SOJ/s. dnrel
0860. \\'itll its Imil offlJI/,lied decomliOIl
i1l5pin'lt Inl Vme/ iall dcsigns. t/5 g/nss 1m:; n
InCf le qlla/ily '1'llcJ, w/nfl>s fa I,'e'/lb's ndmimticlIl
for rhe JlOt-<t'orked g/ass leclmiqllc.
2 Richard RiemcrscJ/lllid, pille gln55ot"S frolll
tf/e \Ienzel seTi'ice. (,1903. Riemer",cJmd's
;;illll'1.>. t'lt'gnllt, seu/pluml designs ejft'cljeJ.'I
t'xp/oit ti/(: tnmsJ/lccllcy 01 tite /l/afernl.

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3 PJlilip IVI'/Ib for Jallll';; Poit't'll
& Sal/s, 15605.
Tltis grollp is typicnl of lVebb's
simple !/d distillcth'e glnss
desiglls. rlley il'ert' sold by
Morris, Mllrslmll, FnHlkll4!l"
& Ca. frO!l/ 1862. Ht (talles!)
155CIII/6ill.
288
T
he demands of 19th-century entertaining and, in
Britain, the removal of excise tax on glas5 in the
18405 led to the production of large amOlmts of domestic
glassware. It \Vas based on heavily cut ead glass, l
technique that John Ruskin vehemently crjticized since it
\Vas both at odds with the fluidity of mol ten glass and a
wasteful process in conjunction with such a breakable
material. He admired 16th- and 17th-centurv Venehan
,
glasses, cxamples of which were widely exhibited for the
first time in the 1850s. Their cLU'\'ed forms and light,
fantastical decoration \vere \\'idely copied.
Venetian and northem Emopean examples inspired a
nurnber of decepti\"ely simple designs by Philip Webb for
Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. in the 1860s. These
solid, plain glasses were produced by the fiml of James
Powell & Sons who also rnade stained glass fer the
company at their factory in \I\'hitefriars, London. The firm
became synonymous with rnodern artistic glass frorn the
18705 tmder the direction of its designer-manager, Harry
Powell (186-1-1927), who developed a style inspired by
the proportions, clarity, and elegance of Venetian glass.
He also experimented with different uses of coloured
glass and developed a streaky white opalescent material.
Powell used drawings from nature as the basis for bis
engraved designs. Despite the rejection Df cut glass by
Ruskin and the Arts and Crafts MDvement, he gradually
introduced sorne shallow-cut glasswares inspired by
Roman pieces. lhis softer, more painterly approadl to cut
glass cDntinued into the 20th century in the work Df
designers such as Clyne Farquarson (11.19305), Keith
(1892-198lt and Cordon Russell.
Powell's personal contacts through the Art \Vorkers'
Guild and the technical excellence of the firm encomaged
designers such as Ashbee and Benson to incorporate pieces
of \ Vhitefriars glass in their designs. The work of James
Powell & Sens was exhibited widelv and the firm was l
,
major force in glass design through to the 19605. Its
simple designs based on the qualities of the ra", material
influenced designers inc1uding Riemerschmid and Behrens
and Scandinavian manufacturers such as Orrefors.

Form and Decoration

1 Pililip IVebb, desigl1s fOl" table
glas:;, 18605. "'ebb sflldicd
Velletiall rmd IlOrtlIern fllropealI
drillkillg glasse5 {/!1d produced
simple s!wpes 1I'hicJ relied 01/
tlidrjorll1 ni Id pmpartons for
illlpact, mlller Ilum 011 decora/ioll.
2 C.M. HeYiPood 511111!1erfor
James Portlell & SOIIS, coi.1cred
ClIp, 1898. The cllgraved nI/ti
gilt plan! far/lls Oll tlie bow!
soften fhe wt j1illt glns:; Jonll.
As <{'ell as HClJ'oood SlIlIl11cr,
TE Incksol1 alld George 'Valloll
produccd tab!r?wl1re dcsiglls
Jor lie LOlldoll firlll.
HI P.5e/l//ldi/!.
3 afio Pruiscl1er, (hall/pagne
glllss, C.19o, T/Is AlIstriall
l'csse/ is of IIIOUld-b/oWII glns:;
with (1 cololln:d m.lerla.!! (/lid n
wt dcsigll. TIIt' sqan' s!wpes
c!lI7rnctcristic oj he Vil!1lllcse
Secessioll 11m'/! beell (lit so I/lfIl
lit' sfelll has fhe appenrallce of
a delica/e e/mili. Ht 21c11I/B'!ill.
4 GOI'don RlIsscll, dcsiglls JOI"
glass clIttil1g, 1927. RlIsscl/
dcsiglled dOlllestic glass,{'nl"l.?jor a
IIfll1lbCI" uf British I/lmwjacflll"ers
ill the 1920S. Vesse!s decoraled
witf/ tllese experi11lel1ta! desiglls
for cut g!ass ({Jere produccd by
jallles PO,l'cl1 & Sonso
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1
1 Omar Rall1sdcll, gl"l.'C!/ glass
,'ase 'l'itll si/'CI" 1I/01l/lts, c. 1914.
Tllc desigll oj litis British ['aSt'
,('as bascd 0/1 a pica in a
paintil1g by file 16th-cm/ul"!!
Genllm/ artist Halls Hvlbeill.
The tecJmiq/1es of blow!1 glass
ami hnl!ll/lCl"cd si/PC1" l1'crc ideal/y
slited to its sells/ml C!1I,'e5,
Ht .f-4c11I/17/.,in.
2 jml1es Pml'el/ & sm/s and
IV,A.s. BcnSI"J!/, glass mse i/lll
bron::.e Sflllld, 193. The POil'clls
al/d BCIISOI1 Il'Cfe illm/'ed ,t'ith
cxpcriJIIClltal ilwk; Harr!!
Powell"s experilllCllfs pith
metal incfllsiol1s in calol/red
glass, IlS lIscd in l/lis l'I1SC, ,pcn'
illdicnfil'e of tller Ilpprollcf1.
BCIIson designed the stand.
Ht 36clIl/14'!in.
28S
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.J .:>lIrl:l)C (J LU., "CHIC UIl n suma. C.1910.
Amcricallllleln/tl'Orkas tt'i'n' IISprM by lile
Ilmllll/cred sift'er..lY)rk ofAS/lb alld tlle BrifiS/1
Arf5 (llld Crafts Movclllelll. HIlj.jCm/toilJ. 2
Silver and Metalwork
Techniques and Decoration
1
5 eFA. VOYSl.'Y, CO/Jpcr pen Irny,
coated bmss IUllldle, ud illk'Wcll,
1895-193. Tlle mefalH'ork of ti/(,
Ellglis/1 arcflfl.'ct (llld dcsigm'r
Voysey ,'eTC cllfITflctcristically
$illlJlle (llId complemellled lis
ftmJitl/re aJld illleriors.
4 eK AS/lee, desiglls for boxes
and pmrels, 1906. As/bee's plain
boxcs mrd disllcs wcre afien
decornlcd witll sparklillg (l/Id
COlOll1uf cllamcJ pfaqllL'5 of
flowers. allilllals, lalldscapl'5,
alld /larra/", 5UJlC$.
5
2 ManJ HOllstOIl, caskct, 1902.
HO/lSIOIl, vl1:>cd ill umdOIl tllld
DI/viiI!, l/sed fIJe rcpouss
teclllliq//c fa decoro/e tll;S silver-
plated eopper casket. Resemblillg n
Cc1tic s}rillc, jI has blricate lxmds
olomamt'lI/ alld mI ideali:ed
[emale hendo Ht 24CIII/9'bl1.
1101m PcarSOIl, copper pln/es,
C.J892. Pcnl'$OI1's desigll:;
!CMllrillg grofc.:;qllc ViTriS, fisIJ, {/lId
fofin.,?c /Jallllllcred ;JI rdit'/. il/spired
lile d/!1..'clopment 01tite Nl!i.I'lyn art
me/al i/ldl/stry ill Comwa/J w/cJ
cOJltilllled il1 prexillClioll /ln/ii
1939. Diam (/nrgt'Sl) 59C111/2;'/,;1I.
4
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290
T
he earliest Arts llld Crafts metal pieces from the 1880s
\Vere marle in brass and copper. )OM Pcarson
(11.18805-1908) and John WiIliam5 (d.1951) \Vere both early
members of Ashbee's Guild of Handicraft in London.
Thcy prodllced large dishes decorated with hamrnered
repouss and chased decoration feahtring birds, fish, and
ships. lt was a style of work that became a regular feature
of Arts and Crafts exhibitions because of its visual impact
and because the techniques involved were relatively
simple, making it ideally suited to amateur work.
In the 18905 Ashbee and his guild experimented with
thc techniques of ltalian Renaissance metalwork. "lost
wax" casting, which translated modelled work in wax
into silver, was used to make the stcms and feet of cups as
well as jewellery. As Ashbee gained confidence as a
designer in silver he developed the most inAucntial Guild
of Handicraft pieces. From about 1896, he produced
quantities of cups, bowls, and dishes raised from
harnmered silver sheet metal with looped \..virework
handles. The silver wires were used singly, in pairs, or as
a twisted group and demanded attention as thcy S\'\'ooped
in an elegant curve. The otherwise austere vessels were
made by hand, and Ashbee Iikcd to leave the surface
lightly indented from the small round-headed planishing
hammer which had shaped them. This mark of the
craftsman's hand is fOlmd on mudl Arts and Crafts metal-
vwrk although sorne, including Liberty's CYIJII'ic silvcr
and TlIriric pewter ranges, were made by machine with the
hammcr marks added as part of the finishing process.
In contrast, many of Voysey's and Benson's designs
",ere for items such as handles, hooks, and components
for light fittings, intended for batch production. They "'ere
either cast from prototypcs or tumed or spun on lathes
and left with a smooth and polishcd finish indicativc of
their machine origino
Voysey, Benson, and Ashbee influenced countless
metalwork designers. The cffcctive use of simple
geometric forms and Aowing lines can be seen at an
intemational level in the silverwork designed by Oliver
Saker (185&-1939) for LibertY'5, by J05cf Hoffman
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work Ilcllieved a Tic/ sII1ace lex/Jlre by eDil/billing
materia/s, ill riEis case pn!il1nfed copper, si/ver, fllld
lIIa/her o/ pemI I-lt 58.5CIII/23;11.
3 CR. Asl1bee, GI/ild 01 H'lIIdicmft Si/vcI7l1Ork,
C.lgOj. As/bee scd i!l/el/se aren5 01decora/iou for
!Jis simple, deglllll 10'1115. TI/(: CljlilldriClll sfem of
lte Clip 1lI1d caver is c11ased {l/Id pierced ;uitll (/
foxglovc desigll, (md IllJ(1ltem ollcaves llas /Jecll
clznsed rolllld it:; bowl. Clip l1t 37cm!l4:{ill,
ladle /. 38.5clII/15/11.
4 Emest Gimsoll, pail' o/ brass cnndle SCOIlCes
C.lg0j. Cimsoll set IIp a S/IIitllY ill tlle Ellglisll
ColsiI.'Olds t'mployillg blacksmitlls to prodl/ce
me/al fittil/gs Sl/ell as f1wse. Nt 2jcm/1oill.
5 Gordoll RlIssd/, brnss cmldle SCOIICl:, C.lg22.
TIle acom mld ook lenf motI!was poplllar bealllse
of its identificaliol/ e"ill, tlle fllglisJl COlllllryside.
NI jO.2cm!I2ill, il'. 25clII/1oill.
1 HellnJ Wilsoll, "mliceJor St BnrtllOlomew's
ClmrcJ, BrigMolI. Ellg/alld c.1898. Tlle t e l ~
lliqllf'S alld l/se 01si/ver alld si/ver g/U vitl,
rnrved iuory alld mamel Sl/ggest lile sp/elldollr
o/ a,efi"est RellaiSSllllce work. Hl 46cm/J8in.
3 L ::...--.J

Naluralislic Decoralion
1
Blacksmilhs' Work
1 Emest Cimsoll, door Iml/dle alld lockplate,
C.lglO. Like mal/Y Arts nlld Crnfts nrcllitects,
Cimsoll desiglled metnl llnrdit.!(Ire for 1Iis bllild-
illgs. His desiglls m..re made lJy h;s
blncksmillls wflO nlso /IIade lIJe stnmped decom-
tioll. HI J6cIll/6'1.;II.
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29
Flowing Forms, Curves, and Unes
1
1 CR. As/Jlll.'f.', bulla kl/!kfor
lile GuUd of Halldicmfl, 1900.
Asllbel! l/sed colIIJllercinl/y
prMlIced sif'er il'irt'=' m/Cl vol1s in
conjunclion will! 1Iis IUlIIdmnde
d{'siglls. T/It' jl'isted Jnl/dle
combinen fimctioll alld omnlllt'n!.
L. 14,CJII/SIiII.
/
3 CR. AsllOCe. demllterfor tfle
Gllilll of Halldicrafl. 1904. Tllis
i:; olle of Asllbees clnssic desigJls.
A cagl! of sili'er il'irert'ork elleirc1es
lile g/aS5 l/{ldyJorll15 lile l'Old
cur"e of lile 1Jal/d/e. alld prvt,idi's
n/l degn/l! suppor! for tI,e fil/in/.
Ht 19cm/l'!.lr.
2 IV.A.S. &IlS()Il, ten ,mm,
189-l. 8ellS<Ju's desiglls tl'ae
IIIflCllillf.'- 51-'1111 ami (tI,t, o.ftt'1l il!
cQpper rmd brass. Hi5 tl'OrksflOp,
st'f "P lI 1880, de'c1oped illto a
il'ell-l'qllipped factol'Y prodllcillg
d(JIJl/'Stic ware5 IJlld ligllt filfi!1gs.
Kl'tt/e lit 28.5CIII/111.;II.
2
292
(1870-1956) for the Austrian Wiener Werkstatte, and by
the painter Johan Rohde (1856-1935) for Georg Jensen
(1866-1935) in Denmark. Designs by Archibald Knox
(18&1--1933) which combined spare, elegant shapes with
interh"ined Celtic pattems ,vere extremely popular.
Late Medieval forros such as decorative caskets and
chalices inspired Arts and Crafts designers such as
Alexander Fisher (186-1-1936) and Henry Wilson
(186-1-193J), who began working in metal in 1890.
Smoothly rOlmdcd semi-preciolls stones and brilliantly
painted enamel plaques provided a rieh inlaid 5urface
finish to such pieces. An architect and sculptor, Wilson's
metalwork is rieh in imagery and architectonic forms. He
dre'" from naturc and eneouraged others to do the same.
The naturalistie effect of many Arts and Crafts pieces was
enhaneed by the bold eombination of materials such as
amber, coral, bone, i\'ory, and mother-of-pcarl with sil\"er
and other metals. Birds, animals, flowers, plants, and
trees are fotmd in the simplest metalwork designs sllch as
Gimson's sconces or Voysey's handles as weH as in
e1ahorate pieees sllch as eups and crosses. The ubiqllitolls
heart motif recUfS regu.larly in pierced or raised forms.
Ashbee's mature style in sil\'er, whidl de\eloped frorn
abollt 1906, has a rieh and imposing character also fOllild
in sorne of the finest Arts and Crafts siherwork bv \Vilson
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and his close assoeiates, John Paul Cooper (1860-1933)
and Edward Spencer (1872-1938). Bands of siher
mouldings or rope",ork ",ere lIsed to divide designs into
distinct horizontal sections dictated by the conshuctiol1.
Cooper faund a ready market far his shagreen-cavered
boxes ",ith decorative silver mouldings.
Gimson's metalwork designs from 1902 combincd
simplicity with precision. Handles, fire tongs, and other
tools in iron or polished steel were designed to do their job
perfectly and are an ergonomic pleaslue to handle. Their
cIean lines were enhanced by a scattering of smal.l chased
patterns SUdl as half-moons or dots made by different
punches. Cimson cstablished a standard of metalworking
which was continued in the Cotswolds by Cordon Russell
during the 1920s and 19305.
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4 Afexilllder Fislu.'r, altar cm:;:; ;/1 silver. ilmber,
and f'nllme[, 19]_ Tlu.' spare geomelric eros:;
COl/trasts 'Iitll ti/e ellcircfillg free dt"5igll j"
si/ter. Ht -lOCIll/Ij'!.iIl.
5 Ardlibald KIIOX, Cymric piteller for Liberty.
1901. KilO.\" is I.It.'Sf kllownfor llis l/se oCelfic
OTllllmCllt illspin't'f by tlle traditioll5 o/ ltis
birt/lplflee, the lsle of 1\ Iflll. The eOIl/ m1led
CIIn'es offlis dl!Siglls ",ere illsJ'imtiollfll
tllrougllOut tflt' 20t/ eeJltl/ry. HI38cm/J'jill.
7 __""----..
6 Oliver si/ver nlld el1f1l1lel bow/ for Lber/y, c. 1899. Bnka's
desiglls SJlOw lIis illterest ill Ce/tic nlld llistorie stylt'S. Ht 13.'jClIl/'j'bI/.
7 /osepll /\.Iflrin O/brich, sihw box, C.1906. Tlle AIIS/l'iflJl-bol"ll flrc!lilecl
II'flS fI JIIelllber of tI"..' nrtist:,' colQIlY n/ Dfll'JIIslndt. He desiglled jllmilllft'
nlld mt'lfllwork alld d>-'t'iop('d n gt'OlIIdric styk i1'flicll I't'iates ball, lo tlle
Arls fllld Craf!s alld lo /111' Aft NOlm.'fII/ 1110,'1.'/1/('/115. Ht 18.'jCIll/7bll.
5
8 Albi" AJji1fer, CGlld/('stick
in brOIl:ed 'rass (fIld copper,
C.1906. Tllt' Clln\'d 1/1'wurd
sWI.'ep o/ \ 1,/JIt,,'s desigll ;;;
l.'n/lll11ad l'Y lhe opalt's'J1f
g/n;;;; cilbo<llOII stOIIt':; st'l
ill tlle Ht 2j'CIII/10/ill.
9 Albin Ah/l/el', peil'ter decallter
(lIId wps, C.1906. lllspired by tlu'
il'Ork o/ CllristoplJer Dres"",r,
AS/lIJe", (Inri lYIll de Ve/dt', \liifler
twd ofllt" Gt'rIlUlIl designas
prodllCM desiglls sud, as Ol:;
'hic/, eOllll,jl/(' gl.'OJl/dric forms
(mil Cl/r",ilillenr slmpl.'s.
Ht :34-.5clII/131;".
29:
Textiles and Wallpaper
Embroidery
4
3
2 Lollise Powef1, The Whitebeam Tree
hallgillg. c.I920, embroidery 011 Ilnlld-wOVCII
illdigo-dyed si/k. Airee Wit/l sqllirrels, birds,
nlld jemlteads al he base, provided Ihe
frnmework for Ibis fmbroidery. L. 2.01//1/6ft 7iJl.
3 Godfrey Blol/uf. app/iqllt pallel. 1896-7,
Imlld-wGtv!Il illel!. Blol/ut's embroideries
provided afin' graphic fill;sh (lIld I'ere arlapteri
as /lllll/temafive lo stelldlled decornliOll.
4 Gllstnv Slickley, China Tree fab/e rm/ller,
c.I910. Stickley, who w/lllled "a rabI/si sort
01henil/Y" for 1Jis lIferiors. e/lOse l/Ilblenched
filien f'mbroiderl'd iJl neutral tOlles Jor textiles.
L 2.21m/7ft 3ill, w. 35.5cm!I4;n.
1 Alexflllder FisIJer, Rose Trce 1904. Arls n"d
Crafts embroideries, 5/1,11 as lhis EllgUsll
e:mmple, Wfrf oJtell il'Orked 0/1 si/k d/llllflSk
w/lid, gnve n pattemed grOl/lld for tlle desigll.
L. ).12l1lhoft Jill, w. 1.3711I/4/1 6;11. 2
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294
W
illiam Monis designed a number of embroideries
in the 18605 whose painterly approach contrasted
with the prevailing fashion for the precise cross-stitched
pattems on canvas populady knO'wn as Berlin woolwork.
He was inspired by late Medieval examples to revive the
use of crewel work on wooUen cloth, a technique that
could quickly but effectively cover a large aTea.
In the 1870s Morris began using plant dyes, especia1ly
madder (red) and indigo (blue), in experiments with
Thomas Wardle at his dye works at Leek, Staffordshire.
Their softee tones were more sympathetic to a painterly
approach than the newly popular bright chemical dyes.
His daughter May Morris (1862-1938) singled out blue as
the most sympathetic colour fer embroidery, saying
"choose those shades that have the pure, slightly grey,
tone of indigo dye." In Deerfield, Massachusetts, the
Society of Blue and White Needlework concentrated on
that limited colour scheme with a sparing use of other
natural dyes. This subtJe use of colour characterizes rouch
Arts and Crafts \",rork through to the 19205. Linen and jute
cloths were chosen for embroidery for the strength of
their texture; double-woven silk and linen mixtures and
damasks were also popular for the same reason.
Morris added texture to sorne block-printed
wallpapers by incorporating background lines or dots in
the designs. Exotic handmade papers such as Japanese
grass paper were chosen by designers and manll.facturers
as the basis for stencilled designs for their textural quality.
Flat patterns, whether for printed textiles oc
wallpapers, required an underlying structure. In his
Trellis wallpaper of 186-1, Morris used latticework to
create a basic structure. The use of scrolJing acanthus
leaves, Aowering stems, and other devices to provide
underlying construction became more subtle and
effective in his later designs. C.EA. Voysey excel1ed as a
designer of repeating pattems and his wallpapers \Vere
lauded by van der Velde in 1893 in an articJe in the
Belgian magazine ElIIlllntioll. He and other Arts and
Crafts designers \-vere particularly adept at creating
coherent designs for border pattems on rugs, carpets, and
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1 George WaltoJl, silk (/lid Jnen tapestry. c.1895. TI/e jlOi.jllg /illes relale
lo cnrly c/linfzes by Morris, Sl/c/I (lS Medway.
2 Willinm Morris, Flower pot elllbroidered ClIsllion COl/er, (.1878--80.
SII/n/l domesfic pieces SUe/1 (lS I/is, w/icll was based 011 17/1l-cellfllnj Hn!inl1
!ml/els, mnde Morris's work nvailnble fo (1 l(lrger mnl'kel. W. 52CIII/20/,ill.
3 J.H. DenrJe nnd M(lY Monis, screen witll embl'oidel'ed pallels, c.1885'
The geomet/'ic simplicify of fhe screell frnmes fhe pnm:/s. Ht 1'77m/5ft 1oill.
1 \'Vilfiam Morris, Imnd-kllolled HammerslI1itll carpet C.1890. Thislarge
mg. worked in file dislillctive Mords (0/0Ilr5 of ndigo blllf! mrd lII11dder
red, refies 011 its iJltricote border ofgeomcfric (Inri /lalllrnlisfic pnttenJ5
for ifs dlcornti1'C'eJf('(f. L. ],j2U1/Sft, lI'. J 18m/Jft IOV.;'r.
2 Emes( GimSOll. cmbroidered c/ol/, c.1900. GiIllSOl bnsed mnllY desiglls
01/ llis dmwillgs ofp/mlls (Il/d jlowers. Ht 54-5clII/21 '/,ill.
3 ]essie Ncwbery, app/iqJl ClIs/lioll cover, C.1900. NeiUbelY's desiglls
were afien sntill-stitciJed in silk 011 /Ieavy lIell. Tire strollg out/il/es
Imve IT similar effect fa lhe leadillg in staillcd g/(/55. Ht 56cIII/22;II.
3

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Flowing Designs and lmagery

Carpets and Border Patterns
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Geometric Patterns

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1 I\'ilfinlll Trellis il'flUpapt'r, C.lS-l. In l/lis mrly e.mll/ple ol
Monis':; pnttcl'II desigll, tlh' trel/is prot'ides a grid stwctllre for file
mClllldcrillg liria/" rose (Illd uiras.
2 Ph!/Uis BnI"I"01/ (lila Doroth!f Lnrcl1el', lIointcd pip luma-block prilltl'd
/i1l1'1l, c. J930. BarrOll alla Lilrc1u'" r,j'('d fIJe emII o/llIma-block IJrillting
oll.{.lvric 1I5ill,t;: t'xlh!rilllt'lItn{ h'c1l1liqlle:; (lJIa prodllcillg illfll/l'lItial &o;;igns.
3 AI.H. Bnillie Scott, block-prilll"d eaUoll, C.I90j. Baillie Scott tI'e
.flOiIWS nl/d plmlls al 111<' ElIg/isfl gnrlfell115 t/lt' /J.lsis ol lII(fIIY tesign:;. TI/i:;
texli/e Itas mI nrtle:;sJet'! lw/yil/g ils strol1g IIl1dcr/yillg sfrllc/lIr<'.

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296
domestic textiles. Care and irwentiveness ensured that
the border design flowed smoothly round right-angles.
The use of naturalistic imagery in Arts and Crafts
embroidery and textiles is closely related to the growing
interest in garden design in the 1880s. Morris described
the role of nature in textile design as the depiction of "the
olltward face cf the earth." He llsed traditional English
flowers and plants sllch as marigolds, honeysllckle, and
willow boughs in ms designs at a time when writers on
garden design ,,"ere criticizing the fashion for imported
species such as fuchsias and \Vere in fa\'our of \Vild or
nati\'e flowcrs. lo the United States native plants such as
the pinecone and the leaf of the maidenhair trec, were
used as mohfs in cmbroideries and wallpapers.
Many folk crafts and village industries involved
textiles. Traditional rag rugs as well as American lndian
and Mexican designs became a fearnre of Arts and Crafts
homes in the United States, and in Britain and America,
Arts and Crafts embroideries \Vere prodllced in kit fonn,
and magazines published designs ter copying.
TI1C image of the trce of life, a growi.ng tree, was
populm throughout Arts and Crafts design, but it was
particularl)" suited to two-dimensional representation i.n
wallpapers and textiles. lt eouId be an elaborate pieture
incorporating birds and animals or simplified to an eye-
catcrung graphk motif.
Birds, animals, and hlUllan figures featLue in the
designs of Voysey and of Henry Home (186+-1916).
""alter Crane produced popular designs for wallpapers
and domestie textiles wmeh ineorporated the classical
figures synonymous with ffiuch of his work (see p.263).
The growing interest in the envirorunent of childhood
inspired designs by Voyse)', Arthur Silver (1853-96), and
others, with a strong narrative clement for the nursery.
Bloek-printed and stencilled Hnen fabries by the
Omega V\'orkshop in about 1913 heraIded a revival in
hand-block printing in the 20th centLa)'. The most
influential exponents \Vere Phyllis Barron (1890-1960)
and Dorothy Larcher (188-1-1952) who worked dtuing thc
1920s and 1930s.
Narrative Scenes and Nursery Designs
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1 C.F.A. Voy:>!!y. The House
that J<lck Built val/paper desigll,
19.29. Tllis <un:; Ol/e of Voysey's
IIIOS/ popula/" lIursery al/paper:;.
Fro1ll abolll191O!le deJeloped
(/ sfrollg I/I1ITative c/CIII'I1/ iJl
!lis lU'o-diIllCllsiOl/nl desiglls
illcorporafillg iuwges sIIc1l 11:; he
mil free wlIich Iwd fcn/llred ill
enflie!" work.
2 Robin Hood rice, Cl893,
Probnbly desiSlled by Harry
Nnpperfor Silver StlldilJ nnri
slIpplied fa he manufactura
C/U/de:; KIIDwles. Tltis lIIac1tillC-
prillted wallpnper frie=e 11n:; 11
styli=ed paftem !le
JllsllOIl fOl" orieulnl desigl/s.
: .. o',. _",_ . > -: ".-:- .,;'" '..
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3
4
3 Si/n'!" Sludio, ,('nI/papel"
de:;igl1, 1905. Tl1e ll11cillttereri
flnt palIen/s nl/ri ligllt, brigllf
ro/OH!":; oj {!lis PlIlIpllper I"t;flect
/1/1.' jllsJlioll for stmcilled desiglls
ill the t'arly 20th cClltllry.
4 01111 Elller Guild,
C-190.J.. TlIe Guild trnilled
womel/ withi/! nn tris/ crnft
tmditiol/. Tlu: sflilil/g sllip ,en::
fl popular Arts fll1d Cmfts lIIoti!
Ht 80011/31'1, l/l. 67.5/26'1ill.
2!
Art Nouveau
1890
furniture 302
French 302
Belgian and Outch 306
German, Scottish, and Austrian 308
ltalian and Spanish 310
American, Hungarian, and Nordic 312
Ceramics 314
Glass 318
Silver and Metalwork 322
Art Nouveau emerged in the early 1890s and spread quickly across Europe and
the United States. It reached aclimax at the Paris Exposition Universelle of
1900 befare falling into decline in the early years of the new century and
collapsing with the outbreak of World War 1. The style emerged from the activity
of acollection of movements, manufacturers, public institutions, publishing
houses, individual artists, entrepreneurs, and patrons. It encompassed
architecture, the decorative arts, graphic design, painting, and sculpture and is
characterized by various stylistic features which vary according to region.
Textiles 326
,
Left: tllis Rococo figllre grollp oJ
VellllS nlld Adollis n'l'ls in mnde iJl
tl,e /l/id-18th Ct!/ltllry ill VillCe'IlIle5,
Frallce. TJle C/ln'tS, asymmetry,
nlld sellslla/ity 01tl,e Rococo iL'ere
n SOllrce 01inspiratioll Jor Art
NoJlt't'il1l desiglll!rS, pnrticlIlarly ill
Frrmce. Ht Jocm/n/'ill.
Opposite: tIJe Be/giall arclltect
Victor Harta desiglled the Tasse/
HOlIs/! ill Brusse/s ill 1893. lt is
olle 01 tlle 1Il0sI importaHI al1d
complete exmllples 01 Arl NOllvenll
nrc/ifectHre. Tlle SiIlIlOIlS, orgnllie
lorms 01 the decomlioll are
c/mmcteristic 01 lile style.
M
ost archetypally, Art Nouveau is associated with
the sinuous, asyrnmetric curving line, but the
style can also be identified through the use or organic or
natural forros or applied decoration; geometric, abstract,
or linear form and patterns; the use of specific historical
SOUTces; and Symbolism.
Art Nouveau can be most useful1y seen as the search
for a modern national style, in a periad characterized by
increasing nationalistic concerns. Fundamentally, it uses
modernized decoration as a key approach to style. This
movement is knov.'n by a variety of names in different
countrics, including Modern Style, Le Style Gllimard, Le
Style Metro, Style '900, jl/gelldstil, Stile Florenle, Stile
Liberty, Sezessiollstil, Modemisme Nieuwe KIIlIst, and
Tiffany 5tyle. However, the term most eornmonly
recognized is Art Nouveau, after the gallery, L'Art
NOl/veall, a shop and workshops established by Siegfried
Bing 0838-1905) in Paris in December 1895.
The first works appeared in 1893 with the Tassel
House in Brussels by Victor Harta 0861-1947). the first
full arehitectural statement in the Art Nouveau style,
and a design for Osear Wilde's play Salom by Aubrey
Beardsley 0872-98). Both demonstrate a parallel
investigation into the importance of eurvilinear lineo
The rise of Art Nouveau was a eomplex phenomenon
which eombined a large variety of factoTs in the different
countries and cities in which it evolved. Adesire to break
with the design styles of the past and to aeate a unified
modem art that was available to all was a goveming con-
eem in most eountries. Many designers weTe eommitted
to the regeneTation of eTaft praetiee and developed
utopian models, in part derived rrom Arts and Craft3
philosophy. OtheTs embraced maehine production, and
realized mass avaiJability oC high-quality produets that
responded to the demands for consumer goods of a new
and prosperous middle c1ass.
Devising a new idiom of design suitable fer the
funetions of the machine became the goal of many in the
field. This c1early set Art Nouveau apart from its Arts
and Crafts forebear.
/
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Al BAIS(TA BOV: HE
).., / IOI\AIIA N
A

r
2 Allbrelj Bcnrdsley's illusfmtol1
Tai bnis fa bOliche lokmuwll"
for Osear Wilde's Salome is Dile
of ti/e enrliest works iJl !le Arf
NOllveau style. lts delicate l/se of
(llrvi/Ilear filie aud symbolislII is
Iypical o[ Benrdsley's work.
1 Tl1e elltmllee of 5iegfried
Billg's gal/ay, L' Art
Nouveau, il! Pars, is adomen
witll slIlIflowers, dellotillg t!le
illlpor/rlllce 01 IUl/lIre ill ti/e
Art NOllveou siyle.
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The inspiration for the TIC\'\' style came from various
sources and most Art Nouveau objects are highly
ec1ectic. The urge t create modern national design
meant that the use of specific historical SQurces \vas
given particular meaning within the national context.
For instanc, in Franee the use of the asymmetric and
curvilinear fonns and sensual i.!l1agery of the Rococo
style simultaneously associated Art Nouveau \vith l
period of great craft skill and decadent extravagance. In
many countries folk art and culture were thought to
embody pure and honest values which could provide
the basis for a modern style. The English Arts and Crafts
Movement had already led the way in a reappraisal of
folk culture, while the Morrisian commitment to a non-
hierarchical unity of the arts and the total artistic interior
or GesallItkllllstwerk became governing precepts of Art
Nouveau. The influence of English design, however,
went beyond John Ruskin and William Morris's concern
to reconcile art and society. The "decadents" of the
Aesthetic Movement with their ethos of "art for art's
sake" also exerted considerable influence and this,
combined with French Symbolism, provided a deeply
anti-materialist and metaphysical element \vithin the
style. As Octave Uzanne wrote in T}e 5tudio in 1897,
"what the nevv 1rt sought to depict was the eternal
misery of the body fretted by the sou1."
Another important source was non-western art,
particularly the arts of Japan, North Africa, and the
Middle East. The arts of these regions represented a fresh
aesthetic vision which could revitalize moribllnd
Western traditions. Japanese \<\'oodblock prints were par-
ticularly inflllentiat and their use of flat areas of colour
with strong defining outlines, bold and evocative tines,
asynm1etry, lack of spatial recession, <lnd simplification
of fonns became a defining feature of the new style. The
geometry and simplicity of Japanese architectural forms
and design were also extremely influential for the
development of the style n Glasgmv and VielU1a.
Colonial enterprise also advanced the development
of the style. In Belgium the need to promote the use of
products from the Belgian Congo brought about a
revival in the use of ivory in the decorative arts, while
exotic woods from various colonies became a feature of
much Art Nouveau. Indonesian arts and teclmiques
'\-vere particularly important for the development of Art
Nouveau in Holland.
Without doubt the single most important source of
forms and motifs \Vas nature. 1 ature \Vas used in Art
Nouveau in varying \,"ays and for different purposes.
Onc strategy \Vas conventionalization. Plant and flo\Ver
forms were stylized and afien made into patterns to be
applied to a11 forms of art. Conventionalization \Vas the
dominant aesthetic strategy in Art Nouveau, as it had
been in Arts and Crafts design, and represented a
rationalist approach to designo
Nature \Vas al50 used directly and often realistically
to crea te the form or imagery of an object. Realistic
anirnals, insects, and reptiles \Vere applied. directly to
\Vorks without conventionalization and often had
particular symbolic meaning. Perhaps the most
important stTategy for the use of nature \Vas the evolu-
tionary model. Following the theories of Darwin, many
designers thought of nature as representing a
progressive model for designo ll1e forces of growth were
explored and represented symbolical1y. The highly
organic curvilinear line became an expression of this use
of natUre. The work of the German biologist and
evolutionary theorist Ernst Haeckel became particularly
important for the adoptian of this approach.
Combined with this approach to nature was the
frequent use of metamorphosis. Many Art Nouvcau
'bbjects appear to represent metamorphosis and fuse the
human form with the natural world. Through
evolutionary theory man \Vas seen to be part of the
natural ,,,'orld. The predominance of the meta-
morphosing female form, often in flux, can be seen to be
part of this strategy.
3
Art Nouveau was disseminated quickly across
Europe and the United States through a number of
mechanisms. Periodicals \Vere important and the
dramatic increase in the l1umber of new journals during
the time had a direct impact on the spread of the style.
Sorne of the most important journals devoted to the
decorative arts were Tlle Stlldio, L'Art Moderl/e, Art et
DcorntioJl, CA!"t Dcomtij, Pnll, jlIgeJld, Dekomtive KIII/st,
and Ver SncnJlJI.
The establishment of shops such as Liberty's, in
London, and La Maison Moderne and Galerie L'Art
Nouveau, in Paris, actively promoted the Art Nouveau
style. Louis Cornfort TIffany sold his creations through
Bing, in Paris, while the Nancy-based designers of EmiIe
Gall and Louis Majorelle established shops in many
city centres, inclucling London.
The role of internahonal exhibitions enabled vast
audiences to be introduced to Art Nouveau. For
example, the 1900 Exhibition Universelle in Pars \Vas
visited by l1)ore than 51 million people. Other \Vorld
fairs with substantial displays of Art Nouveau took
place in Chicago (1893), Turin (1902), St Louis
and Milan (1906). Tational exhibition societies, groups,
and salons evoked and did much to promote the style.
Museums also played a role \Vhen they began to
collect and exhibit Art Nouveau. Important collections
were amassed in Hambtug, Budapest, Copenhagen,
Trondheim, 0510, Paris, and London. These col1ections
brought Art Nouveau to the attention of the general
public and enabled designers to study at first hand
developments by designers in other cow1tries.
3 Ellgelle 'O/IIIIl(',
Plants and their Applications
lo Omamenl o{ 1897,
dell/o/Islmtt'd hall' plnnts mll1
flOit'I!TS cOllld WcOIli'entiOlln1i:ed
nl/d l/sed ill decomtioll.
4 TI/e strollg, [jllmr desigll nl/d
artiwlatiol1 of space see/I il!
}apmlt'Se i{'ood block prillts, SI/eh
as tMs e.mll/ple by Lltagail'U
KlIl1isada of c18'7. 1I'1'/"('
extreme/y for I/J('
dei.'dop"u'ut ol Art NO/n't.'nl/.
5 Erllt':;/ Hneckel's Kunslform
der of J898, ,{'hiel,
tlle structure of plaHts
{md $t'n lifi' in detail, /xcnllle mI
importmll SOllTce offorms for Art
"'Ol/penll dt'Sigm'Ts, II11Tt
ill Gt.'rmn".'f.
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French Furniture
Nancy
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117lis Jire screen of 1900 by Emile Gaff;5
mnde of flSII lllld decora/eri Witll marqlletry DJ
t'tlriOlls woods. The Si/l/IDUS, nSYlIlllletric
decora/ioll ;5 clear/y illdebted lo !apallese art.
Hl 1.DglII/3ft 6v.ill.
2 Emite Call produced tltis
cabillet in 1896. It is profusefy
decorated vit11 mlimal (l/Id jlower
lIlotifs ill applied ((lrvillg "lid
mnrqllefry. Bals witll
Dll!stretclled lVil/gs /01"111 lIe
sl/ppor! of tlle cabille/,
3 Emile Gall's J1/flstcnvork
in l/mi/lIre, f!le Aube el
Crpuscule bed rilas made in
1904-. Agan! 11/01/1 i/l/ay ;tll
lIIotller-of-pearl jOl"1II5 fiJe mai"
decorate efelllCllt of lile head (lnd
1001 boards. The motll ;5 depicled
achioe nll,c dark, mllt al Test ill
ti/e l;gllt, symboli:ing tllt! cyc/e of
lIigllt (lnd day. Ht 6ocm!23t,i1l.
302
N
ancy, an important city historically for the decorative
arts, became a key centre for Art Nouveau furrnture
production. The establishment of the A/liclllce Provillciale
deslnd//slries d'Art (iater called the EcoJe de Nal1cy) in 1901,
gave a coherent identity to the designers and companies
responsible for the renaissance seen in the decorative arts
towards the end of the century. The companies of Emile
Gall (1846-1904) and Louis MajoreUe (1859-1926) were
pre-eminent in furniture production. 80th designers used
nature as a basis for design \Vhile using traditional forrns
and techniques. Like many Art ouveau designers, Gall
advocated the idea that beauty \Vas to be found in the
sympathetic application of the principies of natural
growth. His stated aim was to "synthesize the logic and
essence of Iife." Flowers and insects, particularly the
dragonfly, became stapie motifs both structural and
applied. Gall's and Majorelle's fumitu.re was strongly
influenced by French 18th-century forms. The use oE
sophisticated veneers, marquetry, and ormolu mounts is a
feature of their work. ll1ese techniques were, however,
modemized. An innovation peculiar to Gall was the use
oE inlays carved in relief; rus marquetry ofien used a huge
range of woods and represented new subject matter such
as landseapes and lincs from poetry. Majorelle devised
elaborate decorative forms for his om1olu mow1ts, usually
plants and flowers native to Lorraine. He eombined these
with exotic woods, and his 'work is typified by the use of
rieh materials. Victor Prouv (1858-1943) and Louis
Hestaux helped provide designs for marquetry for both
Gall and MajoreUe.
The Gall \vorkshops did use motor-driven tools for
eonstructional parts, but finishing and detailing were
achieved by hand. Majorelle produeed fumiture on a
greater scale, producing multiple versions of a plece
through meehanization. Suites of furniture \Vere
produced with almost assembly-line precision. Eugene
Vallin (1856-1922) and Emile Andr (1871-1933) benefited
from increased attention to Nancy. Trained as arehitects
their furniture, made oE plain woods, was influenced by
the organic, abstraeted line of Belgian Art Nouveau.
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5 Tlle /oruer part of tllis MajoreJle
cabillet of 1899 dt-picts tlle
COllllllon Lorraille plallt, the
Ombclle-lgirlllt liogweed). T1Ie
decoratiile pallel at tlle top,
depictillg all eagle defelldi"g Iler
YOllllg fmlll a snake, lIIay tL't!f1
symoo/i:e tlle fig/lt of FrellcJI
Lorrai"e against tlle Genllall
ilIlllexatiOIl of tlle terr;tory.
Ht 1.69111/5f' 7;11.
6 TIu: St!IISIfOIlS CIIrve5 a/ld
flowillg /i/les of this cJll1;r are
typical of tlle work of Lollis
Majorefle. Tllis chair ,t'as
exlll'bited ;11 tlle Paris exllibit;oll
of 1900 and slIbsf'qlle/ltly bolfglll
as ti representalir'e examp/e of
Art NOllveall by tlle Victoria alld
A/bert MIISt!lIl1l. Ht 1.22111/4ft.
10 Call1il1e Gal/tilier worked WitJl Louis Majorelle frolll 1894 /0 1900. 111
190I he esfab/ished 'is OWII compallY. T/is sl/ite of '903 revea/s his clear
debt fo tlle sty/e of Majorelle. Chair lit 94C1JI/J7ill.
10 L......... _
5
9 il/tricate, cart't!d
decoration of lllis cnbillet
desiglled by LOllis Hestallx
rei>etl/s afasc;lIatioll Witll
SYllloolislIl that was exp/ored by
ma"y Art NOl/t'l.'al/ desigllers.
7 8ettl.'r kllOWII as a g/ass lIIaker,
acques Gmher (1870--1936) n/so
des;glled IlIis lilree-pulle/ screel/
ruitll stailled-g/ass pmlels.
HII-7I11/ 67;1I.
8 Ellgene Vallil1 produced
eXc!llsive pieces of colI/II/issi01led
fllmiture for ruca/IIIY palrol1s.
TIJis lab/e typifies Vallill's
arcllilectuml apl'roacll fo tlle
slrJlctllre offllmitllre.
4 Orlll%ll mOl/nts in tlle lorlll 01
orcllids adom tllis wr;tillg desk
by Lol/;s Majordle 01C.1903
1ll0111ltS
p/mds or flot'l!rs are typical olTlis
U'ork. Ht 95clII/37'1;Il
Paris
2
1 TfJis IlIO/mll/tlllal side/loord wns dl'sigllen for (/ dillillg /'0011/ ill tin' Cflstel
Dile of Gllilllnrd's II/OS/ illll'0rtllllf Imildiug:;. /1 :ms COllc'-'l.'d (/5 pnrl al
(111 O'-'l.'ml/ de:;igll for fhe dinillg 1"001/1. HI 2.97111/911 71ill.
2 Siegfried Bil1g coI/lJllss;ollt'd ElIgelle Gnillnrd lo Cl"t'Il/e 11 tlinillg 1"00111 for llis
Pn1'i/Iol1 L'Ar! NOllvenll ni l/le Paris exJibifioJl {if 1900. TIII's ImIfet. Pit/ elegnllt,
1'6/ milled [linTe:;, jorlllcd l/le cCIltl"l'piece of fhe displny. HI 2.631111Sft Sill.
3 Tllis slIite of gilded fl/milllre, by GeO/ses De Felm', il'OIl n gold IIIcdal ni he
Pnr;s exhibitiOlI. Oeeply illdebted fa Rocoeo f01"1II5, it il'n5 seCll fa represelIt lile
heigllt 01 I/Iodem Frell c11 desigll. (hn i r III 5cIII13'Ii11.
I
I
304
4 Hellri Bellery-Des{cm/ajllt's ras DIlt' of t]l'
/etldillsfigllres of Frel/e/I Art ;\'olli'eall. His
sly/e etls by orllls of Catllje (lrt
alul lile ({,Titil/g:; of Vioflet-/e-dIlL TJc J10ml
de(()mtioll oI tite tabie dOl.'S l/al disgl/i,;.e j/s
sfrucfllrl.'. Ht 90(111/35;(,;11.
5 r/II' {kM lo /istoricnl Fr(,Jldl lIIodels i/l clcnr
ill tI,;s eriliu.'? desk lJY tl/t' Frellc/I compnll!,
1\.1(1;$011 Bagl/l'S of c.19OO.
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6 RlIperl Cnrabill crented some of tIJe /1/0st
1III1Isllnl works i the Art NOllvenll style
alld II/mlY combilU:d nilllal mld IlIIlI1ml forms.
A crOlle/Jillg woman jorms fhe bnse oj I!Jis
extraordillnry e/mir oj C.1S95, wJzile mts
jreqllently appear ill ~ desiglls. Ht 1.22I11/4/t.
7 Tite slender eurvillg fines, florallllnrqllelry
nl1d nsy"/melry oj Leon Beuollvil/e's wrifig
desk nre ojten jOlllld in Freclt Art NOllvctll/.
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8 T/is ch'lit" ef pnrtinlly pnillted
nnd cnrl'ed wnlllllt is upllOlstered
i/llent/ler. Lenther, embossed with
floral or geol1letric pnttcl"Ils, wns
freqllelltly IIsed for Art NOllvcnu
seatillg. Mnde by AI/dr Dnrras,
C.190o, t/lis e/mil' ({'as showl1 ni the
Pnris exhibition. Ht 97CIII/3/t n.
9 Charles Plulllet Iwd TOJlY
5e1mersc/leilll produced ensembles
ojjllmitllre in plnill wood w/lOse
bold strllctllre 1I1ldascored tIJe way
t/ley were /IIade. Tllis carI'cd onk
desk c1mir ext'mplifies t/leir interest
ill stntctllre ova npplied
decoration. Ht 93.5cm/36;in.
10 The cnrI'ed pedestnl jor
Alexr1lrdre C!mrpt'l1tier's music
stnnd oj 1901 is nll essny in
dYllallzic /ille nnd SillllOIlS (orm;
al1 nrc1ll'flpal work il1 the Frellc!1
Arl NOIIUeflll style. HI 1.22l11l1ft.
\"Ihile still moted in a comm.itment to the new, greater
attention was paid by many Paris-based designers to the
renewal of the French craft tradition. The Rococo-inspired
furniture and interior ensembles produced by Siegfried
Bing to designs by Ceorges De Feure (1868--1943), Eugene
Gaillard (1862-1933), and Edollard Colorma (1862-1948)
' ....'ere intended to revitalize the French luxury craft
indush-y. Bing promoted the idea of the small artisan
workshop where few pieces were produced in series. His
selected designs are typified by a fusion of taut, organic
nahualism with Rococo fOlms, exemplified in Ceorges De
Feure's sitting roOIll furniture for the Pavillon Bing, a
gold-medal wirmer at the Paris Exhibition of 1900.
Members of the Paris grallp Les Six, Charles Plurnet
(1861-1928), Tony Selmersheim (1840-1916), and
Alexandre Charpentier (1856-1909) prodllced hmuhrre
that used plain woods with lU1decorated surfaces. TIleir
pieces emphasized strllchlre and line wIueh lUlderseored
the assembly of the huniture. As ellseJl1bliers, Selmersheim
and Plumct were interested in the overall wuty of works
within the interior. However, Hector Guimard (1867-
1942) was the designer to best express the wlity of thc Art
Nouveau interior design in Paris. Trained as an arclutect,
his funuhtre designs are an integral part of rus interiors
and employ a highly personal sense of arclutechual
funetionalism. For Guimard, decoration comprises an
essential part of the form and is never merely applied. The
intense organism of rus art demonstrates rus corrunibnent
to the strategy of nahlre praviding a progressive model
for designo Guimard \vas inflllential and many designers
adopted rus style.
Rupert Carabin (1862-1932) came to furnihtre design
fram sculpture. His carved pieces break down the barriers
behveen the fine and deeorative arts, a key aim of Art
NOllveau designo Working in many materials, lus hmu-
tllre often incorporates metal fittings or details. The nude
female figure predomina tes and is often aecompanied by
animals with various symbolic meanjngs. Carabin's often
erotic and highly mysteriolls pieees provide a link
between Art NOllveall and Symbolism.
305
,
5
1 Victor Horta's lQl/Si" in Brusse/s
of /5 mI importall!
e.mmpfe of lhe total arlistie
interior OT Gesarntkunstwerk.
Horta's fumtl/r/' fo/1on:.1 tfl!
SlIII1I' principies tlS lli.; nrc]i-
fectllrt:. Botl, explored /lu' llse
of eomplex. orgallc fillt'.
2 Heury Van te Ve/de's ,{'as 0111'
of file jirsl propOllelltS of Art
NOlweall. TlEe bold, C1/ri.,i/im:ar
[onll of IIds di'$k of 1898---g, 0/1(.'
ofseveralllUlfe lo t/is designo
/Iecnlllc n/wllmark of {s sfy/('.
Ocsk lit 1.28m/..ft ?in.
2
"'
ID

4
Belgian Art Nouveau
Belgian and Dutch Furniture
1
3 TI's onk nrmc1lf1ir by Van de \Ic/de of Cl897
fIn:; simple. Clll.'illg IIIes alld general/s
proportiolls. Ht 86.3CI1I/)4ill.
4 TI//! n1t'lll/t1tedorll/5 of Horta's fl/mitllre
des;glls signalled Jis n:jectioll of tll(' simp/icity
of lile Arts /lllri Craft:; A!Oi.'Clllt?l/t l/lid Ji;:, debt
lo Rococo morids. HI 95clII/371.;1I.
5 TlU? l/51.' of a gl.'lItI.1/ CIIrl'illg arell in tllis ih.'li
by GlIsfl1l'l' Sl'rr1frier-Boi'Y is typicnf of bis
fl/mitl/rl.' al/li I1rc/itl.'ctllrc. It is ,Il'comft>d ,ti,
C1/r..,ilillf'l1r ml'llllmo/lllts. a (0111111011 Art
,\'om't'ltl/ft'lltl/re. L. 2.J11Jl/6ft nill.
306
6
6 T1Iis 1895 sl/iteJor Chambrc d' Artisan by
Serrurier-Bouy rc..'cals Ids illterest in tIJe
prillcip!es of tite Arts nlla Cmfls
C!mil' /t 93cm/36Y,ill.
7 !Jaul Hal/kllr dl.'sigl/ed l/lis foldil/g c1mir mld
stoo!. A COIICl'lItmtioll 01/ lille n/Id for/ll is
npparellt ;11 !le wllile tite legs of file
slool follow a lIIodem ilJterprdat;ol/ of the
cabriole le:? C!ur II I.14111l3ft 9ill.
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DlIfdl arfisfs ,ellO look!?d fo Easfl.'mforll/s,
pnrficular/yllldollesiall,jor iJlspira/ioll. Tlle
ecorafin' pmll'ls il1 file baek of /ese ot1lerwist'
"en) simple oak C/U/irs, C. J 899, are illfll/cllecd
by llldollcsiall Imlil-: pnttcl"/ls. Hf 97(1II/381:ill.
1
Dutch Art Nouveau
1 rile decoral pe ,,/ay 01tropicnl
il'oods 011 Ibis IIll1sic slal/d of
'93. by Carel Ado/phe Lioll
Cae/let, depicts sfyli:ed pt'acocks.
Tlle decora/iOIl is illspin.'lt by
IlldOIl/!sinll arto Ht 1-4/11/4ft iJl.
2 H.P. Berlnge l/'(I'S DI/{' 01 l/le IIlOS!
rntiOJlfl/ist dt'Sigl/crs 01 ~ D1/lclI
NiclI.t't' KlfIIS/. TIJe n-stmilled
decora/ioll nI/ti $O/id fonlls of t/is
/(lrge sidebooni 01 1898 are typical
ofllis styk Ht 2.6m/8ft 4ill.
3 TIJe ClIn'ilill('ar forms 01 tlle
Imek 01 t1Jis Offk :;el/el', madI' iu
1898 b.1/ lal! TllOrIl-Prikker,
I!xcmplify file more orgmc stmill
o[ Art NOl/ioeflll. Ht 1.24111/4ft.
1. J.oSm/3ft 6/1/.
B
elgium became an important centre for the reception
of English Arts and Crafts ideas, and it \Vas the first
country to arri"e al a fully fledged maste')' of lhe Art
Nouveau style. The key Arts and Crafts idea of the
GeSl1111tkllllshverk \Vas dearly expressed in the works of
Henry 'an de Velde (186:>-1957), Victor Horta
(1861-1947), and Gustave Serrurier-Bovy (1858-1910).
These designers applied to their furnihrre the principIe of
the unifying importance of lineo Van de Velde, following
Arts and Crafts forebears such as V\'alter Crane, described
line as being "a force which is aetive like aH elemental
forces," and Belgian Art NOl1veau design is typified by
the use of cllrvilinear, abstraet line. In Horta's interiors a11
elements, inclllding furniture, are subordinated to the
dominant and unifying use of organie lineo Van de Velde's
furniture developed the idea of omament evolving from
struehre, and his 'Nork earried the organic away from an
imitation of nahue towards the abstract. Most Belgian
funuhre is executed in plain woods but both van de
Vclde and Serrurier-Bovy occasionaHy incorporated
metal fittings. The decorative quality of their work is
inherent in their use of energetie line rather than through
applieation of omamentation. Serrurier-Bovy developed
a particular use of the arch, which gave his fumiture a
struetural tension, belying his training as an architect.
In the Tetherlands a number of architects tumed their
attention to designing interiors in the 18905, and they
gave Niemve KUlIst, the Dutch variant of the style, its d..is-
tinetiveness. Various approaches emerged. H.P. Berlage
(1856-1954) represented a rationalist strain. Again,
inspired by Arts and Crafl principies, he developed func-
tional fumiture where construction and craftsmanship of
the tem are clear features.
Lion Cachet (1866-1945), Theodor Nieuwenhuiis
(1866-1951), aud Gerrit Willem Dijsselhoff (1866-1924)
represented another strain of Dlltch Art Nouveall that
eombined deeoration with constrllction. These artists all
,,,'orked for Van Wisselingh & Co. Using exotic woods,
materials, and pattems from eastern SOllrees (particularly
Indonesia), the renewal of decoration was a primary goal.
3C
German, Scottish, and Austrian Furniture
4 TI,is simple /l/llsic rOOIll chair was by
Richard RiemerscJmlid. c.190o, nfeadiJlg
Germnll desigller. lts bold C1fri'ing lines ulld
simple COllstrllctioll m'M/ RiemerscJmlid's
illteresl in serial protillctioll. Ht 74(111/291,;11.
5 Heril/mm Obrist's be/ieJ tlJa/nn/ure COI/Id
provide a /IIodcl for style govemed /is desigll.
TIJe metal fittil1gs lI1ay /(Ive bee" inflllencl!d by
lile bolallisf En/si Haeckel. L. 1.32111/ifl 31.;11.
2
1 8emlmrd Pnllkok prodllced
sOllle o/ l/le lIIosl extraordillnry
Art NOllvetll/ jlmlitllre, (llld t/zis
vi/Tille 0/1899, Wit/l ils illst!ct-
like legs, is DIle 01 the gren/es/
exampfes ill file style. Pnllkok
frequt!ntly l/sed decorarioll
slIggesth>e o/ animal or plant
jo,,,,s. Ht 2m/6ft 6;11.
2 Tllis dillillg roolll sidebonrd (llld
ehair 011.902 are lypical 01 file
restmilleri, mliona/isf desigll Di
Peler Belirens. Metal fittings
were freqllelltly l/sed lo SlIpp/y
ti/e decoratiw embellishmtllt for
simple piefes. Ht 1_9/1//6ft 2V,ill.
3
3 Alfgllst Elldell (1871-1925), like Pnllkok, .ms fascil/aled 'l'iIIl /lntllral
forms. TIiI! caT.'t!d decoralion nlld pole colollr o/ tJlis armelmir o/ 1899 is
slIggestjlf! of kllnrfed wood or bolle. HI 86.5CII//3-1ill. 5
Jugendstil
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308
T
he artists of the German JugendstiI (Youth Style)
schools were divided between rational and
expressive styles. As the critic Leopold Gmelin, editor of
KIIllst lllld Hnlldwerk, stated in 1897, "1'wo principIes
characterize the modem direction of applied art: first...
simplicity of construction; secondly, the association with
the plant and animal world.... Hand in hand with
simplicity of construction goes a preference for modest
materials." Designers committed to the first principIe
sought to develop furniture that could be machine
produced. The Munich-based United Workshops for Art
in Handicraft (Verellgte Werkstiittell iir KllIlst im
HnJldwerk) developed a simplified, pared-down aesthetic
for hlmiture and interiors, in part inspired by Arts and
Crafts, that could be serially produced. Richard Riemer-
schmid's furniture reflected this concern \vith practicality,
honesty, and truth to materials. His MascJllIellll16be/
heralded production methods in the ne\\' century.
The furnih.ue of those artists influenced by Hermann
Obrist 0862-1927) represented the expressive second
principie. Obrist's philosophical preoccupation ''''ith
nature aS an evolutionary model for design resulted in
the organic thread of }ugendstiJ. Abstract natural forms
are the determining feature of tbis strain of the style and
are seen in the furniture of Endell, Obrist, and Bernhard
Pankok (1872-1943).
ll1e leading Viennese designers trained as architects
under Otto Wagner 0841-1918) and, like the Scottish
Charles Rennie Mackintosh 0868-1928), developed an
arcbitectural approach to hmliture designo A similar taut
geometry can be seen in the work of J05ef Maria OIbrich
(1867-1908), Koloman Moser (1868-1919), and Josef
Hoffmalm 0870-1956). Mackintosh's display at the eighth
Vienna Secession exhibition, 1900, introduced the
Viennese to the stnlctural rationale and linear geometry of
Glasgow furniture and led to a more rigid style seen in the
furniture of Hoffmann and the \Viener \rVerkstatte.
Ho\\'ever, 5ecession furniture continued to explore
historical models for new style. Biedernleier exerted l
considerable influence on forms and decoration.
Ll.

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The Viennese Designers
1 Desiglled by ]oseph Maria Olbricl1;1/ 1905,
tllis secrtnirc is ndapted frOIll {/ Biedellleier
modelo 1ts f01"1II anri decorative motift; luwe
beell silllplfied and arpenr sfrikillgly /IIodern.
Ht 1.92cm/6ft 3ill.
11
--
3
2 Mnckintosh worked wit/ llis lVife, Margare!
MeDolla/d. This cabillet is dccomtcd with
lIIotifs tila! becnmc nrchetypal of lhe Glnsgow
ScllOol: lIbstrncted eggforllls, styli:z.ed roses,
(Inri nttclIlIated[cma/e figures. Ht 1.54m/5ft.
2
i illI ...".
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1
1 Charles RCl1Ilil.' Mnckilltosll developcd a unique
style, freqJlI!I1t1y 'witJ, geometric forllls (I/lri e/ollg-
ntcd lilles, with (/ profol/lld impacto Tllis e/mir,
1897-190, wil/ ils e/ollgnted bnck (/lid deccptive-
Iy simple sfrucfllrc is collic. Ht 1.36111/4ft jill.
The Glasgow School
2
2 Tltis lady'::; writing desk al/d arll/clIair was designed by KololI/olI Masa in
193. The armclmir slides allllosl illvisib/y i/lto Ihe desk. This piece n/so
dmws frolll Biederllleier villl its satillIvood I1Ild bmss il/lay. 1-11 67clII/l6Y:ill.
3 TrnditiOllal alld cOlllempormy elell1e11ls exist ill IIis /IJree-pa/lel scree/l mj Josef
Hoffil/al1, 1899-190. TlIe Iyre forms a/ lile /op are derived from nlltiquiflj; tlle
tooled gold decora/ion in /IIe lea/IIer pallels is lI1odem. Palie! lIt 1.55111/5f/.
31
1
Italian and Spanish Furniture
Stile Floreale
2
1 ;/1 VeJlke, l/lis TOOm SI/Ue o[
C.1900 is t!fpiCflI ol t/u' l'xtrl!lIIdy decorntiFe
'[a[;a/l Stile Florcalc. Tlle Ol'l1atefloral jorlll5
aJld l/se ol /IJe lell/a/e Ilude I1S 11 sCI//ptum/
lIIotif e/lIlmcteri:t' "We/I Art NOlli'<?1l1l ;11 /tn/y.
2 T/lt' exlmol'dillal'Y Snail c!lair ,Fa;;
desigl/cd by Cario Bllgnl ti fol' t!ll' Exposi:iollc
/1I/l!ma:iOJlI1/1! at T/ll'il/ il/ 1902. A "il'oodfrnl/ll!
is covl'l"t'd Witll de/ka/e, pnil1tl'd parc/IIlII!JI/
1111d cOJlJCI'. Ht S9CIIl/n'lil1.
4
3 enrio Ze/l made tltis frl/f<{'fXJd sirle e/Ufir "
C.lgOO. lt is ill/aid 'itll IIlotJer-of-penr/ (llId
metal, (lIld lile bnck of file c1Ulir bears allellllaled
flora/motifs. Ht 93_7clII/361-ill.
4 Tlle can'etf back of Caco/llo COlllclfi's sirle
,ilair, for tl,e Exposi:iollt! Illlema:iollflle al
TI/rin in 1902, n/so Sl/ggesfs lileIOTm of mI
a/)slrocled planl or flOtt'er.
5 Ernesto 8f1si/e's trtlillillg as mi are/litee! is
e/ror iJl ill II/C solid sfrucfllre of t/is ma1lOsallY
secrfaire, 5110"'" al lile VeJliCt: BiclIJwll', 1903.
TI/I! IIInssive proporfiolls are softelled wil!l
figural decora/ioll ;11 file brOl/:e jitting:;.
6 /1If1l1cnced by apanese art, some ltaliflll
designer;; IIscrl )apmlese il1 her desiglls.
Tls 1Il1l11Ogany eavinel of 902 by Cario ZCIl
is il/lnid witJ! IIlOtlter-of-penrlIJlId vrnss.
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Modernismo in Spain
1 11lis PO<l'f'rjlllf.ll nsymmefric dressillg tnMe
'liS desiglled by AlltOll Gal/di. Its eclectic
form oorro'Smm /1/nllY SOllrCe5. P/nllt (lIId
mlmnl forms cml be ideutified as .{'e1l elelllf"llts
/nkcn jrOlJ/ tlle GotlJic alld Baroqlfe.
2 This pitrille 'liS desigllelf by Alejo Clnpes
Pllig nlld Gnlld. Gmllf's 1151.' of fligllly orgmlic
/orlll5 illf/llellced II/nl/y of 1Ii5 cOlllelllpomries
nlld call be seell in 1/,/' silll/olls alld dYllnlllic
sculptllrnj fomls of his work.
3 Gnsptlr HOl/lnr (1870-J953)
n/so desiglled il'Orks illf/l/mud by
Gillld;, bu/ l/lis [ml/ INlllef{ilJg
nlld Sl'ftee of J9D-l represell/5 n
more res/mil/ed approocll. Tlle
pallds il't.'re desiglled
Pt'1J i Farriol.
Ht 2.68111/8ft 9ill.
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wo disti.nct stylistic strains emerged within Italian Art
Nouveau furniture designo On the Qne hand an
extremely floral sCLdptural style was developed by such
designers as Vittorio Valabrega (1861-1952) and Agostino
Lauro (1861-1924), while sorne designers were inspired
by the exotic forms and techniques emerging from North
African and Middle Eastern art. Carla Bugatti
(185&-1940), Eugenio Quarti, and Cario Zen (1851-1918)
are prominent designers who experimented with exotic
materials and eastern forms in their designs. The
furnjture 01 bolh groups is oflen determined by rich
ornamentation and great tedmical skill.
The Valabrega compan), produced pieces in multiples
by machine, and \Vere one of the fe", 1talan companies
that could reach a larger market. Their fumiture design
\Vas often highly sculptural, with decorative floral motifs.
By contrast the work of Ernesto BasUe (1857-1932) and
Giacomo Cometti (1863-1938) represented l more
restrained, Art and Crafts-inspired aesthetic. Simpler
linear forms \Vere applied to both hand crafted, in the
case of Cometti, and machine-produced works. TI1e most
original fumihtre designer in Italy was Carlo Bugatti.
Ho\'vever, rus work \Vas often considered bizarre at the
time. Tts exotic appearance was enhanced by the use of
the characteristic kcyhole arch, a deternooing featurc of
rus fumiture, and the use of vellum, silk tassels, and
inlaid abstract decoration in pewter, bone, and ivor)'.
The Spanish response to Art Nouveau interior design
centred on developments in Barcelona, and particuJarly
on the work 01 Anloni Gaud (1852-1926). His ,mique,
highly organic style had a profound intluence 011 the
design style of his contemporaries. His avowedly Catalan
form of Art Nouveau, Modernismo, depended upon the
use of nature as both a basis for structure and ornamenta-
tion. In line with many of his European counterparts and
under the influence of the French theorist VioUet-le-Duc,
Gaud developed a structural rationalism based on nature.
His designs for furniture rigorously devclop organic form
into l structural whole. Nature is not applied as
decoration but determines the form in rus H'ork.
.", .
1 rile fall bnck 01 t/Jis c1mir,
desiglled ;JI 1898 by tlle Huifa/o-
bnsed aJar/es RoMfs, ;5 iJlspired
by tlle illter/ockil/g lIIotifs of
Ceftic arto Ht 1.4111/4ft iJl.
2 RoMfs' IJaIl desk, exewted il/
AlIlericml wlrite oak betweell
1898-1901, revea/s a debt to file
Golhic, but tlle SillllOlI:>foml:> of
l/le fillia/s alld decorntioll
are c1enrly moen/ tite illfllll?llce of
Europeml Art NO/H.'t"nll.
HI I.421ll/4fl 8il/ .
3

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The Dragan Style
America
American, Hungarian, and Nordic Furniture
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1 Tlte t/lb/e, c1mirs, n/Id blfffd frolll
Hollllt!llkollell TOllrisl Hotel 11/ Norway by
}.A.G. Ackel, were :;;11I1'/.11 desiglled witll
e1egclllf a/te/llm/ed wrvi/illenr slU/pes, as seell
in IJe leg:; /lnd bnck oi tlUt c1wir.
2 TI,is extrnordinary (abille/ dt"Siglled by l.Jlrs
KillsnnJik (184-6-J925) is decornfed Witll
Vikillg alld CrUie motift. Mal/Y Norwegi/lll
designer:; l/sed Vikil/g illlllgery ill tlle :;enTe/ for
(llllodem, IlIltiOll/l1 5/.1111'. Ht 1.89111/6ft 1/,111.
3 Gerhnrd \JI/Il/he (t849-1929) desigllM tI,is
dragoll e/",ir in J898Jor tI,(.' HolllleJIkollell Hotel iJl
N017l't1y. T}e illteriors explored Vikillg iJllngay
(Inri motifs. rlEis e/mil' combines 11 styl/:ed dragoll
101'11I witit /Jo/d, l/1odem colollrillg. HI 1.VII/3ft in.
4 Dt'i.'Oji oj decoratioll, Carl I\btmflll refit'li 011
tlu,' $lIbt/e Clln't':5 alld simple filies of l/lis clmir
to l/1ake a dl.'sigll stalcmf'lIt. Ht I.OlllI/3ft 4il/.
5 Tlllt Koti clmir l'fIS Ift'Sigllltd by Eliel $aarilll!ll
for file Paris exhibitioll of 1900. YIJe sflflpe alld
dtXoraliOIl of tIJe clmir are adapled from fmd-
ilioJlal Flmis/ fo/kfOfl11S. HI 1.]2111/4/1 1ill.
6 Akseli Gal/r,'II-Kalle/a was Fill/al1d's /eadillg
5ymoo/isf paillter. He occnsiollaUy desigllcd
JI/milI/re alld lfle Tree of Knowledge cabil/eI
of 1897-8 ,l'fIS desigJledjor 'lis flOme. !ts cnn'f!d
decornlit.oe pill/e/S depicls Et'f! IlfIlldillg fllI: apple
fa Adnm. Ht 1.29111/.J!1 Jill.
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2111 HI/I/gnry lIIal/Y desigl/ers
ndopted tlw iulemntmra! Al't
NOI/<Jcall 51y{.' 01sil/I/OIlS
dl'corntivl' jorllls. Several dt'sigIlL'rs
dl,.!e1oped n distillct/y HlIlIgaritllJ
respoJlse. doll Fnrng combiJled
drn,t'lI frolll HlIlIgnritlll (olk
ar/, lJ!('mntiQJlnf Al'/ NOr'("(lll,
(lnd Eas/em nrc/lileclllrt'.
Cnbillt'/1Jf 2.4111/7/1 loill.
1 Y/lis plllill forll/s of tllis o(lk (ll/Ii dJOIIY
siddJOard. 1900, bIt Ptil Horti (1865-197).
are d'comkd il/ delicalt' bmssfittings. Afia 2
1904, Horti was acli",' in tlle Lillilcd Sla/l's,
kllml'JI as Palll Horli. Ht 7.86111/61t I/.
Hungarian Folklore and Art Nouveau
1
T
he Arts and Crafts Movernent provided a powerful
precedent for an aggressive cornmitment to simplicity
inspired by folk culture. Much Art Nouveau design in the
United States, thc Nordic, and Central European countries
was rnediated by an Arts and Crafts aesthetic or was
inspired directly by national folk cultures.
The predominant influence on fllrnitllre in the United
Sta tes was the Arts and Crafts Movement, and fe\V
companies acknowledged thc modernizing tendencies of
Art Nouveau. The idiosyncratic designer
Charles Rohlfs (1853-1936) \Vas one cf few to incorporate
sorne more SinllOUS forms and natllre-inspired ornament
of Art 1 Oll\'eall mto his solid Arts and Crafts pieces.
In most countries the search for a modem national
style led designers to explore their own traditions, and
nowhere was this more c1carlv demonstrated than in thc
,
ordic and central European cOllntries. In Nor",ay the
rediscovcry of the complex omament of Viking ship art
provided the basis for a new decorative langllagc. The
affi.nity of the abstract animal and plant forms and
interlocking sinuous ornament of Viking and Celtic art
with Art NoU\'eall appealed to the new generation of
designcrs. It was easily assimilatcd, adapted, and
modemized for aH areas of the decorative arts. In Finland
Akseli Gallen-Kallela (1865-1913) and Eliel 50arinen
(1873-1950) explored ancient Karelian myths and legends
to provide inspiration. Their fumiture used vemacular or
folk-inspired patterns and sturdy forms or carving with
Symbolist subject matter.
Hungarian Art NOllveau fllrniturc design combined
eastern ornament \Vith the vernaclllar. Designcrs lIsllally
favoured natural motifs such as the flora and fauna of the
HlIngarian peasant or pattems derived from
folk textiles. The hlmihlre of Odn Farag (1869-1935),
\\'hich is typical of much Hungarian Art Nouveau, mi.xed
eastem ornamental forms and folk pattems with symbols
of Hungarian national identity such as the stylized tulip.
However, mllch eastem European Art Nouvcau furnitllre
demonstrates a fllsion of folk forms with thc sinuous
flowing ine of the international Art Nouveau style.
3
Ceramics
French Designers
1 Ems/ Olflplet m5 Dile of thefirst lo emllla/e
/he red flnmb gJn=es 0/1 ClJiIlf?Se porce1aill. 111/5
mst s/IOll'S CJUlp/et's experimc7Its it'itll gll-
tempera/lIreg/n:es. Ht ;6cm/q:JI.
2 Th/?Se e.mmples of stOllfil'are by Pierre-
Adrinll Dnlpnymt (riglll), AI/gl/sle De/nhercllt!
(centre), t1lld Georges HOt.'lllsche/ (leftJ 'il'ere
illflllel/ced by Clmp/et. TlIey demollstrnte mi
illterltSt in bolll experimelltal gfn=es nlld
orgnllieorIll5. Ht (of tal/est) 66.5CIII/2j'!:ill.
3 Tl;; biscl/il it'are figure i5 pnrl of he Jcu de
I'charpe Mbit seUil/g by U(}//flrd Agatl1011,
made by Si:..'res, (llId exhibih'li in lhe Paris
exhibitioll of J900. Ht 6OCIll/2;1.ill.
4 TIJis porcelaiu cofJee ser..';ce of C.J900, by
\ lnl/Ti((! DI/friml!, t('as sold I/lrollg/l l.J 1\ l(/i5011
Alademe. lf is mi e.mll/ple of tite COIlIllIl7cinf
f1Wlicatioll 01 Arl Nom:eml.

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T
owards the end of the 19th century the French art
ceramics industry experimented with high
temperature glazes to achieve the deep red known as
flamb and subtle crystalline effects. Ernst Chaplet
(1835-1909) \Vas the most influential designer to experi-
ment with these glazes. New effects were combined with
organic forms while artists such as Auguste Delaherche
0837-1940) and Pierre-Adrian Dalpayrat 0844-1910)
reassessed vemacular stoneware as an arosoc medium.
Delaherche developed difficult glazes, which he applied
to stoneware bodies, ",hile Alexandre Bigot0862-1927)
specialized in firing large-scale stoneware for both the
exterior and interior of buildings. The leading exponent
of the popular technique of lustre glazes was Clment
Massier (1845-1917). Sevres, the nanonal manufacturer,
produced a vast range of works in the Art Nouveau style,
from huge architectural vases by Hector Guin'lard to
delicate porcelain tea services with applicd insect motits
by Lon KaIU1. Many commercial factories produced
ceramics in the nev.' style and they were \videly avalable.
There was aIso a revival of interest in stoneware in
Germany where H6hr Grenzhausen employed a new
generanon of designers to update tradinonal forms.
Richard Riemerschmid and Peter Behrens gave beer jugs
and mugs radical new decoranve styles, adding colour
and linear pattems to traditional fom'ls.
The German porcelain companies of Nymphenburg,
Meissen, and ViUeroy & Boch made Art Nouveau wares.
Nymphenburg employed Hermann Gradl 0869-1934) to
produce a naturalistic fish service while Meissen
cornmissioned Behrens, Riemerschmid, and Henry van
de Velde to produce table services with abstract pattem
and swirling linear ornamento The finest porcelain manu-
facturer in The Hague was Rozenburg. J.J. Kok
(1861-1919) developed an eggshell porcelain unmatched
for the thinness of the body and its delicate shapes.
Rozenburg incorporated Indonesian motifs into their
designs, as did other Dutch designers such as Theodor
Christiaan Colenbrander 0841-1930). Lustred glazes
using metallic oxides were first revived in Italy, and fine
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Wares 01 the Nordic Countries

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1 Allribllted AlflVnllflllder,
ti/{' nrtistic director of tlle
S i l e d i ~ fnctory R6r::trnlld,
tllis porcelnill tase of 1900 is
filie/y I/Iodcl/cd allri Inkcs lIe
/01"111 o/ af1oll'Cl". vlnl!!! Rorstrnlld
pil'as m'/"{' iw;pired /111 mlill/a/ DI'
"Imll lorm:,.
4 TI/(' Dalle TIIOIl.'tlld Billdrsoofl
}lnjl/ten anri i"cised decora/iOl/ 011
r!ls /urge-sen/e l'flrlfleH<l'CIfl! l'rlse
of ,893, He dt'veloped n dislillcl
(lIrd extreme/y pain/e!"ly flppronch.
HI575CIII/221,;II.
5 FO//Oil'i!1g tite lend alScvres,
Va/demal" EllgellUlrdf
(,S60-1916J nI tllC Royal
Copt'llJlfIgell Fnctory, dfile/oped
crystnfljlll' gln:es ill brig!Jt
(010IlT';. Ht 17clIl/61Jn.
6 The Ambia Factor!! ill FiJl/nl/d
/IlI/11dlCd (/ ""'1' cnrtl1e;:l'(lre
ml/ge t'ntt/i!d Fennia in 1902.
/t ((Ins cJnrflcferi:ed by sfrikillg
grollldric pnl/cms (Illri distilletj,'t'
mOOCrJI sltapes. Ht 2jCm/lOill,
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Anemones parcelniu /iI/l/t'r
5i.'1l'iel', desigllt'd b"f tlll'
NOll'eginll Gerfl{}rd MllllllJe
(1892-3) for Porsgnll/d,
incorpomtl.' hl.' decomti,1C 1/10fi/s
of s;:lirlillg Iinl'S nlld sfyli:ed
fl0<l'l'I"s. PInte dinlll. 24em/9/i1l.
3 Tire Billg nlld Grol1dnh! Fnctory
specinli:ed ill t'xqllisite mode/lillg
ill parcelaill. TI/(' Jlicreed body ol
tlris <'ase fwd flon'l!r dL'Corntioll
nI'' Iypica/ of Billg (1Ild Grolldn/f
pieces fmlll file /um of tite
cel//I/n. Hf 43clII/17;1I.
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cxamples were made by Chini. The Zsolna)' Factory in
Budapest 'Nas the leading company to make lustreware
cerarnics fram 1900.
Derunark and 5weden specialized in modellcd porce-
lain employing motifs fram natul"e. R6rstrand, Bing &
Gf0ndahJ, Royal Copenhagen, and Gustavsberg prod-
uced porcelain wares typified by subtle, paJe colours and
sculptural forrns with flora and falU1a. Designers, often
trained in different disciplines, modernized the \Vares of
lhese companies. Alf Wallander (1862-1914), artistic
director of R6rstrand from 1895, used swirling lines,
natural forms, and japanese manfs, while the Nonvegian
porcelain manufacturer Porsgrund employed Gerhard
Munthe to create designs for services slIch as a stylized
blue anemone. The Arabia factory in Finland introduced
a range of earthenware which, in contrast to other Nordic
factories, used bright colours and geometric pattems.
Thorvald Bindesbell's (1846--1908) painted and incised
earthenwares disregarded tradition, and were influenced
by Gallguin, revealing a strong painterly approach.
American companies sllch as Grueby Faience, Teco,
and Rookwood sllccesshilly experimented with new
decoranve forms, patterns, and glazes. Grlleby and Teca
developed llnique !TIatt and semi-matt glazes while the
Roobvood Pottery's speciality was pai.nting in coloured
slip on unfired clay. An atomizer was used to give a
smooth and glossy surface to the work and successful
new glaze lines were developed, including the Sea Green,
Iris, and VeUum glazes. Painters such as Harriet E. Wilcox
and K. Shirayamadani painted designs directly onto the
vessels. Artus Van Briggle (1869-1904), \-vho trained in
Paris and had worked for Rookwood, developed organic
and sculptural vessel forms that suggested metamorpho-
sis of the femaJe formo The American Adelaide Alsop
Robineau was unique among ceramic makers in Europe
and the United States. 5he carved porceJain and con-
structed the intricate forms and decoration of her works.
Few British ceramics manufacturcrs made pieces in the
new style, but Doulton created a range caUed Succession
\-vare with stylized linear motlls on geometric bodies.
3
6
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4/11 Ita/y, Galileo C1lilli fook
illspira/ioll frolll tradifiolllll
maioliea ware. Tlzis pla/e o[
C.189S adopts file c%llrs of
/l/aio/ica brlf its ptlftt'rz is IYl'ica/
of file j10willg lilles of Art
NOlliJl!all. Dinm. 17CIII/7ill.
5 T1lis grollp of enrt1letltL'are
'tlses ,I'as /linde C.1S99 af ti/e
Zsollla.1f Jncfory in HIII/gnry, a
cOlllptll/y tltaf becnme a leader ill
ti/e fie/d of /lIstre<l'art'S.
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2 For lhe NYlllp/lellbllrg Factory.
Heril/al! Gradl desigllcd afis/l
dhlJler service iH 1899. EncJI
piece fook a clIn,jlil1caTJonu bul
jisIJ lwtllralistiml/y.
Pinte ,l'. 62cm/:l.4iill.
3 50111[' o/ t]e fillesl Art NOl/venll
porce/aiu ,"liS prodllced al tlle
Ro:::ellblfrg jactory iJl ti/e Jlagllc.
The/T u Eggsflelr porcdaill ,ms
extremely tllll l/lid oftCll took
flamboyant orll/s. Ht (o! tal/es!)
3J .jcm!I2iill.

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6 1Ms Cfllldlestick ;5 mI eXlImp/e
ofSuccession I,.Vare pradllCf:d
by OOU/tOIl & Ca. in Britaill.
T!le linear, sty/i:ed decorafioll is
c1early illdebfed fo file Viellllese
sfyle. I-It 3OC/ll/11Y,ill.
Other European Wares

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1 TIII:sc $(lit-gil/ud, slOllcware tallkards (l/Id
jllg o/ C.J902 are by Richard Riemersdmd
l/lid Peler 8eflrell5 respective/y. TI/ese
desigllers modemi:::ed freldiliOllal Cerlllall sn1t-
gla:::e il'l1reS by illtrotillClIg IlCW colouT;; alld
modem decomlit't' motifs.
Ht (o! ta/lesO 32cm/l2".
316

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1 The BostOI/ firlll GI"I/f'by
Faiella' emll/nted tlle IIlnff (Inri
sf'lIIi-lIIaft gla:es dn-eloped by
El/ropen" ceramists. T/lis
SIOIleI'flre L'fist of 1898-1900 is
gla:ed iJl ti/e fnmol/s "Gmeby
Greel1". 1-11 33.5clII/13'/,;Il.
2 AIIIOlIgst he American
prodllcas. Arllls vlln Brigg/e
dei'l'Jopt'd the mosl SCl/fptlmll
approac1l. TIJe body of lIi5 Lorelei
t'n5t", /linde by tlle Roo{..-'OOO
pottery. mefamorp'os;:es ;1110
t/wf of {/ iPOIIInl1. HI 28clII/11;II.
-....
2
5 TIIl' Fulper POllery CompnllY prodllCl.'ri
extraordillnry fnmps "wl combiJled glns:> (lIld
ceramic JI orgmlie forll/s. This Mushroom
lamp of c. J 910 1m:> fI 'ate nI/tique gln:e.
Ht 45.5cm!I7I,il1.
6 I\delnidc AlsoJl RobillCflll (1865-1929)
crentcd litis cra/; ;:>ase in 1908. TII;5 'l'ork in
porcdaill ms: nfeal o/ enTe/l/l/y am.>ed
dl.'coratioJl. HI H}cm/7I.ill.
3 Iv1aH gln:es werc nlso l/sed in
llu' prOOllctioll 01 file AlllericllIl
Terra Colla & Cerall/ic CompallY
(Teca). Fril: Alberf dl!Sigllt'd
flig1lly orgmlic i:'aSl'Sfor Teca.
Ht (o! falfes!) 24cm/9!:ill.
4 Kafaro S//irayallladalli
in/rodl/ccd a Japal/ese pail/tillg
/rnditioll n/ Roo1..'('OQd. He JIfll/d-
}"lill/ed decoraliOll direcl fo file
body. mukillg eudl msc IIlliqlle.
TJjs 'fl5l' da/LOS Imm 1928.
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Glass
French and Belgian Glass
318
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1 Emile Gall's La Ubellule mupe (lile dmgollfly ClIp) o/ 190, employs
<'llriOIlS tec/miqlll's. illcllldillg can1illg (lIld app/im glns:;, fo errafe
extraordillary detail and atmospllCri( ejfl!ct. Ht l..jcm/l1'/,ill.
2 This famp of 190-1 f'lIlitlcd Les Coprins r("i'l.'als Call's ascil/afioll <l'itll
ti/e reali:;tic depictiol/ 01 /lalllre in glas:,. Ht 83clII!J21,;1I.
T
he late 19th cenhlry saw irnmense experimentation in
glassmaking in franee. Historie techniques \Vere
researched, while nev,' ones such as pte-de-verre ,,,,ere
invented. The French industry went from ane-off hand-
made objects to cast lrt glass on a vast scale. Nancy \Vas
l thriving centre of production with both the Gall and
Daum Freres factories located there. The pre-eminent Art
Nouveau glass producer was Emile Call. He provided
the designs but never made and rarely decorated the
works, many of wruch incorporated Symbolist prose or
poetry. His mastenvorks are essays in the exploration of
natural forms and imagery, and he used various
techniques to acrueve subtle and dense effects, induding
carving, casing, acid etching, wheel cutting, and applying
glass. Many of rus pieces were rnade by serial production
using the commercial tecluuque of acid etdling.
Auguste (185:>-1909) and Antonin Daum (1864-1930)
moved into art glass in the 18905 and employed artists
such as Ernest Bussiere, Henri Berg, and Amalric Waltcr
to produce designs tor glass. Daurn also experirnented
with new techniques such as carneo or JI terca/aire (inlays),
where differently coloured glass is pressed into the body
of the work. Alsace-Lorraine was also the centre tor other
glass manufacturers sueh as the Gruber and Muller
Freres eompanies, which produced glass for electric
lighting, stained glass, and decorative vessels.
The infIuence of Call ,vas felt across Europe but
particularly by the Belgian Val St Lambert Glasshouse,
perhaps the most commercially successfuJ at the end of
the century. Jt produced vases with floral decoration and
nah.ual forrns. One of its most important designers was
the Belgian Philippe Wolfers (1858--1929) who, between
1893 and 1903, produce<! exceptional Symbolist pieces
that often incorporated fine metal moW1ts.
Bohemia, with its distinct tradition of glassrnaking,
was quick to adopt the ne\\' style. The glassworks of J. &
J. Lobmeyr and Loetz-Witwe in Klostem1hle employed
sorne of the leading Art Nouveau designers and, infIu-
enced by developments abroad, developed new forms
and tec1uuques such as painting ,vith platinurn and
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6 Albert-LOllis Dallllllollse
(1846--1926) .I'as 01/{' ofse'eml
frellc/I tlTfi:;!s dIO crented l'Or/(s
IIS/lIg lbe /le'" tec1l1liqut' of pt'ifl:.
tfe-r.wre or caslillg gral/lid glass
paste. Sublfe, /11111/1101/5 I,'ffects
alld illtcl/Sl! c%llrs were ac!Jieved
/lIrougIJ l/lis tcc!miquc alld arc
l'Xl'mplificd /11 t!lis bol'l of c. 1898.
7 Jacqllt"S Grubcr was Ol/C of tIJe
leading dl.'Siguer" of stnim'fi gfa"s
iu FraJlU. 11,is 'l'illdoH' ofC.1906
II/ade for a hOllSt' ill Nal/cy dl'picts
gOllrd" alld watcrli/ies, t,l>o
CO/II/I/O/I lIIotifs il1 Art NOIH'eall.
8 DallJ1/ Fres ellwl(ltl'd Gnll's
art glass alld prodllcl'd 'l'orJ.:$
I1mt were afso tecflllical1y IJigfl/Y
ski/led, TIJis Clip of 1905 is
decornted ,pitl, n mol1l nlld spider
,{'eh aJld l/ses acid-eiclliJlg, f'f/(,ef
cl1gmvil/g, alld applied g/(l55.
Ht 16,5clII/61,ill.
4

3 TJis mflstenl'Ork by Gal/i oIC.1904

demOl/strates his ability fa erente complexo
5y",boli:s1 ,porks flUlt (nrejl/I/y cm/ted c%llr,
patillll/ioll, tlIuf surjnce tren/mcllt.
Ht ]JCIIl/1311.
4 D(/1/11/ Frercs coJlaoomfcd witl, Majorelle
lo prodl/Cf' 1111" rcnlistic metal base for tlle
Figuier de Barbarie falllp 0/1903- DnlllJl
fllld i\lnjoreflejreql/(!Jltfy tt'Orked togethey 011
desigll5 fOY IfllllpS. lit 7jCm/29'11l.
5 CtllJleo glns:> WIlS 0111" oj IIe 11105/ popular
teclmiqllcs in Art NOIlVe(1lI glllS5 {{'are, muf
Mul/er Frercs vecmlle n lending eOll/pallY ill
tlle prodllctiolJ of eDil/mer,,! cnlllL'V gin:;:;.
71lis lamp, decomled witll roses, is fypicII 01
ml/cll Ayt NOllt'etIl1 (01/100 gln55.
3
Glass from Germany, Bohemia, and Norway
1
1 The extrelllely de/iea/e bodies, clIr/illg
tCllririls, lenves, nI/ti stn/ks of t/1/.'se j10wer
forlll gl1l5ses of 1905-6, by Karl Koeppil/g
(1848-1914), 'lOae acllif""Jcd lISillg tlle
lalllpworking teclllliqllc. Few ll11dnlllnged
e..ml/ples slInJivemili file periodo
Ht (tal/esO p_cm/12'!ill.
2 The best kllOWII Bohemim glnssworks, Loetz,
produced lustred 01" irridesccllt g/ass followillg
file suecess of fhe Americnll compnllY TiffnllY.
T!Jis is n rafe t1Jrce-hnl/dlcrl lllstred vl1se by
Loetz. Ht 20.3CII1/8il1.
3 Typicnl of Jose! Hofflllrln al/n file Seccessioll
style, tllis Brollzit vase of 1914 is restrailled in
bolll forlll rmd decorntiOIl. Geollle/rical designs
are pnillled iJl blnck 0/1 frosted glass.
Ht 14C111/5/,il1.
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5 This pliq/le-ii-jollr Clip of 1900 by the Nor.:veg-
ian desigller Thorolf Prytz is a maslerwork /I
the lIIedilllll. rhe &0<1'1 of Ihe Clip is decora/ed
witJ n cOI1VC/1liOllali:ed sJlowdrops pnltem /hile
51lDWdrops Cllrl ar01l11d file sfel1l. Ht nClIljS;I;iJl.
4
4 TJis rair o/ruine glnsses ,(litll clanga/ed
sfem5 (///(f geol/lctric decora/ioJl were designed
by the AIIstrirm designe!" Otto Prutscller il1
C.19o, G/ass (lefO II/ 16clII/6'/;i.
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lustring. Loetz, famous for its iridescent glass, produced
the successful PhiilJOIllCI range in 1897.
TIle height of restrained, geometric Seccession glass
design \Vas produced by Hoffmann for Lobmeyr. His
Brol1zit range of 1914, with its geometrical designs
painted in black on frosted glass, investigated linear form
and decoration. Otto Prutscher produced elegant works
for the Vielmese company of E. Bakalowits & Sblme. The
German designer Karl Koepping (1848-1914) developed
llniqlle lampwork flower-form vessels. His intricate
designs became famous as examples of the new style.
Although produced by a number of designers,
including Feuillatre in Paris, the Norwegians vvere the
masters of plique-a-jour. TIle tcchnique of enclosing glass
within a fragile metal frame was practised by Gustav
Gaudernack (1865-191-1) for the silver company David
Andersen, and 1110rolf Prytz (1858-1938) who produced
designs for Jacob Tostrup in 0510. Conventional flower
decoration \Vas llsed for vessels, and Viking boat
ornaments were also made.
Louis Comfor! Tiffany (1848-1933), was !he mos!
famous American Art Nouveau glassmaker. Bis \vorks in
Corona, Ncw York, made stai..ned glass windmvs, lamps,
mosaics, and blown vessels. Tiffany experimented with
forms and surfaces. In an attempt ta recreate the nacreous
surface of ancient glass he experimented with metallic
effects, perfecting an iridescent technique called Favrile in
1894. Frederick Carder (1863-1963), one of Tiffany's on1y
USA rivals, was an Englislunan who moved to Corning,
New York, in 1903, and established the Steuben
Glassworks. Steuben also specialized in brightly co]oured
iridescent surfaces. Stained glass productian dlanged in
the hands of Tiffany. John La Farge and Tiffany, dis-
appointed with the qllality of American stained glass,
aimed to revive the tedmiqlle as an art formo Tiffany used
metallic oxides while experimenting with the sculphlral
properties of glass. By building up layers he created rich
effects within the glass, of folds, wrinkles, or ripplcs. Both
La Farge and Tiffany made images of landscapes, some
with figures or animals.

America
1 LVIIi:> COlllfort Tifffl/lY's
S;:l'aJl-l/eck i'fl:'f' o/ 1896 ,enj
illspired by tlu.' sill/lol/s forms
vf Persillll boltltos. TJu.'
/"stred surfnn' o/ 'IJis .'ITSt' ,!'flS
crentcd /IsiJlg TiffallY's IIJliq1l1!
de;'dopIIlCllt 01 Fa\'rile g/ass.
Ht 40.5clII/16;1I.
2 Dile of Tiffrl!1Y's II/nsferil'orks,
this pUI1c/1 boa'! 'tl, f!1I't?t' Ind/es
mas mnde for file Pars exhib/ion
of 1900. Jt is /l/ade of F<lvrile
g/nss gilded iJl si/l'a.
Ht 3CIII/1.l.f.ill.

3 TiffllllY was olle 01 tite 1/I0S! experil1lclltnl g/as$ designers tllld dl!t'cloped
/l/al/Y differelll effect$. Qlle 01 file /llosl Imiqllt' was ltis La\'a gias:;. TlIis
>ase pas desiglled ill C.190 . Ht Ijcm/6ill.
4 Tllis It'nded-glass screell depicts grapes, gOllrds, alld e/clllalis iJl /lll
aSYllllllctrical dL'Sigll illspirf.'d by lapnJlese arto /l ,ms mUed a mnster;'ork
iI,ln'll if il'tlS ex/Jibited al 111(' Paris {'x/libifion of 1900. HI l.glJl/jft nill.
5 1- ...;;;;;;;;,,_

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S TiffrlllY is best kIlOt'lI Jor 1lis Inmps, ami
ma"y ofItis desiglls l/sed IIIotifs dmil'lI fro",
I/ntllrt'. He. like mmly desigllers,frl!qlli'lltly
rl!tl/med lo ti/{, I//e drngol/fly tI/eme, appt'arillg
Itere as tlle border of tlle sflflde. Ht lem/28ill.
6 Frederick Carda establis11t'l1 lll/! Stellbell
glassl'Orks, /l/aill eompetitor ill lIJe
USA. T/Jis floral pase add-etcJlillg to
creale slIbtle surjan' effects. Ht 1.5emI7il1.
7 Jo/m Ln Farge hoped lo raJi'(' stnilled glnss
ti:; tl/I art form tll/d, like IIItllIY FrellcJ/
dcsigllers. l/e sal/' 1I0tlll"e as tlppl"opritlte
slIbject /lltlfta. Tllis willdow depicts peol1ics ill
a 10l1dscnpe. Hf 1..J-2111/4ff 8ill. 7 6
4
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i
6
5 TI/CSt! efecl rop/ated si/ver cast-copperfittillgs
were designed by Georges De fellre for fIJe Pars
exllibitioll of 1900 ulld sold by Siegfried Billg.
6 TIIe Dragonfly Woman corsnge omalllen/
of 1897-8 is Ren l.II/iql/e's IIltlsterwork ill
j6.tltlfery. Mtlde ofgo/d, eJlulIlel, chrysopmse,
1/l00IlStOIlI.'5. tlnd ditllllOllds,l.IIliqlle l/sed II/UIlY
tec1miqllt.'SJor lile picee. L. 26.5cm/1O'II.
3 Larclte prodllced /llore flJaIl
olle desigll for gilt-brol/:e Inmps l/y
Loie Ful/e"s scnrj dance. FuI/a becmllc n grent
SOl/Tee o/ I/spiratioll for tllis type o/ sta/llct/e.
Ht 4jcm/J 7'I.
4 Desiglled by PUlIl Fol/ol II C.I904, t1lis silver
tea ser<1ice demollslra/es ti/e Silll/01/5. fluid fomls
IIml coI/id be acJ,if.'ilt'ti in IIIcta/.
Trny l. 62CIII124'/,;II.
Silver and Metalwork
1 l-fLor/oT Gllilllllrd produced tltree el/franees
for ti//.' Paris Metro, C.190o. 111 l/lis desigll for
couered steps, a glnss calloPY is supported DIl a
CfIsl-iron stmctllre.
2 Decorated will monnaie-du-pape. or
IlOlIesty, tllt'Se ;:('rol/glll ron /l/Id bTOII:e gafes
by Louis Majore/fe R'ere dL'Siglled i" J 906.
Ht 1.26m/4/t J'Iill.
French Wares
1
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H
eetor Guimard's famous cast-metal designs for the
Paris Metro station are an important example of a
standardized modular system in Art Nouveau. Designed
for mass production, the Metro design \Vas both
functional and sustainable and is still in use. Perhaps the
rnost important exponent of arehitcetural metalwork,
Guimard also produced designs for fixturcs and fittings,
induding vases, jardinieres, and balcony peecs, aU in his
highly organic linear style.
The Parsian firms of Fouquet and Lalique produced
jewellery in the new style. Enamelling, including pliqlle-il-
jaur, and semiprecious stones replaced traditional tech
niques and gemstones, while nature became the
prcdominant subject. Many pieces reflect a preoccupation
with Symbolist subjects. Anothcr important arca of Art
Nouveau metalwork production was the small-seale
figurative scu1pture, wruch often doubled as a functional
object such as a lamp or inkwell. Avast quantity of figures
were produced by desgncrs such as Louis Chalon
(1866-1916), Maurice Bouval (1863-1916), and Raoul
Larchc (1860-1912). Larche became particularly famous
for rus swirling, sinuous Lo"c Fuller lamps, cast in bronzc.
In Naney, outside Pars, the MajorelJe factory
produced lamps and fittings. The best designs combined
elaborate metal bases in the form of plant stems, and
struetures with subtle glass shades (made by Daum
Freres) in the form of buds or flowcrs.
lnfluenced by the rationalist principIes of Viollet-Ic-
Due regarding the exposure of iron strueturcs within the
interior, the Belgian Victor Horta's use of metalwork, and
particularly cast iron in architecture, set a precedent (or
Art Nouveau designers. His use of ron as both a
structural eomponent and as a decorative element in both
the interior and on the exterior of buildings beeame a
defining feature of the style, while his exploitation of the
sinuous line in metal is charaeteristic of mum Belgian Art
Nouveau metalwork. Many dcsigners explored organie
line in metal including Henry van de Velde and Femand
Dubais (1861-1939). The in!eres! of both designers was in
combining line with seulptural formo
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1
Wares from Belgium and The Netherlands
1 Victor Harta l/sed 'WfOlIglIt fOil tllI'OIlgJIOUI /lis illtcriors. Tile sfnirwell of
Jlis IDI/se ill Brusscls, desigwd bdoeell 1898 l1!1d 1900, dClllolIstrafes lis
IIse 01ClIrvjlillcnr wrollght roll as par! of tlle Ol'crall decorntiuc sdu:mc.
13elgium saw a Renaissance in the tradition of
silversmithing combined with vory carving, as products
from the Bclgian Congo were officially promoted in the
luxmy trades. The most drama tic use of vory and metal
"vas seen in the work Philippe Wolfers. Trained in every
aspect of goldsmithing - modelli.ng casting, chasing,
burnishing, and stone setting - Wolfers created aften
disturbing Symbolist pieces that combine human, animal-
and plant forms. Dutch metalwork was influenced by
developments in Belgium and the work of one of the
leading Dutch designers, Jan Verheul, is clearly indebted
to Horta's curvilinear metalwork.
In German art metalwork, abstract natural omament,
derived fram the ideas of Hermann Obrist, can be seen in
the work af the leading designers Friedrich Adler,
Ludwig Vierthaler, Gertraud von Schellenbhel, Ernst
Riegel, and Hans Edouard Von Berlepsch-Valendas. By
contrast a rich German metalworking industry meant
that many factories mass-produced designs in the new
style that afien used floral or figural motifs. J.P. Kayser &
5 P/lilippe \fI/olfcrs' jemeJlery
box of 1905 is a superb exalllple
of lile use of mixed media.
Si/ver, ellame/, ivory, opals,
alld pearls are combilled lo
creale a symbolisl mastenuork.
HI42cm/I6Y,ilJ.
6
2 Femalld Dllbois desigllcd
this candelabra C.1899. Madc of
elcclroplated brollZC, lIJe bralle/les
tal/gle alld iterlmille fo creare
all orgallic, asymllletric
campositiol1. HI 53cm/2Iiu.
3 Tlzis six-bmllch eandelbmm
made of elecfroplated brolze,
1898--g, is a 11lastenoork il
tlle ClIrvilillear, abstrael slyle
dC'"ueloped by Hemy Van de Vc!de.
lts liear forms sllggest dYllamic
1II0Vemel1t. Ht 36cm/14'/,iI1.
4 The partl1crs/1ip of Frans
Hoosell1alld alld Egide
Rombcaux prod1/ced exquisile
sClIlplures il silver alld ivon;.
lu f/lis calldelabmm of C.1899,
file delicale female figure is l/cid
ill a sensual elll/Jraec by the
searcJJillg phmf telldrils.
Ht ]6clI1/141.ill.
6 Jan Vel'lzeul's !lmlgillg liglzl
fixtllre for all ofJice employs tlle
simlOlIs, cl/rvilicar forllls of
Belgiall Arl NouveaIl.
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German and Austrian Wares
3 TI/e dm:h', CI/I7.il1g forllls o/
Gertrnud t'OIl 5c1mellcll/Jiilel's
l/11irIIC tiCCllty fOllr-Iigllt
cmufdnbrum of '910 is dear/y
by l/le ideas al
Heril/111m Obrisl. /t is IIlIlde
(lf sil<'t'r-plalt'd lIrass.
Hf .S.5cm/I9I.ill.
4 TJis len nlld colfi't' sen'ice.
desigllt'd '.IIlo$l!f Maria Ol/lridl.
C.l90.;. is lIJadi' (lIJ'e.cter. I\'itfl
ifs n'stmilled 1ec(lmliollalld
gcolJlel rc Iorllls, it is typicnl /lol
011/1/ (Ir OUlridl's ,l'Ork iJl ptwter
'lit (llllie $;'c'Ssioll styl/!.
Callee poi 111 195CIII//.ill.
5/054Hoffllll1llll de't'/opt'd 11
pol'e111I1y, Ilt'stfelic
/l{1sfd 01/ gt'OlIIt>tric formo 1t
!lf.'come kJlo<t' /oca//!, as
Quadratstil fSqllfl(;' Tlli5
It'l1 ser...ict' 01 1903. ill sihw.
coml. tl'Ot./d. fllld It'l1tllfr. 'ifJl ifs
IJl1IlIi'/II1IIIIl/l!red sur/nce. (;...11/5
fIJe fOn/mi pl/ril.lf o/ flis st.lfle.
Teapot Ilf llcm/.f.ill.
2 T1Jisgobld desigl/('ll i1l190] by
EnJ:,f Ricgd tnkes tlle form of tl
Irt't' decomh'll il'itlI cTOiI'l/ed
nlt'l.'I1S. \ lade 01sihw. gilded
sihw. anri op"/s its f01"1II rccnl/s
t1n1 01 late Gotfc
gable/s. Ht 2';(11//91;11.
1 Alctnmorphic imngery ens
e01l/1l101l iJl Arl \'OIliWlIl
IIIctn//'ork. The stelll of tltis dt"5k
/nmp by Frit>dridl A1der emerges
mm ti/e orgmlicform oI ti/e base
mll1 Irtlllsforms jllto rile lu.'nd of n
pikl'. Ht 33.5(11I/1;;11.
6
6 \Vii rttClI/lll'lSiscllt' 1\ fetnllwarl'l1fa/lrik ,uns DI/e uf fin' Inrgest (011/ JJtlIl ie:;
fo lilas;; prOdJlCe Art NOll1.'ctlll-sty/e l/letal ('(In.'S. TJe sft'1II of I/ls si/t'er-
p/n/ed flom:r (lIId ffuit stnlld take5 lhe fOJ"!11 of n 1'OIlIaIl. Ht .Jo7. 5clII/1B'!in.
5
324-_. ------- --
American, English, and Scotlish Wares
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2 T/e EI/gUsll desigller Knfe
Hnrri:; protfl/CI!lf sl'i'era/ si/i't,,-
CIIpS fo,- HlIftOIl & 50lls ill /l/e
Art Noili't'nl/ stH/t>. Altllollg// ti/e
ll{/se of IIJis cmlli/e Inmp of '900
i5 c/enrlH Arls (lIId Crafls ill
inspiralioll. tlle slem adopls tlle
teuse clln..ilillt?1lr forms of Arl
,\'oll,emf. HI 3S.jCm/JjiJl.
3 Tflis si/'('r cignrette IlOx of
1903-4 by ArchilVl/d KIlOX is
fecomlef <('il/ //fOI!{S ama' 011
botll Celtic nrl m/II t1le orgnl1ic
5illllOllS filie of Art NOI/l't'nll.
Hll1cm!4"ill.
4 /11 C/icago, Lollis SIfJlj'nll nlso
illlro[l/C/?f Ce/tic imngery. TlIis
lel/er wickd of J90-8 by
Gmlll ElIlI:;/i(' /ISt.':; orgllllic alld
Ce/tic for/1/s. Ht l.0411l/3ft jill.
5 IVo,-ks il/ bl.'ntell mt'fn/ it't'/"t'
afteJl pl"Olfllced by tllt' i'Olllt'll
d('Sigllas of Ihe G/nsgo'l' Scl1oo/.
T/is /Jnl1e/ of 1898 is by
Almgnret Alncdol/n/d.
HI765CI1//30CI/I.
s_..............;;...__...
,

,
2
4
1 T!/I.' COIH'/:'lItiollnl slmpe of tllis wllddabl"lllll of c. 1900, by fhe GorJmlll
Mnllrljnctllrillg Co, tlle [nrgt'sf si/'a in fIJe USA,
l1If1sked by lit/' nnd sil1l1olls decomfiOll. Ht 49'5C/JI,/1g'lill.
1
Sohn in Krefeld was the most successful industrial
producer of pewter objects. Floral elements combined
with linear forms gave pieces a popular appeal. ''''alter
Scherf & Ca. of Nuremberg employed Adlcr to produce
designs for the Osiris series while WMF, one of the largest
electroplate and art metal ware companies, produced
vast catalogues of wares fer the horne including figures,
plaques, lamps, and reliefs.
In Austria, the VViener \.verkstatte founded in 1903
explored handcraft traditions and ideas. The silver
objects produced by the workshops, which were some of
the finest achievements of the enterprise, combined rieh
materials, geometric forms, and unusual surface treat-
ments. Many pieces ha\'e surfaces that were hammered
or pund1ed, revealing a clear influence from the English
Arts and Crafts philosophy.
Most British silversmiths were tmaffected by Art
Nouveau, but two leading figures, Charles R. Ashbee
and Archibald K.nox, did produce designs inspired by
the styJe. Knox produced a range of silver and pewter for
Liberty & Co. that exploited Celtic linear forms. His
CYlIlric "-are of 1899 and TlIdric ware of 1900 became
intemationally recognized by Art Nouveau designers
and patrons. In Scotland the Glasgow School produced
works in various metals, including sil ver and beaten and
embossed lead and brass, that incorporated the typical
attenuated symbolist decoration of the Glasgow style.
American Art Nouveau metalwork was dominated
by two New York based companies, Tfany & Co. and
the Gorham Manufacturing Co. These companies
utilized typical Art Nouveau forms and imagcry in their
products, including the female nude figure, stylized
flowers and plants, and swirling molten metal fonns.
The Tiffany enamel workshops produced sorne of the
\'ery finest and most original enamel work of the periodo
The leading exponent of architectural decorati ve
metalwork in the Unitcd States was Louis sullivan
(1856-192..J:). Much of the complex abstracted organic
decoration and celtic-inspired forms reveal his intcrest in
European models.
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Textiles and Wallpaper
France

5 TIJi:; dt'Sigll or a mllpaper alld border of 1902-3 by fiJe C:ec/l nrtisf

AlpiJoll:ie AJllclm delllol/strafes Jotl' flower 1lI0tifs (ould be cOllreJ/fioll-
nli:ed for l/se ill desigll. TI/e l/se of strollg lille nlld ddicate cofollr are
typicnf of Muclm's sty/e.
6 La Fete du Prinlemps l(>ns desiglled 115 n tllpestry by El/gelle Grasset il1
1900, witll the popu/nr Arl NOJ/l'eall sl/bjeet of dancing felllnle figures.
3
2
1 El/gel/e Gaif/ard l/sed tite C!lTi.'iJlg ogeeonll.
derit't!d frOIll fIJe textiles oI tlle Islamic Orient.
fa crl!afe mI efegnllf rt'pitllillg floral pnffem in
1M:; prillted .'eli,etce" of c. 1900.
2 A1llllY 01 Georges De fruTe's desiglls for si/k
wallcoverillgs were illspil'ed by file floral
rl!penl pnttcl"/ls of 18tl-ccllfllry Frailee.
3 Like 1IIf1I1Y 01 he Nllbis paillter::, Paul
RmlSQlI protil/ced desiglls fol' decomtit>e 11ft
works. This texlile desigll was ex/Jibited ;"ll/(.'
BiliS ptIi.'ilioll al file Paris exl'bitioll 01190.
lts ha/d (010111'5 alld composiliolls are /ypicnJ 01
Nabis desigll.
4 Flix Allbert prodlfced $011/1.' of llu' mast
efegallf desigll5 for Art NOl/,f'tIlJ T/Jis
desigll of irises iJl it'ater is derj>ed rom
}apallt'5l! arto
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rrextiles, whether repeating pattem silks or tapestry
.1 "pictures," were vital to the Gesnllltkllllstwerk, or artistic
interior. France was the leading producer of textiles, and
the important historic centres of the textile weaving
industry in Mulhouse, Lille, and Lyons soon adopted the
ncw style. French textile design is typified by the sinuous
repeating flower pattems that echo French 18th-eentury
silk patterns. Many leading Art NOllveau artists designed
textiles induding Edouard CoIOlU1a, Eugene Gaillard, and
Georges De Feure, who made designs for printed textiles
and embroidery for walls and upholstery. Thcir designs
include sorne of the mosl sophistieated eurvilinear pattems
in Art NOll\eau. Graphic designers such as Alphonse
Mucha and Eugene Grasset also designed. textiles and
waUpapers. Graphie images were often simpl), transposed
to printed. or wO\"en textiles. Grasset designed. rnass-
produced pichu-e panels, sold in department stores, to
provide a form of inexpensive tapestry for the home.
Sorne of the most progressive patterns for textiles and
wallpapers \Vere produced in Cermany, Austria, and
Belgium. Abstraet natural or geometric patterns are
typical of the designs of Henry van de Velde, Josef
Hoffmann, Kolomon Moser, and Richard Riemerschmid.
They developed commercial designs for textiles, papers,
and earpets which "'ere produced often in more than one
colourway and material. Several designers became
interested in textile design as a unique form of art. Van de
Velde's Symbolist Allgel's Wntch, influenced by Gauguin
and the Nabis, was exhibited at La Libre Esthtique salan
in Brusscls, where it was heralded as a mastenvork of the
nc,",' style. nle embroideries of the German HennaIm
Obrist show an intense commitrnent to nahue and the
cnergy conveyed in his vVlliplnsh plant motif has become
a defining feature oC the style.
in the Netherlands, batik (an Indonesian wax-
resistance tedmique) beca me popular in textile designo
The Hague workshop employed up lo 30 women to
produce batik. Chris lebeau's dcsigns \Vere
complex, combining traditionallndonesian patterns with
his own imagery of abstraet plant and zoomorphic forms.
Belgium, Austria, Germany, and the Netherlands
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1 UI/der Ile illfIlIel1ce o/Cal/guill, Val! de
Velde developed tlle use of bright colaur and
flat pnltem in this appliqll textife, AngeJ's
Watch. Made in 1892-3 il I/lflrks a shift in
Van de Velde's work towards a /llore argo,,;c
Illld lillear style.
2 HemulIlll Obrist's semillal Whiplash
cmbroidery of C.1895 is al! ;eo/l of ti/e Art
Nouveau style. Many desigllcrs affempted lo
emulate ti/(, fl:l/se ellergy ac1lieved tI/roug}, lile
use of CI/roilnear lint!.
3 In AI/stria, Ka/amoll Maser created abstraet
pnttems derived /rolll plant motifs in his book
of pllttems, Die Quelle h90r).
W. 1. 15111/3ft 9xi11.
4 Ricllllrd Riemel'schlllidjreqllelltly created
pnttems tlmi tuere adaptedfrOIll planf and
flower fonlls. This textile of 1905 uses 11
mrvillg stcm fa create a reptal.
2
5 In lile searchjor a mooem sfl/e. batik became
a popular teclmiquc il! Hol1f11ld. TlJis 111m-palie!
5Crcell bH C1Iris Lebt.'tIl/ 01C.1904 is 01/1' o//llore
rllflJl (f tfO::/.'1I scrt'eJls prodllced by 11Ie artist
IISillg batik. Ht 1.JlI//4ft ]il/. 5
3
The Nardic Cauntries and Central Eurape
5jllos Vas:ary's Shcphcrd
tapestry of 1899 combilles
eJemel/ls of HIIl/garial1 folk art
itl! lIIodem Art N01fi1eall forllls.
TraditiOl/aj Jaftems are l/sedfor
t/e shepherd's jacket nl1d bordas
while rhe background is
simplificd a/Uf styJi:ed.
1 Frida Hallsell rc,!ived the IIrt of
tapestry wl.'avillg ill Norway. 111
lIer Milky Way fapestl"Y of 1892,
1111.' stars are persollified as
etllercallllaidCIIs.
2 Tl1e Hll11gnrinll Nabis pailller,
Jos7:ef Rippl-Rollni, created t!lis
tapestry, Lady in a Red Dress,
ill 1898. Tlle use of stmllg
oIlffille alld brigllt calollr is
derj'cd fmlll Japal/ese ar/alld
typicnl of j\rf NOllvenl1 grnplJics.
3 Akseli Gllllm Kllllela's, Flame
mg ras cxlbitcd ill the FimJish
Pavilioll af Ihe Paris exhibilioll
of 1900. It <uas [{,DI'ell IIsllg fllc
allcimt ryijy tecll1liqlle al1d its
simple geometricf01"11/S were
adapfed fmm fraditollal Fillllsh
folk paftems.
4 atto Eckmallll'S Five Swans
tapestry was 111ade al the tapestr!!
II'l!ai'ill" worksllOps af ScllelTl'bek
c'
//ch [{'ere fOlll/ded ill 1896
to colltilllle rile traditioll of
wen,-,illg. This tapesfry wns 0111.'
of the most poplllar desiglls madI.'
af Sc1zerrebek.
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Innovative designs emerged from the new tapestry
workshops in the Nordic countries and central Emope.
Tapestry weaving \Vas highly esteemed and underwent
a renaissance with such designers as the Nonvegians
Frida Hansen 0855-1951) and Gerhard Munthe and
Hungarian Jnos Vaszary (1867-1939). They devised
narrative patterns based on nananal history, folk rnyth,
and legend to produce modern national designs.
Hansen, in the tapestries \voven by the Nonvegian
Tapestry Society at Kristiania, adopted ancient Nordic
techniques claser to Kilim making than conventional
tapestry technique. Similar v.rorkshops \Vere established
in Finrand, Denmark, and Hungary and used
indigenous patterns and techniques in tapestry, carpet,
embroidery, and lace. Scherrebeck, in Denmark, a
successfu1 textile centre, employed designers fram other
countries to produce large quantities of works. Over 100
versions of Otto Eckmann's Five Swml5 tapestry ,vere
produced. Hungarian textile design a1so sa"" the
modernizing of other traditional techniques. Hallas lace
combined the sinuous forms, new colours, and floral
subject matter of Art Nouveau with traditional lace-
making techniques.
By 1890 Britain was a leading produeer of artistie
textiles and wallpapers. A number of British manufactur-
ers produced Art Nouveau designs for export \"hile
British designers were employed by both British and
foreign manufaeturers. Although many companies made
designs inspired by Arts and Crafts flat pattcrn design,
eompanies such as the Si1ver Studio and F. Steiner & Co.
produeed a range of exuberant Art Nouveau designs that
used attenuated, stylized plant forrns.
Seotland smva revival of interest in craft texhle design
and teclmiques. Many, predominant1y women, designers
associated \vith the Glasgm." Sehool of Art studied
teehniques and patterns of British and European folk
embroidery and developed a wlique form of appliqu
embroidery that ineorporated materials such as glass
beads and papero Conmlon motifs used indude the
Glasgow rose, the egg, and gcometric forms.
England and Scotland
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1 Y/Jis prillfed cotfOIJ textile dt'Sigllt'lf by Har,-y Napper, c. J 900. alld
prillted by G.P. Bakcr Ud, adar!:; /he tradiliOllfll thistfe moti[ lo l/le
swirlillg/orlll5 of Arf NOll'.'CUII.
2 F. SIf'illl'r & Ca prodllced sl!fJi:ed,/lom! "(fUi'nlS far ex/mrt. TI,,:;
}"in/ed coffolJ safcl'll ,pus prodl/ced in J906.
3 5fyli=.ed fl/lips Witfl CIIn'illg stems ami icm'e5 /orlll fllc pntterJI ill tl1is
1903 rles;gll lor a imllpaper by Lilldsay 8I1ttelji('lri. TI,,' slIbtle palette is
eOll/poseri ;11 sJwdes oIgrl!l!lI and yelloH'.
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4 /l'Ssit' Ne<t'wry stllriil'ti rolJI Britisll ulld EI/ropalll fa/k t'lI/broidery. n,s
cofiar mu bdf ofC.1900 dt'mOl/slra/e 1Jl 'T npt'Till1l.'llfal styll.' llml combillt'l1
app/itlI it'itll simple stitchil/g. Bl'1t l. 75cm!:l9'l.i1l.
5 Mnrgtwt /o,1ncdolluld prodl/ced texti/e>for illteriors by 'leT ImslxlIld, c.R.
A!lIckilltos/l. TI,f'S(' t'mbmidl7cd /HlllelS. 190:1, incillde G/asgo'" 5c1l00/ lIIolift
illcllldillg nltcllllnlrd figl/Tl!S, eggs tlJld circit's. Ht 1.S21l1/5ft 1 J '/iu.

Furniture 334
Austrian 334
British 336
American 337
Gerrnan and Continental 338
Ceramics 340
Glass 342
Silver and Metalwork 344
Textiles 348
Early Modernism
1910-30
Contemporary with Art Nouveau in France and Belgium and Jugendstil (Youth
Style), its counterpart in Germany, were the often remarkably modern"looking
creations emanating from the design studios and factories associated with the
Wiener Werkstatle (Vienna Workshops). This association of artist-craftsmen,
modelled on C.R. Ashbee's Guiid of Handicraft in Britain, was founded in 1903 by
the business-patron Fritz Warndorfer, architect-designer Josef Hoffmann (1870-
1956) and artist-designer Koloman (Koio) Moser (1868-1918). It owed a
considerable debt to the principies of the Arts and Crafts Movement.
I

T
he designs of the Wiener Werkstatte are often
considered the Austrian manifestatian uf Art
Nouveau, just as the output of the Glasg'v School is
often caHed Scottish Art Nouveau, but fOI the purposes
of this book, early 2Oth-century Viennese design is being
considered in addition to the output of Paris, Glasgow,
Mw1.ich, Barcelona, Turin, and other leading centres of
multi-faceted Art Nouveau, which were covered in the
previous chapter.
In Austria itself, contemporary design \',ras referred to
as Sezessiollstil. The name derives from that of the Wiener
Sczession (Vienna Secession) arcrutects, designers, and
artists, inc1uding Hoffmann, Moser, painter Gustav Klimt
(1862-1918), and architect-designer Josef Maria Olbrich
(1867-1908), who in 1897 broke away from lhe Vienna
Academy, the city's conservative, quasi-official society of
artists. The Secessionists, who published the influential
periodical Ver Sncrlll11 (Sacred Spring), airned to connect
themselves, and their city, with similarly progressive
artists outside their environs and cowltry, whose art they
displayed alongside their own in the magnificent
Secession building (1898), a square white Olbrich-
designed structure topped by a gilded openwork dome of
leaves and tendrils. The resultant efflorescence of the
new, ofien highly inno\'ative, design and decorative arts
in the Austrian capital, informed in part by Charles
Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow School (see
previous chapter), preved every bit as irluential as, and
certainly more long-Iasting and timeless than, French and
Belgian Art Touveau.
The goal of the aesthetically (though not necessarily
socially) progressive group connected to the Wiener
""erkstatte, which existed until 1932, was to apply
principIes o tasteful design and sound craftsmanship to
an extensive range of objects, from fumihlre and
metalwork to textiles and ceramics. Hoffmann, Moser,
Olbrich, and other Secession and Werkst.atte figures,
among them architect-designer-teacher atto ",ragncr
(1841-1918), and Dagobert Peche (1887-1923) and
Eduard Josef Wimmer (1882-1961), both of whom were
Left: Josef HOffll1i11l1l'S
colol/red-metal mellll llO/der alld
Otto Beral/'s IitlJ0grapf/ed lI1ellll
card for tlle \Vieller Werkstiftte,
C.1906, were origi/lally desiglled
for o Igo6exhibifioll, Der
gedeckte Tisch (file laid tabfe).
TIJe card i/le/udes tIJe decoratjoe
elemCllts fOl/lld 01/ lII(lIIY
Viellll/.'Sf! dL'Siglls of fI,e period,
from glassimre ami chilla lo
fl/rllitl/re alld IHJSters. Card lit
14CIII!,IiIl; holder Jf 3.,CIII/1;;;II.
Opposife: fI/e Paltlis 5todet,
Brllssels (lgo,-nJ, desiglled by
Jose! HOff7lli1llll, .ms a primtt'
Ilol/se!I/rllished completely b.l/ lile
Wicl//.'r lVerkstiilfe. lis simple,
tllOlIg/l subtfy decora/ed,
rectilillear black-alld-iL'hite
exterior belied mI/di o/ tf/e
il/terior dt'Sigll of fIJe reside/lce,
iL'/lidl ille/lIdt'S decorated
fllmitllre by HOffllll1l11/ alld
Kolomall A'Io:;er, 111ura/s by
GII:>fat' Klimf, alld bol/
utilitarii1ll alld dccorative objects
by he premie/' early Modcmist
desiglle/'5 olld manufacturas of
ea/'iy loth-cel1/lI/'y Vielllll1.
,
- 1 Virlllln-"onl Winofd Reiss, ,pIlO 3 frolll tlli! t't1rfy :!.Ot/I (t'llflfry.

seltll'd in Nr.I' lork City, I.'xamp/t5 01C::yll ltl'sigll slloin:d

(rrofed the gOl/adle-oll-boord illjllll.'llCes 01 ti/(, gL'Ometric

of asty1i::ed blosslJIII Jor Pflth'rus af tlm-o!-lf'l'-Ct'llfllry

wt1/1pnpa or lt'xti/C, C.192.S, tlmt VicIIJUI. Pm'l'J jmuik's (""('h'li

/ooked /Iflck fa organie Vil'l1m'sl' box, 1911, o/ enrflli!Ilil'an' witll

desigl/ mili earlia in /e ivory-colollred gln::e ami jaggl!d

celltury. Ht l.01l11!Jf! 4;11. /IIack decorntioll, is n/so 11 fil1L'

2 i\us/rialls Atlicllflc/ PO1'0/1l1/ fllld exml/ple ofC::ecll ClIbislII,

&rlol.1 LOffier de:;igl/ed fI/e !ml/a- H/l2.Cm/.p/jll.

pnillft'dfaicJlCI' 'iold mse. /linde 4 Arfs (fIId Crnfts decorafiOJl

by tlleir Vieller Kernmik. C.1906. adoms tI,i:; poil/klt tIJui gilded
n/e grid-like d/'jigll is lypiClll oI ,,'OOd co.'en'd jar, C.1906, I'y

t'fIrly Vkllllt"Se MooemiSIII; LI/da AJatllr<l'S of Sml

similar gl'OlIIetric desiglls cml L't' Frnllcisco's Fl/mitllrt' 511/1.

fOil /lit 0/1 meta/f'Ork, fll mitl/re, AfOOml $tyli=ed floral forll/$ also
1

allll textilC'S. Ht 1.1.3cm/5Y.ill. apPl'ar. Ht 31.7clII/1:1/ill .

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332
later artistic directors of the Werkstatte, held their own
exhibitions, reccived important conurussions both at
home and abroad, taught at the prestigiolls
KWlstgewerbeschllle (School of Applied Art) and, most
of a1l, had their influence felt not only across the
Continent and the Atlantic but across the decades, weU
past the demise of the Art Nouveau of France and other
cOllntries. All these talented individuals looked with
fresh eres at huniture, ceramics, glassware, metalwork,
and other objects, espousing a clean new design
vocablllary. Frem their highl), creative designing minds
carne objects of beauty as \-veH as comfort, lItility, and
decoration, characterized by qllalities sllch as
rectilinearity, geometry, strong patterns, and bright
colours. Te", materials were employed as ",eU, sllch as
bentwood and alpaca, a silver-plated alloy.
The ,.viener Werkstatte carne to be one of the most
progressi\'e forces in art and design of the time, showing
its wares at international exhibitions and opening
additional branches in Marienbad (Czech Republic) and
Zrich (bolh 1917), New York City (c.1922), Velden in
Austria (1922), and Berlin (1929). Acenlm)' later, much of
the Wiener Werkstatte's output still appears decidedly
Modernist, not LUllike the even earlier sil ver and base and
composite metal tcapots, toast racks, and other lltilitarian
pieces by Christopher Dresser (183J-1904), the
polymathic British designer of the Victorian era.
The creation most closely cOlUlected with tll.e ''''iener
Werk.statte, and arguably its most famous and best-
presen'ed legac)', was a la\'ish private residence that was
located not in Vienna but in Brussels, where Adolphe
Stoclet, a wealtll.Y banker, and rus Parisian-born wife,
Suzanne, commissioned Josef Hoffmarm to design for
them a modem villa, known toda)' as the Palais Stoclet or
Villa Stoclet (1905-11). This rectilinear, sllbtly decorated
strllcture (still extant bllt not open to the pllblic) was in
turn furnished and decorated by HoffmalUl, Moser,
Klimt, and other talented VielUl.ese artists and designers
of the day. A project marked by both simplicity and
luxury, the Palais Stoclet is an icon of refined early
Modemism that featured the cool, squared-off hmuture
and fllmishings of Hoffmann and Moser, as weU as
sparkling gilded and painted murals in the dining room
executed by Klimt. Indeed, the Palais Stoclet boasts not
on1y the sole sllrviving allthcntic Secession interior, but
also one of the most important early-Modemist interiors
--- -------
in Europe, as fresh and modem today as it was when it
was designed and fumished nearIy a cenhrry ago,
In other countries, similar Arts and Crafts-inspired
associations, sehools, workshops, and loosely linked
groups of artists and designers arose aroWld the tum of
the cenhrry, ereating, among other things, Modernist
furnitllre and objects that were somctimes akin to the
output of the \"'iener Werkshitte, sometimes distinctly
independent of any other movement or style,
In Germany there were the Vereinigte \rVerksUitten fr
KW1St llnd Handwerk (United V\'orkshops for Art and
Crafts), established in 1897, and the Dresdner
vVerkstiitten fuI' Handwerkskunst (Dresden Crafts
\'Vorkshops), founded in 1898. Similarly, there was the
artists' colony at Mathildenhohe, near Darmstadt, set up
by Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse in 1899 to bring
together all the arts follmving both design and social
criteria; among its invited members and teaehers \Vere
the German arehitect and designer Peter Bchrens, the
Belgian Henry Van de Velde, and the Austrian Olbrieh, In
] 907 the Deutseher Werkbund, yet another Teutonic
unon of art, design, and industry, was founded with the
aid of the \'iener v'"erkstatte,
A hule later in Britain, the Omega \Vorkshops
(1913-19), which were associated with the Bloomsbury
school of artists, \Vere set up in london by the art critic
and painter Roger Fry (186&--1934). The workshops
produeed textiles, rugs, furniture, pottery, and other
objects in a painterly decorative style whose motifs,
palette, and style \Vere somewhat akin to Tmpressionism
but marked by an exuberance all their o\Vn (and
decidedly non-British in eharacter). And though Omega
5 T1Jis- SlIInlf ,,'OOd llO.\" of 191.f
/'nS-II"illtcd bl( \'lflldllnlll L'l'is
SOOll after he lcft tlle Oll/ega
WorksJlOps nl/d sd IIp tltc Rl.'bd
Art Ceo/t', Tts slc<,k geoll/'Iric
dcsigll CO!llp/ellll'lltS Ihe /10"":;
CIIbt' sltnpe nnd is nkill lo
Alvdcrnis-f cOlltim'lllnl
r,ltllt'r tIlnl/ tlle idioSl/llCralic
figuratit-t' nlld
t}Wicn1 (lf Omegn. Ht 8,9(111/] //l.
",orkmanship was not al",a)'s first rate, their decorative
pieces proved to hl\'e a lasting appeal, in part because of
the eminence of those, SllCh as Frv, DLUlCan Grant, and
,
Vanessa BeU, ",ho designed and decorated them.
In Czechoslovakia, architects and designers eonnected
",ith a short-lived (c,1910-25) movement that took as its
inspiration both Secession objects and Cllbist paintings
and sCll1ptures created highly original, daringly deco-
rative furniture and other objects known today as Czech
Cubismo Multi-angled, chairs and sofas, as
weH as ceramie tea sets, "ases, and others \'essels, were
among the arresting pieces created by Vlastisla\" Hofman,
]arosla\' Horeje, Pa\'el Jank, and others,
As ",eH, a nllmber of arehitects, designers, and
painters in the United States \Vere creating objects that
can be considered outstanding examples of early
ModelTIsm, Among them "'ere, in California, Arthllr F.
Mathews and his wife, Lucia K. Mathews, and the
brothers Charles Sumner Greene and Henry Mather
Greene; in Ne\V York, ]oseph Urban, \\'ho for a time
headed the V\'iener Werkstatte's Ne\\' York braneh, and
\,\'inold Reiss; and arguably one of the greatest architect-
designers of his (and many \\Olild 5<lY any) era, Frank
L10yd Wright.
6 Britisll-oom ElcmlOr A1nbd Snrtal/, WllO li'('d il/ Belgil/llI C.1911-15.
Ifcsigllt'd l!lis WI"itillg cal/illt,t fOl" tlle Bmsst'!s- firm L'Art Dwrntif ill
191], ,('he" ir WI1S e",hibit<-d ill Glle"I. 0fmiollS <I'oods-, motlla-of-
pend, it'or!!, (llld si/k, tllC sIJoil'picce combines n s-ill/pk recti/illenrfol'm
pifJI bold i /l/nid flora/decoratiOIl, Il/lls b/elldi IIg g.'olllel"ie elemt'lIts of
eDlltemporar!! Viclllw wilh rlccomti'e II/otifs of enr/y Art OtCO Pntis-,
1\'. 1.]5/11/4t 5bll.
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Austrian Furniture
Square and Rectilinear Designs
4 Wagllcr's sfraight-cdgcd glazcd (Ualmll
((Ibilld of 1898-9, parf of a sllife offllmifllre
il/ his Vielllw dillillg room, Jws ricJl buf sparse
elllbellis}lIlenf: dOlllillO-/ike cire/es 011110fller-
of-pear/, eclJOil/g lile ril1gs arOlllld tite drawer
pul/s. Ht 1.991/1/6ft 6ill .
1 Several versiolls of atto
Wagller's classic Vienncse
hcnfwood (lnd metal arllle/mil'
exisl, deri'pcdrvlII a prototype
desigl/ed by Gustav Siegel alln
mnde by J. & J. Ka/m, C.lgOO.
TIJis 1902 /Ilode! by Wagller, of
beeclnvood, (lllIlIIll1illlll, mld
metal, is probably lile best ktlOWIl.
Ht 78cm/3o'l.in.
2 Designed by Wagller, tllis
ehonizen beechwood (Inri
allllllinilllll slool, C.1904, Iras a
silllple ClIbe forlll, devoid of (11/
amUlIlell! bu! for f!le melal bolts
0/1 he legs. Ht 47clllha'/,in.
3 T!le IIbiquitOllS clieqllerboard of
early lIIodem Vicmlese desigll
appears 011 he five colllpartments
of t/is metal (/lid wood p1fmf
stalid, c.1903-4, n/tributen fa
Ka/aman Moser. Ht 85clII/}3)1,II.
3

.I,I.' I .-.

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334
T
he fumiture designed by Josef Hoffrnann, Koloman
Moser, JosefMaria Olbrich, and Otto Wagner in
Vierma is best known today, be it the mass-produced
works of the prolific Hofhnarm or the unique veneered
case pieces of Moser.
Although perhaps better known for his metalwork
designs, Moser produced sorne of the most exquisitely
decorated and crafted furniture of the Werkstatte. He was
adept at designing practical geometric pieces, but when
he applied rus painterly eye and skills to inlaid and other-
wise decorated furniture, the results were outstanding.
Most of these creations had traditional, rectilinear forms,
wruch acted as a neutral backdrop on which to append
rnother-of-pearl, pewter, or exotic wood inlay or mar-
quetry. His dining-room chair of 1904 of rosewood,
maple, and mother-of-pearl features the chequerboard
design, a Werkstatte signature motif, at the top and bottom
of the back; its focal point is a dove bearing an olive branch
on the back. Moser stopped designing for the Werkstatte
by 1907, when he devoted more time to painting.
The extensive array of largely production items by
Hoffrnann is arguably the Wiener Werkstatte furniture
best known today. Among the most attractive are the
dark-stained, laminated, ebonized, or white-painted
beechwood pieces, most "vith benhvood elements. His
designs were largely made by Jacob & Josef Kohn's
Vierma factory as well as Cebrder TI1onet. Hoffmann's
simple bent beechwood chair of 1904---, designed for the
dining room of the Purkersdorf Sanatorirnn, was produced
by J. & J. Kahn. Probably his seat furniture is
the Fledermalls chair, designed for the Werkstatte's
theatre-bar, the Kabarett Fledermaus.
Viermese furniture was also designed by Olbrich,
Wagner, Otto Prutscher, Gustav Siegel, and Adolf Loos.
Bentwood pieces are the most corumon (the process
having been invented by Thonet in the late 18505);
veneered, highly decorated ones are the most unusual.
Wagner's ebonized woad and stool, c.1904,
was designed by Thonet fer Vienna's Osterreichische
Postsparkasse (post office).
Bentwood Chairs

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3 Hoffmllllll's Sitzmachinc, ]908, <vas al!
l/pdate of lile dass;c, ndjllsfahle-seaf Wi/finm
Morrls e/mir, alld 15 al once reetilillenr alld
ClIruilincllr, Witll rOlllld {llld sqrU'lre decora!ive
e/elllcnts Cllt Dl/lalld !ldded. Ht 56cIII/22/II.
3
2 TI,e belltit'OOd Acdcrmaus c1miT by
Hoffmmlll, c.1906. TlIis;5 arare exl(IIIf
example ruitll traces of ils origma! b/ack-alld-
vllite pain!; lhe bnck pallel Imd sea! (lTe
upIJolstered in red lea/ller. Ht 72.3cm/2S'/,ill.
, I I
".
'"
1 TI/e recti/illearJonll of Ka/Dman Masa's
armc1ulir, J904,;5 in stark contrast to ifs
opll/ent decoration: rosewood and map/e velleer
and mother-of-pt!tlr/ in/ay. Ht 94.9cml3ft lYJIl.
2 Moscr's Enchanted Princesses cabillet,
c.J900, sllOws Japnllese mld Symbolist
illflllences. WlleJI Opell. tlle comer piece re-veals
two marqllelry 0/1 tlle door backs,
amid eircles o[alpaca melal. Ht J.71/IJ!Sft
3,4 Moser's lady's rvritillg desk rvitJr anllc/mir
o[ 1903, made by Caspar Hrazdil. Tlle pieces
are made o[ exofic TlllIj/l1l.lood il/laid witll
satimuood alld ellgraved alld illked brass.
TIllo! figl/rative elemellJ - eigh/ womeJI IJolding
IlOops - is /l distillctive Moser tOl/cIJ. Desk lIt
J.4411l!4ft 7Y.ill; cJl/lir 1lt 67cm!26/,i,1. 2
Opulent Veneered Pieces
1 lose! HOjJlllflllll'S belltWooa ehair, C.lgD4.
ll.'flS desigllcd for tlle Pllrkersdorf Smmtorillm.
lt /5 n simple desigll, WitJl J 5 rows of paired
eire/es 0/1 ils pierced bnck sp/at tllld 8 woodcll
sp/leres be/oiO its seat. Ht 98.cm/3ft 21,;11.
British Furniture
Artisls' Furnilure from lhe Omega Workshops
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1 DlIllmll Granr:; oil-{}ll-tl'OOdlilypond
791 j. fl!'1tllrcs fop!llar Oll1l'sa
1\'orksllOps GrillJI sal' tlll! as a
lrllt' meeting oj art aJld designo o/filll! alld
applied arto Eadl pallelIJl1.7Slll/S/t Sl.ill.
2 Expertly crafted illllUlrqllefry o/ilflriolls
woods, its decoratioll t1l01 01 tiPO styli=ed
gil'{lffes, eupboord wns desiglled by Roger
FI'Y ond lIlode by josepll Kailellbol'll for lile
O/11ega WorksllOps, 1915-16. HI2.1JIII/71t.
3 Tllis dressil1g table II/ade by Knllel1bol'll,
C.1919. wil/I i IS s/lmptHOl/5 I'etIeel' 01 (('al 1111 I,
sycalllol'e, alld ebony 011 hally. is al OII(C a liad
lo filie Colsl'Old5 crajtslllallship alld Frl.'lIc/l
Al't Deco i'c?lIeeredfllmi/llrl.'. IV. J.5/1l/.ift nill.
336
4 A Ilakl'd (Il1d il'illgl?d IIII1Sici(1Il sfTllIIIS (1 str;IIsed illsfTllllleJlf 01/ a log
box pnillted by DIIIIC(lII GTmll, c. 1916, I1l C/mrle:.tOI/. \ V. ;..cm/I31:;II.
5 TJe /lJI!!T lid ofi.'irgillals in eJfecl nctillg as lIis camYlS, Raga Fry
pnill!l'd a lIaked 'OI/UlIl 011 tllis Omega \Vorb:flOps illstrlJlllt'lIt. Jll"r slJnX
disfortt'f fo jit tite odd allg/t's oIIJII.' lid. Opt'll keyboard ,,' l.o..m/3ft jiill.
F
umiture created by the Omega Workshops Tan the
gamut from upholstered chairs and 50fas covered
with Omega-designed fabrics to marquetry case pieces
and hand-painted screens. Vanessa Bell \Vas the likely
painter of a tile fireplace surround al' Monks House, the
home of her sister, Virginia ,",Vaolf. Exuberant floral and
fruit displays \Vere a150 painted throughout Charleston,
the Sussex farm.house that in 1916 became the residence
of Duncan Grant and Vanessa BeU, and the country
retreat of the Bloomsbury set. There, stilllifes or simply
large blossoms appeared on, among other objects, doors,
windo", surrounds, a gramophone cabinet, a small three-
fold screen, and a kitchen cupboard. A screen, Lilypolld,
was painted by Grant in 1913.
At the same time that the Omega Workshops were
creating colourful pieces of furniture, the Cotswolds
master furniture maker, Ernest Gin1son (1863-1919). and
other Arts and Crafts designcrs \Vere hand-fashioning
outstanding objects in a simple and often gcometric style
which prcfigured Modernism.
Craftsmen's Artislry
1 Ekgallt (l/Id pnillslakillsly
cra/'ed, Emesl GimS(ll/'s mbinel,
C.1902. is i'ellel'red ill ml'lllt
il'itl! gesso Si/l pOllds olld al/
ebol/Y stami. Note tite dialllOlld-
sJaped pottcm arOIlJld tlle t,t'o
11pper pnlll.'1s. fIJe circulnr
o/'OlIl1d f!le lower lruo.
IV. 63.2(111/25;11.
2 Gilllsoll's 5mall cnbillCf, C.J907.
/eaturL'S all Ullllsllflllllarqlldry
desigl/ - tlle pnttem
a sea oj Ok'11 book::; - il/ IlOl1y,
elxmy, alld ca/IIIII.
Ht J6.scm/q.itl. 1
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American Furniture
Salid Midwest Ingenuity
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1 CfUlrfes SUlIlIIer Creene and

HelllY MafllCl" Creene creafed
t!lis fallle, CIgOg, of Honduras
lIIallOgany, ellollY, and si/ver.
Note t!Je graphic wavy filie,
in/aid ill si/ver 01/ f!le dra,l'Cr
and ClIt out 0/1 lIe /ower she/f
W. 1.37111/411 4il/.
2 Lucia MatIJews's hexagonal
carued al1d painted wood box,
CIgIO, features floral elelllCIIls
that /ie befwce Arts mld erafts,
Jugendstit and Arf Oeco.
Ht 29C111/11'11.
Decorative California Pieces
1
1 Wit} its intriguing/y low al/d
nl1g/ed backboard, Frrmk Lloyd
Wrigltt's ICllther-upllOlstered oak
sirle e/mir, 1902-3, vas for fIJe
Fralleis W. Uttle HOlIse in
1IIil1oi5. TllOugh mnde of the sil/l/e
IIInferials as cOllfempornry
Missioll onk sen! Jumilllre, it Itas
beell slIhver!ed illfo sOllletllillg
o/her t!Jrl/l (/ stmightfonvnrd sirle
clwir. ]-Jt 76clII13oill.
2 WrigJf's boxy wahlllt nrlllc1wir
nl/d oltomall, 1937, ,vere
designed for his residelltial
colllmissioll, Failillgwater, ill
Pellllsylvilllia, 1935. TJe (hair is
milrked by t!le sllme slIperb
crnfts11Iill1shp (/lid n 1I11ify of
npproncll JI tcmz5 of its desigll
mld tlwf of /ie structure for
w!licl! il was crented as the
eXilll1ple lo ils left.
E
arly Modernism in America had several exponents
whose furniture and other wooden objects ,vere
indebted not only to the Wiener Werkstatte and the Arts
and Crafts Movement bllt also to Asian, specifically
Japanese, designo
Joseph Urban (1873-1933) was a ViCIma nativc \Vho
settled in America in 1911 and in the early 19205 v.'as
Presidcnt of the New York outlet of the Wiener
Werkstatte. Urban created shovvy, luxurious furnture
that was often lacquered and highlighted \vith mother-of-
pearl. vVinold Reiss 0886-1953), a German-born artist,
also designed interiors and fllrniturc in turn-of-the-
century New York.
Using a design vocabulary more related to British Arts
and Crafts were Lucia Mathews (1870-1955) and Arthur
Mathews 0860-194.5), Luca's hexagonal "lOod box,
c.191O, is decorated with stylized blossoms. In the 19005,
Frank L10yd Wright (1867-1959) \Vas designing furniture
that \vas neither Arts and Crafts nor Modernist but could
fit in well with VieIUlese designs of the same periodo An
example is rus oak side chair, 1902-3.
Charles Sllrnner Crecne (1868-1957) and Henry Mather
Greene 0870-1954), architect-designer brothers, are
considered Arts and Crafts exponents, bllt their mahogany
table, c.1909, has a Japanese look that also looks forward
t the strearnlined Modcrnism of two decades latero
33
German and Continental Furniture
2
2 TJis pair oIoak alld /rnt1lt!r ellOir:; is afier n desglJ by Ricl/Il!rsclmld,
c.1900. WitIE tl/tir dt'comtirlf yet stmctllml dngonalside stmts. tite
eltair:; are afilie, CIlt7.,ilillear e.mll/plt o/ JugcndstiL Ht 78clII/30'l.ill.
3
3 Tit:; beecll alld penrt'OOd
arllle/mir by Riemerschmid, made
by ti/e Dresdner Werkstiittm fiir
Handwerkskrlllst, 1902, benrs
tmces of ]ugendstil 111 its slIbtly
CIlt7.1illg back, arlll5, alld f ~ o l l t
alld cllnlllfcn'd leg:;. Ot/l(.'rwise il
is a salid piece leal/illg lowards
later ModemiSIII. HI 82C1I1/P.t;;1I.
4 TI/e sweepillg dingowl/s of
Bruno POIl!'S lIIaple flJld leallleT
nrmclJfl" 1901, made by file
Vereinigtell \Verkstiift('ll lir
Kllnsf ;/11 Hnlld<Lwk, Mllllieh,
lIIake a stTOJlg desigll stafelllt'JIf
yet prat,jde tite sitter ,>itll mi
e/egnllfly em'e/opillg seaf.
Ht 87-5clII/3.:,lill.
Simple, Practical Designs
1 Riclmrd RiemerscllllJid desiglled Ibis simple. sl/bslmllinl oak and
leather desk, c.lgO). probably mode by tite Oresdller Werkstiittell Jij,
Halldwerkskllllsl. W. 1.9911l/6ft 61,;11.
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338
A
t the time Hoffmann, Moser, and others, were
producing their furniture designs in Vienna,
designers elsewhere in central Europe, many of whom
were associated with the already mcntioned ,vorkshops,
,vere creating early Modemist furniture, generalIy not of
the elaborate, opulent Viennese type but more straight-
forward wood-carved and machine-manufactured
varieties, often ''''1th subtle decorative fillips.
In Cermany, for example, Richard Riemerschmid
(1868-1957) designed MnsclIlelll116bel (machine-made,
hand-finished fumiture) for the Dresclner Werkstatten,
such as his beech and peanvood arrnchair of 1902. The
Typelllllobel (standard fumiture) of Bruno PauJ (187-1-1968)
was offered by Munich's Vereinigten Werkstatten fr
Kunst im Handwerk. A handsome oak dining table with
four side chairs of c.1910, for instance, was relatively
straightfonvard, rectilinear, and unadomed, but for the
backs of the chairs, ,vhich comprised a simple rectangular
splat with a diamond-shaped mid-section. Two other
Modemist furniture designers working in Germany \Vere
Hamburg-born Peter Behrens (1868-1940), ",ho had
helped to establish the Munich Vereinigte VVerkstatten fur
Kunst im Handwerk in 1897, and the Belgian Henry van
de Velde (1863-1957), who introduced Art Nouveau to
Dresden in the sarne year. Behrens's white-painted ,vood
side chair, 1903, with two elongated arch cut-outs in its
subtly curved back, relates somewhat to van de Velde's
1902-3 bedside cabinet, of white-painted pine and brass,
which has trefoil cut-outs on the side.
Although better known for his whiplash-cunred
pieces, the Belgian Gustave Serrurier-Bovy (1858-1910)
aIso created sorne starkly rectilinear fumiture that related
to Viennese designo His bexy am1Chair, c.1900, is remark-
able for its strong, vertical, almost cage-like elements.
Among the most dramatic early Modernist rumiture
coming out of Central Europe was that created by
exponents of Czech Cubismo \Nith its Uluque zigzag-
shaped elements, Pavel ]ank's chair of brown-stained
oak, 1911-12, resembles Art Deco creations of the 1920s, or
Memphis fumiture of half a century into the future.
5 mlk dilljuS tnbk i/'itll fO/lr
sid.' (/nir;;., c.J91O. dt;;.iglltt/ by
Bntllv Pnl/I ml.lmadl' by tllC
IVl'rksliitlt'JI fiir KlIlIsI
. .
i/1/ Hlm.fil'l.'rk, BaJiIl, is s/nrk/lf
m:tililll'nr, bu/ filr tI't' dinlll(lII,i-
sJmlll.',f 'lItrnlll(l sl'lat tlll U,e
e/mirs. Its nlld strnig1ll
lillt',: (lm/mst s/rvlIgly ('jllllln'
(1/17'I'S Pnlll's nrllldmir f. (1/1
l1't' IlTI,"';O/ls Jlngd.
Tn/JIt' ditllll. l.:!.lIIl3ft J1 (ill.
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7 BdSillll dl'sigm'r CI/stn"j'
Sarllria-Bvi'Y is l>1':>t kJlv'1I fi1r
/is (1I17,i/illt'nr t\rt ,\'llll"I'nI1
fumitl/rc.ll/I/III'lll.'O CTl'nf,'d
;;.tnrkly rt'clilim'fIr.frms, ill pnrt
illspirl',f IIY I1rls nl/li Cmfl:'
e.mIllJllt's. Tltis pniJlft'tf iI'(l(hf
e/mir, (.'900, i:; n IJ/tltftom
St'fJlllt'lr;c i1'ilIl ollly 11,.'
SII/It"St tlf (1m'"" nI tlt" top of ils
Ht 731CIII/19il,.
8 (:I'e/I snit'
fllmilllft' liS /111 nrl fO,.,II. 111 IIt;s
ll/llil'l/-;itnillcti ol/k sidc e/mir,
1911-11, PIit'cl }nl/{k took liS
Im,[' t"['lrinI/SIc, il'flie/I
<'irll/nlly il" el/tire
slmpl'. HI 95rtl1/37ill.
6 TllI'se Iwo IJi,'ClS t'kgnlltly
(w...ilil1t'nr Jugendstil fllmit II/'l' cOllld nll1losl
/IC pnrl /1 sil/Sil' (tlll1l11issioll, VIII il1 fnel caell
is by n d{ffl'/'l'/I1 desi:;III'/'. T{c c"nir, 1903, IIY
Pela Bclm'lls. is fnlll1 If/(' Hn!ll/I1I1S 110/1.'(' 01
I/I!' pol'! nirflllfd Dcltll1d, allti I/l!' /Jen:;int'
cnbillCI, 1901-3. hy Hl'l1rY mil dt' Vclne, n
Bdsinll nl'ciliteL'l-nesiglll'l' il'/W il'orh'n
exl ('JI:;i'c! y i 11 Certlm11y. i:j frOIl1 t1'1' IVI'iII/{/ 1"
npart 1I1t'1I/ llf PI"ita \ lnx ,'011 \ 1ii IIcfIllIIlISfll,
a wfita nt tI/<, B/11/I/IIIIS Are/Ii.,. ({mil' 111
90f1ll!;7Iill; (flbillt'f lIt S3.1C11I/31/iJl.
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Ceramics
Figurative and Painterly Pieces
)
2 MielmeJ POil'O/lIY cn'flted I/lnllY
poillted ceramic 'fIrintiolls of Ihe
jo'inl
frl/ils theme. TI,is Autumn
piltro, c.1908, holds a riell
bol/nty of seasollal frui/s.
Ht 3i.jCfll/14!.ill.
3 TI/Dl/g/l of a reJafi<'ely late dale
fc.193Q-j), Susi Sillgers
expn-ssii:'l!, sculplural senfed
il'OlI/m/ is Jlol dissimilar lo her
earfier IVieller I\'erk:stiillefigures
nlld lIends. HI -l6.jCII//T8iiJl.
3
1 Berfold Loffler, wJo Sl't I/p IViener Keramik witlt Nlic1mel POi/lO/l/Y.
desigllt'd /I,;S figure 01 Pallas Athene iJl J908, (1 Nl'ociassicnl goddess
il'ilI b/ackpnillfeti tOllclu'S. Ht 33.6cm/I;iill.
1
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s in other media, turn-of-the-century Viennese
ceramies often displayed the distincti\"e stylized
design vocabulary fonnulated by leading lights such as
Hoffmann and Moser. The vViener \'\'erkstatte produced
numerous ceramic vessels, sorne by Moser, a fe\\' by
Hoffmann, but a number of others by female designers,
induding Jutta Sika, ",ho had taken Moser's ceramics
class al' the KWlstgewerbeschule (fue designs from rus
students even took on the name ScJlIIle Maser). The Josef
B6ck firm of Vienna executed sevcral Schule Moser
designs, notably Sika's renowned c.1901-2 red-enamelJed
tea service, with circular motUs. Susi Singer was one of
several designers frem the Wiener VVerksUitte to produce
distinctive hand-painted ceramic figures and objects,
many of whidl, true representati\'es of Studio Pottery,
were marked by their wit and spontaneity. 1l1e Wiener
Kerarnik, co-founded in 1905 by hvo KWlstgewerbesdlU..le
teachers, Michae! Po",olny (187-!--1945) and Bertold
Loffler (187+-1960), produced distinctive figural pieces,
SUdl as L6ffler's Pallas Atllel1e, 1908.
In Germany, various ceramics factories produced
\'\liener vVerkstatte-style wares, includ.ing Meissen and
the Reinhold Merkelbach factory in Grenzhausen.
Merkelbach's spherical \'ase, c.1905, to a design by Hans
Eduard von Berlepsch-Valendas, features strong /lIgelldslil
motifs: waves, dots, triangles, and a chequerboard pattem.
Similarly, K6n.iglich-Bayerische Porzellan-Manufakh.u in
Nymphenburg produced Adelbert Niemeyer's cylin-
drical vase \vith chequerboard motifs.
Adherents of the Czech Cubist mo\'ement produced
numerous glazed ceramics that strongly relate to
Viennese pieces. These were largely made by members of
the Artel Cooperati\'e, who included Pa\'el Jank.
The Omega VVorkshops produced ceramics that were
either plainly glazed, utilitarian \Vares, or exuberant
showpieces with painted overglaze decoration. Among
the latter are hvo vases, 1914, that feature stylized figures
and abstract geometric designs. On the other hand Roger
Fry's domestic tab1cware, was mostly of plain white tm-
glazed earthenware.
Geometric Designs
1 IVilf, its stl'ikillS b/nck-(llld-wflte geometric
dt'Sigll, 8atolll Lofflcr (IJ"llvliclmef PaicO/I/Y'S
Itnm1-pailllt:dah'Jlce! pedl'5fnl oowl. C.1906, is
qllilllessl'Il1ial Viel/Ila SCCL'ssioll desigll,
time/es:> (flirt degall/. Ht 21.&1II/8/,jll. ~
2 Ade/berl Niemcyer's pnillled fllld gi/t
porcelaiJ mse, 1905. mnde by KiilJiglicll-
Bnyeriscfll' Por:el1ml- /'d(fIl/lfnkl IIr,
ymplleubllrg, fi'n/I/res c/leqllcrrn efeml'lIfs 01/
itscel (lIId IlIlder ils rilll. wllicJ are balullced
by slyli:ed blossollls. Ht 2J.5cm/lo'/,;Il.
3 HfIII5 Edllnrd 'Cm Berkpsch-Vn/mdas's iJase.
e. 1905. has re/loes o/ file lVieller IVerksfiitle.
Ht q.9L1II/5Y.ill.

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5 C:ec!l Cllbist Pavel/Illllk desigl/cd l/lis
w/le-g/a:ed, b/ack-paill/ed eartlJCl/warc coffee
set ;11 1911. TlJc picas /mt'f 1/I11/51/a/ wad-/ikc
/mlldfes. Coffee pot toiO/lid lJl12cm/S'lill.
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4
4/rilln Sikn's rcd-('lUlIIll'lIed paree/nil1 tcn
servicc, IIUld!' IJY Jose! Bock. C.1901-2, is
tJought 01 tlS lIJe higll poillt 01 file purisl
carly p/UlSC ollllodcm ViellJll'se ceralllics
desigll. reapot lit 19.6clII/7Y)II.
5 ..... ...;;;=
6 EJlergelicnl/y po;IIled de:;.;gl/s 1Im.'e
lmllsforlllcd tlll'S/.' two Oll/t'ga IVorksflOp
cemlllic 'ases witll trndiliollfl/ forlJls iJlto ,.id
tlm.:eriimell:.:imm/ Cllm'Il:'l?s. TIJe ellrfflel/(l'llre
('XIl mpIe 111 /eft, i ts I'a; 11ter IlIIkIlOWI/, isfr011l
9 ~ ;plti/e lile porcelllil/ pcssel al rigl1t.
pllillled ,il/ slyli:cdfigures, possibly by
Roger Fry, dllfesfroJII 1911-19.
7 (" C.1913-14 Fry,for file OmegIlIVork;lIops,
desigl/('d (l/Id /IIllde, al tlJe Carla & Co.
II()/lery ill Dorsel, ala/J!er/'{lrc sel, illcflldillg
tIj:; ClIp alld ::tIlIcer. Thc {'arlllmwllrc pieces
!lm'e a thic/.., ;'/lite fill g/a:e, Ill/d 1111 illlpcrfecl
IImrk5 Ilre illtel/tiolla/. T/e CIIp'S Ill/glI/nr
lml/dle Ilnd simple s/mpe presllge grilisll
Arf DI'co chilla ofthe 19105 alld 1930s.
Hf 701l/2I.ill.
7
34

Glass
Painted and Decorated Vessels
3 2
I
1 Dagoberl Peche's <'ase, 1918, is
o/ bloil'll colol/red g/ass aud
ot'er/aid rotol/red gTass Clft ,{'itl, (/
slyli::ed-lenj designo AInde by foIl.
Date! & Ca.. NOi'11 80r, C:Ccll
Republic. it ,'liS retal/en llY lile
lVicller Wf!rkstiitte. HI 23cIII19;1I.
2 Tlu: c/equerboard !'nftem ad:;
as fl border 01/ tl1is <1'1111' glas:),
1911, decomted by Ludil'ig
jlmgllicke/. Sold by}. & L
Loblll/'yr oj Vielllla, lb" mOlf/d-
blo't'lI clenr glns:; Ilas llt'l'lI TOSten
allri decomft'lf wifll broll:;I/,.
Ht I8.7cm/7ill.
3 Jose! Ho!fIl1f11I1l'S striJ.:illg
nrc/litcctollic nst', 1914, madI' by
Loet::-\ ViliP/" is oj bloWIl
opale-;;C('", sJass o<wlnid tt'it11
dear anri coJol/Tt'd gln:;:;, I1Illi
ncid-etcJJed. Ht J7CIII/61ill.
4 Atthe IVieJler \Verkstiitte.
Hlda ]csSl!r pail/ted tlls 5celle of
sporlswomell 0/1 a coi'ered jar of
1917. /lIade bll jolI. Oerte! & Co.
Tire i!lspirntioll for tllt' el/amelled
alld blo.t,/! dear giass riece is ill
part FmlPst. Ht 19.jcmI7IiJl.
5 A simple HoffmmlJl forlll benrs
a sty/i=e'd /eaf lit'Sigll 01/ tl1is cicar
gtass alld eJlame! pase by Peche,
(.1917. Ht 15]CIII/6ll.
6 AlatlIi/de FWg/ pailIted tlIe
flornl al1d jigl/rnth11.' desigl1s 011
tMs l/Iollld-bloWII alld cII/1II1clll'd
dmr glass gab/d. C.1920, made
at 0/1' \\Iimer Verkstiitte.
Ht
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T
um-of-the-century glassware produced in Austria
eomprised plain, wldecorated utilitarian products as
well as exuberantly decorated goblets, vases, and the like.
VielUla was a major centre in the medium, with the
Wiener Werkshitte designing a wide variety of wares,
most of which were produced by large faetories such as
Loetz-Witwe, E. Bakalowits & 5ahne, Meyr's Neffe,
Ludwig Moser & SOhne, aud J. &L. Lobmeyr.
As with Wiener Werkstatte metalwork and furniture,
so the glassware marketed under its name was CTeated by
its principal designers Hoffrnann, Moser, and Otto
Prutscher, as \",eH by a number of women (mostly from
the 19105), arnong them Mathilde Flag!. Hilda Jesser, Jutta
Sika, and ValIy \A,'ieseUhier. Geometrie and stylized Ieaf
ornamentation abounded on sorne but not aH \A,'erkstatte
pieces, and there were even sorne unusuaI examples
ineorporating figurative designs, such as a wine glass
decorated by Ludwig Jilllgniekel Hoffmanl1 in 1911 and
made by Lobmeyr. Their eylindrical bowIs sport a
chequerboard pattern that borders a frieze of stylized
mon.keys within tendril-like medallions sprouting fruit
and scrolls; the beasts' tails are similar scrolls. This type of
Hofhnann-originated deeoration in matt black or dark
grey on clear or frosted matt glass is known as bronct
ware or broJlzitdecor (after the metal bronzite), and
Lobmeyr, which employed Hoffmann as artistic director
from 1910, introdueed it that year.
Otto Prutscher employed eoloured elements in much
of his glassware, which was mostly produeed by Meyr's
Neffe. He was aIso k.nown for rus handsome gobIets,
some seeming to balance preeariously on inordinately tall
stems that were vertical cheqllerboards of green, pink,
blue, and other lmes. Koloman Moser \Vas the first
Wiener \"'erkstatte-assocated designer to begin creating
forms and designs for glassware, some as earIy as 1898.
Most of his pieces \Vere made by Bakalowitz & SOhne in
Vienna. Michael Powolny, the potter and teacher,
designed glass for both Loetz-Witwe and Lobmeyr. His
most distinctive creations "'erc vases and other tems in
solid eolollrs.- -----
7 VariatiOJlS of josef Hoffmnllll's
stl/rdy, t!lick-wnlled bowl of
CI915, tllis ofvio/d eut glnss,
were IIInde by InriOllS Bohemirm
glnss fnctories for tlle Wieller
Werkstifte. Ht 12.2cm/4'll.
8 Knr/ Mnssnnet::'s dense
ellnlllelled nllri gilt decornlioll 0/1
t!lis clenr glnss GlllrileJlOlder by
Osknr $tnwri of Vielllw, C1914,
Iwrks bnck to tlle Schwarzlot
lec!lIIiqlle, but the styli::ed flornl
fonlls re/ale lo FiCllllese
ModemiSlll. Ht 14.1cm/j'll.
9 TJis colollrless Xlnss covered
mse, c1914, el/amelled in blnc};
as eU as gilded, is IIwde by
toetz- \,\'itwe. Both its forlll nnd
decorntioll nre illflueI!ced by t/e
Wiena Hlerkstitfe, much of
wJlOse glnssi('{/re was made by
Loetz-Witwe il! Klostenllii!lle
(nenr Vielllm) nlld ti/el! reluJ"IIcd
lo Vicll/m for decorntiOIl.
Ht 31CIII/1 21,ill.
10 HOffl1l(/JlII's glnss celltrepiece,
IIwde by Loetz-Witwe before
1914, is of Cl!flllu:/Ied nnd cnsed
glnss. It fealun:s bol/ styli::ed lenf
designs nnd Irios of trinllgles,
effectvcly cOlllbillllg t/e
ge01l1etric (/Jld decorntii'e
e1elllel!ts of Vellllese Modemist
designo Ht 1j.8clII/61,ill.
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11 Decornted by HOfflllnllll 01"
Dagobert Peche nlld /linde by joh.
Oertel & Co., //Jis lIIulti-colollred
glnss tlllllbla, desigl/ed before
1915, wit/ its subtle vertical
::ig::ag desiglls, mnkes n bold
lllodem stn/elllen!. Ht lOcm/4ill.
12 Peche's simple yet drnmntic
jnl" wit/I cI916-17' ;:vns
made by Of blotol!
colol/red glnss nnd oi>cr/nid
colol/red nnd clear glnss, tlle piece
fentures nI! nrrny of finy
ellnlllelled desiglls alld, al fhe
fool, verlicnllilles of wJite dols.
HI154cm/6in.

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3 A relatively late lVieller
tVerkstiitte desigll, Edllard Jose[
WimmeTs bmss jardilliere,
c.191j, is illlpressed wit11 mi
orgmJic desigll - but olle /llore
likc a styliz.ed, evell primitive,
lalldscape 1111111 all overall pattem
o[ blossoms mld Jeaves - wlli/e
lhe IIbiqllitOIfS Vielllle5e grid
pnttem appears 011 its legs (llId
O'i.'fl/lower balld. Ht 88.9cm/3jill.
4 O[gilded si/i.'t!r tt'itll fI lapis
lazuli finial 011 its lid, (ar! Olla
C:esc11kn's c1lfl/ice-Jike covered
gablel, 1909, has mi e/aborate
opemvork desigll 01/ ils bowl,
ill mI orgmJic pattem tJlflt is
typicnlly Viemla Secessioll.
Ht 2j.jClll!loill.
,
1
Organic and Figurative Motifs
'\
I
1 Ka/aman Maser':; nrcllitectollic box,
1906, ofsilt'f!r, enamelled fllld
embossed Witll semi-preciol/:; stO/les,
WtlS madefor lile lViener Werkstiifte
by Adolf Erbricll and Knrl POllocny.
Like sOllle of Maser's DlJe-of!fllmitllre
pieces, il is elabora/e/y decoraled lVit!1
organic e/elllCllts (lIId stylized
Neoc/assical figures. Ht 24CIII191,;II.
2 The Viellllese arclIitect lose! Maria
O/brich desiglled IIl1me1'OlIS buildings
al tite tlrtis's' colollY set /lp ill
Darmstadt, Gemltl1lY. 1899- MallY
Germall designers mere illJ1l1ellced by
lile l1Ieta/work he nlso crealed /!Jere, as
in t/s silvered-pewter ctlJlde/abrum,
C.1901, mllde by Edllard HlIeckoj
L!idellscIJeid. Ht 36.4'111/14/11.
2
Silver and Metalwork
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344
T
he metalwork designed and produced by members
of the Wiener Werkstatte in the early years of the 20th
century is among the most distinctive, attractive, and
decidedly modem creations oE the time. Far removed
from the Gallic manifestations of the new style were the
largely rectilinear vessels, boxes, and flatware designed
by Hoifmann, Moser, Olbrich, Peche, Carl Otto Czeschka
(1878-1960), and others,
The silver, silver-gilt, alpaca (silver-plated alloy),
brass, enamelled wares, and other decorative metal
pieces designed and produced by members of the Wiener
\lVerkstiitte included a wealth of objects from flatware to
plant-stands, their designs diverse and, for the most part,
distinctive. The most easily identifiable designs by the
Vielmese workshops were those pierced metal objects,
mostly designed by Hoffmann and, to a lesser extent,
Moser, which were markedly rectilinear, being made up
of pieces of metal comprising small open squares, as in a
chequerboard. Called gitterwerk (latticework), these
signature Werkstatte objects first began to be offered at
their various shops in 1904-5. They could take numerolls
forms and were made of either silver, alpaca, or sheet
metal (this usually painted white), perforated with the
regular square or grid pattern; occasionally other designs
were incised, such as circles. They included handled
vases and baskets, round-topped plant tables of white--
painted sheet iron, and hexagonal or quatrefoil jardinieres.
The vVerkstatte's metal output included a wide variety
of flatware, with Hoffmann again providing the most,
and the best-known, designs. His so-called fiad/es Model
(flat model), originally produced in 1903 for patrons Fritz
and Lilly Wamdorfer (p.347), was made up of a variety of
arrestingly simple sterling silver pieces.
1l1e wide range of other Werkstatte metal objects ran
the gamut from simple, undecorated forms that lent
themselves to mass production to elaborately embellished
one--off articles. Hammered, pierced, embossed, and
chased metal pieces were made, as well as examples
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Irnllllllered alld repouss brass /all1p for tlle
Wieller Werksliitte, C.1920. A sty/ized bird
slallds out al1lOllg the USl/al foliale 1II0lifs 0/1
the silade. HI 64.1cm/25Y.;ill.
6 Of si/ver-coloured lIIelalalld cut glass, I/is
/ab/e decora/ion ,vas desiglled by Hans Bolek,
199-10. lts pper seclioll 's leaf desigl1 S/IO<vS
t!Je illjlllellce of Wieller Werksliitte, as does i/s
jllIted /muer sectioll. Ht 15.Jelll/6Y.;ill.

7 TllOuglI a lowly glue pot, lIJe

silver-coloured me/al colllainer
<vitll black-enamel-decorated lid,
allribllled lo Kaloman Maser, is
aH objeet of great slyle, as is
Moser's rare silver-eolollred
/IIetal eoffee SpOOIl, C.190j. Made
by the Wieller Werkstiitle, it has
a lapis laZll/i cabocllOl1 01/ ils
/rnlldle. Box ht 6.5011/2'/,/11;
SpOOIl l. 9.5em/3Y:ill.
881"11110 PauI's brass cal1delabrulll,
1901, lIIade by K.M. Seifert, call
be seell as boldly abstraet, but it is
ill facl a stylized Iree-/ike formo
Ht 40.3cm/16i11.
34
9 Peta BeilreJls erealed t/lese
eigl1l pieces of si/ver-coloured
mcfal fla/ware for AtfartiH osef
Rr"ickerl ofMaiuz ill 1902. Tlle
lop four pieces are parliaIly gilf.
Tlle Iriallgle-s/mped Iml/dles of aH
but tlle kllife are ricilly decorated
<lIillla geo/llcfric desigll.
10 EbOl1i::ed wood, WOVCII ((lile,
(md lextured brnss cOll1prise
BellrCIIs's e/eclric kettle, for AEG.
J\llIrelllberg, 1909. T!lOlIg/l ill
essel1ce al! object by aH illdllstria/
desigller, l/lis early appliallce is
still stl/lis/, with its hmllllll:red
pmzeJs alld rom of /lOrizOllta/
beadillg. Ht n.7clll/9ill.
)
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rganic to Baroque
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IIpper /ip, nl/n unse (Ir!' dccorntcli
pit/ tillY ul'ndil1g 011 bis t'kgnllt
si1r'cr vnse (lffl til/filler), 1911.
Desigllt'd by lose/ Hofflllflllll, il
rl'nS IIInd!' by Alfred Moyer n/ lile
!'ViellCl' I'\'crksliitte. The styli:ed
//)SSOI/lS mld len!'!!5 are typica/
ol'gnl1ic dl!comlioll of he ViCII!1fl
it'orksllOJs. /-It 15.5(111/6;11.
2 Al! especial/y den:;!' on'mll
s/yli:cd leaf design, IIl1l11istnkau/y
Vicm.',. lVerksliille, cOlI/prises 1m
0IJl/II!III si/r.'CI' ciglll'elte !Jolder by
HOf(lIIfll1Il mili C.19Dj.
HI Tocm/;I.ill.
4
3 \ 'Tillg!rlJm ffc' S,'lJllldric,
:'o!l/lIl11drifn/ dl.':'oiglls of Vic/ler
IVl.'rkstiiffl.' fOIl/lders KolOlI/on
Mosl.'r n/uf Hofflllnlm, Dosobert
Pec!Je, ((lito johlCn file H'orks/lOps
in 191), Cl"eo/enmore orn(lte,
seulp/umlo/ljects. 501lll' Il'Cr1'
e"l'lI Nl'oB(lmqlll.' i/l spir;t. like
f/lis jrllltosy birn box in sif'l'r r1l1d
cOI'ol, J9.20. Ht .2J.7cm/8'hill.
4 Tlu! org(ll1;c t!lemcllts of
HOffil/O/lll'S si/ver fco (/lid coffcc
::I!f ,(lit/ tmy (lrl' bold, C.'l'1l
vcrgillg 0/1 tI/f: Boroqlll'. Tcnpot,
COfft'C: pot, crt'(ll/Icr, ol/d co'ef('d
$IIgor bOI' n/'t' s/mpl'll os sty/i=eri
melOIIS. T/is de::igll for tite
I\liCllcr IVcrkstiittc is quite late.
<.192.J. onrior rl'llIo"l'll frolll
Hofjmoll/l's enrfier, 1II0rt' e1egmIl
<t'i1n'S. Ht 19.CIlI/l.ill.
346
datte<! ",ith semi-precious stones and enamelling. One of
thc most luxurious Wiener ''\'erkstatte metal designs \\'(15
Moser's sil\'er box of 1906 featuring an enamelled maje
nude on eadl side, embossed ",ith semi-precious stones.
There \Vere others working in Austria at this time who
produced important sih'er and metalwork. An out-
standing lable decoration, 1909-10 (p.3-I5), eomprising a
wide flllted stem on which sts a bowl with leaf designs
among scrolls, was designed by Hans Bolek and made by
Eduard Friedmann of Vienna.
At the ""iener \Verkstattc, Hoffmaru1 continlled to
design metaJwork in the 19205 and 19305, his forms often
not dissimilar to earlier designs, bllt nonetheless novel
and up to date. Bis brass bow!. c.1920, is a ribbed, half-
melon-shaped cup on a trumpet-fonn foot, with two
whimsical handles. Added elements, both abstract and
organic, became more prominent on Art Deco-period
Werkstatte mctalwork, in part due to the influence of
Dagobert Peche, who joined in 1915, and whose work
was more amate than that produced there earlier.
In Germany, Muruch's designers created outstanding
pieces in silver and other metals. An important Munich
designer was Bruno Paul, whose 1901 design for a brass
candelabrum was ingenious as \Vell as handsome: its
dozen limbs \Vere capable of s\Vivelling around the stem,
thus allO\ving the O\vner to create different configurations.
German and other designcrs residing for varying
amolU1ts of time at Darmstadt's Mathildcnh6he artists'
colon}' aeated outstanding objects in precious and other
metals, among them the multi-talented Peter Behrens,
Josef Maria Olbrich, and Albn Mller. Behrens
(1868-1940) created objecls ",ith a }Ilgelldstl feel during
his time in Darmstadt, where he lived from 1899 to 1903,
but thereafter he became known for rus highly nmctional
but stylish designs, such as his textured brass electric
kettle for AEG of 1909. Olbrieh designed notable metal
objects, many of which were mass-prodllced. Among
these was a silvered-pewtcr candelabrllm, c.1901 (see
p.3H), with characteristic Vielmese linear motifs, made
by Edllard Hueck of Ldenscheid.
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6 Trio of bnskets, C. 1905, of sililer-colollred metal fOI" t/c
Wicna Werkstiitte. Thcir m'cmli rigid gl"id pnltan. sOllldill/e:; mUed
gittcr\\'erk (/ntlicework), is softcllt'd by tllC loop /ullldles. HI 255clII/lOill.
5 bmss bow/, C.1920, is n!/ exnlllp/e of /lis Inler designfor
the Wiellcr IVcrksliillc, w/lc/ ,t'ns nftecfed by IlIc Snroquc cnergy vf
Dngoberl Peche. HI 19cm/7'n.
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7 HnmJllcrcd slIIfnccs nud fml
JIuliug dislillguish lhese 1'('0
silver i'csscls (pnrl of n I([fe
'?nmilul"c) bll Hoffmmlll.
" ...
Dl'Sigllt'd C.191O nnd IIlndr! by lhe
Wicuer \"'/erkstiittc, l!lr! mscs al"e
recli/illenr, but 1101 n:; rigol"OlIsly
so os Hoffmmm's cnrlicr piece:;.
HI21.6c11I/S'/,in.
8 ncfooted dis/ ,1l!l cover by
Hoftl1ll7ll11 of 1902 prednles /Iis
fOllllding of IlIe Wit:Ht'r
\'\'akstiilte. Of si/per [{lil/ n
cnboc1lO!1 lurq/loise O!/ lhe lid, Ihe
dis!1 conlnills r!/c111t'111:; llml are
fOIl1,d 011 later piece:;;
itl7lllJllr!1"cd metn/, dccornli1'e
bcndillg, nlld Icnf-like forll/s.
HI 16.2.CIII/61.ill.
9 Bcadillg is n/so sce!1 011 lhe
SpOOIlS, forks, alld kl1i<>eS of
Hoftmmm's 190.J- silt'r!1"warc.
TI/(' sel is rc,'o/lllionnn, for ils
simple, flnttened onlls. Lnrge fork
1.192.Cm/7ill.
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10 Wit/ its clln'edjlutillg mld jmmly, nuriclllnte Imlldl6, Pechc's sih'Cr
CCII 1repecc voul, C. 1920, exemplifes II/c IViCl1t'1" V\lerksliitle 's inc/iIIn IiOIl
lo,mrd lhe Bnroque ill ils !aler :;Inges. W. 2.Scm/1J ill.
Textiles
Geometric and Organic Designs

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3 Hojflllmll1 's Vincta abric design, 190',
/IInrle by JOIU11111 BackllnllscII & SO/lile, Viell/lll,
is (l geomelric pnltem o/ vertical/il/es ll11d
Irirlllgles 11m! COII/d be seell as sty/i:ed frees.
4 A block prilll mld lIset abric 5lllllp/e of
HoffilUIIIII'S t'j..,id Kiebitz desigll, 1910-15.
decornted Witll typical Werkstiitte styli:ed
Je't1l'eS Il"d geometric/orll1";, nJl cOllfriblltillg
fo n del/se, hig1lly dl!Corati,'e grid pnltem.
1 A i l l g ~ e cncrgy dislillgllis/zes Cad Krcl1ck's
block-prillled dres5abric Blitz (ligllfllillg).
191o-n, nmde by ti/e "'icller Werksfiiffe.
2 A desigll Jor Josef -Ioffml1lm's silk-screelled
silkfabric Kohleule (llig)/ OW/), 1910-15.
In) lile IVcrkstiit/('. IIIngllijies the repenfed
lIIoti{01 brlf-slmJK't1 blossoll/s Ilmid seml/il/g
tendrils, olle flmt lIe l/sed in mllJlY 'lIria/iolls
iJl differen/media.
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A mong the rugs, carpels, and textiles being produced
.L\1rorn the tum of the century and ioto the 19205 was a
wide range of Wiener Werkstatte designs, though in
Germany, also, sorne attractive examples were produceci.
sorne influenced by the "Viener Werkstatte. ln Britain, the
Omega Workshops produced floor coverings and fabrics
decorated with the lively floral and abstract motifs that
marked their painted fumiture and other wares.
Over the years sorne 18,000 designs were produced by
the Wiener Werkstatte's textile department. That division
was set up c.1909-1O, although the Johann Backhausen &
S6hne firm \Vere making fabrics and carpets for the
Workshops from 1898, and the Workshops began prinling
their own fabrics in 1903. Although Iwninaries such as
Moser and Hoffmam1 \Vere responsible for many of the
textile pattems, many others were employed who cOllld
create handsome, decorative repeat patterns, among
them Bertold Loffler, Cad atto Czeschka, Dagobert
Peche, and Mathilde Flog!. Besidcs carpets, lIpholstery,
and c1othi..ng, Werkstatte textiles \Vere used for napkins,
cushions, and lampshades. Sorne pattems were naturalis-
tic floral and falffial designs, while others \Vere more
characteristic geometric pattems, such as Hoffmann's
Villetn design, of mangles and vertical lines.
In Germany. many of the same designers associated
with fumiture and other objects a150 designed textiles in
the early 20th century. Richard Riemerschmid created a
modem adaptation of a Persian carpet featuring stylized
twigs in 1903 for the Thieme residence in Mw1ich.
Besides furrushing fabrics, the Omega Workshops
prodllced carpets, embroidered pieces, and even painted
silk lampshades. Their fabrics are considered to have
revolutionized British textile design in the use of vivid,
often abstract or geometric designs, which were
influenced by contemporary painting. AlIlellophis, a
printed linen labric 01 1913 probably designed by Roger
fry, featured a rich design of trapezoids ~ other
abstract (yet vaguely organic) shapes. Omega produced
textiles through the 19305, and contribuled greatly lo tI,e
look and aesthetic of the Bloomsbury sel.
5 ..1iramar. a Josef HOff11ln/1II I.'Sigll Jor
the \Vieller Werkstiitte. 191D---1S. combiJles
diall10Jld n/Id :ig:ng sltnpes in n comp/ex
o.'('ral11tori:ontnl pntteTll.
6 A snlllple book of \\fiel/el' Werkstiilte fabrics
is Opell at K%man l\Io5Crs desigll for its
Baummarder (pille marlell) prillted si/k
fl'xli/e, ,l'ltidl ,l'nS lI<'fIi/alJ/e ill bllle. TI/e
desigll is frolll C.1903-7, lllOlfglt lite <l'Orksllops
did l/al es/ablisll a textile depnrtll1C11t /llItil
c.1909-lO. /1/ n/l, Moser crented SOIllC 300
pnttems for tire depnrtmell/.
7 Tllis Hoffll1n/1II fnbric snmp/e. its geometric
drsigll cOlllprisillg hori:ol1tn/ nlld l'erticn/
dinlllollds ltiO/il/rectn"gles, dales frol/l 1909
.--

0'__

:
cr.
-
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c:
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r::::::
e
:
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-
c:
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LL
8 HoffmIT/1Il creatt'l1 do:ell5 of
mterc%llr dtosigll5 for textiles,
SI/d, as Serpentin, 191D---1S'
\'ote lIle sigllatllrt'
1t?nf. tlle Oll/Y orgIT/Jic osigll
drll/l'IlI amid aSt'a of lriallglt'S,
SllllaTl.'s. mili rcclallg/l!5.
9 A ridl/Y pntteTlled colfal/
dnmask /rlb/edot1/ il'as d6igm'd
by Pl'Il.'r Be/mms aud mnde by
S. Friillkd, NClIstndI/Sc/lesiell.
Gl.'rlllnny. TlIc illells, C.19o,,
,I'rre l/sed nt tlll' nrtiMs' colollY ni
Dnl'lll$/ndt.[or whiclt Bdm'lIs
Cl"l'n/l'd 1I1111/erOl/S al/jec/s.
Ht 1.28m/4ft Sbll.
10 Richard Riemerscflluid's l'Oo/
carpet, 1903. sat ill ti/(' liillillg
room oJ lhe Thie/l/e /lOlIse ill
AJmJidt, for ,I'/Jicll Riemersclllllid
n/so cTenfed JI/mil l/re. Tlle strollg
cmlra/molif aud edglos 01
slyli:ed tl'igs nlld bfossollls
illterpl"l.'t trnditiolln/ PCl'siml
rllgs. Ht 3m/9fl 10ill.
11 1'111.' Omega WorksllOJls'
pri11ted filien filmislJiIIglabl'ic
Amcnophis, 19J3, ,'as I'rol){l/1/y
Cl"l'nteri by Rog'r rry. Alndl.' 11Y
lvlarolllmc Prillttl'Ol"ks ill
ROl/ell, tite desigll is sopllisticnted
yet spontmlCOl/s. 11
34
Art Deca
Furniture 354
The Art Deco style had its origins in Paris in the years belore the onset 01 the
French 354
First World War, only a little more than a decade alter the 1900 Exposition
British 35B
American 359 Universelle. This exhibition marked the apex, as well as the beginning 01 the
Ceramics 360
end, 01 Art Nouveau, the movement that took in the design styles 01 the
British and American 360
Jugendstil and the Vienna Secession, whose motils and shapes olten relate
I
French and European 362
more to those 01 Art Deco than the contemporary curvilinear, nature-inspired
Glass 364
French 364
objects produced in Paris and Nancy.
British, European and American Glass 366
Silver and metalwork 368
Textiles 372
Mass-Produced Wares and
Industrial Design 376
,
I

A
rt Deco did not irnmediately feplace Art Nouveau,
llor was it a direct and virulent reaction against it.
The movements even had sorne technical aspects in
camman, especialIy in their French manifestations,
probably owing to the c01.mtry's rieh design heritage: the
finest materials, lavish decoratiol1, and impeccable
craftsmanship. Also, thcrc weTe many individuals and
firrns cornfortably creating fine pieces in both periods and
styles, among thel'l1 Sevres, Daum, and Lalique.
AIthough eClr1ier Aesthetic Movement and Art
Nouveau designers ereated harmonious interiors as well
as their furniture and other components, it \Vas the Art
Deco era that wib1essed the rise of the ell5ellIblier, the
multi-talented designer responsible for the total design,
or ensemble, of l room, including its windo\V, floor, and
wal] covcrings, furniture, lighting fixtures, and other
accessories. The foremost maker of these strong unified
design statements was the Parisian Jacques-Emilc
Ruhlmann, while others possessing such notable talents,
largely working i.n the French capital, were Robert MaUet-
Stevens, the lrish-bom Eileen Gray, and, of the fim1 La
Compagnie des Arts Fran\ais, Louis Se and Andr Mare
(olten callee!, simply, Se et Mare).
Although there are debates and disagreements on the
definition and chronology of Art Deco, there is general
acceptance in regard to the single most significant event
in its history: the 1925 Paris Exposition des Arts
DcoratiIs et Industriels Modemes. Not on1)' \Vas the
st)[le's name adopted, much later, from a shortenoo
version of the fair's title, but its greatest names - French
and other nationalities - took part, showing their finest
modero wares and thus influencing each other as weH as
designers and manufacturers in other cOWltries, including
America and Germany (neither of which exhibited at the
fair). Variolls arbitrary end points to Art Deco have been
suggested, including the start of the Second World War;
the maiden voyage of the SS NOrl/ulIlriie, France's opulent
"floating palaee;" and the 1939-40 World's Fair in New
York. lt is agrced, however, that by the end of the 19305
Art Deco had nm its rieh, varied course.
Ltit: tI/l' '"y-detniled, dyed
sl1f1rkskill-sllellt1Jcd, SlIllbll rst
dl'Sigll ebollY sirle c1lf1ir by
ClmeJIt ROII$St'flIl, c.192j, is
fllXllrioll$ Frellc1, Art Oeco lit
itsfi"l'St. Tlu! forlll nlld mnlerill/s
IIre Irnditiollnl, lmt eOll/billing
t/lem ('itl,l/u.' distillcli<'('
deeornli'I! lIIotif is pI/re
modcmc. Ht 90(11I/35'1;1/
Opposite: lile refl/rbi$fllllelll of
Clflridge's Holel ill LOlldon,
'929-3, O'?rseell by OSl'fIld P
\.Ii/JlC, t'II$ executerl in n IIstt;ful
Art Oeeo 1IIf11l1u'r. TI/l.' l l l e ~
topperl I'c'Stibl/ll.' wns pnillfed
yd/oit', i/s gl'omelric cnrpl.'t wns
by lv1arioll DOI"II, (l/Id abol'c its
/ncqllcl"I:d iIInck doors wac floml
rOl/11dels by \Inry 5. Lca.
-,
- -- - -
-
.-
-
.-
,
- -
- -
- -
-
- ---
- ,
- -
- -.
-
-,

~
--
-
-
-
-
-


-
-
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~

3 Roi'frt &mfi/s's strikillg CO/Ol/r

lithogmpJI poster for tlle 1925
Paris Ex/ibifioJl entures Art
Deco sty/i:edflora nlld falmn nlld
n stnrk sa!1s-serif /ypefnce. Tite
fisure';; Neodassicn/ garb is 110/
//I/comlllOll in l/le Art Deco
periodo HI j6cm/2J/oill.
MINISTtRE DU COHMERCE ET DE LINDUSTRIE
EXPOSITION
INTERNATIONALE
DES ARTS DCORATI FS
E T IN D U STRlE LS
MODERNES
AVRIL- OCTOBRE
PAR15-1925
I
211/ lhe early 1930S lile desigller
IVay/allde Gregory crented Radio
ill g/n:ed paree/nil/. Fro11l11er
styli:ed, il'il/dsil't'pllmir, lo t/It'
:ig:ng bol! slIe bears, tllis sleek
nllegoricnl figure i5 nI!
Oll/5ttllldillg Amcricnll Art Deco
iece. Ht (npprox.) 68.scm/2ill.
3
2
1 Gllerlaill's baffle nlld boxJor il:; scellf L'Heure Bleue i"t'('re /IIade by
Baccamt afier lile 1925 Pars ExllibilioJl. TJe stylb:dJO/mlai/1 decoratou
WIlS adaptedmili fdgar Bml/d!'s L'QaSls saeen. Ht 5.5clII/2'1ill.
1
352
As for thc sources and main characteristics of this
diverse and relatively long-Iasting stylc, there \VeTe many,
and they differed from Cowltry to country, as with Art
Nouveau, depending on vernacular designs and
traditiolls. One important inAuence \Vas avant-garde
painting - including Constructivism, Cubism, Fauvism,
and Futurism - ",hieh provided a rich repertoire of
abstract and simplified shapes and colour combinations
from \vhich designers (ould draw inspiration.
Aspects of exotic foreign regions, cultures, and
traditions - including tec1uuqucs, forrns, and subject
matter were absorbed by numerous Art Deco designers.
Sources were as eclectic as ancient Mesopotamia and the
Maya, notably these cultures' ziggurat-shaped pyramids,
reflected in large-scale ] 9205 and ] 930s skyscrapers as
weU as in hmuture and other objects with stepped motifs;
sub-Saharan Africa, whose tribal furniture influenced
severa} French designers, jllst as its sculpture proved
inspirational to Picasso, Modigliani, and other Parisian
artists at the time (the Neuilly studio of fasluon designer
Jacques Doucet included much African-inspiredfine and
decorative art by numerollS. French Modernists);
pharaonic Egypt, with the discovery in 1922 of
Tutankhamun's tomb a catalyst in this regard; classical
Greece and Rome; China and Japan; and Russia,
especiaUy the Ballets Russes dance campany, with the
bold designs and vivid colours of its sets and costumes.
From the mid-]920s another source of inspiration to
designers, especially in America, was maehine and
industrial forms. TIlis resulted. not only in the adoption of
repeating and overlapping geometric patterns, but also in
bold, cO!0urful rectilinear images incorporating cireles,
half-circles, squares, chevrons, lightning bolts (often
symbols of electricity), and the ubiquitous zigzag designo
Somewhat related \Vas the science of aerodynamics,
\Vmch further inspired designers and arclutects to create
kinetic, parabolic, and winged shapes (huge examples of
thc latter crOWIl Ne\V York's Empire State Building, 193]).
A characteristic motif appearing in the Art Deco
period was the stylized sunbllrst (or rising sun or sWlray)
pattern; it was thought to have been especially popular in
Britain because of that countTy's lack of sunslne, but its
basic geometric design was related to other Art Deco
pattems. Also popular, especially in France, was the
stylized fountain with cascading water, a variation on a
classical theme. There was also a rieh repertoire of floral--- -- -- .. _-
and figurative shapes, but unlike those appearing on Art
Nouveau objects, these were markedly different in tenns
of their stylization. Blossoms and bouquets were
simplified and far removed from nature's originals. The
insects, aquatie animals, and peaeocks that ,,,,ere typieal
motifs in Art Nouveau for the most part gave way to
sleek, elegant, speedy animals sueh as gazelles, does (in
French, biches), greyhounds, and Borzoi and Afghan
hounds (a signifieant exeeption to this is Lalique's Art
Deco glass, whieh, like bis Art Nouveau jewellery, is rieh
in avian, piscine, and entomologieal rnotifs). 111e snake,
interestingly, appeared in both periods, its innate
eurvilinear fonn an obvious reason for its earlier use, and
its richly textured skin and exoticism appealing to Art
Deco designers (sorne of whom used actual snakeskin in
their furniture).
Wornen were no longer the languorous, long-haired,
voluptuous rnodels represented on a multitude of Art
Nouveau vessels though this type had not disappeared
entirely - but rather they beeame androgynous, sleek,
self-assured, and either shamelessly nude or fashionably
dressed and eoiffed, descriptions that couId in part be
applied to the flappers of the roaring 1920". Neoclassical
figures also appeared on fumjture, eeramics, metalwork,
and other objects, as they did in monumental Art Deeo
sculptures, sueh as those by PauI Manship, and bas-
reliefs embellishing Art Deco buildings, notably the
fac;:ades of Roekefeller Center and other Manhattan
skyserapers. But these figures ''''ere usually stylized in a
manner - far removed from classical Greek or even 18th-
eentury Neodassieal figures - that was often referred to
as lIlodeme, a terrn used in the 1920s and 1930s (and later),
in Franee and elsewhere, to describe mueh of this
eontemporary design.
Concurrent with decorative Art Deco in the 19205,
there was a strong Modernist strain of design, eontinuing
through the 1930s and even beyond, and influencing
mid-eentury modern Seandinavian and other designs,
especialIy furniture. lts anteeedents were the no-
nonsense, funetionalist designs of the likes of Christopher
Dresser in Britain, Peter Behrens in Germany, and Frank
Lloyd Wright in the United States. This sleek, functional
style was exemplified in Europe by the fwniture and
designs of Le Corbusier, Eileen Gray, and Robert Mallet-
Stevens in Franee; Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Mareel
Breuer, Alvar Aalto, Wilhelm vVagenfeld, Marianne
Brandt, and various Bauhaus figures in Germany; Alvar
Aalto in Finland; and in the United States by the works of
designers sueh as Gilbert Rohde, Norman Bel Gcddes,
Donald Deskey, Raymond Loe,,,)', and Warren MeArthur,
all of ",hom created designs for industry. Many of these
people's creations, especially their fwniture, are now
design oxymorons of a sort: period pieces that are also
timeless classics.
4 TJe Pnrjs bt'drool/l o/ cOII/l/rier ro/llle wmJiIl, desiglled iJl 1920-2 by
Armnlld-Alberl Rnleall, jJle/lldes opulent. exotic talle/les, Sl/e/I as u'l/l/s
sheathed iJl "wllvin blue" si/k. Rateml was illspired by the nlleJIt
wor/d. fa '1l'lIicIJ he added Jlis OWII lIIodemized flora and fauna as we!! as
persolla/ized tOl/clles, SUell as blossolJls o/lIlargllerite, the llame o/
wllVin's dallghler.
353
o
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1
French Furniture
Classical Ebnistes and Cabinetmakers
J
acques-Emile Ruhlmann (1879-1933) \Vas the premier
furniture-maker and ensemblier in 19205 Franee. Sorne
of his earliest fumiture designs, 191-1-18, were already in
the Art Deco style for \d1.ich he \Vas to become renownoo.
Classical, elegant, and superbly hand-crafted, his
furniture from this time marle use of exotic woad
veneers, sueh as Macassar ebony, amaranth, and
violetwood, and often included inlaid decoration in
opulent materials like ivar)', snakeskin, and sharkskin.
Cabinets, dressing tables, and matching chairs alike
mostly stood 011 slender veneered legs, sorne shaped Iike
fluted torpedoes. Figurative omament in ivor)', metal, ar
\\'000 fearnred on sorne of the showier pieces, though
most \Vere decorated more subtly with vor)' dots, scrolls,
lozenges, ti.ny squares, or rectangles. From e.1925, his
fllrnihue had a more Modentist, functional look: less
inlay, more visible metal, less rounded shapes.
La Compagnic des Arts Fran<;ais of Paris, founded in
1919 by Louis Se (1875-1968) and Andr Mare
(1885-1932), known as Se et Mare, made both veneered
1 lts 101"111, lIIateria/s, (lI1d /ec/lIliqUl.' il/spired
by sr,'nl ISIIIcel1ll1ry Frel1c/llllaslerpieces,
ncqlIes- E111ile 11 /llIInI1I1'S comer cabi /le/,
1916, is mI icOIl of PatisiaJl Art Oeco. Of
lacqucred rosl'wood illlaid wil!J 'O/'ll al1ri rare
woods, tllL' cavim't fentures all 111'11 overfloIt'ing
with :;tyliuri flo<l'crs. Ht 1.28111/4/t 2V,il1.
2 Ol'sk by RIIJI/lJlmlll, c.1925-7, alnaSlt'I<l'Ork
of Maca:-snr cbo"y, sl/ah'skill, 'org, and
si/t'crcri brOI1:C. L 1.3.1/1I/.ift Sill.
3 Tllis cm1'cd'lIIahogaIlY {j'ritil/g table alld
clmir. (.192S, is b.l! Siic t'/ Alnre. TI/e scal/op
anri seroll desiglls OCC/lr 011 /l/nI/Y Frmcf/ Art
Deco picces. TabJe f. J.49111/,ift toiil/; chnir
11/1Scm/29/'ill.
and carved case and scat fumiture. Unlike Ruhlmann's
delicate, understated pieces, ho\\'ever, their output
included exaggerated, even overblown forms. Their
inspiration was often dassic 18th-century shapes, but the
i.nterpretation was far from subtle, especially in ternlS of
the huge, wing-like mounts that capped sorne desks,
pianos, and other pieces. Chairs and tables induded
carved volutes, swags, tassels, and floral clusters, aH
cornmon Art Deco motifs, while case pieces featured
inlays of si.mple floral or far more elaborate designs.
Other prominent designers of veneered fumihlre were
Jules leleu (1883-1961), ",ho specialized in the use of
light, warm colours, with the subtlcst of marquetry and
inlay decorations; Lon Jallot (1874-1967) and his son
Maurice, whose bealltifully crafted, often lacquered and
inlaid creations werc latcr followed by more rectilinear
Modernist pieces; and Ren Joubert and Philippe Petit,
founders of the furniture and interior design firm
Dcoration Intrieure Moderne (D.I.M.), which produced
small editions of exquisitcly madc furnihlre of classical
Sharkskin
1
2
1 Clbm'llf ROllsst!nll's pnir of
Ilpllolstered side cll/lirs, C.1925, of
fOSl!'il'OOd, galuchat (sllflrkskill),
nlld molllerof-penr/, IIlnk('s IISI.' of
dyed orgallic /l/nterial poplllnr
nlllong mmlY FWlcll Arl De(o
dt'Sig/lers. Note tlle Sl/Ilb/lrst
designs iJl s/Ulrkskil1 l/l/del' tfle
seafs. Ht 925(/11136'/.ill.
2 DntiJlgfrolll C.19T2, Pmd
ribe's petite commode, o/
IJ/nllognny, eboJlY, s/l/lrkskill, mld
IIlnrLJle, is mI cnr/y L'.l"Ilmpk of
FWIc/1 Art Deca, Bnsed (11/ mI
18fI,-Ct!ll t11ry Fn!/lcll /01'111, it 'tlS
mnde for tire COlltllrier Jocques
DOllcet. Ht 9WII/36ill,
;\
-

e
c.:
LL
c:
1-
a:
\ <1
\
4
3 TlU! Pari:; dl':;igIlJir11l
pro.1l1a.t tlli,;
s/lfIrkskill al1li mliSllJlder
(killgwoorl) dropJrolll secrtaire,
is :;trietly
rcctilillcnr, ils Oll/Y decora/ioll
file Imllem oj the sJmrkskil1.
H/1.511//
t
fl11il1.
4 Alldr GrOl/H':; sJulrkskill-
silentlled vI.'ecl111J1d IIInllOgnllY
chiffonier wtI 'or!! de/ni/s,
1925. was /IInne fOI" the 1925
Pari:; Ex/libilioll, where il was
J.ltlrl o[ (1 rllty':; bcdrOOI1l in IIII!
frel/c/I EmbnS51/'s papilloll. TI/e
picCl.' il'flS Ilh!17Ilt fo ci.'oke tlle
('millt /01"111: Gral//t sad he
it'llIlfed lo mml!! aH objecl I/lnl
rms "Cl/rPflUOlls fa l/le poillt oj
Ht 1.jllJ/{ft JJiII.
3
Lacquer
1
1 ils s/mpc is simpk.
Jcnll Dmlnlld's tnil/e. C.192"'.
jl'fltllrt:5lJO/dly geometric
dL'Comtioll. T/u! blflcks fllld , ...lis
are fncqllered ill 11u,' Jnpnllc$l'
style, w1lile tllt' w1lite is
pnillsfnkillgly npplied (rlls/lf?,t
t'ggsflell (coquille d'oeuf).
Hf 70cm/:q/iJl.
2 Botll DWIflJld nmi file""
Crny :-/lIdied file teclmiqm' of
In(qllaillg il'itll tll(' mn$fa
SIlRn;cnrn, Cm!,s /iT.'t'pnl't
5(1'('('11 ill brOil'II//l/nck Incqui'T
iPitll gildillg,/ms n gcolIIl'fl'ic
dl.'Sigu ami dnte:- fl'Ol/I c. '922-5.
Hf 1.4111/4/t 7ill.
2

1 Tooled (lIId d.1led lenfll('r pnl/d:;
decomled ,1'itll typicnl A,t Oeco
blossom:o mnke up lile :;idcs nlld
bnck of this cfcgnllt nrmc1l1lir,
C.1925. by C/ll/el/t Mere. TIJe
c/lIli, nlso iHe/lIdes ivo,y ncccllts
nl/d Macnssnr ebol/Y cnrIJed
,l'it/ sty/i:ed flowl.'rs.
HI725clIl/2SV,il1.
Z Mere (gnill elllployed repollss
Icnf!lc, nl/d n desigll 01 styli::ed
flom 011 tltis jewellcry cnbillel,
C.1925, n/so JIInde 01 Mncnssnr
eboHY, h'ory. nlld. nI tlle lop, grey
mnrble. J-/t 1.4]1II/.if1 :lill.
2
Stylized Floral Leatherwork
Stylized Floral Carving
1 Loll fallo/'s cnn'ed (lllri
t'I!Ill'l!n'fi MnCflssnr coffre (ebollY
cJll'St), (.]927. has ti simple
rectilineaTJonll, hui its cnn'f:d
Hluel. <I.itll ti bird nlllid styli::ed
h/05501I/5 nndrol/ris. is strollgly
Art Orco. f.. 111113/13Iill_
2 5tyfi:ed jlowers (lJId lefli'eS ri/JI
do'('1I ti cnnted terlim! sirle pallel
al Pnlll Follo!'s rOl/llded display
cnbil/e/ 01dnrk rt'ood and il'Ory.
c.1925. cOJllmissiolledJor Al/ BoJl
A'!f1rch's PomOlle nlclier. TIu'
piece W5 0/1 dispfny nI file J 925
Pari!: Exl/ibitioJl.

o
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356
formo Clment Mere (bom 1870) became known for
carved and veneered pieces covered with large areas of
tooled repouss or lacquered leather.
T",o designers "'ere noted for their extensive use of
exotic gnll/c1ml (sharkskin), olten dyed in pastel shades.
Andr Groult (1884-1967) and Clment Rousseau
(187Z-1950) employed it to sheathe the surfaces of their
tables, chairs, and cabinets, attached as salid colour
blocks or in decorative pattems. Sharkskin-dominated
pieces, as well as veneered and can'ed furniture, were
marle by the Paris decorating firrn Dominique, founded
by Andr Domin (1883--1962) and Marcel Genevri.re.
Though small in number, the can'ed stools, chairs, and
other furniture by PauJ !ribe (1883--1935) \Vere significant
Art Deco pieces. In 1912 both !ribe and PieITe Legrain
(1889-1929) worked on the apartment of couturier
Jacgues Doucet. Carved and sornetimes gilt-wood
furnit1.lre \Vas a1so made by Paul Follot (1877-194]).
Laeqllered furniture was created in large gllantities in
Franee. A prolific designer of riill(lJIrierie (see p.368), Jean
Dunand (1887-1942) a1so created lacgllered chairs, tables,
paneIs, and screens, sometimes embellished with crushed
eggshelL Moving to Paris in 1902, Eileen Gray
0878-1976) was apprenticed to the lacguerer Sugawara
and by 1913 was showing lacguered fumiture, sorne with
silver leaf or inlay elernents. By 1925 she had begun to
design her better-known Modemist pieces, with tubular-
steel, glass, and alurniniurn elernents.
Other notable fumiture makers inc1uded Jean-Michel
Frank (1895-1941), creator of rectilinear furniture
veneered. with straw and other organic rnaterials such as
vellum, pardunent, and sharkskin, in geometric pattems;
Pierre Chareau (1883-1950), whose practical pieces often
cornbined wood and metal elernents; and Robert Mallet-
Stevens (1886-1945), l resolute Modernist working in
tubuJar steel and canvas, as well as exotic carved. and
veneered wood and leather. Taking his inspiration fram
ancient Greece and Rome and the Far East, Arrnand
Albert Rateau (1882-1938) created Neoclassical tables,
chairs, and even chaise-longues, of patinated bronze.
African and Ancient Inspiration
o
Q
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ca
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c:
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3 IVilfl ils giallt serofl sides nnd
smootl1fy arc1led baek, Pierre
C/1fIreall'S tllreescafer so(a, aloJlR
. <
pi/II tl'O nl'll1ellai/'s,fumislled a
SIIlon il/llle 192j Paris \Vor/d's
Fnir. L. :l..1811117/1 lY.ill.
1 /1/51 as el/bis! nrt;;;!::; in Paris
.'ere illj/llcJlced by AfricnJl art,
tribal jllmitllre jl/spired Frenc11
Art Drco designers. Aftllollg/
ndnpted frolll all Africall
chie/fa;,,'s fllro,,/.', Pierre
Legrain's ttooden slool, C.191o-j.
is ob'Jiollsfy modeme j/ terms o/
i/s can,jng. L /3,5'111/29/11.
2 Armn"d Albert Rateall raid
Ilomage to ancient c1assiea/
prototypes. Tllis brOIl:e citair,
c1919-20, re/ntes to tlle nllciellt
emule (foldillg senO, witb its
frontal erossed legs.
Ht
2 Eilcell Grny's /acqllered <1'OOd
alld siltv:r-lenfPirogue or Canoe
sofa, c1919-20, ,I'as original/y
made for tlle COllturia Su:mll1e
Tnlbol.1I wns il/ parl inspired
by fIJe Ballets RlIsses produclioll
ofSchhrazade.
L. 21//1/8ft 10'/,il1.
1 Pier/'!;: C!UlI'i!(/!/ desigl1ed tlJis exotic pa/istlllder wood nl1d ivory dnylJcd,
C.I923,for IJe "$11/011 de CorollIulldel" o/ (/ Paris eliel/t. TI1/! silk t'e/vet
apricot-JllIed upllOlstery IIIntclled fIJe c%llrs o/ fIJe roolll's ClJiIlCSC
Exotic Sofas and Settees

3
2 T1le exotic-lookiug mnterinl
slleatJJillg l/lis doub/e-door
CIIpboord by }L'flll-Miehel Frnllk,
C.1928, is in faet simple str/lit
II/nrqlletry, a tec/miqm! popular
ill J8th-eelllllry alld Arl-Deco
Frailee, ill n J1fIlldSOll1e rt'penlillg
fnll-sl1flped lIIotif.
3 Ei/een Grny's part FIIlllrist
fnllf{/sy, parl fribal Afrienll f100r
lalllp, 1923, of lacq/lt'/'('d n'OQd
nlld paillted pnrc/lll1ellt, ,ms
ex/libiled (lS pnrl o/ a be!droolll-
boudoir, mUed lile MOllle Cnrlo
room, ni l/te 14111 Salon des
Arf isfs-Ocornleu/'5.
HI 1.8j11t/6ft l/I!.
Unusual Materials
,
1 COllturiel' p(1u/ Poird desiglled l/lis
/acqllered gold- mld sih'Cr-1Mf dnssillg Irible,
c. 1929, for (l hOllse of "/IIodl'l"Il stic"
/lntllre jl1 LOl1g Bcacll. N.Y. Tfle scroll is
par! o/ tite I)flllity'sonu. L J 131l1/511 8ill.
British Furniture
4
1 Edm,d desk, 1924-5,
/IIlIIfe by W. of mnhogallY,
mmpllor. and rbony fllld
Kilded l'il/ -1Iite go/d, ,ms erra/ed
{(Ir 1111.' 1925 Par/s E:dlibitioll. lfs
s1Jillillg rxir.7ioT nlld /nssel/l'd
df'Coratioll11arallrlrd Fn'l1eh Art
[)eco piocts 011 .,iCiI' tlll'Tt'.
L. t3.J1Il/.ift 5ill.
2 TI/I.' steppedlor1ll 01 Betty Joel's
AlIstrnliml oak dressillg tableo
1931, re/ates /llore lo AmericaJl
Art Drcoorllls, bu! lile h'Ory
IUllldles tire a /I/xl/riol/s Frellc1l-
style tOl/dl. It is by G. Ashley
(/lid IV.K Ir't,ill, TokeJl Works,
POr/SII/Olltll. Ht 1.6711l/5ft 6ill.
3 Mal/riCl.' Adallls's sleek cocktail
cnhllle/, 1934. bespenks Ja::-Age
America. AII elegalll, well-
cmjted pieee 01 BritisJ jllmitllre,
il is /IIade o[ ebolli:ed lIIf1hognJlY
wilh rllstlrss lIIetal wsillg filld
lIIolmts. HI I.68111/Sft 6/11.
4 loe!'s i1/t'itillg, satill-s1Eeatlled cJmise /ol/gue, c.19.30, is ntypica/ly
Brilisil ill i/s s1mpe mld ostelltntiollS lmtllre, bul its comfort fnctor is liS
lligll liS t1l1l1 of 11 plusli, COl/llfry-llOlI5e cJJ(lir.
5 Atade by }a1ll6 Clark Ud of Lol/doll, tflis peacfl glass-slient1Eed 'OOteu
tab/e, 19.30s, is n.,:ood e.mll/ple of Britisll Art Deco. B/ue glass, loo, tl'as
populllr ill Brilaiu al/d America Itllrillg tIlis periodo Dinlll. 6:WlI/24Yill.

Modernist and Traditionalist

2
1
358
5
M
orieme pieces were produced by Betty Joel
0896--1984), whose London showroom sold her
fumiture and rugs. Gently cunred. forms and wood grains
as decorative motifs are among the s<:,lient characteristics
of her output - as they are of much of Ambrose Heal's
work. Her pieces lean to the large but not showy. More
Baroque in feel were the creations of Syrie Maugharn,
known for her white furniture and interiors.
Omate pieces were designed by the Russian-bom
architect 5erge Chermayeff (190(}-97), \Vho \Vorked in
Britain before moving to the USA in 1933. Lavish
fumiture was also created by the arcrutect Edward Maufe
(l883-1974), notably his 1924-5 mahogany, camphor, and
ebony desk.
111e PEL company offered chromium-plated tubular-
steel furniture in the modem-classie mode, while Finmar
distributed Alvar Aalto's laminated-wood and pl)"vood
fum.iture throughout Britain, and the Isokon eompany
(1932-9) produced mostly ply\Vood designs by Marcel
Breuer and Walter Gropius.
American Furniture
Modernist and Machine-Age
1
1 PlIlIl Frflllkl's Skyscraper C.1928,
fen/lIres black (lllri red /arquer 011 Califomin
redwood. TIJe skyscmper was nrglmbJy file
oremos! symoo/ o/ AlllericflJl Ar! Ol'co.
Ht 2.41111/7/1 nill.
2 T.H. Robsjo/lll-Cibbil/gs WflS il/spired b.lf
c1n:;sicnl art (Inri nrcJliteclllre. TI/e Lotus
cOllsole labie, ('1936, is oj pear.l'ood stnilled
red (Inri deelJ greygreell, L 1.35J11/4ft 5ill.
4
3
3 fliet SnnriJlen's efegnllf Jir 01'
/IIaple dilliJlgroolJl sirle c/mir
wit/ black fmd ochre paillt 1ms
designcd il! 19:!9 ami
by Laja SaarillCII, (.193.
HI 95CIII/3/1 lill.
4 ,\'illt ils sfrollg geoll/el,.i, desigll
(Inri g/itlcl'illg slIIfnce, DOllald
Deskey's screw, (.1929, o[ oi1
)(lillt (Inri mda/lea! 011 cmWlls
fllld ruGad, relates lo /Ilcqllert!d
pieees by Eileell Cmy nlld Jeml
OlllulIIrl.f-/t 1097111/6ft 5h,.
5 Mndl.' for Nl'w York rdniler
Lord & Tnylor nfter n by
U01l Jnllot, lIis /ncqllt'l"i'd wood,
nl1d 111e/n/ dressillg tnble
nJld Ixme', C.1929, looks lo
frailee nlld Jnpnll for i/s
dl.'eornlioll, bul lile l'll1ity's
llllgl/lnr sJlI1pe is rcmilliseelll 01
C:edl Cl/bist fl/mill/TI! (P339)
rnble 111 79.5clII/3 J /Jellc/l
1 55cIII/2J1,;II.
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T
he furniture of Donald Deskey (]89+-1989) was
elegantly Modermst. rectilinear but often with
curved or strearnlined sections, sorne pieces decorated
with geornehic motifs, and ofien touched wi.th coloured
lacquer or shiny Vitrolite or Bakelite.
Many Modemist American designers embraced the
materials, teclmiques, and spirit of the nascent Machine
Age, such as Warren McArthur, Gilbert Rohde, and
Walter Dorwin Teague. A handful of American fumiture-
makers, however, worked in a rnanner that could be
viewed as a homage to Gallic traditions. These luxuriant,
sometimes one-off pieces featured c1assical shapes, fine
veneering, impeccable \vorkmanship, and monfs echoing
Parisian designo Paul Frankl (1887-1958) was best knmvn
for his skyscraper-inspired. bookcases and desks, sorne
with lacquer trim. The carved-wood furniture by
T.H. Robsjolm-Gibbings (]905-76) was 11spired by and
decoraled with c1assical motifs. Eliel Saarinen
(1873-1951) designed c1egant but practical furniture, such
as his ] 929-30 fir sirle chairs.
35
British and American Ceramics
Figurative and Floral
o
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1 Called Agc of jazz, n series o/
delightflll cut-out l/lid pal/ten
dancing (md IIl11siclll figures mas
designed by e/aTice Cliff in 1930.
TlIc set ojil'c <un:; l/tended lo be
l/sed "11511 (en/repiece wJilc
lisfcll1g lo a dallce-balld 01/
fhe wireless."
2 T/e British pottery Carter,
5tab/er & Adall/s iJl Poo/e
prot!r/ced IIIllttc-gla::cd Ar Deco
cartllcml1are :pitll distillctive
lrand-paillted IIlOlifs - slylized
f1oral,faullal, 01" geolllelric - 01/
crelllll grollllds. Boll1 floral m/d
geollletric e/ellJen!s appear 01/
t!lis vasco Ht 18clIl/7ill.
3 Designed alld pail/ten by 511sil'
Coopa tJt Cray':; Potfer!!.
Hall/e!!, {!lis enrtltCI/IUilre gil/ga
jar 01 C1926 (it is lIIissillg ils lid)
jeatures strollg Arl Deco
e/elllellts. Depicfed 011 cadl of ils
three palie/s is a single anima/-
mI bex, a l ~ (/Ird a mili -
callgltt iu jliglrt. Ht 33clI1/13ill.
4 This J/l1tter by Rochuell Kel1t
is fl"OIl1 11 1939 set of c/lilll1l11l1de
by Vemol! Ki/lIs I1l1d cl1/1ed
Salamina (after Kellt's book of
tire Sl1/1le l/ame). Tite fellla/e
jiglre mul /IIol/lItl1iu /l1l1dscl1pe
ex/bit 11 1IlOlIIlIJlelltl1/ity I1l1d
geollletric sty/izl1tioll typien/ of
KCIlt's work. Oi(/III. 31(1II/12'/,ill.
360
A
name synonymous with British Art Deco is CJarice
Cliff (1899-1972). Her bright geometric Bizarre
wares, 1928-37, were followed by Fal1tnsqlle, Biarritz, and
other ranges. Cliff's huge Olltput inc1uded a wide range
of earthenware vessels, generally hand-painted in a vivid
palette of yellows, oranges, reds, bllles, and other hueso
Designs inc1l1ded asymmetrical geometric pattems and
stylized flora and fauna (CroCllS was one of the best
loved). She also prodllced wlUsually shaped pieces SUdl
as tea cups with solid triangular handles. Figtuative
pieces inc1uded the 1930 Age of Jnzz series, brightly
painted Cllt-outS of jazz musicians and dancers.
For over 50 years, SlIsie Cooper (1902-95) designed
and produced table\vare, vessels, and other decorative
pieces. Her output is marked by a stylish elegance and
functionalism; delicate pastel florals and subtle banded
designs were popular patterns. Among the many
factories to produce Art Deco ceramics were relatively
new firms such as Wiltshaw & Robinson, \vith Carltoll
Wnre, and the Poole pottery of Carter, Stabler & Adams.
Many American firms produced pottery in the Art
Deco periodo Most successful was the 1928 Futura 1ine by
the RosevilJe Pottery of Zanesville, Ohio, which inc1uded
angled matte-glazed vases, bovvls, and \vall pockets,
often glazed with striking colour combinations. Among
the most innovative was the output of the Covvan Pottery
Studio near Cleveland, Ghio, which from the mid-1920s
llnti1 1931 produced brightly glazed decorative pieces.
Best known "vere their limited-edition pieces designed by
artists or sculptors, including Viktor Schreckengost
(b.1906), whose Jazz Borol was notable for its distinctive
glaze. Three dirmenvare tUles '!,vere designed by Rockwell
Kent and manufactured by Vemon Kilns in Los Angeles
from 1939, all transfer-printed with ilJustrations by Kent,
sllch as SalmJlilln, which depicted the racky Greenland
landscape and handsome Inuit v,romen.
An interesting collaboration behveen the Noritake
company in Japan and Frank Lloyd Wright led to the
production of a set of incxpcnsive porcelain tablewares,
1916, for the architect's Imperial Hotel in Tokyo.
Geometric Designs
1 C!al'icc Cliffs mre Fantasque Conicill
Early Moming Sct;1I Diamonds,1929; 110/
VII/Y 1'I/5 fhe motij geomrlric. bu! so w!',.e lhe
I"e-Jo/lItionary Juwdlcs. Teapof lit 12CIII/4Y,ill.
2 Roseville Pottery's Futura Jine, 1928;
incll/dl'd vases (lI1d bowls ;:lIOI :iszng,
rinl/gu/ar, globular, IJI1d other geolllctric
/l/otifs. Tillo' CIIbic sJmpes of (WO of lhese Futura
vllses [end themselves lo 1111' Art Drco moti/s.
HI Oef! lo right): 1Seml7ill; 30.5C111/12il1;
2o5C1I1/Sill.
3 /'vIllll!wffall'S sigh/s (lnd sOll11ns illspired
Viktor Schreckcl/gost fa crcate he collie
COWaI Pottery pWlch O1'1 kllOUllllS IIe Jau
Bawl, 1930, ava/ah/e;11 blnck IJlld mryillg
slU/des of blue al/ti :<,1"1'1'11. MlIsiea! il1sffl/1l1cl1fs
mulllotc:5, cocktail glas>!'s, skyscrapers, s/ars,
al/ti crcks dallce 01/ (!Ie cnrJCd-{'afthemuare,
sgrajJito-decorated slII!ace. Dia/1l. 3jCJII/13Y.ill.
2
4 Tllis Carltoll Wan: Jaa vase is dccornlcd
uit/ a lightl/il/g bolt, sllllbllrst, alld gi!l [calJl.
CarltOIl Ware mas the trade wme sed by
Wiltslww & RobillSOIl of Stoke-oll-Tn:llt for its
deeorative art itcms. Ht 14.jCIII/9'/,ill.
5 For llis Imperial Hotel, Tokyo h916-22.; later
dClllolislted), Fmllk Lloyd Wrigllt dcsigllcd t!lis
six-picee set of g/azed porce/aill c/Illa, 1916, it:;
motif lIIulti-coloured, off-cClltn'd, over/appillg
eheles. Dimler p/ate diallI.
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31
French and European Ceramics
Neoclassical and Modern Figures
6/11 lile 19205, Cio POlll; dl'5;glled l/lis IInlld,milltcd porcefaill cot'aed
oo.\", mfled Omaggio agli Snob,for lile Doccin poflcl'Y Riclmnf-Cillori,
w]ere Ile il'll5 arl director {rOIl/ 1923 /0 1930.11/ 29cm/nhll.
1 Alythologicnl subjecfs (lllri
(lbs/rae/, gl'OlI/elric di'Siglls Iypifi.'
tI,/? il'ork o/ pnil/ft'r-potter Rell
BIIIJmwf. 1'IIOSe gfn:ed
l'nrlf/l'lIil>tJre i:'f1x' Europa and
the Bull dates {rom (.1925.
Ht -10.5CIII/16;11.
2 for tllis enrtflell<l'flre <'lISt',
c. 192j. ;jlit!l nfrir-e o/ I/lflidellS,
suitors, (llld satyrs. /eal/ Mfly<Nfoll
I?mploYl'd IIIdallic oxilfes fllld
gildillg. Ht #.jcm/JII.
3 Frolll file Sit'f.'fisll poftery
11islillcfi,'(' /jlle of
decorati.'e stOl/eit'llre kllOWll as
Argenta. tllis l'tlSf:'.
by \Vi/he/m KAge.
C.193o-,,o. de/'cls a \h:oclassical
IIIl1:,;i.lII ill illlaid sika.
Ht 20(1II/8ill.
4 Y/Jis terrncottn il'nll lIluSk.
Tragcdy, C.1922, ,!'aS II/(/(fl> by
fI/{' Goldsclleidcr rfletan. {'/liel,
origillafed ill Vit'II/Ul 111 1885.
Tlle Illlcgol'icnllllcllle is allciellt,
bul tlle jellJa/e ilead is cliic a/ld
moderne. Ht 35.5cm!J4i11.
5 Cemmicist Vfllhll\'iesdlhil'J'
C/'t'aled IMs stl'ikillg, modi:;1t
J-1ead of a Cirl with Flo\\'cr.
FI'OIII 1928, lile fisure, of red e/ay
pollay <I'il1l ca/al/red X'a:illg,
,ws prod/lccd l/y llie IVieller
IVerksliill/'. HI 25CI1I/1oill.
362
S
ome of the mast classical French Art Deco ceramics
"'ere one-off art-pottery items. Emile Decoeur,
Auguste Delaherche, and Henri Srnmen "'ere renowned
for their glazed vessels. The stoneware vessels of Emile
Lenoble (1876-1939) often featuTed incised, painted, or
lo",-relief decorations of scrolls and geometric motifs, as
weH as stylized blossoms.
The premier French ceramic artist ",as arguably Ren
Bulhaud (1886-1987). This trained painter began to work
",ith ceramics arotuld ]919. His preferred medillm "'as
stoneware, crackled glaze a favoured decorative
technique. The men and women Buthaud depicted \vere
largely in the Neoclassical-lIlodeme vem.
The 5evres manufactory employcd well-knO\vn artists
and designers, incllldmg Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann and
Raoul and Jean Oufy, to provide them with forros,
models, and motifs. Some of the most dlarming wares of
the Haviland factury in Limoges '..vere bird- and ani.mal-
shapcd tea and coffee sets, boxes, and decanters by the
sClllptor Edollard-Marcel Sandoz (1881-1971).
Elsewhere m Continental Eurape, the most notable
Belgian maker of Art Deco ceramics was Boch Freres
Keramis. Its output includcd wares in a colourful palette
of doisollll-type enamel glazes. Chief dcsigner Charles
Catteau created vases with flora\, geometTic, and bold
animal designs. In Austria, the Wiener Werkstatte contin-
ued to make ceramics before c10sing in 1932, mduding
pieces by, among others, GudnlI1 Baudisch and Vally
Wieselthier (189'>-1945). Many of lhese harbingers of later
studio pottery were marked by a spontaneity of design
and fonn. The Viermese firm Goldscheider made glazed
earthenware and porcelam figures, busts, and masks.
Italian architect-designer Gio Ponti (1891-1979)
provided modeme and Neoc1assical-modeme designs as
well as traditional fonns to the Richard-Ginori factory,
1923-30. Arguably the best-known Scandinavian designer
\vas Wilhelm Kage, 3rt director of the Swedish firm
GlIstavsberg 1917-49. His Argel/In line (1929-52) of
glazed earthenware features muscular J1udes and
geometric and marine motUs.
Stylized Fauna
1 Serh'lIts appl!Ylfed fa l'Ot11 Art NOIHWIlI (/lid
Art Deto tesiguas. Hen'. a fllrqlloi$('-gla::.ed
sl1nke coi15 nrormd ElfOlfarrl-Mllrct'f Sml/1o:'s
,,'flSC, c-192;. ils IIl'ad risillg nl/{/'I' tlle <'CS5I'f's
flllll'f lIIOIl!"- Ht 425clII/l6/ill.
2 Tlle Kermuis iW$t' by &eh Fri!'rt'S. (.1925.
'as 11t'Siglled by Cntteflll, Bocll's
imlOYlti't' MI;sl;c dinxlor {mili 1907. T}e
1Il01ll1ll/elltal ;,;tOIlt.'iI'llrt' ,'t'S;,;d /II1S 11 silllple
form, bul it is il/tricatdy illcis..'1 al/d
polyellromed <l'itll a lxlIld of lIig/II,1I styfi:ed
erallt'S bet,(,l''ll gl.'ollletrie llOrders. TI/e jt.'il'eI-
fike ('ud Tl'SI//t rt'St'III/Jles; c1oisonn ('Ilullle/.
Ht
Stylized Flora
1 Cmik U!l1ublc's IlIrm'd i'flse, its
simple, Myli::.ed floral des(;/1 Of'l'rinid il1 slip,
dall!sfroll/192j. HI19jcm/nf.1I.
2 Sty1i:ed jloH'crs nlso decora/e Hel1r Rapiu'$
1926 fUlHl"nsfe porcelniu vasc, but ti/('
de/lene!, 01 !Id,. material gives t/I('/11 ti total/y
diffrrcl/t ..!feet mili !1m/ of tlll! simple blossol/ls
011 Lcllo/l/e's l'IlSt'. Botll, are
1lI11l1isfakn/JIy Ar Oeeo. Ht 22.clIl/SYill.
1
2
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1 TIIl' abslmet pnilltcd df'Coratioll
01/ tllt' gla:ed eartllt'//ware body
of Robert l.Jrllelllflllt's lflSe,
c.1925-30, {'c/IOt'S tlle ,'esS{'f's
allg1cdform, fllld IlOtl, muke
nferellcc lo el//lis",. Mast oJ lhe
(('mmie pieCt'S featl/red
i<'Ory-sfa:rd grol/llds ulld H'('re
Tl'prodllCl'd in fmxe lJl/alltit ils.
Ht 2L6em/Slill.
2 Pail/ted 'I'itil abstmet slll1pt'S in
tln' IIIU/1//{'r aud l'afet/e of '"e
Oll/c/I art 11I0,'('11I('111 Ot' Stijl, tllt'
Bodenvase (Ial/ floor luse),
19)0, is by file Germall Gus/u"
Hdllkl'/ al/d 'US /l/ud/' VI; t/u:
Stan1/iell(' \tIualka-Mm/ lifakl 1/ r
il/ Kal'lsrlllu:. HI 6S.5elll/27j1.

2
Abstraet Designs
French Glass
Classical and Modern Figures
1 L.;I
3 Ln!iqlle's Infe J920S Victoire enr mascot is
lIIodel1ed as an nldrogy"olIsfi'lI/ale Itend .pitl,
streulI/lilled, Willd-bloil'l/ Imir. Jt 'l'Uj lIIarkeh'd
ill tite United S/ntes as Seminole lIlId ill
8ritnin liS Spirit of Ihe Ht 21CIII/8Iill.
4 A lyriclI/ fema/e adoms Lnliqlle's /lJreejooted
Opnlesct'llt cltarger, Trpied Sircme, e.192j.
\larine motifs alxn/lld in Laliqlle's Ot'lwre, and
here fmi!s of bl/bb/es appear amollgst "'t!
intemal dl'corafiOIl. DiallJ. 36c1ll/1..1i1l.
4
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3
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1 CJassiCtl/ in tJcme (Inri seIlSl/OIlS in sririt,
Rt'IIe Tha"is, 1925, is ti ,;:tllJlllillg
frvsted (1IIi1 opale:>cCllt glnss il/lIl11illoted
s/ntlldtc. TJmi"s ,ras Illl Egyptinll si/lIlcr
corrCI'fl'rl fa Christitmity. Ht 21.5C111/S'Il.
2 Gabriel Al'gy-Rollssc(ll/ re>h'cd IIe pate-de-
verre (g/as:> paste) lec/miqlll!, (md l/sed
Neoclnssicnllllotifs. Le Jardin des
Hesperides. 1926, Iws (1 Jrie=e 01 tllree l/1aidellS
arel' (1 Gn:ek key designo / lt 24CII1/9/';II.
Strong Stylized Motifs
3 La/iq/le's 1928 dl'sigl/ for
CflI/flrilla'S 11I.'lfl/llle Les
Yeux Bleus (1111/1' eyes) is llOth
primilipe nlld lIIodem, possibll
illspin'd by fIJe udjat. or
sl'l.'ing ('YI' o/ tI/(' [gypliall sky
god HOrl/s, 'l'IJie/1 ,mnft'd off tllt'
"l"i.'il e.lft'. # l.Pliqlll' lIIay 11m'!! fA'l'1l
illfllll'llced by 1922 diSCO'C1}1
of Tlltllllklmlllllll'S fomb.
Ht scm/2iJl.
4 A Baccarat bottlt, witll a 00,1'-
tie slmpt' l,t'!d the Glferiaill scml
Coque d'Or (goldl'1/ sllt'!IJ,
illfrodllced ill 1938.
NI8scl/I/31.ill .
364
1 Tlle desigu 01 t//is strollgly tlllg/ed Lnliqlll!
'f1St', Penthie\Tc. is ntlribl/ted fa $1I::t/llIll'
Lnli/ll1(', Rellff's dalfgMer. Crenled iJl 1926 Illld
illtrOOl/ced /'1'0 ycnrs fater, file <.'l'sse/ is
II/olllded ;11 fow reJief witll opp05iJlg rOi/lS of
ligll/y styli=ed (lugelfish. Ht 2j.jClII/lOilJ.
2 A /Jold. killelic dl.'Sigll11olllilltltes Laliqlli"j
tOIlI'-de-fora! mOI//ded-g/uss FUX' Tourbillons
(w/Jir/willds or o/lir/pools), U/50 mlled
Volutes en relief. Cn'uted ill 1926, tfle '-'l!5sel
wus m.'ni!nble ill salid ca/ollrs but IIInde tite
sfrollgeSf stnfellle!lf in t!lis e/ea,. nlld b/ack-
ellfllll('/Ied '1,t'1"5iol/. HI .20clII/8;".
Internal Decoration
1 Frnllfois.mile Dcorchl'lIIellt,
like Argy-RoIlSSt"tlIl, l/sed fIJe
piite-deverre tecill/ii/llt'. His
"t'Ssef$ II/ostfy [l!n/IITe l/tickeT
.mlls (1IId mllima/ decornfiOIl.
This minintllre ((151- al/d
pofis/ll'd-gfass /'0,:1'1 ;5fro'" tllt'
19.20:;. Dirlm. Semi];".
2 Alal/rice MariJlO!'S 1927 /1Qtt/e
alld (no. 1-123) is deep/y
l'Iclled alld illtemally decomted.
He tI'as Olle of tliefirst lo
caplllre tlie bCfllfty ofair bubbles,
prl'i'iOlfsly cOllsiJfm:d fla'S, alfd
lo lIIake tllem (/// illtegml pnrt ola
t't'sse1's desigll. HI 18cm/7ill.
Enamelled and Etched Decoration
c:
c..:
LL
e
1-
a
el
-
4
3 Dnlllll FriTes of Nalley began
lIIakillg glass objects ill tlle Al"t
NOI/Pt'au period alld colltilllled lo
do 50 illto l/le Art Deco era. rile
s//{lde 011 l/lis acid-etclled glass
Inb/e Iml/p has n ric/I abslmct
desigll, offset by t/le silllpla
spilericn/ base. HI 4]elll/17ill.
JUl
UU
JU
1
3
1 AJaree! GOIIPY ennmelled tite
,'ase called Les l3aigneuses
(tl,' bflfIJers) nrolllld 191:6. He
aftt'/I Dl/tUl/cd so/id nrl'ns of
CO/OIlT U'i/l allot1Il'T, dnrker III/t',
ns 0/1 tl'l' il'VlI/t''''S /l(l(tit.'S.
HI :l6cm/1OI.iJl.
2 Hlllld-t1ecornted "it/ f'lItllllcl
palIls. I1Jis glas:> /Jo.!'/, si:;:l1cd
Quendl o,. Quenvit. is
decornled l'fh s/yli:ed /clH'eS
(lml /lf05501l/S nl/d n dleqllerbonrd
palian. Lillk is kllOWI1 of ils
lIU1ker, /lor {'/u!l/ (/lIfi where il
I'as III(Jfit',
4 Al DI/Ce OIsmlic anri nbstmct,
tlle I!lUwlel/l'd smllop lIIo/ir 011
Ln/iquc's 1929 bottlefol"
COlltllria Lucien Lelollg's SCCllt
is, nppl'opl'infe/y, epocntiroe of
timpa!!. rile nrc/Jitectollie tla;on
ims l/sed for al/casI Iilm'
perfumes nnd calllc ,('il}
n lIIatc/lins elmlllel/{'d-lIIeta/ box
(ill wil/I Nnck, ye/loH', 01"
greel/) I/irlt otW ti/e
boltle. HI J WI//.{liJl.
M
aurice Marinot and Ren Lalique, who created,
respecti\'ely, exquisite one-of-a-kind vessels and a
huge range of mass-produced wares, have come to
exemplify French Arl Deco glass. Marinol (1882-1960)
originally trained as a painter. lnitially he painted floral
and figural motifs in rieh enamel hues on finished pieces,
but produced rus blown creations in the earl)' 19205.
These simply shaped, heaYily walled, internal1y
decorated \'ascs, bottles, and jars were lauded for their
beauty, originality, and craftsmansrup.
Beginning with rus 18905 experiments and peaking
with the mass-manufacture of objects from the 19105 to
the 1930s, Ren Lalique (1860-1945) carne lo be Ihe
unrivalled master of the meditun. Bis first attempts at
glassmaking were via the cire-perdlle (lost-wax) process.
Frem 1910 he bcgan making perfume bottles in col1abo-
rabon with the perfumer Fran\ois Coty. Except for the
rare cire-perdlle examples, Lalique's vases, as with aH of
his mass-produced output, were blown or pressed nto a
mouJd. A pieee could be clear, frosted, solidly coloured,
cased, or sandwiched; opalescent, with a blue--yellow
sheen; or extemally decorated with staining. The most
ablll1dant motif type on the \'ases is stylized floral or
foliate. Lalique also produced vases with strong abstraet
designs, most notably the TOlfrbilloJ15 (whirlwinds). There
were also lalique tablewares; ear mascots; desk, dressing
table, and smoking accessories; lighting devices; and
archi tectural elements.
[n the 1920s and 19305 the production of pte-de-velTe,
a type of paste glass, grew, as did the variety of
decoration on vessels, including man)' Art Deco motiis.
The Parisian Gabriel Argy-Rollsseall (1885-1953)
decorated most of his richly hued, thin-walled vases and
bowls with exotic, classical, or figures. Also
producing pfite-rie-verre \Vas Fran\ois-Emile Dcorehement
(1880-1971), whose large vessels feahlred i.nternal
decoration in inventive eolours. Daul11 Fn?res's main
output i.n the 1920s and 19305 comprised acid-etched
vessels and lamps, mostl)' th.ick-walled pieces with all-
over geometrie or stylized organic decoration.
3E
--------------------------------------_.
British, European, and American Glass
--
2 "",
Figurative
,--
o
U
w
e

<C
1 5wlpfor Sidney Bielder H'al/S" desigl1l!d fIJe
Gazel1e /JO<I'I for Stelll'CII G/ass Works 111
1935. TI/e cr.llstnl 'c:e.:;e/ rens clIgm<'t'd l/y
Josepll Libixll ,d11l nfril':c 0/12 fenpillg
gn:dl. Diam. 16.5cm/6.iu.
2 T/is comCCKut Stt'lIbeJl Glass <'aSt', c.1910s,
;s fl/ tIre Starnford parten. its ;'Ory glllss mI
;:{'itl n lIIoWof dl'l!r (lnd gn:dl6.
HI26.5clII/1O').iJ/.
3 A sfyli:edJigote OCWpi6 n $11/01/ part ol//;$
plniu ay::f"l '1T5t', c.1928. l?lIgm'cd I'y Riclmrd
Sii55l11llllhnllti. Il DresticlI-fmim:d g/ns:;'l'Orkt'r
frolll Pm:ig, Silt'sin. Ht 22.5clII/9il/.
4 Ida Puuli" o/ AlIgs/lllrg produud tM.;
co..'ereti jnr 011!II1lllldlen nl/d gift /1/o>/1 g/a55.
c.1925. lfs exolic decora/iou i5 rcmilli:,Cl'Ilf oI
i\fricall Off al/ti Hl'IIr lIt 12clII/Lill.
5 \tick!' Lilldsfm/ld':, Think hit
Hear :"0 hil, See :\"0 hiJ. 1930. mndt' ".v
fhe Sin:dishfncfory O"':fors, i/llbfratl!d /1.11
t1m:e /l/I/seu/ar t'mnle /llldl'S. Ht 14cm/5 ,jll.
4"""-
5
366
A
mong the British finns producing noteworthy
glassware in the 19205 and 19305 \Vas Moncrieff's
glass",orks in Perth, Scotland, makers of Monart ",are.
These thick-walled vessels feah.ued internal decoratian in
the French manner.
The Wiener \'VcrksUi.tte continued to market glassware
unlil it closed in 1932. Note\\'orthy are the clear-glass jar5,
gob1ct5, and other vessels hand-painted in ranbo\V hueso
As in the past, glassmaking in 19205 and 1930s Italy
centred an Xlumno. Significant designers \\"ere Paolo
Venini and Ercole Barovier. The \'arietics of glass
produced \\"ere far removed froOl traditional millefiori-
and filigree-type glass. Venini's petra tesslIto, far example,
featured vertical threads of caloured or white glass.
From 1916 and 1917, when the painters Siman Cate
(1883-1945) and Edward Hald (1883-1980), respectivel)\
joined S\\"eden's Orrefors Glasbruk, the firm began to
produce 11Iodeme \\'ares. These were of cngraved, etched,
painted, and Granl glass (a technique wherein ctched and
engraved coloured vessels are cascd in clear glass).
DlIring the 19205, Pragllc architect Jan Kotcra created
glassware whose geometric forms ",ere Modernist, and
other designers in the city produccd Cubist-style glass
fram c.19?10 to 1925. There ",ere also t",o Czech
glassmaking schools, at Nvy Bor and Kamenicky Seno\',
producing Art Deco-style vessels, their outpllt as
handsome and varied as that of their Bohcl11ian forebears.
In lhe 1920s, tmder Frederick Carder, Stcllben Glass
\J\'orks of Corning, Ne", York, began to produce modeme
glass, sllch as the Ci/ltm and Cllltltrn Iines, thick-wallcd
c1ear- or coloured-glass \essels, with internal bubbles and
other dccoration; and thc 11ltnrsin range, inspired by
Orrefors's Granl glass; and acid-clltback vascs of
hexagonal, ovoid, and other shapcs. from the 1930s
Stellben began to conccntrate more on colollrless crystal
art glass and tableH'are. Dcsigns of a figllrati\'e, often
Neoclassical, nature, carne from sculptor Sidney Biehler
\Vaugh (190-1-1963). Hugely popular also \\'as the mass-
prodllccd, moulded "Dcpression" glass prodllced
among othcrs, Anchor Hocking, Diamond, and Federal.
--------
Etched, Engraved, and Enamelled Decoration
---_._-------------------------
1
2 Stl!lI/JCII'S ncid-ddrcd glns:; 'ase
of c.1925 ,('as r/e:;iglled iJl lIJe
Chang pnttt'f/1 by Frerierick
Cardero 01ce/es/e blllt' oiJer/l7id
wil/ p/1/111 jade, lile i'6Sc/
fentl/res scrollillg floral dl!siglls
abOl'e slyli::.t'd c/ollds.
Ht 21CIII/S(,iIl.
3 VJade by Lot::. H/if"('l'
gll7ssH'orks, tllis copcn:d jar,
c.192.J.-5, wn5 decora/en by
Mflrl:Y 8eckert (-Scllider). Of
blo/'II clear g/ns:; {/11ft OI'erlaiti
co/DlIred g/as:", tlll' "6sd has bcm
clUl!lll!/Ied n/ld I7cid-efehed. Tire
l'll('<.,;dic floml nnd
eellO CO!1felllpomry di':.'igll:.'
frOln file Wiel!t'r Werk:.'tiifft',
linda Dn,'<o/Jerf Peclw.
1 An cXl7l11plc 01 Edrmrrl Ha/d':;
!t:sfi,1' Fi rc'\\'orks /10<!'/. c.1935.
for 0l"nfOr5, jir:;! dcsiglll'ri in
1921 nllr/ eXt:ClIfed DI'er tlIe !Jea,.:;
l/y 111l1sla CI1Sflwer Karl Rssler
/Hui oliJer:;, tl'I1S displayed lit tllt'
1915 Pars Exllibitiol1. llald ,en:;
,pt/! tI,t' Sil'l:dis] {aetan fOI"
L
o"el" 50 Yt'tlrs. HI10.5CIII/Sill.
-
c:
c.
U
e
1-
e
<
4 Probn/lh, dc:.'i'>;lI['d bJI Fla,io Poli l/lid lIIlIde
. . .
by ArelllIlt'de Segl1:.'o, the Scgll:.'o Vl'fri D'Arfe
.'II:.'e, c.1937-l0, i:.' n 11l1Ilti-ln.tlen'{1 'e:.':.'e!
CI/:.'ed oua ille/lI:.'ioll:.' (lW l"t'ddi:.'II-
onm,'<1' g/ll:.':.' (l'(')" <u/lite. Ht 29cllI!11.jll.
5 file /elld or \frlllricc ,\olllrillof,
. .
ofilcr ElIropt'nll:.' '['SIIII to HU/k!' ;'[':.':.'e!:.' pitll
bllb'c:.'. IIldllJlic oxidt':.', IIlld other infernal
decoration. Knrl Wiedlllmm crl'all'd lkora
gla:.':.', :.'1Ic/las flris 'ase. 1929. Hf lScm!iJl.
6 A fillt' e.mlllp/c af Scottisil ;'vlonart gla:.':.',
/IIade '.ti JollII .\lollcrt:(fUd af PatlL f/i:.' caral
red-cn",ed l'n"'t', 1925, ha:.' cloisonn, crysfa/,
alld CIU/llle! decoratioll. tll(' iI'hite el/alllel
fakillS 01/ a !/Iefa/lie 1115tre. Ht 14.6em!5Y:ill.
31
-------------------------------------
Silver and Metalwork
Figurative and Floral
o
u
w
e
l-
c::
<C
1
1 R..I\il. Y. Gil'nrio,,,e's si/ver fllld
lIIo/Jer-o[-J'cnl'1 ;"lermaid ClIp
(Inri cm't'r i"l'llS /linde in 1938for
ti,,? GoldsmitllS & Si/i'f'rsmitlls
Ca.. BirmillglliJlII. TI/(' t't.'SSt!lI1a5
nfrie:/' of 5l'I/S/lOIlS illtert;:'illillg
merlllflids fl//lid ro,I'S offisll fllld
5('111101'5('5. I-lt 37clII/14'1:;11.
2 Erigar Bnllldt's stlllllJillg
sikrn:d-hroll:e potichelcalllres
nfrie:!' of I/llde IIIllsicinllS (/lid
drlllcers 01/ all nl/-fJf.'t"r gral/lid ol
sl.'lJi:edflo'f.rs (luri feaI('S.
f-/I 2.07m/6/'
2
3 PaJI! Fell/' (Inri Mal'/iI, Rose 01
Ohio's Rose 1roll \Vorks desiglled
tllis /esk sel jI! 1919-31. Made of
sll'd. nllllllillilllll, brns), broID",
(md blnck mnrble, he desk
(Iccessory nl$OF'llfllres c1oisonne
ellmllt'h'ork. L. 58.5cIII/23;1/.
4 Rose /1"(111 Works prodllced !!lis
ftrep/nce SC/WII, desiglled /Jy Pmd
Fe1lr, c.1930Jeatl/riIlS a central
Illldt' 01gold-plated brol/:e alld
sl.JIli=l'd floral rllld gt'Ometric
e/I'ml'nt.; of sihw-plnted irOI/.
Ht 1.5m/5ft. 4
368
A
diverse assortrnent of Art Deco metalwork was
produccd by fenmllliers (craftsrnen in wrought
iron), sculptors, enamellists, lacquerworkers, and
factories. The French in particular excelled at creating a
diversity of objects, both traditional and inno\'ative.
American individuals as well as established manufacturers
made items in metal, often combining it with glass, 'wood,
and other materials to produce handsome, largely
functional pieces. Many products were the rcsult of
collaborations between factories and industrial designers.
Edgar Brandt (1880-1960) \Vas France's leading
ferrollllier. His huge gates and firescreens alike comprised
dense floral, folia te, and scrolled designs that often
centred on bronze figures or figurative panels. One
outstanding design was his Cobra lamp of c.1925. The
ferrO/miel' Raymond Subes (1893-1970) contributed
fumiture, docks, lamps, and other pieces to the Paris
salons. ID the 19305 rus wrought ironwork and bronze
gave way to more pieces in steel and aluminiurn, and rus
scrollwork and other fonns became simpler, and
some\\'hat abstraet. The small but stumling output of the
Paris sculptor Albert Cheuret includes outstanding Art
Deco pieces, such as rus mantel dock in the forrn of an
Egyptian headdress. The foremost maker of silver and
platcd objets \Vas jean Puiiorcat a skilled
artist who approached his vases, tea and coffee sets, and
other luxury goods vvith the precision of a Greek 5culptor.
The Italian designer Gio Ponti (1891-1979) created
significant pieces for the French factory Maison
Christofle: made in electroplated metal known as
ChristofIe si/ver; bis best-known designs were his two-
light candlesticks Fleche (arrow) and Dnllphill (dolphin).
lean Goulden (1878-1947) studied chmllple-v enamelling
with Jean Dunand, the famous maker of dill{lJIrierie
(decorative metal \Vares), and subseguently produced
lamps, docks, and plaques embellished with colourful
geometric pattems, often arranged in Cubist configura-
tions. Camille Faur (1872-1956), another French
enamellist, worked in Limoges. He eovered base-metal
vases and lamp bases with enamelled al1-O\'er patterns.
5
7
5 Displm,l!d al {he 1937 Pnris
Exhib/iOJ/, NOI<l'cginll Oskar
SorcllsclI'S /lnl1dso/llc silr.ll!l"
liqllClIt" decal/tl!/' ens /linde by tite
'meraN/' 05/0 firlll f. Tos/rup. /11
file fOl"m n high/!/ nngll/nl"
styli:rd bird, ti/e decante,. ;5
yet eh'gal/t, lltilitl1rinJl yd
lu.ntriOIlS. H/ 27clII/l0r,in.
6 The HI/IIgarillll-bom Americall
ar/ist IVillu:IIII -Hllt Oieaerich
crented a repertoire of ai:;tillclh,l.',
!ligllly killetic, e/ollgalea hea:;/s in
selemIlI1cdia, ine/udillg //letal,
ccmlllc:;, alla fabric:;. T/lis
Fighting Horses tripc/. c.1916,
is of 1/(/lIIl11ered irOJl and limss.
Oia//l.30clII/9ill.
o
c..:l
w
Q
1-
a::
ce
7 Tlli:=: par ojl1'l'OlIghl-iroll 5COIlCi'S l/y RaYlllolld Silbes, c.1925,/el1fuI'I!5
s}apcd ala/raster sJmdes il1 imitnl iOIl (Ir ,'asC5 (or ,oWII1Cls of s!lli:cd
-. . .
!7owcrs nnd folia'{c. Ht 53.5[111/21 JI.
o
8 Th> 51Wkt 'as a poplllar Art NOI/1.'emll1lul Arl Oe(o 511bjecl. Edgar
Brand!'s cnM-brul/:e Cobra {ah/e /all/p. c.1925, has a g/as;; shnde by
01111111 Fres oI Nnl/cy. Ht 53cm/21ill.
9 FOllr palie/s of fruil-Indm "'es ndom l/lis sih'cr-c%ul"cd lile/ni bolt/e
llO/der, c.1920, by DmIish si/pa51/Iit! GCOIg !CI1SI.'Il. Ht 12clII/4/;;n.
9
10
10 Bmlldt producea t/tis ens! alla <l'rought-iron firesCfl:en, c.1925, ;('illl a
allle/ope or hilld set alllid scro/ling tendrils IlIld styli:cd
b/05S0I!1S, Oi'L'r ti !1(/Jld l.!fforlllali:t'd170"il'Cl"s allafoliage. HI 93.5cmlVt lin.
36S
l
Geometric
I
\
~
1 Fnmcc'sjillt"Sl Art Dt'Co
"i/i-'erSlI/itfl. ('CIIl PIf{fon-nt. ,1'11$ n
Neo-Plafon;st idlose IOi'/? 01pure,
has/c /01'1115 - he snid !lInl lhe
eire/e ((las tlll.' denl sfWpt'-
repeals itself in I'ork:; SI/e/I liS
/11;51931 sih'l'r mili roSt'l'OOd lt.'n
set. Tlle /lltls/e's '1l1t'Sl for Mt'fll
IIInt1Il'lIInfi(nl prollOrtioll <l'as n/S{!
t'l.'idcII j" JIi,;; paillstakillg
drnwillgs. Ten/lO! l1t 18(11I(7;11.
2 Puiforen!':; coI'ered tuteen,
1930s, is o/sihw-c%llrl'd lIIetn1,
flu: bol'I bflluled by n rillg sel
.6t1l ngnle clloodlOIlS.
Ht 21cm/Slill.
3 cml De::llrs oftt'lI illc1l1ltcd
npplied ril/gs ill flls desiglls. ns ;11
tltis si/'cr-plntrd metal (/lid
roSC1P00l1 II/tu/He/lr jol' n pt.'wler
(Jiu/ioll trapl/y. T1It' willg-lik'
/mlll/m'red metnllmlldh'S arr.'
apI'rol'rinte lo file I/nlllre o/ fi,e
. H)1 'Q,"
I1I1''. t __CIJ/",JI;JI/.
3
o
c..;l
w
Q
1-
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~
4 5
370
4 Tllis si/re/", silded s i f ~ r (lIId oxidi:ed si/w
Cubic (OIjee 5('r<'ice (nlso k/lo"'1I IlS Lights
and 5h<ldows of Ivlanhattan), 1927, is Inl tlJe
Dmlis/ sil.'('I'smitlI Eril.: Maglllls5t'/1, for f}e
Gor/IfIJI/ Mnlllifllctl/rillg Co. iJl Propidt'llce,
Rhode Islrmd. TI/(' gt'OlIIctric e/eme"fs alld t1u'
si/lt'r. gofd, alld brott'lI-tollt"d IIIIJeltc /cd Ollt'
>riter fo mil il ff a CIflsf slilllifl! JI precioll5
lI1i'/a/." Cofft't' poI lit 2-lcm!9ll.
5 Nl1/1per & Drr'cllporl of Bir/llillgfwl/I
prodl/ced fls siln?r (/)ld 11'00d('/1 tmpo! ill l/u'
cllrly 1920;;, ils J/fllldJc ami 5p<JlIf I/elll/y
illcorpornted lIfo its (l/tic.' slmpe. Ht 13clI1/5;1I.
6 TI/e 8ritisll -Si/'W5I1litlt H.G. I\lllrp/)I
desiglled al/ti prodlfcet l!lis cirClf/ar-tllt'med
six-picCt' 5ift,(',. illld IlliCl'{lOd tea mzd (Offi'l'
5l''''icr.' in 1934. Coff('(' po/lit 22(1II/8ill. 6

----_.- -
-
9
J
10
10 Tlle si/wsllli1I Georg- ]el/5m'S Pyramid
fin/ruare 1m.:; desigl/cd by Hllrnld NidsCII,
jcnsell's brotl1er-ill-lnw, iJl1926, {l/ld /IIndeJor
sOll/e year.:; affer. Tlle Egyptirm-illflllcllced
lIIot!f ,ms ti/e jirm's fi!".:;t Art Deco pattem.
11 Albert Clu.'lIref's fOllr-de{ol"Ci: si{'cn:d
II"O/D' l1!1d O!lYx lIumte! dock, c.1930,
resl'lIIblcs Il styli:ed EgyptinlI l1enddress, it50
locks lakillg n pyrnlllidal slwpe. L. 50CIII/16Ifill.
Aspects of Modernst design were taken up by saIne
British silversmiths and designers of du-omed and plated
metal objets d'art. A cube-formed silver teapot with
\Vaoden handle \Vas made in 1922-3 by Napper &
Davenport of Birmingham. vVakeJy & \Nheeler of London
produced high-quality silver and electroplate; a shuming
figurative design \Vas its covered Merlllaid cup of 1938,
designcd by RM.Y. Gleado\Ve. AIso working in a
Modemist style \Vas Henry George Murphy (188-l-1939),
ma..ny of \Vhose creations \Vere essays on the circle.
In Scandinavia, the silver hollow-"vare, flatware, and
jewellery produced by Georg Jensen was the best-known
Art Dec metalwork to emerge from that part of northern
Europe. Though various motlls first used in the eady
19005 still appcared on Art Deco-period pieces - silver
beads, openwork stems, and stylized Ieaf and bird forms
- there \Vere aIso articles with strong modern shapes and
geometric motlls. Jensen's brother-in-Iaw, Harald Nielsen
(1892-1977), \Vas responsible for thc Pyralllid flat\Vare
pattem of 1926. In Norway, silver manufachuers Tostrup
7 Camille Fallr's ,'fiSC, e 1925, has a IOil'-relicj geoll/e/ ric desigll ill black,
hite, l1!ld blw: CIII1/11e! 0l'Ct" si/per joil 0/1 copper. Ht 30.5cm/12ill.
alean CouldC!1'::; sili:.'ered brol1=c a!1d c!1alllelled dock, 1928, like I/mllll of
fhe tl1/C!1Ir:d ellallldworker's dr:sig!1s, is 1101 Oll/Y decornlr:d ll'it} an
aSYIlIII/l:tricnl arrny oj o'cr/appillg alld partial gcometric c/CIllt'llls, bu!
a/so !akcs 01/ nJ/ irrcglllnr gt'Ometric s//IIpC ilsclf.
9 Thr: ItI1/il1l1 nrchilr:ct, dr:sigllt'l", writcr. l/lid Ir:ac!lr:r, Cio Pouli, pro,idr:d
desiglls for the frcllch si/<'crslllit/I C/lristofll.'. His p/ayfuJ, sili'r:r-p/atl.'d
cllIldlcslick Fleche (arro,p) dales rolll c.1927. HI 20(1II/8ill.
?"'b ..t
and David-Andersen produced Modemist designs, sorne
of \vhich included enamclwork; Oskar SClrcnsen's 1937
silver liqueur decanter for Tostrup in the forOl af a
stylized bird is an example.
American Art Deco metaI\Vork ranged from massive
decorative pieces to sOlall utilitarian wares. TI1CSC could
be hand-crafted or, more often, produced in a factory i..n
varying quantities. From the mid-19th century the
production of both precious and base metal objects,
especially in silver and brass, \vas a huge US indllstry.
Notable ferrol1l/iers included Hungarian-bom PauI Fehr
(1898-1992), who created figurative and floral screens
and other \vares for the Rose Iron yVorks in Cleveland;
and Wilhelm HLUlt Diederich (1884-1953), also froOl
HlUlgary, whase animal-rich screens, andirons, railillgs,
and standard lamps \Vere distinctive, expressionistic
\Vorks. Several makers and factories added Modernist
designs to their repertoires. A Gorham coffee service,
1927, entitled Cllbic, or Lights l1lld Shndows of Mallhnttnll,
\Vas designed and made by Erik Magnussen (188-l-1961).
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Textiles
Floral and Figurative
1 A popular Al"t Oeco lIIot{f ill
Frallce, sty/b'd fOlll1tnill5 can 'e
::eI.'JI iJl a/JllJI(lfmce 0/1 n detnil o/
EdOllnrd BJII!lfictlls'$ les jets
d'eau tcnhlre aml/gil/g), 1925.
of satill, ",ifk, (lJI(I artificial si/k,
/linde by Bnllle/, Melllli & Cie.
2 Ajigllnllii'c IIJI/rill/' I/Jell1e
IIInrks l/lis l/Jlique
rIIS af J93-l, dl':50igmf b.l{ orfisi
\larie 1l/rl'Ilfill. UIlJike olller
\rl Deco sin'lIs. Lallft'lIfill's
r!flterenl ('01l/.'1/ icen'
II!lIl1istnknbly 1lers, {/lId her pnstt'!
pllhfte m5 iedJ Sllted fo lJ/oderJII.'
ift'riors. L l].Sm/:HJfl lill.
o
<:.:l
W
e
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a::
<C
3 Pail/ter nl/d lfesigllrr Pnll/ lrilIC
created this block-prillted fllbric
for Amir!!' Groll/l ill 1911. A ,'('1'1/
t'ar/y exalllJl/e o/ [Jnrisinn Ar
Ot'(O, tl//' pnftl'rJI is cOi"'I"ed pit/
roses {lIId /l'f'('i. t1ml an' /llore
't'a/st;c mIli f/'s5 styli=ed tlum ;11
later oj lile slyJe,
4 011 n dl'Sigll 1'.'1 ti//;'
rrl!llc/1 mdn/worker Edgnr
8ml/dt, Les Roses, tllis lextik
lila,/' by CJclley
oj 1\ lallelles/er, COJ/llccticut.
Tf/cjabric. 1'// deJlseJy
I"l'pen/t'd dl'Sign oj :>fy/b'd
1!'ollld IlIwe bcCII lI:>t'd
jo/" I/pllo/sk,.!!.
3 4
372
5 A Ill'aNrLl$lmcl figllm/il'/' 1II0lij 011
DouaJd D'skey's gOlfadlc-nlldgmplJi/e-oll-
papel' dl'Sigll for /is 5inging \ Vomen cn'1't'I,
J93.2, nt Radio G/y Alllsic Hnl1, ,\'eit' York.
L. 1.0";'11//3/1 5ill.
6 Tite I'l"Omcnfi>r 11n1lciug s;rl figlfft'S 011 tite
designa Frnnk 1938
IlnI/H']ock priuted /jl/ell art' lillked l/y r;boolls.
,ddll'ellO IIlr s/yfi=ed III1;r,
6
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Faunal and Figurative
,
1 Rllt1t Rec''-'t'j'j b/ock-printed
colton <'{'it'el ,m//lltlllgillg
Figures "'ith 5till Lite. 1930,
{'as de,;igned for Ne.!' )'ork
rdailer lV. & J. S/oolJe. el/bis'
paifings ispired R('('i't's. not
slIrprisillgly. jillce sIl/! l/fId
stwfied witfl Fel'lland Lger ill
fllt' 1920S. HI 2-33111/7ft 7/ill.
2 Marioll Dom's SCI'!!l'II-pl'inted
filien alld myOIl fabrico Aircraft.
1936. madI' by n,e Old Blenc/I
Linell Ca.,
Nortlll'nt helando is 1I0t as simple
as it lIIig1lt nI Jirst look. T/e
paltemfcaflm's slyli:elf m.,iall
figures accompmJielf by tlleir
subtle. O'-'C'r/apJICd

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3
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3 Diana. 1930, mI embroidered
p,md by tll.: Brili:J1
Rebecca Cromploll,jc'atl/res a
c1assical figure accolllptlllied by
hOlllld, bird, al/d blossoms, a/l
stroJlgly, 'Silllply Art Deco; ,('lIite
orgnlldie opa grt'l'IIllI!ssinn. ,-dtll
nppliqu of !Jite COt!OIl, fillell.
mrd mcta/lic bmid elllbroidaed ill
,('!lite COltOIl.
L. -/-4.,clII/!7;1,ill.
4 Also Brit isll Al'/ Deco is
F. Gregory Bro,('II'S roUerprillted
IIIl11amed i/lel/fabric. 19.31. il'it11
a repea/ of leaping dccr amid
,;tyli:edflora. lt <l'(l:; made by
W. foxfoll Ud of Lal/doll.
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I
n the 19th century and up until around 1920, most
carpets vvere traditional oriental types, with border
designs and fringe, and .M.iddle-Eastern motifs. But the
20th century saw more floor coverings, many vlrithout
border patterns or fringed edges, being made in Britain,
france, and Belgium. Square, round, and oval shapes, as
well as the conventional rectangle, were produced, some
with scalloped edges. Top Parisian designers were com-
missioned to create Art Deco rugs for specific rooms, such
as Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann, Paul Follot, and Eileen Gray,
who designed Aoor coverings with geometric, stylized
Aoral and figurative, fountain, and other Art Oeco motifs.
Many carpets, mostly asynunetrical designs, by Paris-
based designer [van Da Silva Bruhns (1881-1980) ",ere
commissioned rectangular pieces woven by the
Savonnerie factory. Cubist-derived geometric motifs
abound, but he also found inspiration in other cultures
and art fom1S, notably those of Native America and Africa.
In Britain three carpet designers stood Out: Arnerican-
boro Edward McKnight Kauffer, better knmvn for his
graphic designs (see p.-l12); his wife, Marion Dorn
(1900-64), in 1934 head of her own company specializing
in custom-made rugs (see p.413); and Betty loel, who
designed her 0\'1'11 furn.ihlfe and carpcts. The Russian-
born architect-designer, Serge Chermayeff, in Britain
during the 19205 and 19305, was an influence on carpet
design as well as furniture. EIsewhere in Europe, Art
Deco-style rugs were made by De Saedeleer in Belgium,
notably rich abstract and geometric examples by Albert
Van Hufle!.
In America, Donald Deskey (189-1-1989) created
pictorial and geometric carpets, induding round bathroom
rugs with marine motifs, Cubist-inspired rectangular
designs, and the 5i1zgilzg Womell carpet of 1932, an abstract
design of wavy-tressed, open-mouthed vocalists for Radio
City Music Hall. Ruth Reeves 0892-1966), a painter who
had studied with Lger in Paris, also designed carpets in
the Da Silva Bruhns mode (see p.415), and Scandinavian-
style hand-woven ntgs were made at the Cranbrook
Academy 01 Art under Loja saarinen (1879-1968).
French Geometric Inspiration
1 TlJi;; Frmcfl Art Dt'CO iTO",H
iCLl()/ carpd. c-I930.fi.'tlflln';;
gt'Ol/Idric patft'''';; ill
slnlfcs of 1II1l//'C. /11//1', alld Im/c
grcc/1 1"l.';5{,rt't'd asaill"5f a tall
grolllllf. L. :1'9,m/9ft gil/.
2 TIJe c. 19:17gt'ollldl'ic-J'affal/t:lf
s/lnllfllllgfabric crt'ated l'y tlie
l/kmi11in l-bor 11 nrt ist-desi::;Ila
SOllin Of'!ml!lay hSSj-1g79)
m;; caUed Simu1t<lnc, as ['cre
hl'r Pnris ntf'!ia nnd !ler
ni tlle 1925 Exposilic)JI
("Sillll//talleisllI" I'as a/so
al/otlll'r l/(llllt' {or OlpllisllI, t/le
pnillfillg st!!/{' nSS<lcinft'lf ,,itl,
Ddmlllny's IllIsLI(ll/d. RolwtJ,
111 tJze 19::!o;; tht' JJroli{k SOl/i,;
De/mil/ay :;:m5 Ill':'f klltlwII for ha
"ii'id/y /llIed. gt'olJlt'friefiIS/lioll.
textiles, ami i/lft'rior dl'S-i<;!l/s.
,
3 knn Dn Si/t'n 8rlfl111s's
c-1930 carJ't'l is (l'(l:''II ill
cartll fOlies. Likt' II/nllY olfla
j100r eo,willgs of thc pcriOtf by
t1lis, tlle most prolifie o[ Art
Oeco enrpet desis"ers. fIJis
rectnl/gll/nr exnlllplt' is
and mnrked by botll aS.lIlIIlIletry
nlld gl'odry - IIolnv/y tltt'
lIviqllitOllS :ig:ng

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374
1l1e variet)' of Art Oeco motifs it "'as possible lo repro-
duce on fabres, textiles, tapestries, (lnd waH hangings
cncompassed \'irtually the entire repertoire: floral,
figurative, faunal, aguanc, geomeh"ic, and, in America,
skyscrapers. Not surprisingly, clIsembliers sueh as
RuhlmaIm and Donald Deskey designed fabrics and
textiles, but thcre were others known primari1y for their
textiJe designs, notably Edouard Bndictus (187&-1930).
Floral forms and more complex figurati\'e designs
predominated on the finest fabrics, but Modernist
pattems "'ere produced as well, like Eric Bagge's 1929
L'Ornge (the storm), a block-printed Unen ",ith stylized
lightning bolts and Q\"erlapping scallop-Iikc clouds. The
couturier Paul Poiret's Atelier Martine created attractive
floral fabrics, and Paul Iribe designed a printed fabric for
Andr Grolllt in 1911, \Vith masses of stylized roses.
Allbusson tapestries, both hangings and coyerings (or
fllrniture, \Vere decorated \Vith rich figllranve designs, as
\Vere Beauvais factor), \Vorks. Many Raoul Ou.f)' designs
\Vere prodllced by both manufactllrers.
ln the United States, some French-inspired fabrics, in
rayan as well as silk and other materials, ",ere prodllced
by manlacturers stlch as F. schwnacher and Chency
Sros. TIle lattcr's Les Roses was based on Edgar Brandt's
ironwork, but other floral designs \Vere livel.ier, less
sophisncated, and more I/Iodeme. A wliquely American
theme, urban life, appeared on some fabrics, among them
Ruth Ree\'es's MnJlllntlnJl of 1930 (see pA13), a printed
cotton made by \'\'. & J. SIDane. Other indigenotls
American motifs fOlmd on fabric5 \Vere plants of thc
Sollth,,-est, sUdl as cacti and aloes, and Native American
floral and falmal manfs.
In Britain, too, a \Vide array of French-inspired, as
weH as wholly distincnve and unique, Art Oeco fabrics
\Vere made. 5tylized a\'ian themes were depicted on,
among other examples, Marion Dom's Aircraft, 1936, a
screen-printed linen and rayan whose o\'erlapping
pattcrns made by four birds take on a magical look.
Other animals and hllmans also figured on a host of
British fabric5.
British and Belgian Geometric
1
1 T/i:;. lIiSIJly killt'tic SCI'l'c?II-l'l'illted coffOJl rllld
ral(On (nllr;e ,{'a:; dcsio,tllt'd VI' H.f. Bl//J IJlld
- .
ml1d" b!, Alfml Tt'xti/t's o/ LvI/do/l. i1l1932. U::
n!pt"llt oldingolllJf stripe:; nl/d IIIt'nJdl>riJlg
ll(/Jlds is I1nrd-ellgt'lf. "\Jacllillt'-ASt" Deco.
all1!'1 by il:: ('nrl11 101U'$ of brlI'II.
rllss('/ mi. L 2.:n"'fift -lill.
, .
2 n,e Brit;::!1 ft'xlilt 1'$igl/er alld ,'/'ntw Alt'c
HUIIler des('i{lIt'.i llli::.fal1ric. Brainlree ;'\0. 5,
madt-11Y \\lamer & Sal/s 0/8rnilltn'(', [::x'x.
OI 'O<'t'1I co/lOIl. (oUOu giml'. ami ill!t'
dalllllsk. tI't' IIIl1teril1lll11:, 11 dl.'lISt? pnftt'm of
gl'omt'fric mot!f:'.
3 l\'ifl/11 :,impk s<'Omdric JllIltem I1l1d ::IIMl/l'd
pl1/dh'. tlli:, h'xlih' :'tlIllJ'/e il'l1::
Beft.1/ Jod Lttl, (.1930. TI/t' 111111111sk III11tcril11 i;:
iCQi:'t'll in lmff colloll 'l'ilI1 01"111/'('1' H'ooll1nd
.. ,
.t'!';/t> ::ifk il'C.(t. L. -lino
4 TJis i:: I1l10tlu'/" A/"I 01'((1 dl1l11l1;:k ftoxfik
de:5iglll'lll1l1d il'Oi'l!II for Bdty Jvd LM. (.1930.
TI/(' g<'olllelric pl1l/t'm (JlIlf/(' Mm' coftolll1lld
yl'110w siJkfl1bric;s /'id,,'r I1lld more cOlI/l'kx
t/um t/1I11 oftht'of!/('r Itld Il!xtik L. 2.7-lm/9ft
e
e
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5 Resemblillg n :ig:ng 11117:(', /lIis Be/ginl! rug, Remous (l'ddils), 01" Les
Fleurs Irises sur l'Eau (iridcscenl jlOiI'CrS 011 fhe water) ms by Albert
Valr Huffd. 1925, (lllri WOI'l'1l by tlle De 5ncde1eer <l'orksllOps. HI. 2. 16111/7ft. 5-----------------------------_.- -
Mass-Produced Wares and Industrial Design
-
...
1 Rockil'cll Kell/ desiglled /11;5 cfnlllpngne
cooler, llIadl.' by CItase Bmss & Carpa o/
I'\'nterbury, COll!ll!ctiCllt, 19305. Its flllis/ is nI!
(IIrOlllilllll, ils I/otij n YOIIJlg BI1Cc/l1I5 11111001g
grapes. Ht 23.5clII!9'bll.
2 The Art Deco cocktail slU/ka [!'aS avai/ab!e ill
balll sih'er l1!1d illexpeJlsipc meta/s. TIJis si!I'er-
plated slwkcr, ClIp:;;, nlld trny wt're desiglled ill
lhe cady 19305 by Lurelle Gll/dfor file
lntemntolln/ Sih'er Co. 01 Meriden,
COllllecticllt. Cocktail slwker 11/ 40CIII/15'/.,;II.
3 By C/U/se Brass & Capper, this cllrolJled-
lIIetal, plllstic, ami laminate tour-piece coffee
seruice ,!'aS part o/ ti/,. Specialty Jine,
1930-6. Coffee l/f/1 lIt pcm/12ill.
4 Tllis pni!1fed meta! typewriter-ribboll box
is (/ filie eXl7l11ple 01 mass-produced American
Art Oeco. A /caslied grl'yholllld, sYlllvo/ic of
speed. appears Oll the lid. Oimll. 6.5clII/l'lill.
1
Metalwork, Plastic, Glass, and China
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31._ ---'
5 Nlany 1930S [adies' powder
compacts rere veautifll/ly
desiglled (/lid engilleered prodllcts
ill lile Arf Oeco style. Tllis
enan/el/ed-JIIefa/ e.mlllp/e, by
industrial desiglle/" Robert L.
Leol/ard for Valltille, is eIIgrm'ed
Zanadu. L 9.5CIII!3/,ill.
376
D
esignin
g
for industry readled dizzying proportions
in the Art Deco periodo ther than ceramics and
metahvare, many types oE mass-produced objects
Eeatured Art Deco designs. Decorative po\Vder compacts,
Eor example, were made in huge numbers between the
\Vars. Fine jewellers such as Cartier and Boucheron
created exquisite gold and bejewelled compacts, but there
\Vere also cosmetic containers oE base metal- enamelled
metal, \Vood, plastic, and other inexpensive materials
manufactured in the thousands by makers such as Evans,
Volupt, and Elgin (in America), and Stratton (in Britain).
Sorne of these, as ,,,'eH as related cigarette cases, were as
expertIy produced as the most precious Art Deco objects.
Numerous JJlodeme plastic objects, made oE a wide
variety oE this relatively new material (Lucite, celluloid,
Catalin, Bakelite, and casein, among other types and
trademark names), ''''ere produced. Radio cases; dressing
table, smoking, and desk accessories; and bowls, lnmp
bases, tri.nket boxes, and other mostly small useful objects
were made oE plastic and featured geometric, stylized
floral or figurative; or streamline-JJlodeme motifs. In
Britain, especially, much early plastic was colourfully
mottled, speckled, or streaked.
Glass-fronted table radios oE the 19305 are among the
most striking and significant examples of American
industrial design of the time. Walter Dor\Vin Teague's
ModelS17 has a rOlmd front f ~ e ofblue mirrored-gIass
and chromium-plated metal. Besides these glass models,
mention should be made of the various strearnlined and
Modemist designs in plastic, metal- and, less so, wood.
These indude Harold van Doren and John Cardan
Rideout's Air-King radio, and Norman Bel Geddes's 1940
Pntriot Aristocrnt 400 for Emerson.
Then there are those objects whose makers are
u.nknown or anonymous; Eor instance, a series oE American
drromed-metaL glass, and wooden rectangular trays.
These 19305 Jaz: Modern (as a paper label on the back of
one reads) trays sport bold geometric designs in deep red,
bIack, and cream that have been silk-screened on the
reverse of the glass.
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37
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6 Harold pnll Doren muf ,o/m
Gordoll Ridl.'oIlf Crt.'llf;d this
1930-3 skyscmper-illjlllt'nced
radio for Air-Killg Prodllcts of
BrooklYIl, N,'lI' York. /linde of
Plnskol1, I1Il.'1nl, alld g/as:>.
Ht 30(1II/11:;;II,
7 Esleclllcd industrial designe,.
Walter Dont'ill Tengue crented
l'vlodel 517, n bllle mirrored-
glass, chromil/l11-plnted //Idal,
(lnd woad mdio, for the Spartoll
CorpomtiO!I, MicJligal1, 1934-6.
8 AII elegnnt plnti/lll111 geol11elric
desig!1 mI a Cl"l'all1 gr01/J/d adOnis
the C0I1111lHllity ClIi1/a pnUcm
Deauville, 1!/fldc ll a Bailaral1
factor!! for the New York Slafe-
based 011eida com/l/ul1ly, 19305.
Thc l11atc1u"l1g C0I/111111l1ily Plate
flnttoare nlsofentll1'C5 a geometric
de::;igll, l1 this case al t!le e11d of
ench piece's !1tJl/dle. Di!111e1" plale
dia1!1.255C1 !1/lOil1.
9 Tlle New York IVorld's Fair of
9 3 9 ~ 4 spmi'!1ed t/01lsands of
prod1lcts cdebmlllg the
exhbitOI1 alld its aftmctiolls.
Ths drllkillg glass fea/1Ires a
Imllsfer design depiclillg the
COl/rl of Slates pm,ilion.
Ht 11.5C111/4/'l1.

\
11 111 the officiai ornllge (Inri bll/e COIOll1"S of lIJe
1939-40 Ne York !'I,'orld's Fair, p/astic 5(/11-
filld-pepper slIakers lakc fIJe sllnpe5 of lIJe
exhibtion's siglUltllre structllres, he Tryloll
IJIld Perispllere. Ht 9CI1I!J'!,i,I.

10 Made l1 BrooklYIl, New York. t!lis c/II"01l1e-

plated metal alld reversc-pnillled-g/ass Jazz
Modern fray, C.1934-j, is un olllsfulldillg
exnll1ple of I1Il1ss-produced "Machille-Age"
America/l Arl Drco. L. 45-5CIII/18ill.
8 L.::::::=:::::- .-J
Modernism
Furniture 382 The theory of modern design was deliberately simple as a response
European 382
to the growing complexity of the world. Modernist objects look very
Scandinavian 386
American 388
different to those that came immediately befare them: they have no
British 392
ornament and no overt reference to historical style and they tend to
Ceramies 396
emphasize materials and processes of constructing. Modernist
8rttish 396
European 398 designers aimed to use industrial processes to create objects with
American 400
integrity that simplified and dramatized everyday Iife.

Glass 402
British 402
European 404
American 408
Silver and Metalwork 410
Textiles 412
Industrial Design 416
Lighting 418

r
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T
he architect Le Corbusier, growmg IIp in Switzerland
in the early years of the 20th century, was introduceci
to the writings of John Ruskin and held them in
considerable reverence, not least because of the link they
made between art and the moral condition of society. His
work passed through l romantic nationalist stage, which
infiuenced the villas designed by him around the age of
twenty, \vith carved and painted ornament representing
the pine crees of the Suisse Romande. Travelling and
seeing more of the world, he learnt new v1lays of
absorbing the great works of the past, not as tcxt-book
examples of historie styles, but as sources of a more
generalizcd inspiration.
In his knowiedge ;md awareness of history, Le
Corbusier was typical of the first generation of modern
designers. Even those who consciously declared a break
with the past were often in search of a valid equivalent to
ancient buildings and objects. Unlike their immediate
predecessors, however, they believed that direct imitation
produced the husk of the living objects of the past. but
lost the lile itself. Many of the pioneers of Modernism
had, like Le Corbusier, lived through the periad af Art
Nouveau, but found it offered the wrong answer to the
long-recognized problems. It was too obtrusive and
attention-seeking.
The extraordinary technical advances of the late 19th
and early 20th centuries provided a challenge to create a
ne'" form of Modernism: electric light, telephones, motor
cars and, finally, powered flight. These found expression
in German industrial design befare 191-1:, as weU as in the
Art Deco of the 19205, but the social conditions in Eurape
after the First World War added the impulse necessary to
the realization of Modernism in its familiar form.
Thcre was much that was straightforward about
Modernism. In Germany during the Weimar Republic
(1918-33), a majar and overdue reconstruction pro-
granune was carried out with the same thorouglmess that
had characterizcd thc rise of Gem1an industrialism fifty
years earlier. The ghosts of the national past were
suppressed - too thorough.ly for the Conservatives, wha
l./rjff: 11/lllllillilllll 111111 l:orl;
IIressiJlg l:/lbil/ef by Eifeel1
Gray, I11l1d/! jfor ller pilln, E.1027,
il1 t/U! 501ltll of FrallCf', 1926-9,
desiglled by Gray and fean
Bnd04'ki. It is at th/' SflIIl/'
time /ll/ /lbstraet 5e1l/ptl/re, a
dCllloJlslratioJl of ti/e /lot,d l/se
oll1/lIl11illil/1II ill fl/mitl/re, a
pral:tica/ stomge IIlIit al/d, ill
its origilll1/ positioll il/ the t'iIIl1,
a parliliol/ betweell tlle waslJillg
a/ld s1cepil/g nrens.
Ht 1.69111/5ft 7ill.
Opposite: tlle Triadic Ballet,
cllOrt'ogrnplted mld desigJled
by Osk/lr 5c1/elllllll'r ni ti,/,
811111111/1S, Dessau, ill 1926. TI/e
geometrk/l/ jforms applied lo tite
Imll/nll /JOOII sllOw tlle fllleaS!1
- -
rt!l/ltiolls/lip /Jetwl!l!ll 1IU1lllllld
II/nl:hille ill Modcmislll, /Jut a
sensc of IIIIIIIOI/r /llld joie de
vvre (1/::0 eDil//' /lcross clea,.I!!.
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brought them back with a vengeance under National
Socialism after 1933. The housing prograrnme in
Frankfurt showed the rest of the ",orld ha\\' architecture,
design research, and a commitment to social
improvement could create an image cf paradise,
although this proved to be short lived. In Swed.en in the
19305, the Co-Operative movement offered a newly
urbanized popuJation well-designed material goods at
affordable prices, to be placed in hames that may have
been small, but which always provided outdoor playing
space for adults and children.
Modernism's m s ~ n to serve the mass of the popu-
lation \Vas seldom so simple, however. The correlation
between functional-looking design and effective oper-
anon \Vas sometirnes rather loase. Un-designed objects
could work just as weU, ",hile design could become self-
seeking and purely aesthetic even under the excuse of
function. Many objects scarcely needed the attention of a
designer, as the early Modernists shO\ved in their
CldmirCltion for deck chairs, indushial glassware, and
other "found objects."
While mClny designers could subscribe in theory to the
availability of high-quality products for the greCltest
3
1 Bril istl tulm/nr slccl jumitun.' by JEL (Practical Eq//iplllellt Lilllited),
adi'ertised in lIJe 1930S to emptll1si:t' its j('lI1illill" qlla/ities.
2 Modem desigll reflected a CIllt oj Ih" leallmld /wa/tlly body betwt'l'Il IJe
,('(1/"5. Tlle Ma55ngc RooJll ni fin! HOll,;c of Aflnlltis il/ 81"1.'1I1t'11, Gel"llIl1IlY,
1931, 5/1O('S Ihe quest jor I/IC body bl.'(llItiflll.
3llldllslria/ Designl!r's OffiCl! by RaYlllolld LOeIIY alld Lel.' 5i1ll0l15011,
exllibited ni he Metropolitnlllvl//sf!I/II1 o[ Arl, Netl' York. ill 193';'. T/le
enr ncts ns nfOClIs for tIJe slEil/il/g strl.'mll/illed flft IIre,
4 Are1liteeture redlleed fo lu.mriOllS cssentia/s: tlle Gemu/II Pm,ilioll,
desigl/cd by Mies mil del' RO/le, <1'itlI/Js Barcelona cfll1ir al/d stools nI
1111.' 1929 Barcelol/a IutemafiOllal Ex/libitioll (se,'/1 Itere in tlle <'Crsioll
recolIslmcled in ti/e 19805).
number, they soon discovered that the materials and
craftsmanship needed to sustain quality were too
expensive far realizing this aim. Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe's Barcelona chair (p.382), originally produced in
1929 as a throne for the King and Queen of Spain visiting
the German Pavilion at the Internatianal Exhibition in
Barcelona, has never been a cheap object, Cllthough it \Vas
adopted in the 1930s and 19605 as one of the earliest icons
of Modernism. There \Vas an evangelical aspect to
Modernism, promoted by the Museum of Modero Art in
Ne\V York and later by the Design Council in Britain, that
invited disobedience, ",hile, for many people, the fine
distinction between good and bad objects was simply
incomprehensible.
Modemism had an ambiguous relationship to the
professional industrial designer. In the early days of the
movement, there \Vere fe\V opporhmities far professional
designers to train or practise. They tended to be over-
bllrdened \vith knowledge of historical styles rather than
having a fresh creative vision. It \Vas therefore assumed
that outsiders, sllch as architects or artists, might be better
able to develop original ideas for products of all kinds.
TIlere \Vere plenty of historical precedents for crossing
over from one field to another, but Modernism brought a
new fonnal language based on abstract art and a ne\\'
sense of socialllrgency in the aftermath of the First World
War. TIle Ballhaus schoo1, fOlUlded in 1919, introdllced a
re-srructuring of design expertise based on a combination
of workshop skills with abstract formal experimcnt, in
place of the narrower vocational fraining of the past. lllC
role of the architect was re-<iefined as that of a universal
problem-soh'er, and many architects were happy to
design fumihue and other products as a means of
eaming extra income.
In the period arollnd 1900, the complete architect-
designed room, with fllrniture, textiles, and aH other
detas designed or selected to create a stylistic unity, was
the ideal for many designers, and this preference was
carried unchanged into Modemism, offering freedom
from the cultural baggage of the past in exchange for
obedience to a ne\\' visiono
Many Modemists huiy expected lhe world to be
seized by commlUlist revolution and thereafter provide a
suitable sctting for their designs, even when the Soviet
Urlion turned its back on its initiallinks to abstraction. In
America, the social experiments oi the New Deal in the
1930s were, however, expressed in rather conscrvative
visual forms, and Modernislll mostly emerged through
gaps in the market, sometimes as a prestigious Emopean
export, sometimes as a home-grown expression of
commercial enterprise and salcsmanship. Britain showed
5 Tlle dt':>i!"l! lo l1:-S0cinle desgl1 witll "1I/llSCII/ i /le" FaIHL'S ol rn1iOlla1ity is
SCL'1I l1 t!lis pagefrOIll n prolllolionn/ brochul'l.', by is:::l Moho/y-Nas!!,
lOI" Alal"ce! 8rcut'I"'s IOllg e/mirlor tI!t' lsokoll COmpml}/, 1936. Tlu!
lJIo(lt>m /l/mI takt's li1l/(' o.U lo :i-CI1Il lit' m ~ l l g l/{!i{'SfrOIll ElIfOJll'.
l similar ambi\'a1ence, finding some of its most effective
manifestations of Modernism in the corporate design
style oE the London UndergrOLmd system, the apparently
consen'ative re-styling oE TI/e Tillles newspaper in 1932,
and a ne'" light-heartedness which entcred the
expression of national identity in the British Pavilion at
the Pars Exhibition of 1937. After the war, despite an
apparent propaganda \"ictory over reproduction styles,
the social mission of Modemism became increasingly lost
in the world of capitalist expansion, advertising, lnd
obsolescence, fmm which it has never hl11y re-emerged,
while the communist countries prodllced only kitsch.
The story of modern design llsed to be told in
oversimplified lerms, as a search for some promised Jand
of platonically perfect forms, where the purificatioll of th.e
eyes would achieve a similar purification of the soul.
MorC""recently, Modernist design has been presented as a
response to specific culhlral and political conditions.
Modentist objects that attempted to rid themselves of
narrative and :Symbolism have acqllired other values
relating to status and what the French sociologlst Pierrc
Bomdieu has called "social capital:" the knowledge that
by o\Vlting a particular thing, you wi11 present yourself to
the ",orld as a superior persono
Seen through tltis lens of additional meaning during
the last 30 years, the "classic" objects of Modernism have
effectively been incorporated within Post-modentism.
Modernism's attempt to connect the material and social
worlds is l1''IOst apparent today in th.e Green movement,
wltich holds that absence of objects can be as valllable to
achieving its goals as their presence.
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European Furniture
Steel Frames in Germany
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"-.
1 Marcef Brel/er il't'l5 probab/y
tTle 1I/0S! /(/11I0115 Sflllfl'llt al ti/e
BnllhallS. His Jlcst o/ (ables iJl
tllVllltlr sl!!t' (lJId tt'GOd, 89, ,'aS
prodllud by TIIO/lct, 1925-6,
fllld by Standard MOl't'1. 1928-9.
Ht +4.jCIIl/J/jll.
2 Brel/er's 7/10IIet sirle clmir 832
of 1928. il'itlt /l/bufor stee/. ,,'OOd
(lIld cmll.', i5 Dile o/ tf/c lIIosf
iL'idespn'fld fll/lll'lIflllrillg lIlodl'nJ
classics. I/sillg thl' Ctlllti/et.'er
pri/lcipll'. Afll'r 196o. t/lis 11esigll
.t'as markl'led as lIle Cesca cfmir,
Iltlmed tlfter Brwer's dallghler.
Ht Socm/31/ill.
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3 BTI."lIer's Club arme/mir. ill tI/biliar MeeJ alldfabric. ei.'oh>ed from afr5t
wsioll ill 1925 to ne/jet.'e a definitii.'e form in J 927-8. Afier 1960. it
lf'ITS II/arkt!fed as the Wassily chair by Gm,jna of Bo/agua. HI 72cm/lSI.iIl .
4 Afies 'all der Rohe original/y desgl1ed llie stee! alld katllcr Bmo char
for I/l/:' TI/gend/mt }101I5e ll 11l/: C:ecll city. in 1930. T/le sliallo' ClIrl'e 01
t/caTnI allo:t'f'Ii tlle c1mir lo ll;' Pl/l/ed l/p clase to 1111' table. HI 79Ci1I/31ill.
5 TI1/! MR533 ciUlir by Alies 'all der Ro/u!, 1927. ;:; lIotallle jor ti/el/1I
(1m'!? oj t/11! stee! mllle ill rOIl! 01 tlle clmir, (lIId tite clloice oj ,1'OVCI/
calle as {/ s('alil/g ma/erinl. Ht SOCII1/31'!iIl, W. 53CIII12 1iJl.
6 Tile MR9Q Barcelona cimil" by Mies "mI del" RolIe wa5 cOllct!ir'I.'(/ fOl"
t11C Baree/olln Exhibitioll ill1919 fllld IIIflmifac/urt'd nfterwllrds by Tilol/d.
The Cl'ossed legs imitate t11l: (Illcicut Cn.'l.'k klismos e/mir. HI 73clII/24'1;11. 6
5
382
Tubular Steel in France
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1L: Corllllsia ami Clmrlofte
Perrind's Ffluteuil Grand
Confort Le3, 1928-9. is bnsed 01/
picas by lite Britisl fir/ll Mnple's,
fllld nrimin.'dfor ils cOl/tms! lif1l
tlll' tmditioJltll degollce of FTI.'IIc11
desigll, re-illlerprded in Art
Ht 6S (111/26/ ill.
2 Fauteuil aDossier Basculan!
LC4 (c/ur '(litlt rockillg bnck) by
Lf.' Corbusia, Piene Icmll/crc!,
n/uf PerritlJld, 1928-<], SJIOWS file
nflm'"cc ofGernulII trl/m/nr sft'd
TIJe nddcf mI
I'xoticisJI/ often folllld il/ jllfer-
,mI" jllmitllre. Ht 65CIII/25/,11I.
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2 _
3 TIII' Siege Tournante by Le Corbllsier rmd Pt'rrirmd I'IIS for he o..ffice.
Le Corbl/sier /e/d tlml offiaf"misl/illgs it'Crl' I ru/y modl'rJI prodllcts 01
fhe time, il('illg l/1I-seljCOIISciol/s exprt?'SsiOlJ5 DI cfficil'llcy. Ht ilcm/28ilJ.
4 Noil' I1l11ooem c/l1ssic. Ihe Chaise 13asculant Lel. 191-8. ClllpI1l15;=6
Ihe SI...mmf. artiCll/atioll al i/s parts. 1111.' dlroll/cjmll/I.'d rocker cml ll{'
positiolll"lf 0/1 t/u.' sled Imse as n:qllircd. HI I3CIll/lS!.ill. /.1.,6111/jft 1 'Iill.
T
he history of Modernist furniture began with
industrialization in the 19th century, particularly
\Vith the firm founded in 1819 by Michael Thonet. The
bentwood chairs \Vith calle or ply\Vood seats, used in
cafs and restaurants, that \Vere produced by his sons
after 1850, were d1eap to make and lightweight in use,
and un\Vittingly achieved the kind of anonymous look
that became popular after 1900 in reaction against the
more elaborate kind of Art Nouveau in Europe. ll1e
Thonet company went on in the 19205 to make tubular
steel furnihlre after thc prototypes of Marcel Breuer
(1902-81) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969),
and these designs \Vere imitated and adapted in Britain
and America.
Breuer was the author of several classics of modern
design that are still in production. His first experiments
\Vere carried out as a srudent, and then master, at the
Bauhaus sehool in Gcnnany in the mid-1920s, where he
abandoned a hand-made \Vooden look and got a local
craftsman to bend tubing manufactured for bicycles.
Breuer's \'\'nssily arrnchair, 1923, \Vith Ieather seat and
arms, is like a skeletal diagram of a chair, ",hile his 8]2
side chair, with \Vood and cane panels, can now be
bought in a flat-pack kit.
l'vlies van der Rohe's Bnrcelolln char, 1929, is equally
well known, but was never designed to be cheap. Like
much Modernist furniture, it derives from classical
antiquity with its klislllos-style crossed legs. It shares a
look of relaxed conort with rus 1927 side chair in tubular
steel and leather.
Thc Swiss architect Le Corbllsier (1887-1963), an
enthllsiast far Thonet furniture in the early 19205, \vanted
to escape from the luxury one-off character of French
fum..iture exemplified in the 1925 exhibition of Arts
Dcoratifs. He was influenced bv Breuer and Mies, and
"
worked \\"ith Charlotte Perriand (1903-99) to produce a
range of furniture including the Grnlld COIifort Le] club
armchair, 1928-9, based on the well-stuffed masculine
furniturc of the English firm Maple's, and thc C"nise
BaswlnJlf LC4 recliner, 1927-8.
38
=

I
De Stijl and its Influence
1 End Table, 1923. ;1/ pnillf'il
u'OOd, by lIJe DI/ldl designa
Gerril Rl'ti.'t'ld. dl'llIOllslmfes
bis gt'OlIIetrical i/H'elltii.'l'lless.
Hl 61.jCm/2-ll.ill.
2 Rieh'dd's Red/Blue c1lair <l'tlS
(ir;;f prodl/ced in /l/Ol/oc//rame ;11
1917-18; tltis ('.mll/ple is
1918-19_ It en:;; meal/! fo /Jt.'
simple lo /IInke /1'011/ sfnl1dard
tmber secliol/s, Imt n/50 nc/lepe5
ti logictll COllsistel1cy ill
wllstructOI1 tllal A1odel'llists
sfrii'ed fol'. SlIrprisillgly. il is
/llore comfortable t/lnll il /ooh.
Ht 8cm/34-'Iill.
3 Rietl't'ld's Iejt-Jlfllld Berln
Chaie 1923. de.:t'1ops l/s forlllul
/al/gl/age t/lrollgh Ih", lIS.lflllllldry
ol tlle arms. sen!. nlld bnck.
Ht 1.06ml3/1 6;11.
4 TlJis coiffeuc. (Ir r t ~ i l l g
taNe, in sted al/d limila I'<7S
dl.'Signcd b.l/ Roba! AlaJlel-
S/n'eIIS, (1 popular Frt'llc/I
designer j,/ tlu.' 1920':; 1l'11O
s}o,t'd (1/1 1Il1der:;tnJldiJlg of
Rief,'eld's geolllef/'ic pl'llciples
lit!! t!lis (liJ'1l COllslr1/cfiOIl.
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T
he phrase '1ess is more" \Vas coined by Mies van der
Rohe, and applies to Modernism generally. Gerrit
Rietveld (1888-1964), \Vorking in Holland, \Vas inspired
by Frank Lloyd Wright's simple straight lines in timber
furnitlrre befare 1914 to carry the process further. Timber
\Vas his favourite material, and he aimed for simplicity of
construction by using sawn sections and nailed joints, at
a time \Vhen conventional furniture \Vas abandoning
much oE its craft basis, but trying to hide the loss of
\Vorkmanship behind "traditional" styling. The over-
hanging ends at the junctions became the aesthetic
signature oE Rietveld's designs for simple household
pieces. Most famous was his Red/BllIe chair, first
produced in plain ",ood in 1917-18, at a time of great
poverty and deprivation in HolJand after the First
\Vodd "Var, and later painted in primary colours,
following the principies of the De Stijl group of artists
and designers.
Modern designers in the 1920s \Vere inspired by
lightweight folding furnihrre made for use on board
ships, in the army, or on safari. ll1ese pieces could be
bought from department stores rather than through the
normal furnishing trade, and broke a]] the rules of
deconlm and craftsmanship because they were meant for
use outside the home. The fo]ding deck chair known as l
Trnllsnthllltiq//e was the inspiration for the TI"111lsnt chair,
1925-30, by the architect-designer Eileen Gray
(1878-1976), \Vith its wooden frame, slung padded seat.
and adjustable back. It represents the apparent paradox
in Modemism, that less effort produces better design, for
it fulfils all its functional requirements while alsa ha\'ing
an elegance and personality which are hard to pin down
in \\ords.
Eileen Gray's furniture was ne\'er mass produced.
Born in Ireland, she spent most of her life in France,
developing from producing Art Deco lacquer hUTlihlre
to",ards a distinctive form of Modemism in the interiors
far which her pieces "'ere originany devised. At the end
of her long life, her work \Vas rediscovered and celebrat-
cd, and reproductions of her pieces are "'idely avai]able.

I
Eileen Gray
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1 Ei/c('1l Gray's S ella;/" 011932-3
,('ns II/!i:'cr prod1/ced 111 qumltily
dllrillg he designer's lifetiml!,
bu/ has become a moden classic
o,pillg lo ils visual rllld
COI/sI /"l/cf olla1illgmui Iy.
2 Gmy's Transat elw;r, 1925-3,
Inkl.'s ils Ilall/e JrOIll he
Transatlantique, nforlll of clmir
l/sed 0/1 tlle decks %cenll-goillg
liller;;. TJe slrnigllf lilles o/ lIe
il'oorieJl mllle coJltrast with
1/(' In:y ClIn'l! of lile seat.
Ht ]JclII/28I.ill,
3 TIIefoldillg block screeJl by
Eilcm Grm, C.192j, is aH
l'.tIlmple 01n simple iden
rigoTollslyapplieli. TlIe facqllered
it'OOdell JllIlle/s, n re/11m lo /JeT
{ir:;! fllmitlfre in l/Jis
- -
medilllll, are Iinked 011 stee1 roos
(Inri aIJoll' Il/mlY Dril/S
fa /J(' (rmled. Ht :!.ljlll/7ft /.iJl.
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orighm/ly dl'SigIlL>rl Jor Grny's
0<1'11 filia of lIle same /fal/u'.
TI,;s desigll las beell wide/y
reprodllud sillu lile mfiseOl'C,.y
ofCray':; il'Ork ill Ibe J9,05
nI tI/l.' mil of lit'" 10llg Jife.
HI 6::!CIII/2..!:ill.
5 Cray's ]926-9, i5 '!fllienJ
of hel" n/,ility to II/nke a simple
'iSlIn/ idl.'a illlo a pert'llllial/y
pil!ee ofjlll"llitllre,
ill I'hicll f'metioll i5 lIeitllcr
obtyed (1:> a /IIa:;ter, IIVI" dmied
as a t!tralll, but plnys n dl/cl
<pitlr 1mItasy. L. .2 .0''/II/6ft 8'1i 11.
5
Scandinavian Furniture
Wooden Furniture from Finland, Denmark, and Sweden
.' ,
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1 Afmr Anlto's Paimio rml/e/mir,
1931-2, 1l'115 origillalfy de.!efoperf
Jor hrbercuf05is pntiellls in tfle
Paimio Sallatoril/'" ill Fiulal/d,
wIJicll was !lisjirsl great modem
building, completed ill 1933. Be1lt
plYiPood 'was lile basis fol' most of
Aalto's fl/milllre, mal11rfactlll'ed ill
fi/llalld. Ht 64(111/25'/,ill.
2 T[e idCll of tile call1ile'Vel'ed
anlle/lI1ir (Chair 31) was based 011
ll/bular steel desiglls. Anlto's
lJersioll of 1931-2 alfo,'SJor a
sfigl!f flexibility in tI,e frame aJld
sent to mllke tlle e/mil' more
comforlable. Ht 7wn/28'1.ill,
3 Anito combilled padded sents
will! a pfyrL'Ood frame in the
Annchair.wo, 1935-6, wit/r a
printedfake =ebm cot'erillg.
Ht 6jCm/2j/,jll.
4 Aalto's tro/Jey for food 01' dri/lk
of 193j--6 show$ I,ow tlle L'llrlier
age of domcstic service 'as givillg
way lo a I/ew simplicity of middle-
e/ass lijesty/e, vltere e/egmlce was
still va/ued. Ht 6ocm/23V,itl,
W9ocm/3j/,jl/
5 TI's Screen 101 by Aalto, of
1933--6, bnsed 01/ a J9111-cel/lury
pnttem, is made of il'OOdell batle1ls
gIl/M OJIto a base offlexible clotfl.
TI,e mUller can set "1' tlle irregl/lar 5
C/lr'tS l'!icf, Anito illtrexillcM
illfo llis arcfJitectllre in imitalioll of
1/lIll1re. HI1.jlll/4ft niJl.

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M
odem furniture in Scandinavia forms an important
strand in inter-war history. AIl the Nordic
countries had a strong design culture during this penod,
\vith a special knowledge and love of til11ber. COl11pared
to the hard sl1100th surfaces of Gerl11an, French, or Dutch
Modernism, designers in Sweden, Finland, and Denmark
aimed for softer effects in material and colour, although
their best pieces \Vere no less rigorous in eliminating
visually confusing or redWldant construction.
The most famous representative of these trends is the
Finnish architeel Alvar Aallo (1898-1976). In 1933 he
patented a method for bending plywood. under steam,
and developed a senes of chairs, stoo15, and tables whose
simple construction belies a precise understanding of
visual balance, often enhanced by spray-painted finishes
in colour. Aalto's furniture was and still is marketed
successfully in many countries by the Artek company
that he established in 1935.
The Swedish designer Bruno Mathsson (1907-88) was
27 years old when he designcd the Eva chair, vvith its
frame of salid bent beech wood and woven webbing seat,
using material that in conventional furniture would be
hidden with padding and fabriCo Such simplicity comes
\'\'ith inherent hazards, although perhaps accidental drink
spills that could ruin th..is chair are less disastrous in ti
beer-drinking country than a red-'wine drinking one.
Wilh the Dane Kaare Klinl (1888-1954), the perfec-
tionism ofScandinavian design reached a peak. His pieces
are simple in appcarance, but most do not aUow for mass
production, requiring a careful choice of timber, like his
folding lable and beauhfully sculpted folding stool of
1930. Mogens Koeh (1898-1992), trained as an arehitect
but became a designer for a wide range of fumiture,
textiles, and silver. His folding Sajar; chair of 1938
resembles Klint's stool and is similarly beautifully
detailed. K1int also produced a version of the Sajar; chair
in 1933, a type originally designed to collapse and pack
into a bag for intrepid travellers who \vished to recline in
comfort when they set up campo Le Corbusier and Em6
Goldfinger wcre also influenced by tllis original model.
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8 Anlto's fllrcl.'-lcgged sloo!
(Mode160), 1932-3, works
eqllally welllls n sirle table.
I,\'ltell stacked, t!le 5/00/5 achieve a
different beallhj of repeatillg spim!
onl/s. Ht 44CIII/171.ill.
9 Magen5 Kocll's foldillS chair o[
1938 enrries ModemislII's ideal
DI adaptiug IlIlOllYIIlOllS producfs
fo a quiet perfectioll fypicnl of
Dnllis/l designo Aspects of file
Safari chair (cnnvns sllpports alld
lenfher arm slraps) are combilled
wifJ file idea of Ihe loldillg
Direclor's e1mir wil/ exquisife
atfenlion lo defai/.
Hf S7cm/34'!.ill.
10 BrlllIO Mat!lssol/'s Eva e 1 i l ~
1934, s/ows file il1dependellce 01
modem Scalldinaviall desigll
alld its alfenfioll fo lite p/easures
of tOl/e/1 as well as sig!lf.
Hf 83.5C111/]21.il1.
7 Tllis chair Witll 11 loro back
(Chair 65),1933-5, by Anito,
s}ows tite informal liJes/yle
tIJnt !lis ftmliture 5l1ggested.
Ht 7Scm!30'Il.
8
10
7
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6 Anlto's Korhonen, Model 611, a
stackillg c!U1ir desgu 011929, was
Imdilional ;/ cOllsfructioli, sillce he
fmmc WI1S joillted mtha tlum bent.
Ht 79CII1/]ll.
9
11 Matltssoll produced a ligll!
callDas I01l!lge versioll ofEva,
C.1938, ac/eving t!le same pll1"ity
of visible cOllstrucfioll.
NI8cm!34'1l
11
3:
American Furniture
3 A simple stnlelllelll by Gilbert
Rol/de in a cltest o/ dmwers,
1933-4, empilnsi=.illg asymllletry
ill file p/ncillg 01 ile l/{ludles,
and playi1/g wifll n two-Iolle
CO/Ol//' cOlIll'l1sf. I-If 91.5C111/36ill.
2 desk by
Fral/kl. C.1930, l'i111 a red /acqller
fluis/J. c/lromillm-pfnled stce!
/I{/IIds, fllld brusllcd c/lromilllll
/mlldfes. Ht 8.5cm/3ll. 2
Early Exponents of Modernism
1 rile 5kyscraper chest of drtJwl'rs, 1927, by
P(11// Fnmkl ,1'115 (l/I car/!! eXf1/11p/e oI AmcricnlJ
\ lodemislII, represelltath'c 01 fhe Austrfm-
LlQrJ/ desigller's entdlY adapta/ion 01{/
typiclllly Alllericnll idiolll. Ht 111111/5!1 /ill.
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l' \ fter the First Warld "Var," wrote Dianne Pilgrirn in
.L\.rile MacJIle Age ill AJIlerica (1988), "the decorative
arts feU into a deep sleep of ignorance where machine-
made copies of previous styles and periods reigned
supreme." Despite the inspiration of Gusta\' Stickley and
Frank Lloyd \'Vright from aroll1d 1900, American modern
design was re-invented. at the end of the 19205 on the
basis of Freneh and Cerman examples. The designer Paul
Frankl (1887-1958), who carne to New York from Austria
in 1914, saw the importanee of \Vright and was one of the
few designers to pioneer Modernism in the 19205,
especially with ms Skyscrnper-style fumiture, in wmeh
vertical elements of different heights are c1ustered
together. Art Deco in concept, the skyseraper style \Vas
gradually simplified and refined by Frank.1. It was a
proeess similar to the transition in popular musie from
the angularity of 1920s jazz to the smoother sOllnd and
rhythms of swing.
The trll1sition in design style around 1930, against the
baekgrolUld of the Depression, can be seen in the
U.lCreasingly horizontal emphasis of fumiture design,
similar to European Modemism, but often w1derscored
with lines of chrome, or hmctional elements like the
handIes on the chest of drawers of 1933--1 by Gilbert
Rohde (1894-19+1). Donald Deskey (1894-1989) made the
transition from luxury one-off pieces to designing for
mass produetion for eompanies slleh as the Ypsilanti
Reed Furniture Ca. in Miehigan, the centre of American
huniture produetion. Here, se\"eral business failures in
the Depression, combined with a shortage of timber,
prompted a rethink of poliey, where pre\'iously repro-
duction styles had reigned supreme.
As Deskey wrote in 1933: "The financial crisis which
America is at present experiencing has so reduced the
nwnber of new buildings and products that ead1 can
receive more earehJ eonsideration from c\'ery point of
view." The development of Modern..ism against a back-
ground oE social questioning was aecompanied by mueh
discussion, in \vhich the goals \Vere effieiency, beauty, and
economy, rather than "false style stimulation."
4 DOllald Deskey, matchillg
cllests of drnwcrs ill ;vIIi/e JlOlly
vencer, 193J-j,for Estey
Mmlllfactllri'lg, Mielligtln.
AIl accomplislled design ill
ti popular Modemist mooe
of aP1Jlied strip Jml/dles.
Ht 82.jCm/pin,
l. J .12m/3ft 7'/,ill.
5 RoMe's desk <I'as desiglled for
tlle Troy SI/lls/mde CompallY of
Troy, Ollio, i" 193.., takil/g IIp
ami /l/ixillg Modemist lIIotifs
witl, pit al/rl sty/e.
Ht iJ.jCm!29ill.
6 Deskey's l/pllols/ered
n/lImillium sirle elmir for tlle
/Jenllty pnrlollr of tlle Brookly"
departmcllt store, Abrnlmm &
StrnllS, 1929-3, mnde bl/ tl,e
)'psilallti RlWi FlImitllTl' Co.,
looks d(-:;.iglled for Itl'flP!fil't'ight
l/se. Ht 7''.9C111/29/i1l.
7 5kyscraper ~ i fnble/vmlity
I
by Kcm Weber, 1928-<). A \
olle-off desigll for a elient, tI,;s
strikillg pica sfood ll('l<l'(,('1I
f.t'ill bcds nlld acted as a lIig1lf
/nb/c nnd dressing table.
Ht 1.9JIII/6ft 3'1ill.
31
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Streamlining and Curves
1 Beta chair desigl1cd ill
1930 for !le HOiVel/ Company
oj GeIlCVI7, /lIinois, by Na/llIlII
GeOlge HOl"witt, SllOWillg
lhe stllrdy rmd curvnceolls
c!rnmcter of tubular sted
jllmilllre in America.
Ht 6oclII/23'!in.
2 Kt'lII I'Vellt'r's mlli!y alld
slool, 1934,101' tlle Uoyrl
Mml1ljnctllrillg Company,
MCllomillee, Michig(lI1,
lidientes }lOiI' strollgly lIe
Arl Deco chnmcterislics of
decomticm persisted iu
American ModcmislII.
Vnllity /It 1.39111/4/1 7;11;
slool lIt 44. jcm/t '1in.
390
-
Streamlining became a speciality of the newly emerging
industrial design profession in America and its
prominent practitioners, such as Rayrnond Lo\\')' and
Walter Dorvvin Teague. While the results are enjoyable,
they replaced the earnest search fer moral and visual
integrity in European design v,rith a more superficial
trnderstanding of Modernism. Even Frank Lloyd Wright
himself, in his office furnihue for the Johnson 'vVax
building at Raci..ne, Wisconsin (1936-9L adopted, with
typical originality, sorne of the characteristics of
streamlining. American streamlined furniture often
emphasizes the weight and volume of seat cushion5,
even when they are supported by chrome tubing or
a wooden frame. This is combined \vith a preference
for raking angles, \",hereas European Modernist
furniture more often contains sorne reference to a
rectilinear grid.
From the mid-1930s onwards, the smooth and
reflective surfaces of the Machine Age were gradually
replaced by a new concept of organic designo The ward
was used frequently by Wright to express what he
believed \vas typically American, but the realization
beyond his own work was inspired by Scandinavian
design, with its use of curved wood. Organic design was
in many ways a critique of machine-worship, and
reflected the attcmpts during thc Deprcssion to renew the
spiritual basis of American society by replacing its
mechanistic and Darwinist asslmlptions about struggle
and survival with a sense of the bOlmty of nature in the
NewWorld.
The organic trend reflected the development of
pl)'\vood moulding in three dimensions, bringing back
sorne of the cornfort that had been lost during
Modernism, without losing the advantages of visual and
physicallightness. A moulded dlair with aluminilU111egs
and a wrap-arotrnd of upholstery, designed by Eero
Saarinen and Charles Eames for thc 19-11 Organic Design
shmv at the Museum of Modern Art in Ne\v York,
exemplifies these trends, and both designers \vere to exert
a majar influence in the 19505.
4
3 A tl/bll/ar ellrome mld b/ack
fea/her clmir 'di, C1/T.'f.'S Iike a
]9305 CM, by Kem IVel't'r, 1934.
lor t}e Uoyd A1mll/jactllriJlg
CompnllY, 'vhe/ligall.
Ht 73.jCm!:z9ill.
4 AerodYllalllic forms il/ joil/ted
al/d shaped timba charncteri:e
the Airline Chair by "eb'/',
1934-5, produced by ti/e
Airli"e Chai/' Ca. of Los
Allgeles. Ht 77.jCIl1/30'/,ill.
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5 Fmllk Llo!fd IVright. flleforll/deT of
American AIoderllislII, mnde n cOl1lplex
spatinl gmne frOIll sfrellllllhtillg ill tll/! offtce
/lntllr;, desigl1ed for flte jO!lllSOIl Wax
building, 1936-9, mallu[ac/l/red by Slee/cnse of
Grnlld Rnpids, \ilicllignll,
6 A I1f'W /ook f'lIIergeif in file In/e 19305 ill fiEis
strikillg elm;r by the PittsbHrgll PInte G/as;;
ComprlllY, 1939, possibly desiglll'd ill-JOIl5e by
LOllis Dierra. Ht 73-5CIII/29ill,
7 Amerialll ModemiSIII ac1let'e5 e/as;;ic
mntlJrity in 11/1.' c1mir Il'siglled by fero
Sanrillt'JI nlld OlOr/es fallir:;, l'xlJibited al
t1le Organic Design ~ U l t l al file \f1f5tmll
oI Alodem Art ill J 941, (luc slfggestl<'l' of fIJe
1955 stlf/es fa COl1"', Ht 8'.5cm/33ill.
39 ---------------------------------------
British Furniture
European Influences around 1930

1 Serge CIJermnyeff's hufjet for

Warillg & GiIlow of LOIldoll,
1928, sigllalled tlle IIlOve by I/Jis
lOllg-esfablislJed jllnJis/tillg
compfl1ly lIfo /IIoden desigl!o
lt fOrtlll:d par! ofaH (' ..lbitiOIl
room set Illld has a liftiug lap,
felt-lined dramers, nlId sirle
cupbonrds for bottles, faccd /11
filie vencers. W. 1.]8m/4ft 6hl.
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2 Oell/zalll Mncfl1rell's ellalr 011931 brougll l/le excifemcllt of Pars
fo n cOI/servalive (Inri mllliolls LOlldoll. It was too far nhend of its time fa
prodllced ill qU(lllfify. HI 68clII/261.il1.
3 A /ri!lirlllf di/ellallfe, Maclaren made ollly nfew piec/'s hefore
givillg up /tis career. Tlts 1931 fab/e wasfolllld ill seveml impar/aH!
illferiors in Britnil1 up fa tlle eI1d 01 tlle decnde. Ht 46cl1I/18ill.
392
M
odern design carne latc to Britain, where high-
quality fumiture \vas either a survival of the Arts
and Crafts Movement, or a reproduction of Georgian. Art
Oeco styles had created an interest, especially with a large
exhibition organized at Waring & Gillow, a famous
London fumiture store, by the young Serge Chermayeff
(1900-96) in the autumn of 1928, \vith many room sets
suggesting a continuity with traditional British values of
reticence and comfort.
TIle exhibition included some pieces in tubular steet
and work by Oenham Maclaren (1903-89), whose few
surviving pieces in plate glass and exotic materia1s like
zebra 5kin caught the eontemporary mood in Paris without
100king like provincial imitations. Gerald Surnmers
(1899-1967) \vas another designer who is remembered fer
a few remarkable ideas. His armchair of c.1934, bent from
a single piece of plywood, may be a response to the
exhibition of Alvar Aalto's furniture in London in 1933,
but is even more e1egant in its simplicity of construction
and visual formo These hvo designers, and others like
\tVells Coates who \vere better known as architects,
shO\'ved that there was potential for a native British
schoo1 of modern furniture design prior to the anival of
Marcel Breuer and other migrs from Germany, whose
names have tended to dominate the history of the periodo
TIle finn of Cordon Russell Ltd began in the 19205,
making funliture by hand. After the financial crisis of
1929 and the Oepression that followed, Gordon Russell
asked his brother Oick (R.O. Russell), \vho had trained as
an arcllitect, to make designs for machinc-made fumiture,
ofien using ply\vood as a faeing materiaL The designs
became eorrespondingly more modern in character. 111is
forced adaptation to a wider market was accompallied by
a more entrepreneurial approach to selling and adver-
tising, and Russell's london showroom was one of several
shops that disp1ayed a range of household goods exempli-
fying the slightly pallid good tastc of thc periodo Ouring
the Seeond World War, Russell was Chairman of a govern-
ment panel set up t create and licence "Utility" designs
for manufacture from the scaree materia1s availab1e.
Invention and Craftsmanship in British Modernism
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1 Cernid SUllllllers desiglled 11Ii5 armellair iJl
c.1934 lo be mudefrOIll a single sheet o/
plywood. lUit/, un degunce flm! file /llore
celebrated desigllcrs ollhe 19305 COl/Id
scarcely mntel,. Ht 6.jClllIJO'bIl.
2 OIIJeT pieces by SlIIlllller,:;, Sl/ell as /lIi5 rore
CIlri.'Cd-back dillillg e/mir, 1935, are eqllully
jn>elltive ill tileir IIse o/forms wt O/lt o/
Jl1yil'ood sheet t1lJd bcllf. Ht 91.5cIII/]6ill.

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3 Cardon RlIsself Ud provided
polite alltf well-craftedl/milI/re
for Englisll 110111('5 ill file 1935,
SI/di as tltis bctfroolll sl/le.
desigllt!r ol/lloM of tJe COlllptl1lY's
pieces durillg tite periad wns
Cardoll'':; brol}er R.o. RI/ssell,
wlto Irnillcd as 11I1 nrcJlecf.
Wardrobe Ir 1.88111/6/1 2i1l;
Iligllts/rllld IJI llCllI/28ill.
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,

4,5 A tellsioll c:ristcd;1I 8rifis/ desigll po/cmic:> bl'f,'Cl-'1I the "plln!" Modemists Ill1d otl1ers, SI/dI
as 8t.'11y JOI'/, who U'l.'n' /llore iuf/lIenad by Art Deeo nlld :;tn'n1ll1iIlillg. TlJis desk a/ld e!Inir, nlld
e!IrOIlll.', g/nss, IlIld mirror oC[(l:;iolla/ t(ible, 1935, <:t'Cl"C 111/ sllpp/ied by Joel for 11 eOlllltl"Y IIOIIse ill
Scotlllluf i111937. Dl'sk lit 75clII/:'>'9'/,ill, I'. :.>..13m/6ft 111;'1; taMe lIt 68elll/:.>.6'1ill, dillll!. 76cm/30ill.

2
1 Arril'illg ;'1 Lol/don as mI
llligr il1 1935, Alareel Bn'l/l'r
,eas cOlllmissiolled by]ack
Prildznrd's fsokol/ colI/pallY
fo create a mriety 01 p/yl'Ood
fl/rl/ifllre. Brellt','s lsokoll bell'
ply long dzn;r of 1936 ,{'as a
eOll/plex adaptafion of f1le
redil/;/Ig lorm introducen
illto Moderl/;slll ill rile 19205.
L. 1.35111/.ift 5ill, 111 83cIII/231i1l.
2,3 TI,is dillillg e/lair and fabl/",
1936, ,'ere amollg t1le ligflll'Sf
pieas 01 ,'OIXit'll fimlilure n'eT
made, illfrodl/cillg afnll/;/Y of
mnlcJlillglon/ls. TIle c/ulirs COl/M
be slnckt'd. C/lair 1JI 73.5CIII/99il1:
fnble /. 67.5clII/26'1.;/I.
\
/
4 3
4 BrcHer's Isokoll l/es/ oj tables, C.1936, folloil'l'd he tllpt'fillg leg /01'111 of
fin' diuillg slIte. lt is scell her/! ill a [{'/lite pail/len persioll. HI (lnrge5l)
3S.5clII/1.lill, 1. 6lClII/14ill.
5 Tlle lsokoll 5/001,1933, ;('as excepliol/olly ligilf'il'eight, 'l'illl (J dislted
senl /1m! ;m$ bol/ eDII/fartable Ill/d strllcfllmlly rolmsl. HI 45(1II/17/"ill.
6 EgolI Riss. n Gemlall emigr nrdJitect, desigllcd tllt' lsokoll Donkcy iJl
1935, fa hOlls/? books ,md mnga::.ille5. /1 {'flS proll/oted b!! Pellgllill Books,
11 compoll!' tlm/, fike lsokoll, (limed fa make (jlfnlity producfs (I'(/ilflble fa
11 (,ide fII/nimCC' nt mI nIforol/Me prie/'. HI .f3cm/Jin. ,/'. 6ocm/23'/.hl.
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While Continental influences shaped the development of
modem furniture in Britain, the presence cf many migr
designers and architects accelerated the process of
change, even though the market for their designs was
very small. \Vhen MarceI Breuer carne to Britain in 1933,
he \Vas immediately employed by the enterprising lsokon
compan)' in London to design a range of wooden
fumiture, using bent pl)'wood for a fragile dining table
and chair set, and stronger framing for his classic
Isokon long chair of 1936. Isokon aIso produced items
designed by Walter Gropius and Egon Riss. The use of
timber, rather than steel, glass, and leather, \Vas partly a
response to a different culture, but aIso a consequence af
changing fashion. Natural materials \Vere coming back in
modern architecture, a trend that may have been
parodied by the Russian-born architect Berthold
Lubetkin (1901-90), with his rough wood and cow-hide
chairs for his own apartment in 1938.
The architect Erno Goldfinger (1902-87) was born in
HW1gary and shldied in Paris before moving to London
in 193-1. Being short of architecturaI projccts, he designed
many pieces of fumiture, although onIy a few '\-ere
ever made, and then onIy as prototypes for rus o\Vn
house. He showed ho\V pIywood couId be made mto
runuture which was more solid in form and construction
than the h-agile pieces by Breuer. He enjoyed the found-
object aesthetic of surrealism and would use sections of
steel girder as supports for sideboards, and macrune-tool
bases for table pedestals.
SeveraI companies manufactured tubular steel
fumiture, most notably the PEL campany and Cox & Ca.
Such furniture was supplied to the ne\\' Odeon cinemas,
to offices and to restaurants, and covered \\'ith leather or
moquette. PLAt'\J Ud, a company which was founded by
Serge Chermayeff in 1932, adopted German designs for
chairs and storage "w1.its," the latter a ncccssity for those
who did not want the usual clutter of chests of drawers
and wardrobes, but could not afford the built-in fun1.ihlIe
that architccts Iiked most of aH to provide for their
domestic clients.
Dther Seat Furniture
1
3 Tlle Lamda c1Ulir. /lamcd nfter
ti/e Greek letler .., 'as desiglled
by Heill Hl'Ckrot1l, fl Cerlllflll
migr WJIO il'orked nI Dnrtillgfoll
Hall. (k't'()/J, fl progressh'f'
commmlify im'O/l'cd ill art,
educa/iou, (lnd ruml regellemlio/l.
It ,ms /linde by tlle Imildillgfirm
Iil/ked lo DnrlillgtOlI fllld cot'ered
in clol/ wo.'e/1 011 Ihe estafe.
HI655clII/251.;II,
4 T}w fOll11der of tite Bnulul/Is,
\'\/a/ter Gl'opius, leJI little /1lnrk
ill Britaill dlll'illg !lis ilree yenrs'
residellce. TIJis Inb/e for [sokol!.
C.1936, wnsolll'ofllisfew
prodllct desiglls. I-lt 80(1II/]1'1:ill. 3
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1 Emo Goldfil/ger's plyit'ood
f"milllre <l'/15 l/tendedfor
prodllCtiOIl iJl tite 19305 blft Jll'<'l'r
progrt'$$t'l1 bt'ycmd prototype lilIl!
after Jis deat1l. TlIese i'ersiolls are
1l0{' prodlfced by lis grnlldSJll,
Nick Goldfinger.
C/mir ',t 6&111/261./11.
2 PEL mIs acOmptlllY set IIp
to exploit tlle mnss mnrket ill
stel!1 tl/lltftmlitl/n' in 193.2 nt
Oldbllry. I/ear Binuingllnm.
SriMill. T1/eir c1lt1irs il'l'1"t' fOlllld ill
cillemns. sltops, nnd ei't'lI olld
,{"re probnbly desiglled by Olh'tr
Bemnrd, (.19)2. HI 77011/30'/.ill.
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5 Berthold LlIlJt!tkil/ I/('l'a
iutended !lis lIIo:o:;it'l? cow-!lif/e
cllnirs. 1938,for /IInss prodl/ctioll.
TI';$ l.mmpte litis beell rt'flll"lletf to
its originol selting in LlIbetkill's
fOrma nlJllrtmellt, TIw Pent//O/I5/',
,/ Hig/gnte. lIort1l Lolldoll, pI/ere
its lo tlle ro/lglt-
grnilled imll SI/rfoce nnd broit'1I
olld lt!ltitefloor cm/ be //I/11erstood.
IV. 76<:III/Joil'.
39
British Ceramics
Factory Made

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2'- --'

1 Oesign E/297, 1931. Coffee

can nlld sal/cer madeJor SI/sic
Cooper Pottery. 1928-<). AlI
enrly picce by ti Brit;:;/, desigm:r.
Ht 6.;CIII/2;II.
2 SlIsic Cooprr. tl'apot, jl/g.
lllld slIgnr bowl, c.1935. Tropo!
lit 8.;CIIII)'/ill.
3 Truda Cnrler, imse, C.1928,
/ulIld-fJnIIted pottery. Poole
Poltery, o[ w1Jidl Cnrters
IlJIsbnJld wns n director, was
Dile oj lile /llore progn:ssiue
Britis/l poUeries in lile 19205.
HI27.5CIII/8'/,;II.
4 Kcitll MI/fray, clIgille-lllnlcd
vasc. 1935, Wedgwood. Qlle oj
MUl'ray's II/os/ popular s/mpes.
tllis vl1se WI/S nvai/able for 1.2
yenrs ;1111 VfIriety DI CO/OIIl"5
1I11d s;zes. /-/t 2.jCm!lDY,il1.
5 MI/fray. coffee sen/ice,
lVedgtl'OOfl. (.1934. MI/rray's
II0-l/0llSens/! slwpl.'S for fab/eware
>ere slIited lo cOJlscnw/ive
8rifisJ, fnste. Coffee /JO/
/f 18.jcm/'I.ill.
1
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jnr ami bo,!'/, 1931, sliJlsln:ed
('arlfl/!Ilwarl'. Cnrdew U'ns
iJ,sJlired by fmd;tiol/n/ cOlll1try
potterie5 il1 tlle w"sf of EI/g/nl/li.
lal" lit 2101l!S!.iIl;
11Od /tt 7cm!2-!,;1/.
5 lVilJiaJl/ Stnite MIlr/'I1l!, 'aSt'
l'it/ Wlll.-'d of Lifc, '937"""'9.
l\.llll"my exllibiled lIi" /1Ot"
alollgs;de tlu: pnilltil/gs OI8t'I/
NicliolS<Jl/, <1'itll <l'lIidl "11.'.11
s/mre mi il/teresl illabstmcl
textllre. Ht 2jcm/toil/.
3 Will;'1I11 Stnit/! Murmy, fa/! jnl"
Thc Blther, 1930, stolle,Mn:
decorated iPi// iroll TlIst Oller
erenltl. MI/rray saill J;IJ/self as nll
nr/isl wllo mnde pols. T/is large
"ieee, lIenrllf 2SCIII/11ill tnl1, is
bold lmd illd;.'idlln/, tllrotl'JI by
MI/rray al lIis 69tll nffempt.
2 Leaeh, eiltsided ha",/, 1924-j,
slollewnre. uac" flas delibera/ell!
leJI tite foot of lile bow//Iugla:ed fo
5110<1' off file IIInterial. 'tle/l wrote,
"T/e1001 is a 5ymiJo/, /el"e lito
IOIle/1 enrtJ, 011 t/lis 1stal/d, IIIY
frol/il/us." DiaJII. '3.Scm/jYill.
Studio Pottery
1 Bemnrd Lene/, bow/, 1924-5,
slOl/cwnr/! with Tellllloku g/n:e.
Japrlllese illflllellces ill l..eaeh's
11Ork reflecI I,is enrly chifdllOod
;11 Japl1l1l11ld ln/er v;sils. TI//?
gln:e is prool/ced wilJl oxidi:ed
iroll nlld lJe nddiliOll of il'OOd
n511 gil'eS a ridl blackfilli:;/l.
Ht jCIII/II, rt'. 'j.jclII/6il/.
4
I
n Britain in the 19205, ceramics became one means by
whidl a decorati\' form of Modernism entered a large
Illlmber of homes. It is hard to make a clear distinction
between Art Deco and Modernism in the work of famolls
designers slIch as Clarice C1iff and SlIsie Cooper,
although the restraint of the latter, often expressed
throllgh simple lines and stars, meant that her work
better the changing fashions of the 19305.
Poole potter)" in Dorset, sOllth-west England, fal' from
the centres of cel'amic prodllction, aIso specialized in hand-
painting, with simplified figures and flowers deri\"ed
fram Austrian and Swedish models. \"ith strong artistic
direction from Harold 5tabler and Truda Cartel', Poole
had a leading role in design reforrn mo\'ements of the time.
in a search for modemity, \'\'edgwood employed the
architect Keith Mllrra)' to design pllre forms that were
glazed all-over in a \'ariety of greens and beiges typical of
the early thirties, sometimes with incised hnes. At the same
time, Wedgwood's late 18th-ccntury QlIeensware bodies
were produced in plain colours suitable for modern use.
TIle shldio pottery movcmcnt, during this period led
by Bernard Leach (1887-1979), and by William Staite
Murray (1881-1962) in the believed that lhe
industrial methods of Staffordshire had taken away the
pJeasure of individual craftsmanship whidl had raised
son"le ceramics of the past to the level of high art. Leach
and his pupil Michael Cardew (1901-83) saw pottery as a
means of social regcncration in the countryside, as a
valuable forrn of art edllcation, and as a practical means
cf producing goods for wide-ranging consumption. llley
therefore mixed thc production of one-off specials with
long nms of tableware, establishing a tradition in Britain
which had much in common with Modernism's
acsthetics (particularly its links with japan), while
discarding its social and economic assllmptions. They
avoided fine porcelain c1ays and lIsed the rough red
c1ays cf the south-west of England to make earthcnware
and stoneware, usually decorated with yellow and
brown slips, loosel)' brushcd el' trailed to preserve a sense
of spontaneity.
39
European Ceramics
Pioneers in Russia and Germany
,
1 2 .... ...
4 Bog/er, combilllltioll tellpot WitJl lllferal
pipe 1/11l/dle, 1923. T1/ij PIIS ol/e 01
Bogler's desiglls. witll 11
rOllgll gln::.e recrellfillg effect 01
JIIl1d-III11de pottery. HI 18clII/7ill.
1 Nicolni S/leN", coffee pot, 1926, IU1Jld-
paillted poree/ahl. SlIetill was (I follower of
lhe Suprema!ist pnil1/l!r, Knsimir Male"ic/,
Exstillg factory shapes wcrc o<wrlaid ;tUIJ
gcometricn/ des/gl/s. Ht ljCm/lOiJl.
2 Parcelaiu coffce sel illj1l1ellced by RlIssiall
alld Germnll desiglls by Nom GlIldrmlsell,
1929-"31 nlld made by Porsgrulld
PorselneJlfabrik. Coffi't! poi Id 2ocm/SilJ.
3 Tllrodor &gler. blnck tenpot. 1923. 8og/er
tl'tlS a Ball/Jaus sIl/dril! .dlO prodllced lile
lIlosf lIotable desiglls frolll ti/e scllOo/'s pottery
tl'orksllOp Ixfore bt.'CollliJlg a I/lollk ll 1921.
HI 20.5em/8/".
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B
eing such a ductile medium, clay does not impose its
own shape on designers as much as other materials.
The function of everyday tableware has changed very
little over the centuries, even though the hand-thro\Ving
process that dictated rOlmdness in plltes, bowIs, and
dishes \Vas largely superseded in the 18th century by
casting in mouJds, which tedm.ically can be in other
shapes. In ceramics for practical use, therefore,
Modemism has tended to be a process of purification and
subtraction, reducing faffilal camplexity and amament,
while tryi.ng to maintain the highest quality af body and
glaze. The c1assic models 01 late 18th-century Wedgwood
continued to be highly regarded for their refinement of
shape, and many Modernist ceramics, like the pure
undecorated pieces of Wilhclm Wagenfeld and
Marguerite Friedlander-vVildenhain, resemble simpler
Neoclassical work qwte dosely.
Both these designers \Vere students at the Ball.haus,
where the ceramic \"mrkshop, while less fully integrated
in the sehool than some other departments, trained its
students in handmaking, renewing a sense of the
behaviour of the materials through the process of
produetion, prior to designing prototypcs for mass-
productian, rather than the idea of "applied Clrt" in
ceramics, which during the Art Deco periad had involved
designers in the ceramie industry more as deeorators than
as "Clrchitects" af formo Wilhelm Kage (1889-1960) of the
Gustavsberg faetory in Sweden introduced the
"praktika" range in 1933, in which ease of stacking was
an important design consideration for the smaller-size
modern dwelling, as weU as a useful marketing ploy.
Not a11 Modernist eeramics were so pureo More
elaborate and exclusively ornamental pieces were
produced, in which there was a seareh to re-interpret
decoration with a more consci.ous sense of formal
integrity. The 1927 tureen by the Nonvegian designer
Nora Gulbrandsen 0894--1978) is a delicious but simple
formal invention, with its decoration of spiral lines
adding a dynamic quality to the shape and unifying the
bowl and lid.
Germany and Scandinavia

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3 Margare/e Heymmlll-Mnrks LObellstiell,
di/mer plate, c.1930. TlIe flSYlllllletry oj
tlle decorar;,,/? border .. dyllttJJliSIJ/
lo fl simple sJmpe. Dialll. 25cm/Join.
2
J r
1'-- .........
1t 2 t\largl/crite Friedlnllder-l Vi/den/min, pieres from fIJe Burg Giebichenslein 5ert'icc,
'930, porce/nin (prodl/ced by tl,e Stllte Porcelaill Faclory. Ber/in. wllO mmllljaclllred IIIflJlY o/
Friedlallder's designsJ fllld n <u/Jite porcelaill pitdJer. '93t. Bolfl eXflmples sltOil' a meetillg poillt
bet,l'ffll classical "goodJorm" fllld mooem pllrily. Pitdll.'r lit 22.5cm/SIJn.
2
5
4 Nom GII/brnlldsell, tl/TeeJl, 1927, porce/aiJl,
witl, el/mI/e/ (md gilded decorafioll. PorsgrJllIds
Porse/amsjabrik, Nonl'ny. AH efjectil'e <,er::/oll
01 fIJe!af()llrife Alonemist 101"11/5 o/ file ]9205.
5 'Vi/he/m Kge, Praktika dillllfl' sen'ice,
1933, fnrtlleml'nre, Gl/stm'Sberg. 5wedell. T/lis
plnI/ sen,ice WilS special/y ensy lo cle/lll flnd
sttlck, /lJld SOOIl became popular.
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6 KlIrt l'I'lSt', 1932.
eJlall/el/ed mefal. Not fl typical
madem dl'Sigll, huI/m eXfllllp/e o/
tllt, cOllfillllfltiOJl of
dl'Corntil't' orll/s ill /lle '9]0:;, ill
tI,;s case II a tl'ork made al lile
Desigll ScllOo/at Leip=.ig.
Ht 16c1ll/6'/,;1I.
7 Pitc/u!/' il1 gln=ed stOIlC'iI'are by Tlu:ooor Bog!er OefO IlIld 11 gln=ed terra cvfta
cocan poi /'Y afio Lil1dig, C.1922. Tile rrmgh glales 01 f111!St piece:; confmst
witll lIe frngile degullce of /l/Ue/I Modemist d('Sigll. Pitcher Jf 21(111/8'/,;11.
3t
American Ceramics
Exuberance and Eccentricity
2:-
1 Rllba Rombic .wse, C.1928.
CO/lsolidated Lnmp & G/as:; Co.
Pellllsy14'flJlin. ROlllbic '1'flrt.'S
dl.'lIIoIslrnted tl/c illJ1I1Cllce 01
(ubis", ;1/ /111.' decora/h'!' IIrfs.
Ht 16c1ll/6'1ill.
2 Pal/l Scllreckengost. pitcfler
(11111 Cl/IJs. ('1938, Gem C/ay
Formillg Co. Sebrillg, O/lo.
Americall ccmmics slloo tl
likillg for e:mggl.'rated/orllls.
Tt'flpol1lt 19.jcm!'l.iIl.
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3 Frederick H. Rlli'nd. Fiesta ,mre, 1936, Hollla Lnuglt/ill C/lilltl Co.,
Virgillia. Fjsfn lte11l.'d lo poplI/ar' fhe idl.'a of ti cllilln sel ,{'itIE
11laldJillg nlld 1I/;.n'lt colollr5. (ofJi'e JXlt lIt :1OCII//8ill.
4 Frl'derick H. R/l'nd, Harlcquin muge. J938, HOII/a Lnllgfllill C/Illa
Co. A lighfl'r mIli c/u'nll.'r of FiI.'Mn. ti,;" rtmgl' m" sofd ill
Iroolimrf/, 510res. Tea 1101 lit l::!cm/./ill.
400
W
hen the J\lusewn of J\lodem Art staged its Mncllille
Art shQ\\" in 193..1. the purest examples of ceramics
it couId find "'ere porcelain jars and bowls intended for
use in scientific laboratories, designed apparentl)'
\\'ithout an)' thought of being art. The ceramic industries
in America "'ere in a state of transformation dttr4"tg this
period, with many business failurcs. At the top end of the
trade, quality \Vas almost automatically assumed to
belong to imported European ceramics.
Design had played a small role hitherto in mainstream
American production. The yolati le ccramics trade was
disciplined by the National Reco\'ery Act of 1937, part of
F. D. Roose\'elt's New Dea!. which insisted that selling
prices should not undercut the cost of production and
that no new shapes should be introduced for ayear.
This was a conunentary on the desperate search for
n"larket share through novelty, and stirnulated a greater
commitment to investment in design, since there were
fewer chances to test the market. A breakthrough
came with Russel \Nright (190-!-76) and his AlllericalJ
Modem table",are range (designed 1937, produced
by Steubem'ille Pottery), with streamlined
shapes and an all-o"er speckled glaze. These combined
aspects of strearnlining ",ith the biomorph.ic character
typical of fine artists such as Jean (Hans) Arp, "'ith a
quirky sen5e of personality that might owe more to \Valt
Disney's Falltasia. The name of the range emphasized that
modeen couId now be claimed as American rather than
foreign. Brighter coloured glazes were de\'eloped far
Fiesta ware, designed by Frederick Hurten Rhead
(1880-1942) for the Horner Laughlin China Ca. in
'Vest Virginia in 1936, with the idea of mixing calours in
one table setting.
During the first years af the Second \Vorld \Var, Eva
Zeisel (b.1906), an im.m..igrant from Budapest, went e\'en
further than ''''right in her CUfvaceous, exaggerated,
organic forms, which ",ere somewhat reminiscent of Art
Nouveau. Her MIISCIJIlI dinncr scr\'icc was designed for
sale at Castleton China in New York in 19.J2, although it
was not produced lUltil19.J6.
5
5 RlI5Sd IVrigllt, American
Modern lablf?<t'are, 1939,
Steltbe"i'ille PoIten), Ollio.
A slreallllilled set oor11l5 t/U11
c1lflllgt'fi fIJe ('ay Americalls
l/sed lablemre, Witll IIe;:I' l/51'S
or disllt'S 1'/Jic/l COI/id be lIealed ill
lile OVIl. PilclIer 1Jt 19cIII/7/';II_
./
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8 [m Zsd, crl/cf set, Towo and Cowllry
partall. Aqllirky fllld /lIIl/IOmll5 1If.e 01(J/I
orS/lllic s/Jnpt', HI J).jcm/5lJl, tl'9C11l/;V,in.
9 Em Zcisl'/, i\\useum filma sen'iec.
(,1941-6. S/ClIIlIIgO Poffery, Pl'Il1l5yl'(/llin,
for Cnst/etoll C""n, Nep York. DIe irregular
geomefry IlIld c.mggernted s/mpes 01 tln'se
pit'ces bccallll' /ypicn/ of file post-mr periodo
Coff.'c pot Jr! 27cm/lov'ill, 195CIII/7'!ill.
6 RnLllllOlld LOe;('ll !o:/n:t'd
. . .
parce/njll tea ser..,jn' cvlllprisiJlg
tcnpot. SlIgaT OOw/. mili (".'lIIU".
TI/e prafih'$, witIJ t/ci,. gCI/CIlJl/5
llfllldJes.lllw' soJllctlling o/ l/le
q//nlity o[ cartOOIl c/mrtTclCT$.
Crellma lit l1cm/../iJl.
7 J. Pnl/lin Tltorley. enrtllClHl'flre
refrigerator jl/g ,(,itI,lid. 1940,
for 1111.' IWstil/gllollse ElectTic Co.
5trcalllfillillg npplil'd /0 nfin!!
deep blllt', SlIggL'stillg Ji,l/gime
(/11l111l.'i1' lec/mofogy.
Ht 19.4C111/9I..ill.
40
British Glass
Coloured Glass
1 Ribbon-Trailed vases, 1935--6,
by Bnmnby POiL'efl of Wllilefrinrs
GlnssiL'orks, n f//ird-generntion
member of tlle olltstnlldillg
Britisll glnss jiml. Tlle decoratlIt
fonll derh'ts from lhe I1Inkillg
process. Ht (tnl/est) 25cm/loill.
2 5trenky glnss tl/lllblers, by
Art/llIr Mnrriott Powell,
C.I930, iL'ere an ellterprisillg
ojfslloot of lhe W/litefrinrs
stnilledglnss specinlity.
Ht Onllest) 28cm/nill.
3 Bamaby POiL'eff's clnssic
desigll was lhe M60 s/lerry sel,
1935, wllic11 gave 1I0t'tl slltlpe
to a traditioJlal EJlglisJl drillkillg
ritllnl, witll a sl/blle l/se of CO/Ollr.
Glnsses lit 7-8CIII/2'1.;Il, decanter
ht 19c1II/7'1,.
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402
T
he Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain laid the
foundation far modem design in glass, with its
attention to quality of materials and making. The firm of
James PoweU & Sons (Whitefriars Glassworks, est. c.168O)
had a distinguished hislory in design and lechnical devel-
opment. The factory had a number of in-house designers
who thoroughly understood the processes, but were a150
aware of intemational trends. Bamaby PoweU (1891-
1939) was ane in a succession cf family members wha
contributed fine designs such as the Ribboll-Trailed range
011932 and lhe M60 sherry sel 01 1935, which looks more
as if it carne froro the 19505 than the 19305.
In parallel with the ceramies industry, there was an
attempt to bring artists into glass design, since fev\'
professional industrial designers existed. In the case of
glass, lhis usually led lo their designing pallems lor cul
glass, many 01 lhem lor Sluarl Crystal, a long-eslablished
firm al Slourbridge. Artisls employed lhere included Paul
Nash, Eric Ravilious, and Graham Sutherland, a11 fameus
as painters, whose pattems were mostly abstracto More
significant was the Czech-born in-house designer,
Ludwig Kny (1869-1937), working on shapes designed
by Robert Stuart. Keith Murray, more famous for his
Wedgwood poltery designs, also produced plain glass
shapes and a variety of abstract and figurative pattems
for lead crystal for Stevens & Williams. Pressed. glass of
similar design character, but much cheaper, was
produced by Ravenhead 01 SI Helen's. Engraving, lhe
equivalent of hand painting in pottery, was a skilled.
process and only appropriate for luxury goods.
RobeTl Goodden (1909-2002), who lrained as an
architect and also practised. as a silversmith, designed
pressed table glass for Chance Brothers, Birrningham, in
1934, a range \vhich was re-launched alter the war.
Chance sold their rights on Orlak heat-resisting glass to
Pyrex, part of the American Corning company in 1933,
which then became the major brand in this field. Chance
were one of the main producers of decorative plate glass
for architectural use, and in 1939 preduced a short-lived
range of Aquafux bowls based on the same textures.
Clear, Engraved, and Pressed Glass

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major British produccrfor tlle
I1ms:; I/Inrket. T!lc Ripple
pattem, 1938, brougllt tlle
11l0dem look Wit1lill the renc/I oI
a <vide mnge of fhe popll/at iOI/.
lIg ht 28cm/nill.
1 Keith Murmy ;:vas {/ versalil"
designer o/glass l/ud cernmic5.
The Cactus vase Jor SIrven:, &
Willinl/1s, C.1934, Ilustra/es {/
pian! t/ll1f ;vas poplllar iJl
lIIodcl"l1 interiors. Ht 22CIIl/S'/,ill.
2 MI/fray's g/ass vase for Ste-JCIlS
& WillinlJls, C.1934, s/wws t!le
abs/rael side o/ I,is desiS'l
persollnlify, closer /0 /tis
cernmics. Rafher fhml beillg ens!
iJl {/ mOl/Id, t!lis pieee <VIlS formed
by (he glllssblower workillg with
lIIo!fm glass. Ht 19CIII/7il1.
3 TlIe greell wt-g/nss vI/se by
Mllrmy for Ste-<JeIl5 & Wil/il/ms,
C.1934, IIses simple repel/ive
strokes lo droeiop {/ /llore
complex effect of 10llnl contras/.
Ht 2o.5cm/Bill.
4 Tlle Stuart Oystnl COJllpnllY
elllployed well-kllowll artisfs
to desigll cllf g/ass iJl !le
1930s. H.R. Piercc, fhe designcr
of fllis vnse of 1939, was less
fal/1oUS but s/lOwed all ejfective
use of rllytlll1l. Ht 20CIII/Bill.
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5 Rober! Gooddell desiglled fhe
Spiderweb rI1J1ge DJ pressed
g/nss, vill ils repet/ive ribbed
II/otij, jor C!u/1lce BrotlIers ;11
1934. Borvl din1ll. 16.jcm/6/Oill.
~ ~ ~
-'" ---------------------------------
European Glass
3 IVagenfeld desigllcd llis Kubus stackil/g
COl/tainet's, 1939,101' direct trnl15ferfrom
rejrigerator lo table. The set II1nkes good IISt'
of tlle principIe of modlllar ca-ardilla/ioll,
whicJ was ad'ocnted as a l'll1l of rntiollali:ill1,?
" " e
building produclioll. Hf 21(111/8/,;11.
4 \'I/agenfe/d, Heilbroon plates, C.I937-8.
Simple l/IIt /Jeautijully mlCIIlated s!mpes ill
pressed glass. Dialll. (/mgcst) 34C!!l/J Jl.ill
1 Gerlmrd Mnrcks tuugllt uf lIe Bnu/wll5
ill he 19205. His Sinlrax coffee perco/ator,
CI92j, [y Schotl & GellOS5e11 01 Jellllll, has
!lO 511pClj/U01l5 Onlll111CJI/ Iml creates njOl"llw!
puttem. Ht 31cm/12ill.
2 1'\'ill1e1111 Wagellfeld's pressed glns5 ten sen:.
'
ice,
193.2, was dl'l.'elopl.'d ni fIJe Brl1lllllllS aud madI'
by SellOft & Ceuossell, J/sing IIm/-resistant
g/ass. Teapol lIt I4.5clII/j',!j.
4
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Bauhaus Glass
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L
ike ceramics, glass does not follow a straight line of
development towards Modernism. For similar
reasons of tradition and the nature of the material, certain
forms, likc the tumbler, the stemmed goblet, or the bow!,
are almost outside fashion and periodo TIle basic forms of
glass are very carefully nuanced, and small variations
from the norm achieve a strong impacto Attempts to
develop a modern look therefore tend to be eccentric and
quickly dated, more representative of the applied decora-
bon of Art Deco than the timeless purity of Modernism.
As a result, Modemism in glass\vare figures less as an
innovative movement than as an agent of reform, casting
out the superfluous, adapting machinery to produce
work of a more elevated standard, and attending closely
to the experience of the user.
Glass exemplifies sorne of the basic principIes of
Modernism. TIle irnaginative use of transparency in archi-
tecture ",vas one defining characteristic. 111e Bauhaus had
some influence in this area, with designs such as Gerhard
Marcks's (1889-1981) Silltrax coffee percolator, a "Master
of Form" in the earIy years of the school, and particularIy
through the pressed gIass tea service of 1932 designed by
one of the most successful Bauhaus students, \lVilhelrn
\lVagenfeld (1900-90), which used the heat-resistant glass
developed for laboratory use.
The architect Adolf Loos (1870-1933) helped to lay the
fOill\dations of Modern.isrn, with his search for clarity of
form, befare the career of the Bauhaus fowlder, Walter
Gropius, had evcn begun. His birthplace in Bmo was
absorbed after 1920 into the new nation of Czechoslovakia,
where there was a strong Bohemian tradition of glass
making. The Harrachov glassworks, where the designer
Alois Metalk worked from 1928-30, was fowlded 300
years earlier. ti Ladislav Sutnar's table glass represents
Loos' s idea of Modemism as refornl, tradition did not
detcr other designers from joining in the artistic fernlent of
Czech Modernism. Ludvika Srnrckov (1903-91) created
tough architechual forms reminiscent of the architectural
style Czech Cubism, and also made an important
conhibution to glass design after the Second World ''\'ar.
Czech Glass
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_
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3
1 Lndisfm' SI/fuar's lable glns:; sen'ice oj
193D WflS prodl/ud by lile firlll KrswT
jdm (meallng Forms t/ml
follow filllctioll II glassl'are call alfoUljor tlll!
dassica/ eiegallce ollllese desiglls. Ht (tallest
glllss) 13cm/jill.
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4 Tlle AlIsfr;ml arc1tileet Adolf Loos, bort/ ;11 Bmo, ;11 'l'I1flllnter
l!((1we C:ecl1os/ovnkin, ndvocafed forlllaf simp/icity ill desigll ill
renclioll lo Art NOIIVf!all. His set 01jl/g (Inri glasses, 1934, bealltijlllly
delllollslrntes !lis principIes. Tnllest g/ass /El 24CI1I/g''II.
5 Tire decomlive bow/, 1936, by SlIIrckovi for A. Riickl G/asswol'ks, slIoiUs
l/re l/S 01 (1 Modcmist forlllallmlguage for decorati"e effect. Ht 20CIII/8h.
2 Vase, C.1933. by Alois Metefk, of 51/1oketf CII! g/as:;, litiS a dramatic
j01'1II tlJaI sJlOiPs off lIe benllty of tlle materia/lIl1der diflereJ/t Jig/ts.
Ht 16cm/6'/JII.
3 TlIe breakfast Sl'rtJice by LlIduikn Smrckoi.'l,lor A. Riickf GlaSSiL'Orks,
U'as desiglled in 1930 but ollfy prodllCed ill 1936. 1'lle pllre geometry is
similar to Bnulmlls U'ork. but lbe c111l11/.,:Y Imlldles are more exprt'Ssiollist.
Ht (tnllesf Clip) 9cm/3Voill.
4
-----------------------------------------
Scandinavian Glass: Classicism Meets Modernism
2 Bowl bySill101I Gnte, 1930.jor
OrreJors. Gnte WIlS fnlll01l5 for
jigllrnfi'1? mgml
1
crl dC5igll5 ll
tlEl? 19205 but, Jike IIInlll{
Scnlldillnpinll desigllers, he
COIwcrlcd lo AJodemism ill 1930.
wltl?ll Ihs pece 'as exJlbited nI
tlEe Stockholm Exllibitioll.
Oiam. .pCIIl/l 6'1i1l.
3 Df.'C(llIler nlld glnss by Swre
Pettersell. 1929,for Haddauds
G/assl.wk, /t'<.'IIaker, \-or.my.
T11t' dassicalefl'gal/cc of
Nordic desgll enrries /1Jrollg/1
illfo file Modern51 /0l"m5.
Glnss 11/ 1 :WII/4'/,ill.
4 Pressed-gln5s bnlldcd jug by
Aino Anitofor fllc KnrJllIln
Glnssvorks, Fill/nnd, 1932. Tlle
wife of the nrc/li/('ct nl1d fl/milllre
.1(':;;igl/('I" WOII n compe/itiol1 ,l'ill1
Il1i:;; dc::;igl1 for IIIIlSS pro.1llctioll.
HI 16.5(1II/6Iill.
5 Sa"oy pnse by A1par Aalfo,
1936. FOI101:1'illg Jis t('!{e's
Sl/eces:;, Aalto 'it'01I a
compet/oll nf Knr/lllla wil1t l/lis
llIolfld-lIInde pf.'CC, whcIJ bn.'d a
falllly offorms mili litis 1.11.'('11
fn'qllclltly reprodllcc.1.
HI 14..jCIII/5I:ill.
--=
-

,
.-
-
,
5
2
1 Vase. 1931, df'Siglled by lacob E.
Holmegnar&; G/aswk, DCllIllark. The formnl
lal/gl/ag!' of file f'lIgrtll'illg COlls;;;t;; elltirely
of slrnig1lt fillCS, blll file r611lf is lighl1lf'nrtetf
(jlUi e/egnut. Ht 15clII/9Y.;II.
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406
Glass was Dne of the fields in which Scandinavian
faetones and designcrs excelled in the inter-war years. The
tendency in the 19205 was t concentrate on delicate, often
historicist, figurative engraving, which \Vas expensive.
Engraving continued to be a popular form of decoratiol1,
but in 1927 the Nonvegian Hadelw1ds company began to
venture into simpler fOTms with the designer Sverre
Pettersen 0884-1958). V\'hile the Orrefors company in
Sweden had produced good tabJeware of medium price in
the 19205, they were best known for elaborate exhibition
pieces by Edvard Hald (1883-1980) and Siman Gate
The much more farmally and technically
adventurous bowl by Cate for the 1930 Stockholm
Exhibition marks an abrupt departure.
The Modernist tendency was reinforced by the eco-
nomic and social changes around 1930, demonstrated in
the competition for mass-production glass design held by
the Finnish factory, Karhula, in 1932, \vhich was won by
Aino Aalto (1894-1949) \'\'ith simple ribbed models that
were immediately popular far their strength and elegance.
The ideas of pure form and funchon associated with
Modernism might appear to be entirely alien to the his-
torie glass traditions of Murano in the Venetian lagoon,
with their reliance on strong eolour, filigree detail, and
decorative shape. In faet, Murano designers and makers
made a distinctive contribution to the variety and riclU1ess
of Modernist designo n,e appearance of Arte Vetraia
Muranese in the year of its foundation at the Venice
BielU1aIe in 1932, ,,,>ith new designs by Vittario Zeccllin
0878-19-17) was a landmark. The Venini firm has a com-
plex history from 1921, in\'olving sculptors and arehitects
among its designers. Tommaso Buzzi (1900-81) was
artistic director frem 1932-13, and launched llis Lnglllla
series in wllich colour was cased under a layer of white or
c1ear glass, with the addition of traces of gold or silver
foil. Ercole Barovier (1889-1974), designer for the firm of
Bmovier & Toso, created in 1936, pushed tcchnical
experiment still further in the direction of decorative
effects, and can be linked to the 20th century's
rediscovery of the purely expressive power of objects.
1
Italian Glass: Murano Embraces Modernism
2
3
1 Stelllmed glnsses by
Vittorio Zecc1JiIl, 1932,for Arte
Vetraia MllrtlJlese. Desigllcd by
tl pain/er for ti desigll-colIsciolls
col/aborafive o/g/nss-blowers 011
t/w islmld 01MUrallo, t}/Cse pieces
with smoked glnss IIl1d IlOlIow
stems combillt' lile nt/ellllatiol/
t1l1d delicncy o/ ti/e MlIrmlO
frnditioll witll modem geometry.
2 Zecchill, /nrge t'fiSt' jor Arte
Vetrain AlllTtlllese, COlllL'j
closer lo tmllspnrellt scu/plllre
l/mil f!lIIc/iolla! objed, wit/J
fcxtllred glass cl1c1osed il1 a
layer of clcar g/ass.
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3 TOlllllltlSO Bu::;,
Laguna ClIp, 1932.for
VCIl/lli, ,1'1I$ Ollt' of 11 serit'$ nI
slmpes Ilmi/ab/e in ca/ollr:;
slIggl'stin' of ti/e Vellt-"im
/agooll. Ht JO.5cm/II1.
4 Ercofe Bnroo.,ier. Crepuscolo
O,f'i/igllt) mllge, 1935-6./or
Bnroc,ier & Toso. m:> coloun'd
bIt bUrIlill"1 flit'tllf iroll tlm'{Ilfs
. '.
il1 file JIIOitCII g/ns:;. TJelonlls
are ba/d, ",ith ti sellse of
surrcn/islI1 nllolll t"CIII.
Ht 16.jCIII/6/ill.
I
-----------------------------------------
American Glass
Crisis and Recovery
1 Ruba Rombic, prod/lced by ti/e
COl/solidoled LmIlJ' & Glas:> Co., Comopo/is,
PellJlsyh'flllin, (.1928, wns described as
Nsollletltillg entirely lIeit' JI modem table
glass ... so ultra-Slllart l/mi is 05 1If>'was
fOl/1orrow's newspnper." lt 50011 wellt oul
offashioll, bu! is 11Oll' avidly col/ee/ed.
Ht 16.5CII1/61,;I1.
2 Georg!! $akier's block glnss mse, C.1930,
a picce tila/ looks goodmili ti/e sirle as I'ell
as mm above, s'owillg fIEl' desigller's
arc/Jitec!lIm! selfse. Ht 13(11I/5/11.
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3
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''f-: r- - - -r

1
TI the Mnchille Art show at the Museum of Modern Art
in 193-1, there were many examples of glass, but the
majority \Vere anonymous designs far laboratory glass
fmm large firms like the Corning Glass Works, ,,,,hich
could be adapted far use in the horneo SllCh lU1conscious
Modemism \Vas aften considered superior even to the
best efforts of designers. Pieces in the show by Walter
Dorwin Teague, for the Steuben Division of Coming,
employed a similar minimal aesthetic, ",hile others fram
the Owens illinois Glass Ca. were presented anonyrnously.
MnclIine Art was a deliberately extreme statement of a
position, but it indicated the pressures on American Glass
manufacture during the Depression. Many eompanies
went bankrupt around 1931 but one of the fe\\' hopeful
signs \Vas the demand for re-equipping restaurants and
bars when Prohibition was lifted in 1933, stimulating
production of cheap wares. Design and technology
offered a hope of reviva!. Steuben, which was nearly
closed down in 1933, set up a Fifth Avenue shop in the
follmving year, where thick-walled glass of great purity,
3 Grollp of m:>es by Sakier,
1II00tlded glnss produCl'd (.1929
b ~ Fosforia Glass Co. IVes!
Virgillia. Tlle jll/fed forllls /ai'c
n dassicnl Jet'! typical af I//e
crossover be/iVeell Arl Deco (Inri
Modemis!Il, tlIuf nppropriate lo
file II11111ufacturillg tecJllliqul.'.
Ht (talles!) 25_5C11I/1oill.
thanks to the discovery of l new lead-crystal fom1lua by
the technicians at Corning, was engraved with figurative
designs for whid1 the company became famous, w1der the
direcnon OfjOlUl Montcith Gates. By 1938, Stellben had an
inhouse design team, and also marle tahle glass in plain
more-or-Iess Georgian shapes. In 1939, Steuhen laund1ed
TWellhj-St;vel1 Artists iJl Crystnl, a set of applied engraved
designs by Hemi Matisse, Femand Lger, Salvador Dal,
Georgia Q'Keeffe, and other artists.
Steuben dominated the decorative market. Follo\Ving
bankruptcy in 1931, the Imperial Glass Ca., Ohia, tllrned
exclusiveIy to everyday tableware, launching its long-
running Cnpe Cad and Cmzdlewick ranges, names sugges-
ove of American values. In 1933, the Libbey Glass Co. in
Massachusetts tried to compete in the ILL'XUI)' market, with
its fascinating and original designs by A. Douglas Nash,
but the effort \Vas mistimed and led to a takeo"cr. The
Libbey name reappeared at the 1939 vVorld's Fair with the
rather mannered ElIlbnssy drinking glasses designed by
Walter Dorwin Teague and Edwin Fuerst. -- ---- ------ ----------------
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4 ''\falta Donvill Tengue, tml/bler
mili t/Il.' St Tropcz pince settillg.
Ht 7-jCHI!3ill.
5 Russ!.'/ Wrig!lt, Tanlalus,
(/ reuorking oj n tmditiolltl!
de1,ice JO/: keepillg spir;ts locked
uf in {he home, tmllsforlllcd by
1"-'rig!l! illto nI! e/egnllt geomctric
collstructioll. Ht 29CIII/11'/,ill.
6 Wrigllt, wititc glnss ClIp
(Inri splIll-nlulllillifllll lIo/der,
EI'cryday prncticalify
opera!es i WriglIl's eombilla/im!
of opaque g/ass I1mi metal JIO/del;
with its appealillg dOllgllllut-sty/e
IIIJ!ldle. Holder JII...jc/!//1'I'jl1.
5
7 COI"dial ginss frolll fhe Embassy mllge by Tengue nnd Ed'll'ill Fuers!
fOI" Libbey Glnss Ca., O/liD. This milIer (OIlSeINlfi,1.' pnttem wns /IIade
for ti/e New York 'vVorld's Fai,. i1l1939. Ht nC1I1/S',{ill.
....._----
8 Knickerbockcr d('Ctlllter, bowl,
(I(I set of cordial glasses, C.1939,
by Fl/asf for Libbey Glass Co.
Nif/ tlleir Ieavy l/1allllered bases,
tllese are oll/y Iwlfway fo 1I10dem,
belollgillg to a wor/d of faste swept
mmy afta he Second World War.
Decnllter lIt 2.8.jclII/nY;I1. 8 L ...I
40
Silver and Metalwork
Early Innovations
1 Mnritll/llt' Bnmdt, ten u/user
nlld 1924. brnss, euollY,
ami si/'cr. Mnde nI tlu: BtllI/WlIS
i/'Orksllop by Dile 01 tite Sc1100J'S
mosl !mJlolfs stlldmts, it is ti
stlldy oi pI/re geometric /0/"1115.
Ht cm/:dJII.
2 Frit= Al/gl/st Brf'1l1uTl/s de
Croot, ulllrepiece /Jo"'/, c.1930.
c/rome il'itJ ebolli=ed woodm
eet, WMF, Ceislillgm, GewlfIllY.
A desigll by mI are/litec! /(/11/0115
for llis sl1ip illteriors.
Oil1l1135jCIIl/I4ill .

3 LOllis W. Rice, tenpot, 927, si/ver-pln/ed

copper nl1d brass,jrolll Bemnrd Rice & SOI1S'
Apollo 5kyscraper set, a decorntive treatmellt
of Ihe tllclIle that AmericallS e'll/nted will
\.lodcmislII. Ht 16.jClIl/6lI.
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410
4 IV. Riisseger (Inri F. Ivlnrby, jug, 192,]-4. sihw (/eft); lVilll('/1II
Wngellfeld, cofJee pot, 1923-4, slver (right). Tl1ese pieees sl/01I'
IJe (mft il1j/lIl!lIce o/ l!le Se/1001'S en"y yenr:;.
/lGoId and silver aTe foreign t modern conditions,
and while a fel" good designers \vork in them
the majority prefer t work in metals \Vhieh have a wider
use," wrote the British design critic Anthony Bertram in
1938. Even so, silver's unique quality of reflected light
and cololU contributed to the aesthetics of the table in the
inter-war years when, despite many social changes,
dining \Vas still l formal occasion and its accoutrements
important stahls symbols.
Though the majority of the sil ver trade tends at all
times to concern itself with the reproduction of earlier
design styles, the existence of a body of skilled sil ver-
smiths has always been an invitation to designers both
inside and outside the trade. "''hile designers of the Art
Nouveau and Arts and Crafts Movements enjoyed the
ductility of silver when making attenuated shapes, the
geometric forms typical of Modernism were less
obviously adapted to the working methods of the
smith, even though the simple shapes oE modern design
looked especially appropriate \vhen rendered in sil ver or
5 \lnlby Bi::ounrd, ten nl1d coffee senlice, ]931, si/ver Witll POry Jltllldles,
for TJtnrd Freres, Pnris. TJJis shows ti/e adapta/ioll ollllodem desigll
fOl"llls for /lIe Frmcl/ JI/xllry trades.
similar polished metals. TIle Danish silversmith Georg
)ensen, working with the painter )ohan Rohde as a design-
er, was employing a \\'ork force of about 250 in 1930, in a
successful enterprise that moved slowly in the path of the
avant-garde. More radical were the faceted forms for
coffee pots by the Swedish designer \Niwen 1 ilsson
197..0. Elegant simple flatware was made in Germany by
Andreas Moritz and Emil Lettr, whiell can be compared.
to the angular and eccentrk designs by the American
Russel Wright, manufachlred by his own company in 1933.
The metal workshops of the Bauhaus and other
German art schools produced a radically new look, less
concerned with pure function than with the application
of pure form, notably in designs by Wilhelm Wagenfeld,
wruch match rus designs in glass. British silver was only
at the beginning of a long process of design reform that
carne to fruition in the post-war period, although against
the dominance of re-interpreted classicism, there were
occasional pieces of great forolal p\.lfity, like the experi-
mental silver and enamel ware by Jane Barnard of 1939.
New Forms for Familiar Functions
1
,. -
'"
1 Hnrold Stabler, tr.'fl 5en'ice, 1936, sif>c>r.
TIre COlllpnct sqlltlre forll/s lIlark a break in
traditioll, jllslijied by tlll' efficiellcy oj packing
t]em 0/110 a tea fray. Tray /. 32cm!r2V,ill.
2/alle Bnnlard, ooU'/, 1939, sih>er fllld
CWIlIle/.jor Edrmrd 8nmard & 50/15. lt iI'!lS
rare fa fi"d SUell simplicity ill Britis/l sili.,t:r
befare tire imr. Diam 16.5'1II/1O/ill.
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3 Al/lln Zillkd5ell, IIccklnce, 1935. made bl
Cnff,crillc Cockerell tTl1d R,L Sil/lllloJlds.
il'flS {I paillter, mul lItis picce H'flS
specinlly ulIlrle for exJJibitioll, ill fileonu 01
a I/fxk rIIff, ,1'ilJl (f II1ntcllillX mlce/e/.
Dinlll 13C111/5;1I.
4 Four-piece slninless s/re! finfIOnre desiglled
nnri mmwjrlctllred by Wrigilt, C.195O-S,
i/lllstmthlg Ile nIIglllnr eccclllricity o/ \,\Trigllf's
i1ork il! eOll/pariso/! Wil/l contemporar!! j1ntwllrl'
desiglls. Kllift: /. 22(111/81,;11.
5
5 Peter lvfiillerA1l1llk, Normandie pitc1lt'r,
c. 193j-. chrolllilllll-plated brass. Tllis pilclJer
by tlle Gcrmal/-wm bul \Ica' York-based
dcsigllcr ,('tlS lItlIlI('d after tlle/al/lolls FreJIc/1
filler, tllld is o/ a $1IiP'$ protl'.
HI30.jCIll/J2ill.
6 I\,i,I'CII \'ilS$Ol" si/-er coffee Im/, J9)0. Tire
pot.llarl 01a coffee service. ll'll5 made i"
5if'edell alld give:> tlllloderll til'ist to
tradiliolla! /orms. HI .2IClll/Slill.
7 ElIlmy ROtll, drcssillg-tabie St't, C.J9]0, me/al
allo!" glass, al/d bristh'. Tll{' briglll bri;;tle
adds litl'Ct to tite BaIlJlflllS /orms o/ tllis
Genlltlll piec/!, 0llllOlIglt tlle /lrllsllCS look
to grip, Tray in 33cm!t3ill.
8
8 Dirigible cocktail shakel', c. 1930, Ilickel ove/" bmss. Ol'sigll critic:; were
sl/spiciOlls ojjorms borroIt'cd/mm Oll{' olljecl, especial/y if 1/{',lI (l't'/"e
slrenlll/illed. Ht (uprigllt) 30.5CIII/12ill.
41-
Textiles

...
...

...

...
...

...
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1I

...

...
...

...
...

...
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...
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1 Imll Dn Silp( Bru/IllS, cnrpet_ TIle Frmc11
desismer ,'liS importmll in dei.'eloping file
illjlllelltial styfe ofgeome/ ,ic rIIg for mooem
rooms iJl IIlc 19205.
2 Ed,mrd l"lcKlligJf Knllff, rug, 1929. mnde
by AXlJlillster Carpets. Designcd by al/e 01
besf-knDwll gmpIJic (lr/ist:; 01 IJe
yenl"5, !lis flIg i5 1I101't:' brigl1t1y colol/red 1/11111
IIIDS! colltelllpornry cxamples.
3 Sergc. CIICl'llIflye!f, rug, c.1930, Royal
I,\'iltoll enTpel fnclory. Cllefmayejf illc!lIried
/'I/gs i1l jis enr/y illteriors ill 8rilai1l, oftel!
l/sillg seglllwls 01circ1es as Ilcre, illjlllcJlced
by lile pnilltillgs (Inri textiles 01 Rober! (lJlri
SOllin Dela/may jI! Paris.
3
412
R
ooms in modem houses in the 1920s and 1930s
tended to be austere, in line with the emphasis on
health and purity. One concession to comfort was the use
of t100r mgs, which were placed on the permanent
hardwood or linoleum surfaces. They could be taken up
and cleaned by beating out of doors. Following a style
established in France in the 19205, these rugs usually had
a non-repeating design on a large scale, more or less
abstract, using no more than three or four colours.
Designers ofien sought to provide a focus for the room in
the rug, which would form part of a co-ordinated colour
scheme. It is possible that such unusual attention was
given to the floor because women's fashions had for the
first time revealed the lower leg, so that a rug formed a
visual background for displaying shoes and ank.les.
Rugs were thus in many ways the pivotal point of a
room, and were duly given prominence in interiors
rnagazines. The designers of mgs, such as Erie Bagge, Ojo
Bourgeois, and Ivan Da Silva Bruhns in France, and their
follmvers in Britain such as the famous poster dcsigner
Edward McKnight Kauffer, his partner Marion Dorn
(both American by birth), Marian Pepler, and Ronald
Grierson, all beeame well-known names, and Dom was
even deseribed as the "Architect of Floors." Her work
was found not only in private houses, but in hotels, sueh
as the Ballroom Suite at Claridge's Hotel, London, 1930.
The designs were usually produeed in cut pile, and made
up by a number of different faetories, inc1uding the Royal
Wilton Carpet Faetory, in Britain, while others were made
in China for the designer and entrepreneur, Betty loel.
The textile produetion of the Bauhaus behveen 1919
and 1932 concentrated on rugs and hangings, although
for slightly different reasons. Hand weaving was
considered the best hands-on introduction to textile
design, because it dealt so directly with materials and
tecluuques, and the results 'were usually too heavy for use
as curtains or upholstery. The pattems, by Gunta St6lzl,
Anni Albers, and others, were geometric but tively, and
were exemplary demonstrations of the transfer of ideas
from pure art to applied arto
41
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5 Mnrinll PCl'ler. Plough, C.1933.
WiltOll Cnrpe'/ Fnelor!!. TI,;s sl/bUe bui
sfltisfyillg desigll ei'Okes ti/e pfollgll m01.'illg
m::er fl fic{t lea"l'illg rklll'roi/tu furroil's.
6 ROllnld GrierSOl/, carpt't, 1935, 'l'OOllell pi/e
0/1 caltoll mrl'. TJi:. colJase-like rlt-sign 01
Olwlnid slm}Jl's ms II/adl! ;1/ "dia.
7 AJaron Dom, mg. RoyallVilfoJl CU'1Je/
Factor,!!. Dom, ,1'110 like Ilel' Ilar/Her Edimrd
AJcKlligJf ,I'ns Alllcricml, /It'cmllf' 1I1t'
besf-kI/Oit'l/ designCf o/ l/u' 19305. SI/e
prodl/ced abstrael mld/igllrtllkc pnlfcms.
8 Gl/Illn 5tOl:1 I'as file 1('(ld of tlle H'l'fl<'illg
il'Orkshop (I( tlle lJmtltnl/S. Tltis Itnlld-
kllotted cnrp('f, Ibigm'lt ill /hl' 1910S, il'nS
ftrst prodl/'/1 in 1000 ll.ll the Loudon cnrpe'!
gnllery, C1lrislopller Farr.
6 L..-
4 Mnrirll1 Pepler, kililll, c.193.2, A/e.mnder Morfol1 &
SOIl. Fil'st /IIade fol' llu.' 110m/! oj Ilel" brof/lcr-il1-1aw
t/Il! fll1'llitlll'e IIInker Gordoll RlIssclL t1Iis design by
Peplcr H'ns II1nrketcd t1lrollg1l IJis eompuny.
4
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414
Fabrics
1 Sergei BlIrylill, Traclors, lale 19205, prillted COftOIl, lval/OVO, RlIssia.
A strikillg paftern slIpporlillg mec1lflllizedfarmiug.
2 Phyllis Barran alld Dorothy Lnrc1Jer, Diamond, c.1925, cottoll/lalld-
blocked in galled ron. Barron and lrcller re-diSClTvered trnditiollal
prilltillg dyes lmd applied f"em fa abstraet modem desigll.
3 Ellid Marx, Underground, 1933. cotton JUlIld-blocked ill irOIl rl/st.
Marx leonJt printillg teclmiques from Barran and LnrchE!r alld devtloped
more complex repeatillg pattems.
4 Ben NicIJo/solI, Numbers, 1933, collon IUlIld-block prillfed by Nrlllcy
Nicho/soll. The faet 1/1lI1 !lis 5i5fer prillted textiles jor a /iv/lIg ellcollrnged
ti/e abstracf artist NicIJo/son in he smlle direetio/!. Alld !le desiglled for
Jlalld prilltillg, textl/red weaving, (l1ld silk sereen prilltillg.
The flat patteming of avant-garde art frorn Cubism
onwards was weH adapted for transfer into textile designo
In breaking the naturalistic conventions established in the
Renaissance, the art rnovernents of the earIy 20th century
established a new connection to the purely decorative
traditions of lhe past, which included the study of
repetitive patterns of the kind that are best suited for the
production of textile lengths, whether by printing or by
creating the design in the weaving process, with its
possibilities of patterning in texture as well as in colour.
Modern interior design \vas, by eontrast, generally
inimical to exuberant displays of pattem, so that sorne of
the most interesting Modernist fumishing textiles exist at
the chronological margins, either in the 19205, when they
are often legitimately dassified as Art Deco, or in the later
19305, when lhey anticipate !he great 19305 reviva! of
pattem design, in which contemporary art movements
were allowed to provide a broader inspiration.
Designers in the new Soviet Union expressed their
vision of a new soeiety through abstraction and also
2
3
through stylized represenlations of tractors and other sym-
bols of modemity, creating designs of great vivacity and
chann, in contrast to the physical privations of the time.
The leading British textile milis were open to new
pattem ideas, although these were nearly always com-
bined in a range with more traditional designs. A few
firms specialized in modern design, sueh as Donald
Brothers and Old Bleach Linen, with textural weaves and
printed patterns. Edinburgh Weavers was known for
eornmissioning leading artists Iike Barbara Hepworth
and Ben Nieholson to design textiles. Alian Walton,
himself a painter, used the relatively new technique of
silk-screen printing with large-scale decorative pattems,
including designs by !he Bloomsbury artists Vanessa Bell
and Duncan Gran!. In America, the block prinls of Ruth
Reeves were enjoyable on a pietorial level. For
upholstering modern furniture, leather cloth was
popular, as well as hand-woven upholslery tweeds by
designer-makers including Boris Kroll, Dorothy Liebes,
and Dan Coopero
1
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8
5 Hoja Rose, textil/!, 1932,
cotrOI! crepe. AJI exampfe 01 ti
eDII/mereial design by ti 8nlll/{1II$
sfrldent, IIsillg t'flrielies of Wetlve
in tWQ COl0l/T5 01ynrn.
6 Rita Ben/es, sto/e, c. '937, }ullld-
SPlllllilltll. CrnftswomeJI SUe/1 (15
Rita Bea/es revived old ski/ls like
Spillllillg l1tll (lnd npplied ti/cm
lo l/111killg simple desigll5 wh,}
sllOwed off the nntuml textil re
mld CO/OUT al tite lIIt1ferinl. Her
return lo lIe hasic lIIaterials rllld
cOlls/rJlctioll o/textiles, n/mlg
witl, o/her sIl/dio textile
desigllers like Et}el Mlliret. later
cOl/tribu/eri lo improuillg
stal/dards in illdl/stry.
7 Barbara Hepworth, Pillar,
1937, prillted COllOll, Edillbllrgll
Weavers Ud. Hepwortll roas
becoming kJloWII as ti seu/plor ill
lIJe 19305, bul n/so believed ill lile
cOlltribulioJl tlrUsts cOl/Id /IInke
lo fIJe domestic ellviromlllml.
8 Maria" Ma/fer, Tree Tops,
1939, screell-prillted rayo/!. A
portent 01 file posf-<t'ar revil.'al 01
pattem alld decoration. Mahler's
labric portrays simple /latural
lorms /ike elllargeme/lfS I/Ilder
n mlcroscope.
9 RIlt/1 Ree1.'es, Manhattan,
1930, !/{I/ld block-pri/lfed,
W. & J. S/oane, Nt!w York. A
decorafive et'OCafioll 01 indllstry,
speed, olld skyscrapers by o
pail/ter who trained Wit11
Femalld Lger in Paris.
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Industrial Design
Electric Appliances
1 Jolm \ln;;;;o;:, RCA Victor
Slll'cinl portnble l'hOllogmJ'/I,
c.1935. nllllllillillm iTlld "(lr;01l5
IIIl.'fa1s, RCA, Xt><t' )'ork.
Modem l/nl/sll'ia! desigl/
nI its 1II0S! senllcth'l'.
Ht (c/osed) 20.5'111/8;11.
2 Pl1ilco Pcople's Set,
,\Jodel +W, (,1936. I/ItlIllded
Bnkc/ite milill!!/ desigllen lo be
m(l;:5 prodl/Cl'd. Ht .fJcm/I6ill.

1
3 Vnl/er DOIlI'in Tengue, Sparton Bluebird radio, 1933. cobn/t /l/He
lIIi,.rol", ('ood, I1lld c/II'OIlIIIIII slre!, Spnrlol1 Corporalioll, Micllignl1.
CirClllnr orll/s DI mdio il'orked il't'1I I'ith n rotatil/g 11millg (lin/. T}is is
tfu' mas! sjJI!ctncu[nr. Ht ljClIIl9iJl.
4 Kem IVdw. fl6k clock. C.'933. lIms;: mili copJk'r.for Time lile.
Ht 9CIII/;,'III.
416
E
lectrical goods were often designed by manufac-
turers withoLlt employing professional designers,
although a successhtl product, having established its
idcntity, would probably be re-styled at intcrvals as
awareness of industrial design developed. This was
especially the case in America, where mudl of the effort
of the 19305 generation of industrial designers was
directed to\\'ards electrical goods.
Many products still followed the familiar shapes of
their non-electric predecessors. Hoo\,er's 1916 \'aclltun
elcaners, for example, imitated the broom and the carpet
sweeper, with a motor on the cnd of a long handle. lll..is
long remained a dominant form, although the Swedish
Electrolux company produced a cylinder type \\'ith a long
hose and separate attachments in 1915, of the type that
gradually replaced the upright models after the \\'ar.
Electric irons retained the form of old flatirons in their
base. On top, designers moulded the shape of the handle
to the hlunan hand, and newly de\'eloped plastics \Vere
valuable as materials for insulating the hand from heat,
\Vith a safe entry point for the flex and sorne kind of
calibrating dial. These elements ha\'e remaineci relatively
constant into the present, although the iron as a \Vhole
has become lighter in weight. Hand-held electric
hairdryers were first introduced in 1925, replacing cllrling
tongs. Their design became gradually more sophisti-
cated, with Bakelite replacing metal casings.
Radios were a completely new type of object which
became increasingly commonplace. Their \'ahe
mechanisms \Vere hea,'y, and the prestige of the radio
reqllired a stately hOllsing, although in the best designs
this cOltld be prcsented with wit.
The architect-designers \Nells Coa tes and Serge
Chermayeff worked for the Ekco Compan)' in Britain.
The Noctllme radio by \VaIter Donvin Teaglle of 1936 was
a large cirele, intended for use in pllblic spaces, and
dramatized with its blue mirrored glass. The "irhes of
portability and compactness began to enter radio design
in the later 1930s, ",ith Teague's neat bllt showy Spartoll
radio of 1936.
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5 lean Puiforcat, si/'cred metal
n/uf IIInrble dock. A XII,.y tem
IIsillg !Ie s/nrk genll/e/re forllls
oflllore IIli/itl1rinn con/emparar!!
objecls. Ht 30CIII/11l;ill.
6 Gilba! Rol/de, Z dock, C1933,
(1I1"OIIIilllll plnteri metal alld
etclll.'d glr/ss, HermaH Milla
C/ock Co, A lighfIl'cigllt approac!1
to lillle. HI 28.5clII/1l/,ill.
7 Baird le1cisioll r i v l ~ 1936,
Britail1. Tele<"isioll ,('as firsl
dClllol/slrnll'd in 1926, bul OllfJ
beca/lle broadcnsllCII years laler.
HI1.7111!Jft-6ill.
8 Post Officl' telephol/c, 1938,
Britaill. Bascd OlllllOllldcd
plastic cnse designs dCl'eloped ill
ScnllciiIWl'ia, l!lis exalllple, ('/lidl
,{'as supplied as a slandard rellla/
halldsd /1"01/1 193710 Ihe 19605,
illc!lIdes a drnwer il1 Ihl' base for
holdillg notes o/Ielepholle
1I11l11bt'l"s. I-It l..J..jCIII/j!'ill.
11
9 Rl1ymolld Loewy, penci/
shnrpel1f!r, 1933. Qlle 01
Americn's stnr industrial
desiglll'l"s streallllillcd the pCl1ci/
shllrpcller fo brillg joy iu/o
dmdgl'lY Ht 1./-clII/5;1,ill.
1OClI,"istia11 Batilla 1, e/cctrie fa11
Jleater. 1938, c!lrOllle and steel,
HMV Ca., Middlesex, Sritnin.
Oinll1. :19(1II/1'/fl.
11 Maleo/m S. Pnrt 1'IlCUllIII
e/calle!", 1938. alumillilllll
('itll do// bag, Sil/ger
Mnllujl1cturillg Ca., M:w Jersey.
A hig!I/Y pr6sj.'(' ,,('rsiall 01 lile
stnlldard IIprigllt rn(lI1lIl1, with n
headlig/I lo st'nrc11 out dusf.
Ht J .oglll!Jft in.
6 5
Lighting
Lighting Pieces
.-
,,"'"---
3 Kar/ /. /lIcker lI11d lViii/e/m IVngellfeld, glnss
tnble Inmp, 1923-4-. Qlle 01 lile II/ost celebrnled
exnmph's o/ /lo'lodernisl indl/slrinl desigll,
cr('nleli by sllldeJIls ni t t ~ Bnl/llal/s.
Ht 36cm/l.ill.
2 Mnrialllle Bml/dl alld Hin Bredeudieck, dr:sk
Inmp, 1929. }{mdem Cv. This '('as olle o/Ihe
mosi wideiy prollced dl'siglls lo eOIl/(' Ollt of
lIJe Bal//JallS. Ht 48clII/19;1I.

1 Cerril Ricll'e/d, JUllIgillg /igllt for tlu'

Sdll-oeder HOl/se JI Utn'c/It, c.1923. A simple
bul rL't'Ollfliol/a'Y l/se o/ lIe lIlosl e/emt'lltnry
pnrts 01a lgll' fitting, nmmged lo make a
pattern in space. Ht 14111/4/t 7ill.
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E
1cctric light \Vas well established as part of domestic
life before the First World War, but light fittings
tended to reproduce historical features or imitate other
objects. Modernism never succeeded in driving out such
designs, but lighting offered opportunities to designers
and architects.
Perhaps the most radical of the designs showll here is
also the earliest. Gerrit Rieh'eld's hanging light makes a
geometric play with hlbular lights, without any kind oE
shade. The other examples mostly involve a light bulb, a
shade, a stem, and l base, although in some cases these
parts are elided into one another. George Carwadine's
AlIglepoise is an example of an engineer's solution to a
practica! problcm, with little thought about styling,
although it adtieves a considerable aesthetic effect through
its direct expression of the mechanism that enables the
light to be positioned. It was created for the British
company Herbert Terry of Redditch, but the patents \Vere
later acquired by a Danish manufachuer, Jacob Jacobscn,
1nd the shlde and square base simplified.
The Bestlite was designed by R.O. Best. a British
manufacturer and, like the AIlglepoise, has enjoyed a long
life as a producto The visual form \Vas carefulIy
considered, and it was available in various colours and as
a standard lamp or wall-mounted bracket lampo
Marianne Brandt and Hin Bredendieck's 1929 desk lamp
has the innovativc feature of a push-hutton switch in the
base, whose off-centre design allows the flexible afm oE
the lamp to achieve a ,-vide variety oE positions. Other
table lamps, like those by Karl )ucker, Wilhelm Wagenleld,
Poul Henningsen, and Cio Ponti, have translucent shades
to spread light around a room. "Vagenfeld made poetie
use oE the cIear glass of his stem and base, ",hile produe-
ing an almost classical effect oE balance. Henningsen ",as
a Oanish architect ",ho designed lighting fram 1927
omvards, culminating in his famous Artichoke hanging
lamp of 1958 based, like nearly aH of his designs, on
eoneentric rings. ll1e Italian arehiteet Ponti's designs are
seldom eonsidered as pure Modemism, and his Bilin lamp
has the playful charaeter found in his many other designs.
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Task Lighting
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3 Table lalllp by POIlI Henllingsell alld lIla/lUfactllred by LOllis POll/sell.
Tiercd opa/escCIlt gil/ss sJwdes are sllppor/ed with Il pll/1wted brass slwff.
NI 43cIII/17;1I.
4 CiD POI/ti, Bilia lamp, 1931, FOII/m/(/ Arte, Milml. A hlllllOrollS take 011
Balllwl/s geollletry by olle of ftll/Y's grellfest a/ld 11105/ versatile desigllers.
Ht 43CIII/17ill.
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7 Peter Pfisterer, desk /alllp,
C193S-''0, chrollle-ptatcd alld
cJlamcllcd sfeel, wit/ wllhlllt
base. TlI;s America/l lmllp
CO/l/illlles /he geollletric pl/rity of
carly Modemism. H/16cIll16Y,ill.
8 Cilba/ Rol/de, chrol/le-pllill/ed
steel and bmss /able lalllp,
c1933, I1Imlllfactured by
Mlltl/f/I-SlIllscf Lnlllp
Mmlllfllcturillg Co. lile.,
Brooklljll. L. 35.5clII!l4i/l.
6
2 George Ca/'wadil1e,
Anglepoise lalllp, c1934. T/e
sprillg collllterba/al1ce has lIIade
this olle of tlle IIIOSt elldllrillg
bl/ses fo/' II/mp desigl1 illla/er
years. Ht socm/19Y,ill.
5
4
5 Krlr/ \f>rscll, adjIls/able f100/'
lalllp, c. 1930, coppa-plated
metal, Lighto/ier. Tllis elegallt
America/l lamp cml be tllmed to
s/lillc IIp 01" dowlI. Ht 1.S1111Isft.
6 J.J.?' Olld. pimlO lalllp, 1928,
l/cke1-plated brass. A e l l t ~ f l l l
e.mmple of pllre geomef ry l/ya
leadiJlg DlIfc/larchitect.
W. 30cl!ll11 ll.
1 R.o. Besl, Bestlite desk lalllp,
c1930. T/is artiwlated lall1p,
tullid t u ~ prodllced iJl stmu1ard
al1d wall-fixiJlgfOI"IIIS, Il'as
poplllal" in BrifaiJl ill fIJe 19305
alld has remailled in prodllcto/l
eIler sil/ce. Hf 4SCIIllq1,ill.
Furniture 424
British 424
American 426
ltalian 430
5candinavian 432
Ceramics 434
Glass 438
Silver and Metalwork 442
Textiles 444
Gontemporary
The 1940s and 1950s were a period of transition between the austerily
of the Second World War and its aftermath of rationing and shortages,
and the youthful, exuberant design revolution of the 1960s. Impelled by
the Modernist principies of functionalism, the Contemporary aesthetic
was defined by new materials and the deveopment of technologies to use
them effectively, as well as a spirit of optimism and confidence. It was a
vigorous period in design, with bold shapes, bright colours, and practical
solutions to the needs of daily life.
Plastics and Appliances 446
W
ith the 5weeping gesture of a ne\\' coHechan
Christian Dior altered the face of fashion design
and simultaneollsly gave a ne\\' name to the overall
aesthctic that captured the post-\var imagination. Dior's
New Look collection too1< the \Vorld by storm. His
clIIvaceous creations ""ere the antithesis of \'\'artime dress
designo The ne\\' hourglass figure, created with skin-tight
tailoring and well-placed padding, was a sh"iking and
extravagant change from the austere, unflattering square-
shouldered jackets available dtuing the \Var. HO\'vever,
Dior's sculptural fantasies required s\vathes of expensive
textiles. "Vith severe shortages of ra\V materials in most
cOlmtries and rationing still in place in Britain, there \Vas
an international outo)' ovcr his ne\V designs, but despite
thc critics' reservations, the New Look heralded a fresh
start after the austerity of a harsh ",orld war.
Dior's 1947 collection represented a turning point for
intemational designo There was an aesthetic shift that
influcnced e\erything from the clothes women ",ore to
the dishes they placed on the table. Designers worked
",ith a rejuvenated spirit after the war and their designs
represented e\'erything that was nel" and optimistic.
Materials and technologies that grew out of the ",ar
effort influenced contemporary designo Plastics and
metals, lam..inated \\'oods, and synthetics all impacted on
thc appearance of everyday objects. Foam rubber and
stretch fabrics for upholstery allowed for the curving
forms that charaeterized so many organic shapes. Cast-
aluminium frames and steel red for fumiture pushed the
boundaries of constntction and form, with its combined
strength and malleability.
The post-war American economy and the resulting
consumer boom created expanded markets for new
products. American manufacturers also had the wealth to
re-invest in quality designo The Italians called the
immediate post-war period ricostnl:ioJle, for the
regeneration and revitalization of design that transpired
there. In Sweden, Demnark and Finland the
Scandinavian Madcrn aesthetic that marked so mueh of
later 20th-century design took shape. The applied arts
Ll"ff: r\!om c/f)(k in pnillkd
111111 11/1/IIlillilllll lJ.lf
':\'l'I${)1I lar Ho,mrl1A '9.J9.
lVin'S tllld termjl/l1fs I1r..
typicl1/ .ft'l1ftlrl'S of tIJe 195:<.
111111 nflt'Ct ti/{, COllteml'0mry
pn'OCcllllflticm ,l'itl, scic:IJC(' I1Ild
Ilu' illci}'it'llt S}I/lCt' Agt'.
Oil1l11. JJcmh;iJl.
DIJposift': ClIri:<lil11/ Oior,
j\'l',l' Look TII..
I/ell' fnsllioll mJlsefrolll Dio,.
siglll1/1l'd 11 :<cn c/lI1l1gl' ill po:<t-
('/11' tmmrds :<tylc. Diol"
promoted /1/1 optillli:<tc 'ieil'poillt
/11111 CI1:i fhe I1l1tiflit':<i:< of 1'0:<1-
,l'l1l" 1111:<ft'l"ity.
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SCl1lldilH'It'iflll desigll are I'xempJified ill Tapio
IVirkknll1's Kantarelli .'fiSC, 194-7, {'Ilieh was
based 01/ l/le101"11I ol/fu' clwllterdle IIII1S/roOIl/.
Ht 9cm/3'1i1l.
2
3 Tnpio lVirkkn/a im:> n/so/a11l0115 for /lis
/nlllillntcd /caf-slmpt.'(f dislu:s, ,,'/licl, il'en'
producen ill II11111Y slwpes (lnd 5/=1.'5.
IV. <o[l'xtllllph.' 5110<1>/1) 19cm!'I.ill.
2 Tlu: \lespl1' WIl'S pimlnl j"
fhe /ta/iml seoo/a CII/tllre of
tlle 19505. Fa,. /l1I! {ir;;! lillle
II/arketillg mld ad"l'ftising
strnl'gh's U'c/'t' dCl.'ised fa
direclil /arr,:et tJ1l' scooter al
. ,
(1 jCllla/e (llIdicl/ce.
4 Artichoke m l ~ i l l /l1l11p
by I/II! D(llIi511 nrcilitl'ct POIII
HI'llIIillgSI'II, desigllrd il1 1958
for LVllis POII/sell. D,'er a lile/re
in dilllllcter, lIJe Illlllp ;ms ti
/I/uj'stic pit'Ct' Ollksigll. (1
COJlfempornry cJwlldelier.
Oiam. 6ocm/23lI.
422
were also profoundly influenced by abstraet art and
seulpture. Nowhere was this relationship more
thoroughly represented than in America, where a new
cultural identity and hegemony surpassed any of its
earlier artistie aehievements.
In America d uring the 19305 there was a $fnse of
invineibility and optimism and this was reflected in the
way that peopIe lived and arranged their homes.
Consuming middle..dass Amerieans emerged after the
\'var, as if from a chr1'salis, and this in tum supported the
robust econoro1' therc. Teclmolog1' and the cheapness of
mass production meant that even urban living couId be
c1ean and orderly. New appliances for the kitchen and
household cleaning transfonned a woman's role in the
home and altered the relationship between the sexes in a
domestic contexto Automotive technology following the
war meant that caIS were affordable for greater numbers
of peopIe. It was the beginning of jetliner travel and thjs
blurred intcmational boundaIies, with the result that
influences between countries occurred more seamIessly.
Design was the catal1'st for a whole new mode of living
and international designers took their role in shaping the
future very seriously.
At the heart of the Contemporary mm"ement was the
concept that function should be transparent in design,
and that the intendcd purpose of an objeet and its design
should be inextricably linked. This overriding theory
was carried across mass-produced appliances as weU as
objects of limited production. The concept was
essentially a continuation of Moderrtism begun before
the wa[ and originating in the ethos of the Bauhuas in
Europe. The displacement of architects and designers
before and during the \\lar meant that design ideas and
solutions stemming from Modcrnism became far more
intemational and \videspread.
Not only did enlightened manufacturing firms eHect
and encourage good design, but the internationaI
exhibitions helped to faster distinctive and dynamic
ideas. In Britain, the Britain Can Make It exhibition in
1946 and the Festival of Britain in 1951 jump-started a
severely depresscd market far well-designed consumer
goods afier the war. The Milan Triennale was a litrnus for
new designo Man)' icons of the 19405 and 50s were first
exhibited there. The program.me of exhibitions and
eompetitions at the Museum of Modern Art in Ne\v
York, most notably Organic Design in Hame Furnishing,
------ -----
sparked a new aesthetic: Organic Modernism that
simply picked up where Modemism left off before the
war. The trend-setters for devising thcse new organie
shapes in fumihJre and arcrutechue were Charles [ames
and [ero Saarinen. Organic biomorphic design was a
dominant influence during the Contemporar)' periodo
The organic post-war aesthetie of Scandinavia was
best expressed in Tapio "Virkkala's Knlltnrelli yases for
littala of 19-16, based on the form of chanterelle
mushrooms. These and other designs by "Virkkala
captured the abstract essence of nature itself. Wirkkala
was also championed fer his laminated leaf-shaped
bowls, and furniture that expressed a sublime natural
beauty in shape and material. The SenSUQllS ctuves and
dramatic outlines of organic design, whether expressed in
Scandinavian ContemporaI)< forros, the more flamboyant
pieces of the ltalians, oc the bold assertions by American
designers, all influenced a generation of consumers who
liyed with and appreciated design in the post-war years.
Contemporary sculpture influenced the shapes
produced by designers of furnishings. Artists like lean
Arp, Constantin Brancusi, Henry Moore, and Barbara
Hep\\'orth created sculpture in sublime curving sensuous
forms. lllese were studied and often inspired 1950s
designers who used the new technologies such as
bending and laminating ",oad, manipulating metals into
strong, ClU'ving forms and blowing glass into monolithic
sweeping shapes. Designers favourcd plain slufaces of
natural wood, stainless steel, marble, lelther and \\'001.
Decorative OlTlamentation on fumiture was almost non-
existent as almost an)' pattem 01' texhlre was inherent in
the material. Abstract painting and sClIlpture influenced
the design of all kinds of fumishings. The flowing shapes
of ceramics and glass wece often dictated by the ne\\"
organic focus in sClllpture, while the surfaces of ceramic
wares, textiles, and \Vallpapers were pattemed with
abstract shapes or \'ibrant blocks of colour.
The period when Christian Dior's New Look took
shape coincided \Vith the time when a new generation of
olltstanding designers rose to prominence. Ceramics,
glass, metals, textiles, and furnihue were aH inflllenced,
and some designcrs worked across different media.
Many carne from architectural backgrounds \"hile others
\Vere industrial designers first and foremost. But it was
not unllsllal fer one designer to be responsible for the
look of a novel television lnd then create a design for Qlle
of Ellrope's most promirlent porcelain manufachlfers.
Raymond Loew)' was an exceptional polymath,
ex!=elling as a graphic artist as well as a designer of cars,
lightfittings, radios, porcelain, textiles, and furnihlre.
The 19-10s and SOs \Vere extraordinarv decades fer

design in the applied arts. Growld-breaking objects of

this era \Vere of course follo\Ved by dull imitations that
biased an entire generation against the interior design of
that periodo There were uninspired, lmcomfortable flat-
slab sofas, the amoeba-shaped coHee tables, the
boomerang, and the kidney shapes in abundance. All of
this mediocrity has proven the lasting legacy of
Contemporar)' design bllt has sometimes obscured what
made this period truly inspiring.
5 DCTL'!opillg posf-</'nl" tcc/molos!! n!Jvt/'ed tlle neorodYllnlllie !OI"lIlS nJld
/iglt tl'cig11 I lJIollocoql/C n/u111i, Ii 1/ 111 sir1le/1 Ire 01 /Ite Ai r;;/I'I.:n111 / rn iler,
wllic/I WITS gil/ el/VI/gil lo /1(' mlled n/ollg by tite Frcllc/1 rond /'IIcer.
LnfQlIl'llcnu. iu 19.1I
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1 Eru.osl Rn.e'j el/flllldkd skt'1 rOt! Antelope
(hnir..first il/frod/lct'd nf tllC 1951 Ft'Stim/of
BrifaiJl, "'I1S 1/01CI!for ils sJ'idcrymm!' 111/11 lwlf
.fcl'!. TlI!' c!mir ,I'I1S a/so mad!' I'ith a II/ol/hfl!l!
pll1:::t ie !'I'!I/, <;i11I ilar l(l t/[' dt'::ign c:.l ClUlr/l's
Eallles' 1II01l/dt'11 pl.zl'ood c!mir already ill
productioll. Ht i9C11/131ill.
2 I/{Id /lccl/t'xperilllt'lItil1g witll lIIL'fa/-
fmmcdfllmitl/rl' 19.J.5, a::: S('<'11 il1ltis ({IS/
1111llllillilllll al/oy nlllgc vf BA e/lnir:::, Tfll'
alll/!/iu;lI!11 t'/ClI/t'II/;:; "('('/'t' Il)"odllct'd IIY prCSSlIl"l'
die-ca::fillg, a ft'c/llliqll[, d(''l'/0J1,'d dI/dI/S l/le
/'{Ir!tlr Ilolllb (a:::iIlSs. Ht nCIII11S/,ill.
3 RO/Jiu DIl!!'::: Hille5tk clmir 1959 'as
madI' o! Ol1t' C0I1/;1I110IlS pit'ce prt'Jol"llled
CJ/J<'cd p/!"l'ood. Hf 90CIII1351:ill.
4 Basil 5PI.'IICt"5 Allcgro c!lnir dJ.':::igllJ.'d for
Alorri::: (lf G/Il:::':Oi/l ,1'110 111t' fna of
.. ...
/rwzil1atl'lf pJ.(I'OOd il/ 8rifail/ ,/'itll fhe/r
t'_\pt'rhllt'l/t:, ill (I(,I'Op/(f/It' 1'1.1(,,'ood h'c1l1101ogy
dllri"s Ilh' mI". HI 95CIll13,lill .
5 TIlefirlll }(nlldya l'IIII'/I)yerl tlll' Dallisll rll'Sigllt'l"
Cnrl J(I(o/,,; lo ti,;::: illgeuillll::: 1'l.'CI:h
ply,nlt"h1 :,1'lCkillg c1mir dlt'l"t'by 11,(' :=t'nt ClII7.'<'d
rollllll OH Itl /01"111 tllt' H/ ;'CIII/.:;oil/.

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Chair Designs
British Furniture
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I
n comparison with its European neighbouTS and
American allies, Britain was not regarded as a hothouse
Df design after the war.1\onetheless, it did generate "'ork
cf originality and enduring quality. Furniture designers
such as the husband-and-wife team Robin and Lucienne
Day and Emest Raee de\-eloped British design e\"en with
limited resources and the contracted post-war market.
The Britain Can Make It exhibition cf 19-16 and the
Festi\"al cf Britain cf 19;)1 promoted 8ritish art, design
and industry and aspired to raise the nation's spirits after
the de\"astation and austerity cf the \Var. Ccrtain pieces of
British hlmihue from this periad, objects that are todar
pcriod icons, hark back to the design aesthenc uf these
t",o exhibitiollS. Designers of fumiture contributed to
post-war reconstruction by transforming thc appearance
of evervdav IHe. Thev adhered to the Modernist
, , ,
philosophy that ",cll-designed pieces sold at affordable
prices would improve the gllality of life of the nCloon.
Firms like Parker-Knoll, Hille, Lebus, Kandya, and G-
Plan produced cheerful, functional hmuh.lre which drew
on recent deyelopments in America, ScU1dina\ia, and
Ital\" as ,,eH as more traditional influences.

Laminated furniturc that employed aeroplane

pl)'\\ood teclmology as well as umo\'ati\'c designs using
the surplus steel and aluminium available after the "ar
tapped into existing Briosh resources, while newly
developed synthetic materials such as plastics, fibreglass,
and PVC ga\e unprecedented opportunities for moulded.
sculphlral shapes, bright colour, and bold pattem in
furnishings. Rubber was also exploited. As webbing it
was used as a flexible support material for seating, while
foam rubber increasingly replaced upholstery of springs
and horschair. Besides these ne'" n1aterials, plate glass,
aJong with teak, rosewood, and other tropical timbers
were favol1red. Case hmuhlre tended to cmphasize the
horizontal, while chairs were sqllare and squat in their
proportions; legs werc typically splayed. Coffee tables of
irregular boomerClng, cloud, or palcttc shapes were
popular, and the three-piece suite of sofa and armchairs
bccame the prestige item of the 19505 home.
--- ----------
New Shapes
1
1 Tl1c cxaggernted proportiOl/5
of Howard Keitl's Encare
chai,. SilO,!, the iuf/II('11cL' oI
lfalir1l1 fllmifllrt' desigll 011
t!/l' progn's:;;h'l' H'ork of HK
FUl"Ilitun.'. HI 75clII/29'.
2 Becnuse 01 i/s llcillSioll 011
he Homemaker pinte by
Ridgtl'l1Y Polleries (sec V43-l-),
Robil1 Day's I"eclilling n!"lIIcl1nirfor
Hille /I('cmlll! a c1nssic, t1ssocintcd
piI Jr olllt'r ('lIlb/cm,; of eDil tcll1-
pomry laMe. L. lIJl/3ft ;ill
3 Enust :"Jeptune cJrnirfor
ti1/! P&O Oril'lIt Lille ,m;; ligh!
C!1ollgh lo be drnggcd cm;s //11:
deck oj mi occan lil/er ,uith caSI!,
I1IlIi ts colIstructioll al/mued
colI!fortnb/r: IOllllgillg as [pell.
L. 1.0711I/1(1 6iu
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4 Monis of 51'/ IIe Ir('lld {or British (lImitl/fe in or'{rillic
L _. ,
slmpe:=: wit} lIdr dOlld-shaped occnsio!1nltal'le dl'siSlIl'd .ti Ndl
Morfi:;. \ V. 99C!1I/39iJl.
5 RolllTt Heritll'!l' desioll('d n /ml'-';/III1:;: sidcbollrd for Enms
e .
fllmifllre. T/l' IlOri::'Ollfn/ forlJl vn/mIcen 0/1 slwrl fnpered legs
ims t!/pi((llly CrJlltcmpornry_ Ht 76CI1I/;oill. IP.2.2911l/7ft 6ill.
42
American Furniture
Chairs
3 2 1
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1 Oltlrfe:; Emlles' LOV e/mir. J9-15. il'fl5 Dile of llis jirst nttl'11Ipts lo
/l/DI/Id p(l(tl'OOd illto (omp/ex ClIm:.'S alld nl:;o lo IItili:e cycle-il'cfdillg, mi
e1l'Ctrollic bOl/diJlg Procl'SS fa joiu tl'ood nl/d me/n/. HI 68.5CII1/2,il/.
2 Eero Sanrillm sfruggkd lo ndEifi'e a siJlgle lIlo/l1ded pieee 01pfnstic flj
tllI: l'l1sc 01 IJis Tulip c1mir 01 1955-6, bllt he ",nll/lSt'd fa eh'ml /JJ' wllnt
he 5f/I' as fl "50111111 of legs" ill domestic illterioTS. Ht 835CIII/33/1I.
3 Gt'Orgl' ,\'t'l:JIl's Prelzel chair, mtllll!fnchm:d by Hl'rmtll Aliller ill
1955, ms aptly /lamed for t1le llt!lIdillg, tt'istillg cahlbi/itit'S of t1le
Inmil/alt'd birclJ jrame. Tlle seat 'as madI' of m/IIII/. H/ i9cm/3' ill.
4 Higll stoof by Pallf Goldmtlll for Plycmft. TIII' arc1'lIg alld mi:<fcd
Imck are typica/ al Go/dmall's sCl/lptl/rnf l/se of p/y<t'OOti.
Ht 94CIII/]7/1I.

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5 /lIacasil/g/y 1II1rro(' gtlllges of steel f'lIflbled jl/mitl/re desigllers like
Hnrry Bertaia lo eren/e lis spilldly wire fimlifllre !ike Ihis Diamond elmir
al/d atroman for KJlolf frOIll lile /'nrly 19505. Ht 83cmI32!.j1l.
6 Eero Snnrill('JI mUed ls \ Vomb c/lniT nl/d oftomtlll, 194-6-8, "biologcnl."
The lec/lIla/ogt) vellilld its II/ordded fibrl'glass <t'itll foom rubber paddillg
l1Iakes it part of tll/! popular COlltl'l1Ipornry orgallic nbstrnctioll. lIt 89CIII/35ill.
7 Tlle IIl1dlllaf/lIg s/Ulpe anri spfayed of nEis c/Ulise fOllgl/e by Edmrd
Dllrre/l Stolle /lre 1Jn//mnrks o/ COIl/eJ1lpomry 5tyle. L. 1.67111/5f' 6bl/.
8 Rn/pfl Rapsoll dt'$igllcd n /ille o/lIIass mnrket p/y<t'OOd fimlitllre for
Klloll. His racker, 1946-7, gailled tite 1II0st critical (l1/d popular altelltio/l
but could /101 be mml1ljactllred wit!l a cO/lfillllOIlS piece ojil'ood bealllse it
excceded 1/11' wnl'tillll' I"t:stl'ictioll oj 18 illelles (46cm). Ht CIII/30'/it1.
---------
Sofas
1 Tlu? I/pllO/slcry 01/ !te
sofa demollsfmtes
50ll/e oj the bold, c1nshillg COIOUTS
t1lt1t ,'ere p<JJ'lflnr 111 lile 19505,
ill tllis case red, Orllllgl' /llld
pllrpk; dl':;iglll.'li by Georg!'
Nt'1soll Associntes for Hermal!
Afiller, 1956 HI 7S.jCm/3JII,
\\1. 1.plll/.ift Jlin.
2 FfOTel/ce Sc1/1/sf Klloll
cOlllbill,'f good desigll iI'ilfl
metflOds oj industria/mas,;
prooucfioll fa Ilrill.{J olljcets al
lIi.gh l/lIfl/ity ami apl'l'nlillg
desigll fa as 1/'ide all fllldiellce as
possi/lfe. T/Jis slI;le frolll ti/e
HOTel/ce KIloll col/cetioll mIs
prodllcedJor l/l" ftrm Kl10Jl
11IfemnfiOllal in 19H.
Clini, Jt Socm/31 /iJl; Soja 11/
76c1/l/30ill, ti'. 6;11.
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he sudden consumer boom in America immediatclv
aftcr thc war had a profound effect on designo This
remarkable post-war cconorny of abundance opened new
markets for products that looked frcsh and new and a1so
satisfied Americans' desire to consume. As a rcsult,
manufacturers attracted the best ne", talent and invested
in groundbreaking designo Disruptions caused by the war
resulted in the emigration to the United States of many
displaced European architects and designers who
ultimately becarne associated with American design
firms. Suddenly, America was a culturallcader.
America made its most significant contribution to
post-war design in the related fields of furniture and
architecturc. Sorne of the most influential furniture
designers were architects, such as Charles Eames, the
Finnish-bom Eero Saarinen, Florence Schust Knoll and
George Nelson. Sculptors also had a profound influence
on furniture design; Isamu Noguchi and Harry Bertoia,
for example, created sorne lasting icons of mid-ccntl.lry
designo The pervasive influence of husband and wife
designers Charles and Ray Eames cannot be
overestimatcd. Their inspired furniture, film and
photography at mid-century created a ne", language of
design and had a huge impact both al hame and abroad.
Their work, which continued weH ioto the 19705, was as
influentiaI on the use of space within houses as on the
design of fumiture.
The Modemist aesthetic that had emerged in Europe
in the 19205 changed significantly after it becamc lhe
predominant infiuence on design in America after the
war. Designers embraced the idca of industrialization
and mass production and, as a result, their designs
beca me more foeused on utilitarianism and the
efficieney of the manllfachlTing process. The overriding
influenee of functionalism, the idca that form followed
fllnction, continued to prevail in this late manifestation
of Modernism in America.
It was mainJy in America that the use of plasties,
fibreglass and polyesters was pioneered, to be taken up
",ith enthusiasm by majar designers sueh as Charles
42
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Steel Rod Construction
1 SIL't'/ rod 110,1' 1Is/"d /1/ p{et' tlllll1fal' :;fl'd
{tlr fi'\1ItIl:, of 1:;.n11ll1
., - "
111(' IIt';C tcdmolo'?!f (f /IIt'MI ;:l"ir.' lo cm1t" tI/t'
e.
/ramt'il'orkJor Ji,.. mt/lll1t t7lld dlmll/e rockiJlS ::.100/
vf 1953 Sml dialll. 3jjCII//q.ill.
2 1Vllik dircclllr of lit Hall/aH Afller, GI'O'\'l'
e e
\'c1;;(I1l eren/ed / i,. 0<1'11 li1/(' mit11 re ,u/lid, th15
laMe sloo/ i;; nll cxnlllple. HI 6jclIl/:2j'!iJl. 1
Lighting
1 TIIe rlt'SS" oll::aJl/ll .\'(lX/lcl::; '9j-l Akari
/(II11P made of (1 1/{1JICr $CI"eCII ::;tretc1lei ora a
mil/boamll/c an.' /)(/$I.'ri ollIJi::; re/11m tvami
I.'xamillatioJl ol/Jis Ilafi,'e japnl/6c desigllo
HI jOcm/T9%in.
2 Tllis combillcd /nlllp anri lab/e by TOlllllli
Pnr:illger re/lect::; all I!lIIplUlSis 011 illdipidllnl
COW.'I!}jI!IICC in J950S illterior sc1Ii.'II/I.'S.
Ht 1.-I711l/.ft 10il/.
2
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Eames, Eero Sarrincn, and George Nelson. Cur\'ing
sculptural fonns, slender splayed legs, and 50ft
upholstery ",ere aH possible with the newly de\'eloped
industrial techniques for \\'orking metal, plywood,
plastics, or foaro rubber; imprO\'ed adhesi\"es \Verc also
l\"ailable. Fumiture became lighter in \\-eight, easy to
mO\'e around and more flexible in its uSc.lgc_ It was strong
and hard wearing as well as colourful and attracti\'e.
Even though furniture manufacturing \Vas dc-
centralized throughout the countr)', a large proportion
of American furniture came out of the Grand Rapids,
l\ichigan, area.
Finns like Knoll Associates and Herman i\lillcr
attracted international and nati,c talent and in turn
dominated the furniture indllstrv with thcir technical

Uu10\ations. Howe"er, in terms of actual production,

these firms only catered to a small proportion of the
population_ More mass-produced, less expensi,-e
fllrnitllre that ",as based on late Modernist design
expanded these ideas to a broader market.
Architects working in America created airy, opcn and
unclllttered spaces in ,duch to display organic and clean-
lined fllmiture to its greatest effect. Good design was not
ooly sllpported by enlightened firms like Knoll and
Herman i\liller but "'as also championed by cultural
institutions Iike the of Modem Art in Ne", York_
In 1940 ?vlO LA held the design competition, Org<lIuc
Design in Homc Fumishings, wh.id1 pointed toward new
practical engineering tcclmology in fum.ihue and other
dOJ1"1cstic objects. The free organic forms by Eero Saarinen
and Charles Eames emerged from this competition. They
"'ere finally produced after the \Var in the late A
similar competition held in 1948, MOt\IA's lnternCltional
Competition for Furniture Design, also
facilitated nc\\' forms based on modcrn tedmology_
held a series of Good Design exhibitions from
1930 to 1955 i.n collaboration \\-ith the
of Chicago. ll1e exhibitions "'ere concei.,ed to stirnll.late
interest and influence public taste for objects that
reflected sOtmd design and practical ftmction.----------_.. --- ------- -
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1 No otile!" riece more cknrly
dcmollstmfes /ie sC1Ilptuml aspects of Ile
orgnl1ic ill coll/emparar}! design ilall [:::111/111
Noguc/'sglns5 toppcd tablt'. W. 1.27m/tift lin.
2 TlIe opeil, ,ir!! init'riO)"j uf /11" 19505 rcqJlircd
,m!Js lo d"ide spnecjktibly. C/U1r!es l1J1d nllY
EflIl1I!S' Panel scn'('II (GuIri tnmsforllll1 room
Ill1d [so fil in ;I'il/I ot}er orgl1l1;( desiglls olll
ils ll11dll!atillg ClII<'CS. H/l'2111/5ft 7'11.
...
Organic and Geometric Forms
1
3 ..
3 Tls rosl,('ood jel'ellery cnbinl!f un its /IIda!
stand by George Ne/sal/ gapL' tmdi/iOl/nl
II/(/f('rinls IlI1l(ftmlls n distil1ctly COlltclllpomry
degtlllcl'. Ht 1.12111/3ft 7/.ju.
4 TlI!' ESU (Eames Storage Unit) by Clwles
I1l1d Rny El1l11csfor Herlll(1!1 1950. lVil/
prilllanl m/allr::; 01/ tlIc "ides, il ,l'mdd /1IlI'e been
file foml poillt vfnn!! iJlfcrior. lt ,I'tIS n/50 flsed ns
ti 1"0011/ dil'ider. IV. 1.19m/3ft 11 i/l.
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Italian Furniture
Surreal and Oramatic Forms

.. . .,.
,
3 Tlu' pol}/mal11 desigllfr Cio POllti
collaoorntro il'if11 Piero
011 fl/milllT' desiglls mld il/ferior
sellemes ill tlle late J9.a:; (llld
1950$. cnbilld, 1950, SIIO,!'S
file ,:;liglltly slIrrffl] ardlitt'Cfol/ic
possiLJi/ific:: of Fomasi!tfi's ekgallt
desiglls. Ht .!.]Sm/7ft Sil/.
u,, ,U...!il! '
I!I I!I I!I I!I
1 Cnrlo \-Iof/illo's Arabcsquc
table epifom's Italin" orgal/ie
(1t>sigll of t/e ]950S. Uke a
flalllwyallf $-C/lT<'e, t/lis fnble
ksigl1cd ill 1950 has altlhe
1II0t't'I1ICllf (/lId lillearity I!lnt lile
!falial/s displayed IIIOSt
extmvngaufly. Ht 1.]2.III/4/t 4ill,
l. 1.47111/4.ft 10ill.
2 IVood nlld glass dcsk by
Fraileo Cm'ntortn, J951. T1Ie
form combines the COllfemparary
c1lflracf('risfics of I,ori:olltal
cmplmsis alld splayed legs witll
tIJe ooldl}/stl'f'CJ1i"g lillt.":> typicnl
of Italiall desigll. Ht SJCJII/pill. 1
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W
artime techno]ogy had a profound infiuence on
the organic sculptural dcsigns produced by
Italian designen;. The extreme curvilinear and
contortcd forms of desks, chairs and tables somctimes
looked like surrca\ three-dimensional arto Aero-
dynamic streamlining, moulded plywood teclmology
as llscd in aeroplane manufacture during the war, and
the widesprcad availability of malleable mctals
profoundJy infiuenced the ",ork Df Italian furnihtre
makers. The Italian furniture ndustrv \Vas mainlv
. .
centred in Milan, ",hefe the Milan Triennales, founded
by Achille and Pier Giacomo Castiglioni, encouraged
ne"', progressive designers. A large export market
cllsured the dissemination of the Italian style: by the
end of the 19505, Italy ",as the world's leading exportcr
of modern furniture.
As ",ith other furniture manufacturers that revived
production after the war, Italian firl11s like Cassina
collaborated with leading architects to produce work
of striking originality and wide appea\. Much of this
work is notable for the organic shapes and sweeping
lines ,,ith which Italian designers regularly expcri-
mented. Most notab1y, furniture by Piera Fornasetti
demonstrates the clase relatianship between
Surrealism and three-dimensiona1 designo \-\'ith his
lacquered and screen-printed imagery on thc flat
surfaces of chairs, cabinets and desks, Fornasetti
created chic, eccentric, and qllirky theatrical effects.
Italian designers incorporated dramatic movement
and energy into their furniture. more so th.an the
Americans ar the Scandinavians: the designs ,,ere
curvilinear and senSUOllS. The contours of chair seats,
for exal11ple, emulated the curves of the femaJe bod)'
while the attenuatcd shapes of chair arms and legs
n-ere equally provocative. Cario Mollina's elaborately
structured bentwood furniture stands out as the most
deliberately sculptural. From the ArnbesfJue table by
Mollino to the Me::ndro 5too1 by the Castiglioni
brathers, Ita1ian designs for furnitllre n'ere flamboyant,
progrcssive, and radical.
1
1 Cio Pon/;':; 5uperleggera
e/mil" o[ 1957 possessed lIJe
timelcs'5 e/egnl1ce l/m! '50
c/wn7cteri::ed POllti':; (/Iork for
Cassil1f1 fwd OtJll'!" 1IIa1l11lac/un'!":;.
Tllis CXfllI1p/l' is euolli::en whicl
g'c:; the sll1fnce ti 51/1ooth IJlln
s[illY appenrnllce. HI STCIII/]1iH.
3 AllotJll'rfMlIIlnlex lIpholstery
ksign l/Inl A1nrco ZrlllllS0 Sr.
designen for Pirelli ,{'as lIe Lady
arme/I/Jir of 1951. Pin!lIi sel Jlp n
IIIl1llufacturillg compal!Y called
Arflex fo prodllcr! t/lt'se ('nr!y
experilllt'Iltnl
L 6in.

2
4
2 Tl1e Antropus clwir !/IiglIt look
allead of its tillle, ulli il [{'as
actual/y flll cad!! experimcul il1
lile polell/in/ 01 Intex fonm by he
desigl/a Marco ZtlIIrlSO Sr. fOI"
Pird/i JrOIll 1949. Ht 71CII1/2.8il1.
4 TIle P-lO rec!iuillg c!misc IOllgllC of 1955 Ims
designed by Osvnldo Borsalli to be flexible l/lid
adapl lo mriolls n'c!ining posiliolls. Nol ollly
c!Jl/ld il !Jpl'1I11l1L e/!Jse fnJII/ lile '111J"<.', bid tll<'
lIelldrest ami lile fooln.:sl H'ae IIlso lIIobile.
HI 78.5(111/31111, l. 1.27111/4fl in.
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5 Tlle I1l11n::illg/y springy Clln'I':; 01 he 1960
San Luca nrlllc/wir by Achil/e nlld Piel'
Gincolllo Castiglio!li exelllplified IlIe
cxl/ggemted cun'cs alld pllre ellergy of
f1a!!lboyalll /ta/ian desigll. J-lt 96clII/38Iill.
6 TlIe Castiglioni brotllers ;H'IY prolific
desigllas (//d IrII/!/c!II.'d tllr rcadY-!I1aM
f1lmitllrc ill 1957 witl tlle ;'vlezzadro,
or Sharecropper's 51001, ingcniollsly
illcorporalillg a traclor scnt. Ht 50cm/J9iill.
7 PiemllloJlio Bonl/cillll (fol/Ilded ill 1889) 'as
11 1IIIIIIlIfllCt lira of lmditiOllaI wicker fll n1i l11 re,
/1111 prodllced tf1s sJmpcly Margherita
armcllair, 1950, followiu>; ollIer wrI'ilinear
- <
designs of tlle fime. HI 78.5CI1l/31 ill.
4,
Scandinavian Furniture
2_
.,
3
3 Verl/cr Ptllltol/fir:;t iPorke(1 as
o{ Ame Jllcobs('l1l1l1rl
collabomlc'd witl /illl 011 the Ant
e/lIlir. After ('staMisllil/g JIi:=: O('II
dt'Sigll al/d are]lilretllm] firm 11('
bt'Cflmcfamol/:=: for 'i:=:
illslal/alioll:'>; amollg tllt'lII m:;.
ti/(' Komigen [nn (ColI/e AgniJl
!1m) Il'!lcrt' PllIltOI1 rlesigm'd aJl
nl/-rt'd il/tt'rior mili !lis fllIllO/l':;
Cane e/I/Tir. lt n'mt iJlto
pn.'IllI1Ctioll ill 1959.
Ht SWII/3:1l.
2 JncobSt'II's e/mir desiglls from
/fu' J9505 are //(/St'd 01/ biological
orgllllicDril/s. Tlle SWiln chnir
eXl.'l/Ip/(fies IJe 1110,'('11/('1115 of ti
/urge, gmcefl/l 'rd 'l'it11
em't'lopillg <eillgs.
HI 75C/II/29I:ill.
Organic Forms and the Inlluence 01 Handcraft

1 Ame Jncob5'II's de,:;igll for Ibe

1951 Ant c1mir, lIe 11/05/
SlIcCt'ssfulllltlSS-produccd c/Ia;,. Di
tlle 19505. demOllslrntcs 110il' lEe
orgmJic forllls fo eml/e fl
IlI1ified sent 1\ Inlly o/ Jj,;
sllbseqllt'1l1 c1miT lesiglls il'l'rt>
'tlrinliOIl;; 011 lhi:: Im"ic cOJlcept.
HI85(1II/33I:;II.
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C
ontemporary Scandinavian fll.miture is characterized
by simple, elegant, and functional dcsigns ",ith a
timeless appeal. During the postwar penad Scandinavian
design reached its pinnacle. Swcden, Denmark and
Finland fed off each other and produced a unified
aesthetic, marking the emergence of Scandinavian
Modern. It ,,as a renaissance for the Scandina\'ians,
transforming ever)' aspect of the applied arts.
Taking the best of handerafted and machine
teehniques and combining the two, Seandinavian design
ultimately became synonymous wilh good taste and h..igh
quality. From the pared-down elemental chairs of Hans
\Vegocr to the swollen cgg shapes of Ame jacobsen and
the Iighthearted cone-shaped chairs of Vemer Panton, the
designs prodllccd in Denmark, S\Veden, and Finland
captllred the international urge to consume domestic
goads \\-ith an inno\'ative look.
Building on their tradition of local hand eraftsmanship,
many Scandinavians used woad to manufacture their
designs - walnut and bireh pIy were eommon but teak
imported from the Philippines became the ",oad most
closel\' associatcd ",ith Scandina\'ian furniture. The

international use of plastics and metals did not escape the

northern Europeans and many ingenio1l5 designs in new
materials also carne out of thc region.
Scandina\'ian fumiture design inc1uded two parallel
strains: bold, industrial \\"ork employing state-of-the-art
technology epitomized by Ame jacobscn and Vemer
Panton, and craftsmen-designers slleh as Finn JlIhl and
Hans vVegner whose work gre\V out of the tradition of
small cabinetmaking n-orkshops that had continued to
funetion unchecked throllghout th.e \\ar. This more
traditionaJ work in warm tones of ",ood created modern
rc-workings of cxisting furnitllrc types lIsing the
materials and methods historieally linked to
Scandina\'ian craftsmanship. In the 1950s mueh
Scandinavian furniture \\'a5 exported to other parts of the
,,-orld in flat-pack form or manufactured abroad undel"
lieellec_ Scandinavian nflllence on interior design was
soon e\'ident al1 over the world.
------
7
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4 Hnl/s !'Veguer WflS 0111.' of file
/cadas of 5C1l11rlilJ(wim desigll
(lml worked with fhe c/mrtlctcristic
palctte oIslI/ootli
t
warll1-tollcd
woods. His bece/ sm:uback armclu,.
o[ 1951 11'(/5 pelfect/y craften faJil
{!le collfollrs of he sl'I1fen body.
Hf 81.5CI1I/p.ill.
5 \,\Iegna's stacknble tlzree-Iegged
tiillillg chairfrolll tlIe 19505 ll1S
desigl/ed IIsillg the orgl1!1ie fluid
S}1IJPfS so dOllli!1lJll/ n fhe p051-1I'111"
yen!"s al/ti fillol/red by 5c{IIufill{/-
l'Ill Moderll desigll!'r;;.
HI725clIl/28'!ill.
8 A slool for re/axillg il1 a snlllw /5
per/wps {he /IIas! qllin/es5C!1/inlly
Scmrdillm'iall scotillS/01"111 passible.
Antti Nunllt'SlliCllli desigl/cn !lis
llOrscshoe-s/wped 5100/ fOl" tJu:
snlllw al lhe Pa/aee Hotel ill
Helsillki ill 1952. Hf 51(1II/20ill.
5
4
6 Peta H.,dt aun Orla Molgaurd Nie/sen
designcd tite [mnjl/nlrt! t\X nrmc1mir produced by
frit: il1 1950. Al lile Mi/mi Triellimlt',
of/ell nll m/iter ofn slIccess. ti/(' cllnir
1'01l n Diplomn of HmlOlII: HI 75cm/19/ill.
7111 Fin/mld, 1I111nri Tnpiomnm's Lukki, or
daddy IVllg kgs c1mir elllelsedji"Ul1I n mnjor
CO!l/IIS:5iOIl for the Teeh Stude/lt Vill/age nI
Espoo ill 1951-2. Tnpiomnrn <('mi 011 lo desigll
/l/nllY mrinllf:5 of IlIis e/mir. H/ 90ClII/35'1i1l.
10 Tllc qlln/i/y of Dmlish jumitllre ,!'aS
IIl1pnrnl/el/ed for ils crnftslllnllsllip (lIld
thollglltjlll mgillel'ril/g. Fi/lll lIlIl's set/ee JOI"
Niels VoMer qllalities of lile besl
. .
iu Scnlldillnuinll desigll. H 90ClII/35'!ill.
91... _
9 rhe extrnordil1nry modelJ crentiolls by Flm
}ullf deIllOlls/rn/e lIe /ightcss nlld sClIlpturnf
thnl euad o(fercd. His Chieit<lin's
e/mir !lns f!le rhytlllllic qunlity uf desiglIs
for ill/eriors nlld jllmiture. Ht 91. 5cm/36ill. 10
43
Ceramics
Elegant Shapes and Progressive Patterns
2 L.. .....;;::
1 The (lOlIrg/as,;; forlll was !fIi'ollrl!d ill fIJe 19505. TI/e America/ls Riclmrd
Lnt1mlll anri RaYlIlo/ld Locrvy crenfed Scrvicc 2000for ROSl!l1fl1al: Mllrgret
Hildebml1d's prilltcd Jaftl'rll. Raffia, dl'corated il. Coffl'l' poI lit 24CIII/9/il1.
2 Stn(fordshire I/ltllllljacfurers jlllllpcd 01/ fhe COlltellll'ormy balldrl'ilgoll.
TJe Homemaker fab/eit'lIre desiglled by El/id sl'en!!Jor Ridgtmy depicted
objects 01tlll? tillle like Rvbill Day's armella;'. \ V. fiarse dis/) 3SCm/J5ill.
2 T/e HUllgariall-bol'll EIla
Zeisl.'l cmplUlsi::ed Ilre fuUy
f1ed,'?,cd Orgnllie Moden/i5m
after sil/! <,('1I1 fa Am/?rim. As
i{'i/l! Iler Town and Country
tnbfl!imre from 1946. forms oftell
tlitl 1101 Im.'e Il(llIdles; f/t'1f ,('ere
desiglled fa ji' perfecl/y ;11 file
JUlIld. Ht (falles! piece)
11 .5clIll.J,i11.
3 r1le lal/, ml'ail1g Crass i:'ases
hy Toil1i MII01/a il1 1946
for Am/
1
in l15ed flnmbe gla::es 01/
tal1, attclIllflfed lorll/s.
Organic Forms
1 l'5sie Tait wos tl1e head de:;;gller
lor Roy lvlidwillter's falllilyfirm
of 'V.R. Midwil1fer IIO crenled
pattems ill Ihe COlllelllporary
abstmct sI.'!le. Capri, like
Mid{'illfer's oa,er prodlfCIS, ms
lllooml as m'JI as
IV. (grnt'Y boa/) 21.jCIII/8/ill.
,....=
434
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Diverse Inspirations
1 P;ero Fomas/'ff; cOllId t1W'Y
11;:; des;gl/:; lo mr;olls media.
illcrlldillS ccr(//Ics. His
<'ncnllllfnry ml/ged from
lIcU'spril// fa nrcJlecfllrnl
drawillgs fa dt'Siglls oJbrighay
colol/red <'i'gdabh'" ,j/1I sl/rn'al
Jan's as 011 tlu'$/.' :;.alad 00,,,/,, from
1955. Diam. ('(/cll elis/l)

1 ..... ""'. -J
1 Tlu' sIl/dio poN"'}! traditioll in Greal
8rifaill ill /lIt' 19505 IYlS IIphdd by /l'tIdillg
ceramicists fikt' \ficllfld Cankit' l'ho il'orked
;'1 stOlll7mfl' tl'it11 eh'SIIII! ,;.cmtcl'f'li
decora/iOIl. Dimll. :l,cm/1Gbl/.
2 '-/ley Rie'$ :::/lIdio pOUcry
11'115 lIIo..-iemisl mili simple.
(
,
-
I/sillg Asinll-illspiud slmpes
-

f1l1d a/J:;trncl sgra/fito slI/face

decora/ioll. Tl1e ligilt [01"1/15 o/

(1
1
I/h'se baffles, dalillgrolll 1950,
>
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Dile o[ stOIlt'H'flre, tite otila
e

porcelnill, rt'crt' rlecom/ed silllply

<
>
willl illciSl'd parnlld lJnl1ds 11l1d
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cross!ltl/ciled rerticallil1l's.
....
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British Studio Pots
C
eramic design in thc post war era demonstrated an
unwavering cornmitment to functionalism
combined with cutting-edge experimentation with
Organic Modernism. Many designers working during
the period spread their talcnts across different media -
furniture, glass, ceramics, plastics and mctalwork -
while others were still firmlv ensconced in the studio
pottery tradition.
Ceramic design developed from the prevailing
geometric trends of Modemism before the war to the
shapes of Organie Modemism that started to emerge
with the work of designers sud1 as the Eva Zeisel and
Russel \Vright. who were both working in Ameriea after
the war. Organic forros ",ere curvilinear and easy to hold
evcn though sometimes they bore no handles. Sorne of
the most inventive shapcs of thc time took the form of
vases, reflecting the period's enthusiasm for Aower
arranging. The PooIe Pottery and \Nade in England \Vere
noteworthy in this respecto Sorne of these eeramic objects
had a striking similarity to the biomorphie forms of
sculpture by Jean Arp and Henry Moore. This
overarching influence on Contemporary ceramic design
lent itself perfeetly to the malleable properties of clay.
Pattern was as transforming and significant as the
innovative shapes that gave ceramics an entirely new
appearance. Potter)' design in Creat Britain was 510'" to
progress after the war, and most of the large firms
eatered for a conservativc market but one designer, Roy
Midwinter with rus family's firm, W.R. Midwinter,
ereated shapes modelled after what he saw in Ameriea,
and he encouragcd his team to devise brighUy colollred
patterns in the abstraet style. His cfforts to bring
Contemporar)' design in ceramics to Britain were
influential and resulted in the rejllvenation of the
industry after the dcpressed inter-war years. Ranges
sllch as Stylecraft and Fnsllioll, launehed in 1952 and 1954,
were eharacterized by rollnded sqllare shapes and either
bold abstract patterns or colollrflll plant and animal
designs. Jessie Tait and the thcn youthful Terenee Coman
were among Midwinter's innovative dcsigncrs.
4:
Eastern Influence
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436
1 Gerfrrld Vasl'gnard ,PnS n Dllllish sil/dio
pofter i(lltO designed for indtlstry. Ha il'ickl?r-
IUl/Idlcd 1956 /cn serpice jor Billg & Gronda"l
dClllolIstmles lIJe illspiratioll frolll apal! l1utl
ill(1l1t'J1ct'd co IIII/dl Dmlisll :;;tl/dio poI/tOril
. .
Ji'npot lIt 21.5CIII/8Iill.
2 lik.. milI/y talel/ted n('$iglll'rs of tlll' pilif-mlT
era, RlIs:;e1 ,cork'd ill /l/mili diffl!rt'llf
- ..
fidds. His (amuies Jor fM tf/e lroquois
Cllillll Compnll)f il/e/uden /js Casual China
dillllCnl'nre ml/ge, 194-6, l'llieh culllbilll.'d fhe
I/llom/'c 50ft shapes olOlglme Alodl'mis///
,"itl'll "'mllg ummie bod!1 fo stalld IIJI ti)
t'i:eryriny 1I:5? DiulJI. ]ocm/n -ill.
2
Eyen with great emphasis on colour, pattem, and
shape, mass-produced by industrial ccramic firms, the
studio pottery movement continued to hold sway on
ceramics design, especially in Britain. Before the \Val' the
prolific Bernard Leach daminatcd the studio movement.
Later, potters such as Luc)' Rie and Hans Coper
introduced a lightness of form and style of abstract
surface decoration that was achieved by sgraffito -
incised hnes in parallel 01' cross-hatched designs - 01'
with interesting glaze effects.
1wo large firms dominated Scandinavian ccramics:
the Finnish fum af Arabia and, in Sweden, Gustavsberg.
Kaj Franck was head of Arabia's design department fal'
utility \Vare and his experience in ceramics as well as
glass design made him tmiquely suited for his role.
Franck had a profOlmd inflllence on tableware designs in
Finland for mer half a century. Arabia had an enlight-
ened vie\V of ceramic design and prodllction; not only
were well-designed products manufactured on a large
scale, bllt at Arabia's headquarters on the olltskirts of
--
-
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3 Bl'mdt Tri/ll'fg. Reptile 'cssc/,
1954. Also il/flUL'lIcl'd stnJIIgly
by file S/Jni6 oj Asirm ccml1lics,
rri/lergs des/glls 1'11i/c ill tI/l'
GlIstni>;;bf'rg sludio ill SI'{'.i'l/
t11'11lomtmlnllfmt !Jis slrollg
(ll'stllefic illjllll'JlCl' 'as Cltil/l'X
S/lIIg Dy"nst.ll Cl'rtllJlics.
Helsinki there were facilities for a group of studio potters
to create lUlique objects with no obligation to contribute
to the industrial product lineo Ihis \Vas distinctly
different from ceramic production in S\Veden \Vhere
Shldio potters associated \Vith manufacturers \Vere
expected to design for production rather than create one-
off studio pieces lmder the patronage of a large firmo
Gusta"sberg did not halt production during the war and
was airead)' a decade ahead in manllfacturing systems
when other countries resumed their tableware business
in the la te 19-:1:0s.
Also from the studio tradition was Pablo Picasso's
work as an artist-ceramicist. Although he was untrained
as a potter, his designs were liberating ta an entire
generation of southem European ceramicists. In Italy
ceramics ",ere sculptural and painterly and
production occurred in small-scale workshops and
studios, as opposed to the large manufacturers of
Scandina\ia and America where a more unified aesthetic
tended to dominate.--
2 5tig Lilldbclg, 0111' 01 lIe
cadillg designers al GIIstlH'sberg
ill tlIe 19405 n/Id 50S, -vas eqllally
illterested ill s/wpe l1J1d f01"1/1 as
in pallem {lnd decoratioll. His
stollcware Spisa Ribb senJice
rolll 1955 S/IOWS his simple blnck
fllld whilc desiglls jor ccrtlmics.
Clip ht 6.5clII/2'/,il1.
2
1 Roy Midwil/ler was Ol/e 01 lhe first BritislI lIlamifacturers lo sllpporf he
ncw CIIrvili!1('nr shapes in Amalea. His darillg Fashion nJllge produced
1Il1dll/ntil1gfOl"ll15 I1l1d so/id OIgmIie slwpcs for f!le tableo Clip lIt 7CIII/2'/,ill.
Progressive Manufacturers
1
Mix and Match
e
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1 Tfe idm b<'1I1'lIIf Kilta
/abl:vare dt'5iXlled by Kaj Fral/ck
for Arabia ill 1948 vas tllat fIJe
COIlsumer could mix al1d matc/
c%llrs: vllite, black, greel1, b/ue
alld yellow. lt ftl/ed the post-
var lIeed fo offer illl:xpel1sive
fUI/ctional tableware. Casserolt'
dialll. 20.5CI1I/8in.
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-
1 The porce/aill lIwllufncfIlril1g compnllY
Rosent/w/ adopted lhe expressiol1 Ncw Look
fa introduce fl lille 01 poree/aill. Bea/he Kuhn 's
New Look vasc, 1955, was Olll.' of 11 nlllge of
orgtlllic shapes. Ht 35cm/13;{ill. 3
2 Bernard Leadl illspired mI
el1/ire genera/ion of sfl/dio polters
alld yet lIis OWII work remained
fresh alld illllOvative roe after
fhe lVar. His sfOllcwurc vase from
1959 s1l0ws fIJe strol1g illjluellce
of Japanese ceramics 011 his work.
3 Tlle star of fhe sfl/dio fraditiol/
,I sOl/filen Europe vas Pablo
Picasso. Like mili/Y pnillfers from
tllis paiod, le /unled /is IUlIld fo
ceramCs desigll, prodllcillg work
01 grent originnlify sudl as tllis
pitcherfrom 1955
Ht j1.5CIII/12V,il1.
4
Glass
Nature-Based Forms
2 TI/e Bubble IIY Kllj Fnmck
jol' Nrlll/njiill,i in 1954 I't':'c/,/cd
nlllel' Scmrdilln<,inll/!.mlllp/6 with
/lIl' IlJIIJld slmpes.
Dt'sigll ill Scnlldillm'ia il'nS
mrd cOllsis/l'1lt that
sil1lilaritics appcar ill dcsigl/s by
d!(ft'wlt HI :J.6CIII/loill.
3 /IISd'lll-:;: l.wrdilllil'gllt'd
delimt'll{ t'1I-.:rnn'd lb vII
_. .
as tllillly /JIOil'lI taNt'if'm,,'jor
Orrdol's. Ha l'l kllf/n
<
iras "1" Apple oj '957.
Ht 39CIII!ljill.
3
2
1 Bt'gillllillg ti 1950, Timo
SnrJI{/IIl'7.'(I'S (Is:'OCinfioll witfl file
fiUf/ln glnssit'Orks prDltllced pieres
o/ sublime 1't'lIllty /ifa> Il1s Orchid
rtISl' OI1953. Ollt' DI llis first
tn:Jmicnl illlltJi.'fltiolls tlIM' il'tlS
n stCflJII lJ1Jwil/g I/It'II/Od. Glnss
lile lIIosf /l/tI/ka!ll" of nl/
. -
tI,,' nllplil'd (Ir/s, ji /le
trml.1orlllt'11 illto u"Orks of
grt'at xl/lplllml /Ts}/lIlllletry.
c/mrflcteristic of cOlltempornry
dt'Sigll. HI 35cm/Ijl.ill.
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W
ithout question, northern Scandina\'ia constituted
the main powerhouse of contemporary glass
designo Characterized by its simple, abstract and
sometimcs asymmetrical shapes, Scandina\'ian glas5 has
become \'irtuaUy synonymous with design of the 19-105
and 50s. E\'en the names of eompanies 511ch as littala,
Orrcfors and Kosta hold lasting resonance today,
Northern European glass designers sometimes worked
for numerous firms, spreading their particular acsthetic
across different manufacturers.
The dri\'c toward organic forms and abstract masses
had an immediate eHect on glass designo Expcrimenting
with the abstract organic, as Scandina\'ian designers did
with abandon, dovetailed perfectly with the pl'operties
of glass itsclf. In its molten forrn glass was the ideal
medium to shape into these liquid, innovativc dorncstic
rnanifestations, while the material could be infused with
brilliant translucent colaur.
lt was without a doubt Finnish glass that leapt to the
forefront of Contemporary design after the war. The
transformation of this design-led, but nonetheless
lirnitcd, industr\, into an internationall\' dominant force
- ,
with "'idespread appcal for the style-eonscious middle
classes ",as nothing short of remarkablc. Tapio
vVirkkala, originally trained as a scuIptor, began rus
carecr as a glass designer in 19-16. Just a fe", shart years
later, at the Milan Triennale of 1931, or what became
kno",n as the "J\'lilan Miracle" for Finland, \Virkkala
exhibited thirty of rus designs for Iittala and \\'on
medals for his glass, exhibition design, and for his
larninated birch\\'ood bowls. E\'en though sorne of
\'Virkkala's \\'ork was supremely practical and inclllded
flmctional jugs, bowls and tumblers, his other designs
reflected his sClllptural backgrOLmd. Glass in abstract
forrns based on natural objects like his Iichen \'essels,
leaf-shaped bowls, mushroom \'ases, and bamboo
\'essels, dominated his design fol' indllstry and
capti\'ated the international scenc,
A iittle later Timo Sarpaneva took the lead in Finnish
glass design, Taking abstraction in design to l new leve!.
Colour and Invention
1 Nils l.iIJldwl'g .ms ol1e of o
grvllp Uf!fOlIl1g d('Sigl/l'rs
for Omfors just ofier tlle .mr. /11
I/I/! m;d-19.J0S dei.
1
efo{lt!n
!lis Serpentina mllse ;n ,dlidl o
eoloured sJJiml m:; el/cos"Ii (l'itIlill
tllE" der1r g/nss of tl'e tlliek.
orgnllicnlly sllnpc't mUs.
Ht 25clII/1oill.
2 n,e Vaso Fauolc!to, 01'
1k11111kerchilf <'ase 't'flS tlle lIIost
populnr d.'Sigl/ prodl1wt by tlEe
AJII/11110 firlll of \/t'IIil/i, 19-+9
Pnolo Vel/illi nun Fu/<'io Binllcolli
IlOd det'l!lopl.'il tlle desigll t"SrtlEer
to i/le/ude 'oriol/s iI/IIOi.',lti....
ti"Cfmitjl1i'S I1lOt look('d lih' loce
01' I""()(ld striJ.ICS l'itJill 011
IIlIdlllntillg glnss l'Oliy of 'nryillg
si=t'S. Ht :!SclII/nil/.
,......_-"

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7 [reo/e 8tJro'icr's
',/:'l.' of 195-+ illellldes tlu'
dll/nleteristic colnl/r nl/d le.dl/re
1110t 111' l'.\,,'rilllell!l'd Witll
tlHVl1glll11lt tllt' '950:5. TIII" 1fnfioll
.firm of Bal'Oi:it., & Toso ,ms Ollt! of
Vt'lIiIli'S.f.C rh'oh. Ht :!.1CIII/8I..iIl.
8 TIle Occi r'OSt'S I'y Toltio Scorpn
uf 1959-60 't'/'l' prodllced by
Vell;lI; idtll c1lOrnct'rislicflnir tllld
il/gel/lfity. Tllt' de::ig/l cr.'nll'd n
l!ellse 1lI0000ic-lik,' nl'J,,'nr.mCt' bl(
lISillg COII.-,; ofeIIlJIllt'/ ill cmss-
::eclioll. Ht '5ClII/6ill.
\
5
8
3 Binlltw' /lIld \ 'milli tLJSl'lill'''
(1/'-1.' rit'i.'l.'/olll?d \'etro pezzato
,('hal.' squnrC:5 01 co/OIIn'd Clwmc1$
't'rt' slIs}lt'lldt'd ill (l glnss body
fo /{l{lk likt' pntcJw'Ol'k. T1Ii.;.
di::! il1el 'l.' ,'(1:::<.' 1951 is f1/ 11
t:f he cololll' Ill1d IIIO,'t'lII['n/ llnl
c/lI7l'ncl<'rb'd Velli/i's glns;,
HI33C1l1h3i!1.
4 Kraka 'aje iJl file "fjs/lIIc/"
fI.'c1miqllc by 5,-'('JI Pnll1llJi'i:5/
for OI'l't:fOI'S. 1/1 2.1CIlI/81!1.
5 Vicke Lil1lbtmlIli's t'ngl'lli.'ed
dl.'siglls for Kas/a ill SiTl'de/1
pel"t' ju:;! OJlt' nspecl (!f lI:: di,t'fSC
rt'pt'rlohl' t1lal iuclmkd figural
il'ork. "cll/p/Il1'6, c%llfl'1
IIl1lkrlml Rlnss, (llld IlIII11Croll:5
. ,
('xpl'riu/I'lIilll ./'ork..". Hi"
,'fl:5(' ("'oh,:; tI't'
glIlldric jl/lIIMl'll skylil/l' oI
Xl'il' Yl.lrk. Hf 22(11I/8/;11.
6 Flari::: Ak,l/lfnm :m:, 0111' o/ "le
d('s('l:Jlt'rs tim! DlIte/1
q//o/ity of
jltlil'iJlg. eOlltrol/ed ,'i"id Ctl/ollrs
ill tllick ,('o/Js ofgloss.
Ht 1&1II/6/ill.
Bold Shapes and Colours
.....- - ..,

':-----
_.
2
1 ASYlll11lelrim!ooted bmul by Vicke
Limistnllldfor Kas/a, (.1950, illtemnlly
decomted mil/ a gcolllt'frc pnltem ill red nl/d
oc//I'e. H/13cm/j'/,j11.
2 TlIe 1955 Harr!il sl1lm!! by Mi/mI Metelr'ik
11IId Milos Pulpitel mili file Hnrrnchov
Glnssworks Ilns nll tlle c!wmcteristics 01 ur!
glns:; mili !!le C:ec!los/ovnkin, !Iere g/ass
artists experimented wit{ teclllliqllcs thar len
fhe {lny after t/II: var. Ht j.jclII/:d;ill.
3 CiD Ponl al/d Fu/vio Birl1lcolli col/aboraten fo
produce tllis flnll1boynl1t g/ass cocktail se/vice,
acllieved by InyiJlg dowl1 el/ame! (/l/les fol' n
vibrt1llf sftiped pnttem.lIg ht 18.5CII1/7;-;il1.

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440
Sarpaneva achieved brilliancc and acclaim with rus
pure, sculptural designs. \Vith sorne of these he
employed a technique \.vhereby he injected air bubbles
into the body of the glass. But Sarpaneva's subt1y-
co1oured utility wares a1so attracted widespread
attention. Fifty percent of Finnish contemporary glass
was produced by littala, whose star designers were
vVirkkala and Sarpaneva.
In Scandinavia, the highly developed manufacturing
industry provided the impetus and struchIre out of
which designers could create. There was little scope for
the studio glass artist who produced in isolation.
However, this was the norm for Czech art glass, \vhich
was virtually lU1known lmtil the late 1950s when it
received widespread recognition at internabonal
exhibitions. Czech glass was unJike Contemporary types
produced elsewhere. Instead of the emphasis being on
the form, as with the abstraet and liquid shapes of
Scandinavian glass design, art glass fram Czech-
oslovakia focused on decorabon \vith enamelling,
engraving, and etching on the surface of the glass itself.
The results sometimes resembled abstract paintings, and
there \vas clearly a close affiliation bet\veen painting and
designs for studio glass.
Italian designers also praduced work oI great
originality and widespread appeaJ. Italian glass had
been SUdl a dominant historical force that it is no
surprise to find designers in Ital)' ereating objeets of
outstanding ingenuity in the late 405 and 50s. Like other
Halian design of the post 'war era, glass was the most
eo1ourful and flamboyant on the intenlational scene.
Paolo Venini revived traditional glassmaking techniques,
bringing the effects of handmade irregularities, varied
colours, and unusual texhIres and shapes to his objects.
His fazzo/etto, or hankerchief vase was copied in man)'
other countries and became an icon of 19505 designo
Other designers \vorking at Murano, one of the historieal
centres of Halian glass produetion, also revived historieal
tedmiques to create unique objects with a eutting-edge,
contemporar)' designo
Useful Wares
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3 T/i? pnred-dowII aest!/(!tic m/n allllosl
e/illien! quality DI Kaj Fmllck's llIid-1950S
enrafe tllld IlUl/b/er wcre uf/lIeHeen by !lis
mon resenrch illto dOll1esfic catillg I/l/uits.
Cumfe ht 23CI1I/81:;II.
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2 Ame JOII JIIII"IIIII, 011/: 01flu.'ft.'il
'
Norwl.'giml
glns:; de:.;igners 01 {lIe tillle, u'01'ked ;11 diffat!1I1
medin bu! 1l'ns bes! knDiI'lI for g/ass. He afien
Imrked witll strong ca/ollr:> aun lIIuten I/Ia/t
fillis/es, as in I/Jis vnse of 1959. Ht .235clII/9;I1.

1 Tlle tlllip s}ape aras seell 111 c,'crytllillgmm

fasJlio!1 lo jllmitllre iJl tlle 19';'05 nlln JOS.
Glass "iOns pe/feetl!! slIited fa heforln. m/n Ni!s
[nudlJe/g's Tupanglas, or tulip glnsscs 011957
[{'ere st!!lis/ exmllples. Ht
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4 Tlle Germnll-uom il1l'Clltor, Petcr
5ch/llmbo/lIl1, i:uorked in Allu:riw in {he enrly
1930S. His JlOlIrglnss-sJwped Chemex
coffeelllnker of 1949 wns file bt'st-knowlI of !lis
II1nllY prodHc/s fOI" Ihe kilc/leJI. HI 28cJIl!l1ilJ.
5 He main cOI/tribu/ion of Britis/, glass
of the 19505 vas cllgnlvil/g, aud David
Peace becnl11e kllOWII for 'lis fluid, l'l1gnlved
cnllignlpllic illscriptiolls ns seen 01/ l!lis glass
bowl. Dinlll. 35clII/131.ill.
44
Metalwork
From Silver-Gilt to Stainless Steel
1 ".. .... ..-..,
1 GemId Be/mc}/ 1'11:, /h.'.{irsl .,i/'er"lIIit/ fo 1/:;<'
n "'(1ft !extuml fo lt'Comtt' Ji" <','",.c/s,
as CIJI 11,. gilt e/1Il/irefrom 19SS. TJ,. h-clmiql/('
m,. l'ide1.l( copk,j ill tll.' 1960:'. HI ::>.6cm/loill.
2 Roba! rdel!',. rt'lI/arkaNt' "t'i.'t'Jl-/ig/f
1958 U'IlS illspirl'd by u ",,ir
ro o Iock5<l1l P)!fo !'xJibirioll i, LOlllfo/l.
Tfl!' kllollbll/ o( tJlt' 5ilyr lwk lik, ti,,'
. . .
drippillg milll o/ n P"JJ(lfk but allude lo
lile I/lo/tt'll tI'o.\" u( n ctwdlr!. HI 60011/:13 'i/l.
3 Al' -dI a" lJi" rmrk (1'; n silc.'l'r-
511/ i tll. R(I[ert 1\'ddl J'ro;: -f.'ff dt'';;:; l/S for
sta/llles,. 7()Sdhl'l' tcitl!
Dat'id ,\kJlor/'1/0 dt'Sllt'd tll,'
\'ddl lT.'nlt'r.l !,;.fiT,;t Mili.' nlllgr.'. Campden,
111 1956. Ht 2Scm/l1iJl.
4 TiI,' al t"//lEa/e.1 "IMp.',. Cl.f St Hart Dt7.'lill '"
1958 com!lillr.'d gkl1lllillg
,,/-el' t"illl tll,' illlwmti't" II/IIkri1l1 Ilylo/l
fr lile ',/:'l':'. po' ltt 33(11I113/11. 4
442
I
mmediatel
y
follo"'ing \Norld \ Var n there \Vas little
demand for IlLxlu'y goods madc of preciolls metals
when factories' main initiative was fOCllsed on prodllcing
the bare csscntials, As domestic habits d1anged in thc
middle of the centurv, so did the materials llsed. No
>
longer were silver and silver platc the most practical
materials for serving food and drin.ks. Metals had to be
more durable, Stainless steel and steel aliovs became
>
popular new metals with whid1 to work. AllmUniwn,
used extensi\'ely in hlIllihue design, continlled to be used
by designcrs of tableware as welL Eating habits ch:mgcd
",ith the slldden shifts in the ",a\' ",omen condllcted
domestic \\'ork and according to the dwindling
a\'ailabilitv of hOllsehold staff. Cutlerv and other metals
> >
for the tablc were made to accommodate these changcs.
ll1e h\'o main centres of striking and umm'ati\'e
contemporary metal design were Britain and
ScandiJ1a\ia. ln Sweden and Denmark, and to a lesser
extent Finland, the manufactllring s),stem fostered thc
talents of a new generation of metalsmiths and designers.
n1C sihlation was markedlv different in Britain where
>
new design stcmmed from individual ",orkshops.
Superlative teaching of mctalwork at the Royal College of
Art produced some brilliant young designers, and
enlightcned pah'onage by the vVorshipfuJ Compan)' of
Goldsmiths ensurcd a steady stream of dynamic and
original work. Gerald Benney, whose attenllated forms
\'irtuaUy defuled British metalwork dcsign of the mid-
centllry, produced designs U1 sih-er and pewter for the
Sheffield firrn Vincrs, while Robert \ Velch and Da\'id
Xlellor produced tablewares in stainless steel and sorne
fine pieces in sil\er.
Scandina\'ian rnetalwork ",as dorninated bv the
>
reputation of the Copcnhagen firrn Georg Jensen, where
design after the war took on an organic sClllphlral
emphasis. A host of artist-crattsrnen were associatcd with
Jensen. At the helm was Henning Koppel \\'ho had been
trained as a sculptor and applied those methods to metal
design, creating day models for pieces to be manll-
facturcd in silyer ar a base metal.
---------- -
Horizontal Emphasis
1
1 HCllIril1g Koppe/'s work ill metal
slwws his dCi'Otioll lo seu/pIure.
His 1947 siltwl" [mee/el Jor
lell,;eI/ resclIlbles t!le intcrlockillg
bOlles uf IlIe "piIlC. L. l.
t
Cm!5Y:n.
2 PerlUlps lIe qllintesseI1tin/
Sctllldilllwinl1 desigll 1/1(' 19405
muf 50S. Hemlillg Koppel's jI/s
for Georg !CIISCI1, 1952, The
Pregnant Duck. iIIuslrales tlle
flvil'illg rJlytll1!1 (II/(f IIlldulntil1g
CllI7'C;; of Koppe/'s suprcmdy
seu/plural 'l'ork. Ht :14CIII/9Y;,I.
3 Tit::; o/Jjcel /5 npproprinlely
litled nJl Eel di,;!I; i! looks ns if il
!!Iiglrt slifl/eI" ncross fhe fnle.
Georg /ensCII prodllced t!lis
e/egllllt sih'er desigllllS O/IC of 11
grollp Jis!l disl/es IIY Helllzillg
Koppc/, 1954. L. 6Scm/26/ill.
5 Lillo 51llmltilli il'I1S director
of designlll tlle FrCllclJ firm
(!lris/of/e lit fIJe ClId vf I!le
1950S IlIld prodllced uork of grellt
oriRilllllill/. HO({leI'er, l/e l/'IlS 110/
e
fmilJed ns 11 sih,t'rslIlit!l. His fluid
nppronch to file de::;igll of sih't'I'
sten/s from llis early ('ork ns n
potfer. His f/Oll't'r ct'l/tcrpiece of
1959 is 11 superllllhle e.\"IImple vf
fhe degllll!, f/oH'iJlg filies of !lis
desi,\;II';. L. 37ClII!L./,ill.
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6 SnmolIe/ WIlS 11 fllmily
fin/l, tire principnl sfl1iJl/css
sted ill HIl/Y. T!lc
-- Jirl!1 dOlllillnlt'd the !!1llrkd fol'
clIt/en! nud cookillR IIteJlsils 11IlI
. e
lIu' desigll by ils director, Rollerfo
Sl1l11bonef, {Ol' 11 fish kettle, 195.J,
. .
1ms dc.finilely its lIIos1 fllmolls
objecl. L. JO.5ClIl/1JI.
6
4 Ame jacobst'JI acllil'7.'ed
ltll hisflWlOlIS c!Inir desigll:' Iml
n/so ,{'t.wkl.'d 01/ ligll/inX, metal, /I!.\"tilc::;,
ami mil/roomfittiugs. CI1SCII'S Ill1lill
competitor. A. Alic!lt'lSCII, 1'lIIplo!Jed
]acobscll fo dcsign 'lis slcck Al (lit/ay
t:f 1957; ii rl'mIcd ill prodllctiml IOl/g
afta ils !litial poplllarifl/.
. .
L. 20CIII/8il1.
,
Metalwork
3 .........,
3 LlIciel1l11! Day mm nll file accolades fOl" /l.'r
Calyx pnltem 011951.11 was judged Ihe best
tcxtile dt?5igll 01/ tlle Amcricmr IIlnrket in 1952.
4 T1Ie Su't?de 5tig Ulldbt:rg /ot'ed vibrallt de:;iglls
;11 brig1lf (0101/1'5. as in tlts playfJll pal/cm DI
rows o[potteryJor a t('xlile OI19.J7.
1 Fin/nod's textiles firm Mnrimckko grew out of
ti/e oilclotlz firm, Pril1/('x. Maija Iso/a, ti lIIaiu
di'sigll!!r. 111!/pcd fo tmllsJorlll/lle eDlI/pallY wilh
11I.. 'r/mge-scnle bo/d desiglls j'l brigltt miour:;.
Tllis is /ter Kivet or siolles fabric.
2 Dorotlly Uebes was fI/e jirs! Americall fa
app/y Imlld teclllliqnes fa mass productio/!, witl,
bright cofollrs {Inri IlIlcolI<'elltiOllal llllIterials.
TI/ese blil/rls. 1950, llse ha",bao splits, 'OOdm
dowels, rayon, COftOll, and me/allie threads.
1
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444
T
hroughout Europc and America large textile manu-
facturers that ",ere already established before the war
picked up production, ",orking closely \Vith leading
designers. A burgeoning group of freelance textile artists
circulated amongst firrns, including sorne of the trend-
setting furniture manufacturers \Vho expanded
production to embrace fumishing fabrics. These included
Herman Miller and Knoll in the US, and Heal and David
Whitehead in lhe UK.
Ne\V textile pattems ",ere abstract and linear. Bold and
irregular pattems printed in strong blocks of colour
exemplified contemporary textiles on the one hand, \-"hile
the small and exacting repetition of motiIs \Vas also
successhu. Designers also experimented with wcaving
technology and designo At the forefront of this aspect of
mid-century textiles "'as the American Jack Lenor Larsen,
\\Iho successfully combined groupings of natural and
synthetic fibres.
At one lime the British textile industry was the leader
in Europe. By the 1950s it ",as retracting and in decline.
Despite this the overall quality of textile design ",as on an
ups",ing. The leading Briton \Vas Lucienne Day, \Vho
often collaborated ",ith her furniture-designer husband,
Robin Day. The post-war years a150 saw burgeoning
interest in artist-designed textiles. Henri Matisse, Pablo
Picasso, Anill Drain, Henry Moore, Barbara Hepworth,
John Piper, and Graham Sutherland were among many
",ho ",ere persuaded to try their hands at textile designo
Even Eduardo Paolozzi, ",hile establisrung rus reputation
as a sculptor, provided pattemed coltons for Horrocks
during lhe 19505.
Marimekko, the ",idel)' known Finnish manufach.t.rer
of fumishing and dress textiles, did not become an
international force in printed fabrics untilthc 1960s, yet
Scandinavian textile design after the war \Vas dynamic,
accessible and, most important, nel\' and refreshing.
Numerous independent designers \vorked together with
manuIacturers, as in other countries, and the dcsigner-
",eavcr tradition perpetuated even the hand-\Veaving
system that had existcd befare the war. -- o
The Inlluenee 01 Artists and Handweavers
1
1 Alcxmu/er Ca/der's 1Il0biles /U1d a peri.'as.
1
e il1jlllr'lIee, as iJl Ihis 1954
texli/e dr'Sigll for Heal's by /11111' LyolI.
2 Tlle fl/miture fil"lI/ Hml1all Milla reSlllar/y collllllis5iolled desiglls for
fllmi5/IiJlgfabrics. T/is pril1ted eoltoll, Rain, 0/1953 is by A/exnJlda
Gimrd, all archilect ,pIlO sJleciali:ed ill illterior sr:!l['l!1{'S mili cxhibilioll
designo lts p/alles o/ bold calours alld abstnrc/ fOI"!!1S nre Iypicnl of Iris il'ork.
3 Like Herll/an Milla, KllolI produced fabl"ie::. Fimris/-bom
IHariauJI(' 5lrel1gc/1 H'as 0111' of fll[' In/el1tcd }aJld,Fcn<'/.'rs w!lo desigl/t'd
lexti/6.ft)) mae/ril/e prodl1ctioll.
More Abstraet Designs
2
1 J\.ftt'1" Clirisliml Dior's
19.J.7 faslriol/ colleelim, otha
dcsigJls ,nT/.' cnlitled :'-Jew
Look. Fl"iedlillde de Col/lcrla/do's
abstnrcl fllrJIi:=.hilH; (nllJ"ic (01" I!le
<
JI1II JIIlfact I1n'l" Om.
1
id IV} i le}end
,ens iJlspir/.'d by a[stmel palhllg.
y
2 IJI 1959 Nigel HellffersoJl mld
t!le seulplor Edunrdo Pa%::i
dt'i.,ised a /Jlaek aJld pllite texti/>
desigll cnUed Coalface.t0r HHI1
Tmdas. T!lis ,Fas produad as a
fu rI Ji:=.1i i /lg fa [ric, n'marka/l/e for
it:=. texluml qualit!!, i/la Ico-
dilllCJlsionn/ desi,?JI.
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44

Plastics and Appliances
Plastic Possibilities
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1 Margrethe OOw15, desigl/cd 111 1950, by Pril1ce
Sig-,.lI7rd Brmar/off!' n/uf J1eton Bjom, coI/l/m/c fo
be fhe pajee! kitcl1e11 "l'SSelS. Bl!madotte nlso
desiglled si"'cr mdfilmitun:. Ht (bow! il1
foregroulldJ 125CIII/5ill.
4 Enrl Tuppcr's desiglls, slIeh as lIese lidded
bOI!'ls of 1949, revo/utiolli::t'dDad sfornge
fhrouglJ !lis {wiu il1v('l1/ iOI/5 of {/ lIIethod for
/l/ouldillg polycthylellr' ami mi f1irtigil! 5t'11f-
Dmll.155CIII/6ill.
2 Allllllillilllll, n lIIeta! de.>eloped al f!rc
begillllillg of he 20th cel/tury, /5 cOII/IJilll:d {'itll
{/ IlCW p/nstic, lIIe!mllinc, ;1/ tilis ltnliml Cubo
flsfJfmy dl'siglll'd by Brullo lvlllllnri ami madI'
by Ommse j\liIl11lO ill 1957. HI 8c1ll/31.ill.
5 TI/eH' ,ens 1"1'n/ rCOI/DII/Y in t!le l/se of plus/ies
for general dOlllcstic l/se, bul Cilio Cololllbilli
did 110/ compromise OJl good dcsign in (",'ell Ihe
IIIOst Imsir IDUS/'IJO/rt iI!lJll!'II/('III, /ikc this
plnsfic rtuslbin of 1955.
3 Cnrl-Anll: Breger's frui/ jl/ict' pi/ch('/" of
1957-8 sJlOwert thnt plnstic wns nn idenl
IlInt('/"inl for food prepnra/ion nl/rt storage.
Bregcr uns n prolific rtesignCl" of tnb/eil'nre,
utilily p/nslics, nJld snllilnry jittillgs fOI" the
5'i:l'edishjirm, ClIslm.lsberg. H/ 33.5clII!l3'/jn
446
I
n today's world life ,vithout plastics is incompre-
hensible. Scientific research brought the first plastics to
consumers at the beginning of the h"entieth century. By
mid-cenhlry, designers in Europe and America were
firmly ensconced in the manufacturing process, bringing
their knowledge of production techniques and an
eagerness to ,vork with new materials. Plastics grew into
a major industry affecting almost every aspect of life -
from providing improved packaging and new textiles, to
permitting the production of wondrous products and
cutting-edge technologies in such things as televisions,
cars, and kitchen appliances.
Post-war social changes, particularly in E.urape, led to
an emphasis on the kitchen and its equipment. Fitted
kitchens ,"ith colourful Formica-topped work surfaces
and streamlined labour-saving devices such as
refrigerators, vacuum c1eaners, electric mixers and kettles,
and washing machjnes were soon widespread. Pressure
on space meant that design ,'vas often focused on
compacbless, and many of these new gadgets, made from
combinations of metal and plastic, were simple and easy
to c1ean, sometimes almost clinical in appearance.
Furnihlre design was also profoundly inf1uenced by
plastic as a new medium for achieving some of the
striking abstract shapes that marked the post-war
periodo ,",\fhen plastic was used for furnihue in the 1950s
it was chosen not just for its amazing malleability but
because it couJd be moulded into the extreme organic
shapes that designers promoted. In addition it could be
simply cleaned with a sponge. The furnihlre designer
Charles Eames committed himself ta understanding
plastics techno]ogy, working dosely with Zenith Plastics
to perfect the resin-impregnated fibreglass shell that he
wanted to use far his moulded plastic chairs.
Additionally, furniture designers found that plastic
laminates could be used in a similar manller to
traditional veneers, except that with plastics the surface
could be plain and brightly coloured ar act as a
replacement for a painted surface. Synthetic fibres were
al so used by textile designers and incorporated into thcir
6 \\'O'I.'II vriglltly C!l/Ollfl.'d plastic
IIpholslery 0pl'lled IIp eulirdy
1It'it' IJOssibilifies for outdaor
fllmitl/n' as seell ill t1l1'S!.'
examp1es frolll tI'l' /l/id 19jOS.
Ht 85CII//33/ill.
7 Prolon llllbrMkab1e dillllenl'llTe
by George Xc/son brol/glJf ,;/rollg
colollrs alld dl/rnbility lo tht'
dillller table. Assortt,d Sl::t'S.
8 Rl/sse1IVrig1lt JlOlmlari:ed
the moderJI slyfe ill AII/erica
llt'ginlling ill tI'I'late 193S.
al/d cOIII/med lo brillg illspin'd
dtosiglls lo f1l1! publk I1lrollg/1
file 19505. He tt'Orked ill /l/milI
media. illcJlIIling lIIetals nl/d
ceramics, alld .'elltlfred
inlo plastic Inb1ctt'flre Wif11
IJis ~ e l m a c dillllCrit'are for
;'\'orl1l1.'rJI /I/dl/slria/ Cllemical.
L f/argc platlt'r} 3/ClII/q./ill.
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plastic alfOil't'd d6igllers lIf'it'
frt'edom,; lIl'i.'t'r befan: expericnCf'f
WitJl olller material,;. Thi,; sl/m'al
lookillg 1//.'dc,;lnl ashtrny by
Caillo" is 011 a bent /lletal stand
rt'miy to receh'e t}c 1101 asll.
HI 6jc1/l/2jlill.
9 Designa,; ofie" 1ISt.'cf 1I1.'i1'
lIlelals togl'lher <I'it// pla,;lics.
TlJis Ifesk dockfor H",mall \tlillcr
SflOl'S fI/c fllIitl po,;sibifitit"S of
plastic ill a simple dOI//{'5lic objl'Ct.
\\l. 19W/17/ill.
Streamlined and Serviceable
..
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..,
2
3 IVI,en ArlllT BTmllllllld fli:; /'ToOlel" E"l'ill took Oi'l'/" tlteil"fnllli1.ll radio
1II1I1II!f1lCt IIl"illg fil"lII ill '951. /lIl'Y a,'fIted n IU'it' dei'igll lIl'5tllef ie i'lt'/IImllg
jrolllfimefiol1alislII. T//s Mble mdio, by Artul" 81'1I1/11 (lIId
Frif::: EicM:r;1I 1955, i511 c!lIImcfai5tic producto Ht 1jcm/6il1.
4 RIIYlllolld LOl.'it'Y5 <1'ork m:; perm5i>e lI!1d prolific. [JI tite 19405 IIIld 50:;
1111 e5/ illlaft'd /llre.. out offOil r A/IIercm15 ClIlI1e i11/0 con/lid wi/ll Ollt' of It i'
produCf$l'tlcll day. Loewy':; l'nr[!! pIl5[I-butloJl te!l'i'i:;ioll ol 1948 'liS 011,. of
tlll' fi 1"'3/ e.mll/Jlle:; of il;; killd,
..

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1 lfaH applimlce CIlII Eh.'
5-CIfJpflm'. 1111."11 file desigll il'Ork
01 \lnrcello JJrDl'idt'5
slIpl?rlnti<'c e.mll/ples. He
lIJe legclldnry Lexicon
SO (/!Id Lellera 22 typl'wrifl'rs
for Oli1.'ctti bu! lis j'ork nlso
cxlcl1ded fa fIJe 5iL'oopillg
SClI/ptllm/ lilll's 01 jis vii rella
s<!willg mnchilll' for Necchi. 1957.
L. -ljCm/17l.ill.
2 Ger1 Alfrt'd f\.liif/er d6iglled
SO/lll! 01 Brmlll's bt'5f-kIlOrl'lI 1
protfllcls IIc/lldillg t/Jis kitchl'll
lIIac/lillt" K;-'13 of 1957 1I/(1I1t' of
l'0/ystyrof llOlISillg. Tln' e/'(IJI
lilles nnd rnfiollnl desigll /lrollShf
ti S('JlS(' (JI order ami {fficicllcy
lito file p05!-<mr kitc!lCll,
L. 5(11I/191.;11.
3

s ss ....

5 Oida Ram,,; Ifl'i'l!foJ't'if Brmm 'Ito Ollt' (!{ '11('
firms Tflis Radio-PhonoKombinatiol1 SK-l
PhUllu:>u}X'r, ,bigulA dO, HllIb GIl;<eft1t ill 1950. ',/:, t!fn
o! 1"L'<'t1/lIticmnry com/Jillllfioll pllOlwgmpll mIli radio 1V 5SCIII/:!2, ':ill. 5
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weaving, together nrith traditional rnatcrials. And \\'hen
woven as uphobtery, plastics wcrc" durable alternative
to easilv-\\-orn textiles.
\ Vith domestic objects for the table, plastics served lhe
post-H'ar household perfectly. Thcy H'ere durable and
mar-resistant and, together \\-ith the nenr appliances that
H'ere ostensiblv creatcd to make a houseH'ife's H'ork

thcy H'ere also intended to streamlinc domestic

life. Plastics \\"ere not derided as sorne inferior substance
demoted for the kitchen alone: many products made of
plastic H'el'e praised fol' fine design as eal'ly as lhe late
1940s. In 19.,1.7, in an article in HOIIse Benlltifllf, Earl
Tllpper's amazing containel's H'ilh seals that made them
airtight n-ere comparcd to art objects and their material to
alabaster and jade.
Other milestone objects include Sigvard Bernadotte
and ActOll Bjorn's lvlnrgrefhe bOH'ls oi 1930, Cad-Ame
Breger's cm-ered buckct of 1939 and Rllssel \\'right's
\le/lIlnc dirulen\'are ior .:\orthern Industrial Chemical.
Oflcn, designers H'orked hand in hand with the scientists
to devise ncw lllaterials but lllore frequently the)' created
objects to sllit them.
Designers in the post-war era \\'holeheartedly believed
in the pOH'er oi dcsign for e\'eryday living. Designers of
UniqllC studio pieces created items ior indllstry and
industrial designers generated ideas for objects made of
glass and porcelain. Contcmporary design was under-
taken in the belicf that the appearance of things affects the
H'ay that we experience Iife afOlInd us.
The first priority for designers of appliances \Vas to
shape an object that nrould flllfil its pul'pose. This
overarching concern \\'ith fUllctionaJism was the ethos
that led the design of everyday things Iike razors, radios,
toasters, lamps, and even ballpoint pens.
The sH'eeping curves of Mire/ln seH'ing
machinc, the stark simplicity of Braun's radio of 1933, the
graphic success oi Raymond Loc\\'Y's pllsh-button
television, aJI miraculous in their capabilities, placed
function together with form to (reate some oi the most
pleasing objects for the home,
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drmllnticnlly n.fler I/It' ('nI' nnri
Ih?W maleria/s nlld dc'siglls .pcre
inri of filat
Tl1e ]955 Smll1d/?l'5 ;1'011 of
II/ou/ded pyr!!x lI'lJS n (Ilmplelel.lf
1Il'i1' desigll t/ml di ns sl{'{'k mIli
t'nsy fa 1I:;:t' as il looked.
7 TlIt'5e tablt'fnus of19H
cOllld rosily l'l" mislah'll for
Imrt:; o/mI nerop/nllt. Tlle
dt'siglla. Pira/i, m5 tlle
director al fllf.' 1talia" e1cctricn/
npplim/ct'sjirlll Zerotl'nll.
Dinll1.2j5cm/Joill.
8 E1.'cJl ;(lit/ lIl'il' ledm%gy
fllld desigll 1II00'illg nI loday's
rapid pace. /lIi5 eI,fome /ons/er.
by DI/afil. stilf
el/joys suceeS5 ll/Jjllollge'i'ly ill
lb,' markrt place for domes/ir
npplimlCl"5. L. 36c1ll/z-ll.ill.
9 Te1ei'isioll dt"5igl/ ;,/ Ihc 19505
fll1d I'rogressedfroll/ Rn!,,,,olld
[MI'!"S o/
19-18 lo I!lis s/cck le1ei'isioll Imd
slmul dcsiglled by f{oNu Day,
11/1i11/(1lely afll nii /11 re
for Pye iJl 1957. Tell?I.,isiol/
/l/Ol/itor w. -13C111/l7iJl.

CI
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8
9
10 T{Me fnlllps prodl/ced by ile Dlltcflfirm
Phi/ips ill lJIt' J9505 ,eere similnr ill sly/e lo
Americnll /ig1ltillgjroll/ l/e SOIl/C pt!riod. I1lis
sted tnble (lmp, 1950-60. betlrs (11/ lhe e4'id"J1ce
oI its collsfrllctioll ill its desigll.
11 GnelmlO Sco/nri ,I'<lS ndt.'Sigllcr for tlle 1tn/iml
firm StillloPO. His desiglls, like t1lis stml11nrd
Jnl1lp of 1955, fit it'illtiu tltc St i/IIO<'O nestfldie of
cfellll-/illed nl1d fUllctiO/mllis'" fittillgs. 10
11
449
Furniture 454
Ceramics 462
Glass 464
Metalwork 400
Fashion and Textiles 468
Industrial Design 474
The Space Age
Terence Conran, the founder of Habitat, summed up a key aspect of design
in the 1960s. "There was a strange moment around the mid-sixties when
people stopped needing and need changed to want. .. Designers became
more important in producing 'want' products rather than 'need' products."
This fundamental change meant that design was no longer just about function,
economy, reliability, and longevity, but equally embraced impact, identity,
and stylishness. It became asubject that lascinated the increasingly affluent
public with their greater disposable income, extended lelsure time, higher
expectations, and an apparently endless craving lar novelty and excitement.
T
he 19605 were about change, which was almost
illvariably seen as "progress." Progress vI'as one of the
touchstones of the decade and was used to justify a rash
of changes in different arenas fram fashion t technology
and morality. lndeed, progress ",.'as seen llot onl)' as
desirable but inevitable, and, according to Harold vVilson,
the ne\\' Labour leader in the UK, it \Amuld be delivered
by the ","hite heat of the technological revolution to
(reate a classless, meritocratic society." 111 spirit of
progress was captured in the "space race" which
commenced at the ver)' beginning of the decade when the
youthful president of the USA, John F. Kennedy
announced: "1 believe that this nation should commit
itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of
landing aman on the moon and returning hirn safely to
earth. No single project in th.is period will be more
impressive to mankind." The space age was presented by
politicians such as Harold Wilson, as "a time for a
brcakthrough to an exciting and wonderful periad in our
history, in which all can and must take parto Our young
men and women, especially, have in their hands the
power to change the world. We want the young of Britain
to storm the new frontiers of knowledge... "
The post-war social revolution came to fruition in the
1960s. A society in which everyone knew their place was
rapidly being superseded by a progressive, rneritocratic
one in \Vhich apportunities for the young \Vere plentiful
just so long as they had talent -l,vhich \Vas now no longer
defined by the established standards af the pasto It \Vas a
time of great mobility - everyone seemed to be "on the
move" both personally and socially. It v,ras also a time of
changing lifestyles and an expansion of moral codes and
practices l,-vhich frequently led to friction between
traditionalists and the YOW1g and, indeed, to the "war of
the generations." Because of the sense that anything was
possible, and the sense of unbridled belief in the ruture,
the decade was, \vithout doubt, a great time to be YOlIng.
Left: VenIa Panton, Pan/oll
stackl1g-cJwir, 1960. Tl1e lamoll5
196051ufuristic cJwir 5eelllS fo
flow like liqld. lt U'as prodllccd
in a <vide mnge 01 d(ffaellt colOl/r5.
Ht 83.5cm!33ill.
Opposite; in !Ie IIlass media
al1d poplllar imagillatioll,
L0l1doll'5 Canlaby Street
cOl1jured IIp everyfl1illg t/wf was
sllpposedly "swillgi!lg" abOllf fhe
six/ies - impact, e11ergy, iSl/al
excess, briglltJle5s, boldlless,
C!a5hillg decomtiOlJ, ll/rd, 01
COllr5e, YOllfl1. Tom Sa/ter's
period-piece gmpllic5 typifij the
sel/se 01exctelllellt aJld ellcrglj.
J
I
I
I
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3 Prt'Side/l1 Kellll(,1y dl'Clnml ",\'0
sil/gle projecf i/llthe 196051 .('iJl
lit' /llore illllm'Ssh'e fo Illflllkilld"
l/Jnnlfllldillg allmll 011 fhe 1/100/1.
Tlle qllest illdeed cnptllred file
poplllar illlagillatioll, alld
propiden n ridl sonrce of ill/agay
1'IJidl inflw.'/Iced nesigllt'rs.
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1 TIIl' Bentles rL'prL'smfL'd al/ tlmt ms
mul 1I0,t!I il1 tllt' decade: tlley ,l'ere nssertl'e,
bmsl1, stylish. al/d il'itty. For one old-fashiol/ed
critic, t/It!il' sOl/lid evoked "COIlllota/ioIlS of
dil1l1['1' lIIusic for a pack of I11Ulgry call1liba/s.''
SUcfl criticislI1 tl'lIS /I1l1sic to /lIe ear:; of the
group's youllg al1diellee.
2 Al1dy '''arl1ol, Soup Can, 1962, After !JI'
/n'roie spiritllality of Abstmct ExpressiOljsll1
POI' ArI, SUell a5 tllis, s1'1'1I1t'd a dmia! o/ al/
t!tal 1'a5 slIJlpo:;ed lo II/aller ill arl. But lo /lle
cIJi/drell of 1111' l/1ass /l/edia age ils popll!ar
COIISullleri:;t sl/bjecl gm'e it Irl/e re/emnce
a/ld appt!n!.
2
452
In 1959 Vague magazine had noted that "young" was
appearing "... as the persuasive adjective for aH fashions,
hairstyles, and ways of life." By 1963, the media had
become obsessed with youth's values, trends, and idols.
Pop music - whether by the Beatles, the Rolling Stones,
the Who, the Beach Boys, or Motown - was youth's
rallying eall, and il frequently also beeame ils baltle ery. It
was a tool of rebellion and a means of expressing identity.
Innumerable records were released, sorne of which
became mts, but most of which sank into obscurity. Pop
musir aspired to the condition of fashion in which change
was the only constant. According to George Melly in
1962, the young demandcd "... musie as transitory as a
packet of cigarettes and expendable as a paper cup."
Young peopIe wanted music that was for /lora. Fashion
followed suit and quickly became a topie of widespread
interest and debate in 1963. lt was at this time that the
word "pop" became the catehword for any styIe or sound
associated \\ith the young - inc1uding the new painting
style, Pop Arl.
The young became an important consumer market
group in the 19605 for hvo reasons. First and foremost \Vas
the economic factor: full employment and the increased
affluence of their parents meant that teenagers and those
in their twenties had disposable income in enticing
quantities and so became a much consmner
group. Secondly the 'baby boom" following the Second
"\I\'orld War meant that this new generation was a
significant part of the population in demographic tenns.
The consumer society had also given rise to changed
attitudes among young people. 1l1e "children of the age
of mass communication" were the first generation who
,
were boro after the war and who had Iittle memory of
post-\\-ar austerity. Thcy had the money to be extravagant
and were encouraged by the consumerist society so to be.
Design reflected and expressed the decade perfectly. It
was not only formed by the social and cultural forces of
the time, but also helped to shape thern. The rnood of
youthfulness, the spirit of novelt)r, and the ethos of desire
were most seductively portrayed in the colour
supplements - one of the symbols of the era. 111eir
approach to design was epitomized in the first "design
for living" feature in the British Sllllday Times colour
supplement. It appeared soon after the magazine' s
latrnch in 1962 and said ''Poor design has become a target
for anyone with a brick to throw: good design is treated
as a sort of sacred cow. The attitude to function is racing
to the same level of absurdity; testing is turning into an
obsession. There are times when one longs to buy
something plumb ugly and utterly unnUlctional."
111is was an attack on the refined Scandinavian taste of
the 19.505, and the supposedly rationa!, objective product
design exarnined in consurner-testing magazines. In their
place the colour supplements encouraged. an emotionaI
and subjective approach to design based on novelty,
desirability, and fashionable taste. It was an approach
successfully adopted by stores like Habitat - a "shop for
switched-on people" aceording to its founder Terenee
Conran - and exploited the aspirations of young,
professional, upwardly mobile buyers for an ec1ectic
ensemble of design which ranged from the fashionable,
through the utilitarian, to design cIassics.
Design cIassics - such as Mareel Breuer's "Wassily"
chair - were being reproduced in the 19605, and major re-
evaluations and exhibitions of the Bauhaus and de Stijl
took place. By the end of the decade Modemist design
was no longer the presenre of a few design proselytizers
but \vas accepted by whole tiers of the middle classes and
found its way into both the office and the domestic
interior. However, a transformation had taken place.
Modernism had lost its moral authority: what once had
been a moral erusade become merely a style of design,
part of a lifestyle of knowing soph..istication. Modern..ist
c1assics took their place in the colour-supplemented
showroom alongside Italian gadgets, 19th-century
"downstairs" eookery equipment, country pine fumiture,
disposable plastic cutlery, and Art Nouveau-styled paper
earrier bags. lndeed what characterizes 19605 design is
not any stylistic unity or shared aesthetic, but an
increasing diversity of styles, forrns, and - beyond them-
diverse attitudes and values about the role and nature of
design in society.
453
4 Dcnys LnSdllll, Natioual TIJeatre, LOl/doll,
1967-76. LOlldoll's SOHtlI Bal/k typijil!d tllC
arc!Jitectllra! pl'ofcssioll's love of ie/l!gnllce,
Corb/lsir1ll-illspired mw cOHcrete, al/n - as
al/e illlportallt arc!Jitect pul it - "b/oody-
lIIilldedm'Ss." lt was a renctioll ngnillst
tastefu/I/ess al/d "good mtlllJlers."
5 Psyelledelie grnpllies, Viclor Moseoso.
The psycl/edelie style express(>t tf/e t'llflles of
tlle eOlmter-CIIitlfre ill tl,eir p l l r s r ~ form
alld represellted rebelliol/, eelee/icis""
youtfifll1llesS, SeJlSIIOllSlless, alld a geJIeral
Diollysiall outlook ill {{'hiell drugs, IIII/sic,
alld sexfrofllred promiJlelllly.
5

5

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Furniture
Cult New Chairs
1 enrio 5co1l1ri, Donata D'UTbiIlO, PuDIo
Lomn::i, alld GiOl/al/JaIl De Pas. Blo\,"
Chair, 1967_ TI,;s c1mir q/lickly becalJle ti C1/1t
object alld represellfed tlle age of illlllJediacy
alld lJOpelty, in Tea/i/y its JOTIII cas
quite CDJlDenliona/. HI 83clII/33/1I.
2 riera GnUi, Cesare Paolilli, rmd FrtHlCO
Teodoro, The Sacco, 7968. Tire elmir's hvelve
millioll granules look tlle slmpe of file sitter's
body (lnd 11111:; provided n variely of sil/illg
posiliolls. Jt (allle ill a clloice of eigll! CO/Ol/T:;.
Ht 68cIII/27'-1I.
3/oe Colombo. Chair 4801, 1963. 71Ie tlm?e
p/ywood e/elllen/s, wllicl, are /oose/y s/otted
fogelher, git>e a sClflptllm/ (lIId evell cllild/ike
jeel lo lile clJair, wllich is l'1lhallced by i/s mllge
ojjOllr CO/Ollrs. Ht 585clII/23ill.
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1
TI the 1960s, the critic Mario Amaya writing in Tite
Spectator argued that contemporary experimental
fumiture designers "... parallel our painters and seulp..tors
in inventing l1ew shapes and forms through the use of
new materials." The origins of this bald age cf furnihlfe
experimentation dates back to the mid-19S0s, when new
thinking w1th materials and forms produced designs that
reflected the affluence and greater individualism of the
times. Charles Eames' moulded plywood shell and
down-filled leather lounge chair 670 (and the
accompanying ottoman), first manufactured in 1956,
quickly became one, if not the chair most coveted by the
design-conscious public, appearing countless times in
interior design yearbooks and up-market magazines
dwing the 1960s.
Glass-fibre had become an increasingly corrunonly
used material at the experimental, up-market end of chair
design in the 19505. In fum.iture, the flowing, organic
shape of Eero Saarinen's "Tulip" pedestal chair 01 1936-7
had an enormous influence on younger generations of
chair designers, while Vemer Panton's "Panton" stacking
chair of 1960 was the first chair to be manufactured. in a
moulded, continuous glass-fibre shell.
Chairs by Eames, Saarinen, and Panton may have
graced the pages of design annuals in the late 19505 and
early 1960s, but they inhabited a very small number of
ordinary hornes. Mass taste at this time was still athmed
to "colonia!," "rustic," and pseudo-antique styles. The
emerging design-conscious young professionals,
however, considered this type of popular conventional
taste beyond the pale. For their part, the)' sought
furniture that was modero and attractive, but not
necessarily something \Vruch they \Vould keep for
decades. It \Vas commo to find Scandinavian fumiture
in the hornes of the design-eonscious middle classes of
trus periodo This type of fumiture was characterized
according to one advertisement of the time as having the
oo light, bright look of cool colours, crisp texlures and
simple, clear-cut lines." lt appealed because it \'\'a5
elegant, refined, and appeared natural.
Storage Systems
-
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1 Joe Colombo, Additiolla/ 5ystem, '968. Qlle of tlle ideas in good atrrency
in lhe /afer .Ifears of ti/e decnde was flexibility nlld adaplability in fllmitllre.
eo/ambo's standard componellts permilted (1 greal t'nriefy affor",s.
ltalan Sculptural Chairs
,
2 loe Colombo, Boby stomge, 1968. MallY late-1960s /taliall desigus for
p/as/icfl/mill/re ,,,ere popular Ilrrollgl/out ti/e 1970s, a/lJolfgll lile
fashiollablelless - alld cDsI - of plastic was affected by lIJe ellergy crisis.
1 Sergio Mnzzfl, Toga cllair, 1968. T/e
rOlwded s}apes of file Toga eombille with fIJe
SlIIoot/mess o/Joml, perfeelioll o/sl/Iface, (Inri
il1lJlflct o/ lile ortmge or '!.v/Ii/e lo express t!le
desigll mood 01 lile late ]9605. Ht 65cm/2j1:ill.
2 Gaetano Pesce. Up 1Chair, 1969. Pesa said
t/lIIf l/lis sort o/desigll <t'tTS "agaills! all that is
finite, blocked, stalic. COllstan!, predictable.
progml1ll1led, probable. abw/ute, coherellt,
cOlltillllOlIS, Illlifon/l, lllld //lOl/otonDI/S... ".
'V.86011/34/1I
3 Cesare I..eollardi (/lid fnmCfl Stagi. Dondolo
rockillg e/mir, 1967. Tllis c1lflir, described as a
"semi-il'Ork ofar!," exemp/iftes ti/e seu/pluml
lendellcy iI 1960s fl/mill/re. /1 II'as ami/ab/e
in t/lreeco/Ol/rs. L. 1.2jlll/4/llI. 3
455
The Inlluence 01 Pop Art in the UK
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h>-.... "P
n x,l; >:31, -, [90
J 09: In-I''''''', l.oC"O"'=
cnooo>ra ......0 ..".' sola
",,;t ,0."'" ,c'C O"'"
'c, 01 't.e .. ccee :ol,u'
'"o"" ."",.e x 39; x31,
,"' (333
4 091 3'1 "t.,.
12 x3lj x31; o., UO
,.'0= KD E.-' .c.......
....,..0. ' n uM" f",
v-llow

1=
uni.....
.'. "<e, 1-'0
,[ "-.1 MO"". <o'
,."eh " " ,,:', ,."
:n. "'" ':. .e' ..
cr "Hd l "'0:".
Sola >cd 'la"'.' o'"
.,....el. r "'o r,n ''',--all ... r,,,
O' dJ" ='c.....
d'''' t. ",,,,,,= T-<
,OC' "'dl"." ,,"':O
,=""" "'Oh,gn< ,r,
...',n' . :r.. 'n :".
co<d t.t'''.i
,S,'''.'; ......." ,nd """1
O' 'n ,n, o! lO" r.",.e. '""
en 65 ,!,JI Lo"'"

1
-

1 Habitat, illterior oj SllOp, 1960s. '\'ith Ihe

opel1illg oj theJirst Habitat ill 196.;., "Iijest yle"
d!'Sign fid/y arrived. Taellce ComtlJl's tlilll ias to
I"JI!1 "a 5wil1ging 5/lOp jor switched-Oll peop!e."
2 Peta Murdocll, paper jlll"lliture, 1964. TJe
papa c!mil" ay ltave beell more sYlllbolic l/tml
jllllctiolla/; it he/d a promise oj tl"u/y disposab/e
jllmiture l/mI mas fim. HI 68cll1/261,ill.
3 Robin Day, Polyprop 1964. Day cmlle
fro mIoMa gel/emlioll - !lis tlpproacll <l/as
esselltia/ly Alodemist il/ seekil1g stalldl1rdi:ntioll,
5imp!icity, alld mlOlIYlllity. Ht 81C111/pill.
456
But the cultural changes that were occurring in the
early 1960s meant that even contemporary Scandinavian
design received its share of criticisrn in the ne\v consumer
journalsm of the colour supplements. Priscilla Chaprnan,
writing in the SlIllday Telegmph colour supplement in 1965
attacked JI thin, weedy-looking roorns. Neutral roorns
filled \vith bland leak sideboards, smoolh stain-resistant
table taps, and mean chairs, the whale 'brightened' with
Swedish glass. Part of the trouble with these roams is
lhal !hey' re duB,"
One furniture trend in the the 19605 was connected
with the developrnent of corporation culture. The new
company headquarters and offices \Vere furnished in a
consistent, aesthetically sophisticated way with modular
units and Modernst aesthetics.
There was also a boom in building institutional
buildings such as universities and hospitals, which often
utilized "knockdO\vn" fum..iture. This had interchangeable
components which made it economical to produce, and
easy and cheap to replace. Such furniture also became
available for the domestic market and could be
assernbled at home by the purd1aser from a flat-pack kit
of parts. Knockdown furniture had some appealing
benefits for consurners. Compared with standard
furnihlre, it was slightly cheaper, it was more likely to be
in stock because it \..,as easy to store, which made instant
purchascs possiblc, and it was also easer for consumers
to transport horne. The vast majority of knockdown
furnihlre in the mid-1960s was, however, conventional in
appearance and had limited appeal for those yearning for
"young" and fashionable furniture. As one commentator
observed i.n 1965, it \",'as inevitable that the young who
bOllght fashionable clothes and went to discos would
"want furniture in up-t04e-minute colours, pop shapes
and pop, op, or wild floral patterns: stuff whi.ch is d1eap
enough to repaint with a[n] ... aerosol spray or tluow
away when a new style, pattern, or colour appears.
JI
The most complete example of fashionable and
disposable furniture in the 19605 was tl1e so-called
"paper" chairs, which llsually comprised three different

-
4 Max Clelldi/millg,
mllge, 1966. CleJldilllliJlg aillled
ni file YOlIlIgJa,>fJiol1f1b/e II/nrkel
(lnd tllO::e ";11 IDI/dl." Nellrly
300 pieces o/ "mus/orll/alioll
Jl/millln
o
" could lle aS$embled
mili Ou? 1j sial/dI/Tri par!:; II'1/ir/
en/m' jn fllll/lJIber DI acquers.
HI Socm/31lI.
5 Jo/m IVrigllf (Inri cml 5cflOjield.
Chair el. 196-1. IVitl, its
domilltmt (/ln>e:; (lllri s/rollg
colours, the elmir ,uns describcd
nI tlle tilm' (15 "fnlllsifiOllal, al
(l stage befillCel1 he /ll11eliollol
$fuff fllld desiglls wit!! {/ /lit oi
dI (!lId wlzilllsy."
Ht SOCIII/31'Il.
4
5 .1
6
6 8erJl(znj Holdmf'ny, Tomotom
jllrllitllTe, 1966. Ho!llllimy
belit:i.'ed t1U1/ f"rJIitllre s/lOlIfd lit'
Ndwnp CI/Dl/gll lo Ix' expclldnble."
T/le tt'/lite, red, blllt', .l/ello'I',
grt'/'II or plIrple e/mir sold for
aboll! f2, "Witll llu' rabIe rdaiJillg
nI jusI I//Irter Ll- Table 1lt
75C11l/ 291,i11.
7 Emest Rnce, foldiug e/mir,
1960s. Tl1e grOi(,t/1 of file pub/ic
seclor in tire 19605 crealed a /leed
for de5igl1 t!mt COI/Id be mnss
pl'Odllced ill keepillg wit/, a spi1"if
of lIlodemi::afiOIl. T/lis e/mil' H'ITS
specially prodllced for a Se/lOO/
JIlllSt'1/I11 sen,ice. Ht 75clII/29/;ill.
8 AI/ell olle;;, fable scllfptllre,
1969. T/is ('as parl of a fimiled
editioll project by JOlles tlml
fillked llie subje't lIIafter 01 Pop
Art <1'iI11 desigll. 11 sen.'f!5 to
ri'lIlilld liS tllal tlle imagen al
'9605 COl/id bi COlltrOloersial
ill ils 5exism. Ht
f. 1.85111/6/t til!.
-
u.
e
<1
u.
c.:

v.
8
-
..
45
---------------------------
Modernist Simplicity in Scandinavia - New Forms lar New Materials
w
c:::
;::)
1-
-
Z

458
1
1 Eero Anmio, Pastilli chair,
1968. Like IIlIlI1y itcms oj plnstic
JlIrIlilure. ti/e Pastilli WiTS
ami/ab/e II n mllge o/ brigltt
(o{O!frs. Beillg so loil' made it
stab/e, bu! tlle sitter cOlltd
n/so make it rack or roll.
Ht )2cm/2o'/.;/I, /. 93'111/361,;11,
2 Eero Anmio, Clahe dmir. 1966.
Tlle soft. pndded interior l/al ollly
gave nfee/illg o[almos! womb-Iike
pro/ectioll (lIId ca/m: il cOlltrasted
with tl,e spnce-age, <v/Jite exterior.
Tire Glohe was Dile of file mas!
photograp/led cltairs o/ /lIe decnde.
Ht 1.2m/3ft 11ill,
w. 1.osm/3ft jill.
papers to make a board of five laminates, gIV1t1g it a
washable finish and the ability t stand prolonged wear
for three to six months. The chairs were stamped out as a
piece of flat card, which was decorated in bright Op or
Pop patterns. These decorations were printed on to it at
the same time as the card was pressed and scored. The
most famous paper chair was dcsigned by Peter Murdoch
in the UK; it was manufactured in the USA, and received
widespread international recognition.
Inflatable furniture, usually made from polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), upheld the Pop characteristics of
youthfulness and Eashionability. Sorne pieces \Vere also
designed to be disposable. In the latter part of 1967
inflatable chairs by Quasar Khanh, the French team of
Aubert, Jungman, and Stinco, and the Italian design tearn
of Scolari. Lomazzi, D'Urbino, and De Pas became
available in Europe and the USA, and "'ere widely
written about. Although it was expensive, the Italian
designers' BJow chair (see p.-l56) became the best-kno",n
inflatable chair. Khanh's inflatable chairs ,..,'ere slightly
2
cheaper. The c1airns made for disposable furniture,
however, \Vere sometimes as inflated as the furniture
itself. For example, one cornmentator - lena Larsson,
writing in the joumal Form in 1967 - made the prediction
that " ... pretty soon our whole household can be moved
in a big bag - when inflatable plastics and folding
cardboard have become popular as fumiture materials.
The trend to",ards simpler and cheaper fumiture is
already under way and cannot be stopped. lt wiIl
probably alter our whole attitude towards furniture and
furnishings, leading to a freer, less pretentious, less
status-conscious milieu."
AIso evidence of the trend towards less formal,
cheaper forms of furniture"were ''bean bags." These were
chairs that contained as many as twelve million plastic
granules or polystyrene beads, which adjusted to the
shapc oE the sitter's body. The first, and one of the most
stylish bean bags, \Vas rile Sacco (see p.-l56). Jt was
available in eight colours, and was designed in 1968 by
the Italian team of Gatti, Paolini, and Teodoro.
3 POli! KjnerllOllII, Table PK 5.tA, 1963.
TII/: silllplicily of 1950S $cnlldinavial1 desigll
,/'aS COlltillllCd illto tlle I/exl decade,
rll'lIIollslrntillg l/mf file fl/milllre tmditiol/
cOII/d remnin aUve al/d re/l'i-'all/.
4 HallS .Vegner, The Hoop Chair. 1965,
AltllOl/gJlnot pul illlo produclion 111I1il1lle
1980s, I1lis e/mir ci.'okes a period of JllIOPflt<'t'
forlll nl/d nn expermel/tall/se of /IIfllerials.
IV. 1.05111/311 5il/.
S Alltfi Nurmesniemi, Chais 001, 1968.
Nl/rmeslliemi's chaise goes lIrtller t1UlIl mallY
01 ils predecessors iJl being i't'ry Jow alld
git'iJlg a stllst of rose, ,{'hile mailllaiJlillg a
Alodemist simplicity. Diam. 1.'I'II/.-fl 7i1l.
u.
c:::
:=l
-
-
:2
c:::
.....,
-
1
1 l/lIIari Tapiot'flarn, Wilhclmina e/mir, 1960.
TI/e c1wir looks like SI/c11 a "al/e-off" t1mf it is
sllrprisillg lo leam if ,('as designed to be
s/ackable. rile desigll was awarded a go/d
meda/ at file 1960 Trielllmle ill Mi/m!.
2 Nmma Dil::.el alld Jorge Dit::.e1, Swinging
Chair, 1959. AltIlol/gh il1 keepillg ,(lit/ tlle
"swil1Sil1g sixfies," it was desiglled il/ tile late
fifi/es. TIle choice of materia!s COlltrnsts mit!1
Aarllio's Glohe c1wir. Ht 1.2511114ft 1111.
3 Venler PantOIl, Panton slackillg
c1mir, 1960. Tbislalllol/s desigll
it'l'nl beyolld Saarillell's Tulip
pedesfal e/mir i1/ makillg tlle e/mir
"aU olle lllillg agaill." Ai.'llilab/e iu
a muge of c%l/rs, if is lIOt so
1II1/c11 orgallic as liquid ill its
eJject. Hf 8J.5cm/JJiJl
3
45
New Sculplural Forms in lhe USA - aNew Approach lo Oflice Furnilure

5
3

5 Cfmrles Ellllles, tOl/l/ge 1969.
This was al/otller illlriallt of file 1956 cJl(liI:
Tfle lI1ake-over, I/fili=il1g "sojtpad" ellsl1iOl1s,
made it appear e,'t'11 II/ore 11I.-rllrolls aud
collljorfable. HI 94CIII/37ll.
2
1 Ceo/ge NelSOIl, Sling soja,
1964. Nc!sol/'s desigl1s provide n
"solter" lvlotiemislII, wlzcJl W(1S
IIIl1e/1 fac'ol/red IJI corpomtiolls as
n sYlllbol 01 li,. lIIotfemity mzd
sophisticntioll. L. 2.22111/7ft 3in.
2 David R.ow/nlld, -lO-in--l
stnckillg 1964- T}e
sfackillg capability oj Rml'lmut's
fine/y detniled al/ti 'UislInlly coo!
chail" ;:uns virlllnl/y IIl1equalled-
4001 !Iese strollg, fireproof
cJUlirs COI/tri be pincen ill n stnck
ol/rlcet (r.3 lIIetres) hig/o
Ht 76cl/1/30ill.
3 Richard SclllI!t:::, Leisure
Collcction c/mir. 1966. There is n
conjitfe!1f /umdlillg 01f01"1II ill l/lis
KllO!l productioll. perlwps
explnlled by fhe Inci tlm! 5cl1l1l/::
WIIS n sCIIlplor as well as (1
fllmitu,..: de:;iguer.
4 C1mrlcs Eames, mlllgl' dtair,
1958. This 10as 0111.' oj lIefirst
mrintiOlls 011 fallll!5' iconie
/ol/uge c1mir of 1956. Tec1l11ieolly
lmO<lIltiI'e, it olsofulfilled o
d!f/enmt flllletioll as corporafe
jl/miture. Ht 84elll/33l1.
4
460
_5 __
6 Corpornte office desigll. The ro/e ol desigll in rcpresCllting efficiellcy
alId 1II0demity as firl1l1y grnsped ill t/le 19605, alld COlllph:I/1C1lted
the illdh,idllalislII and exprcssh,c!/t'ss ol ml/e11 persoual de:iign.
7 Estelle and Eril'ille Lat'eme, Invisible chair CH-l, 1962. TIJe
La'emcs' c1mir paid homage to 5aarillCll's Tulip e/mil', but lIlarried I!le
orgallicislII litll lIJe magic alld appeal of Irn!lsparmcy. Ht 1.37I1/l//t 6in
8 \Vmdell Cast!e, Castle anllc/wir, 196. Cast/e comlJillcd seu/plurn/ orll/s
<pitil ImditiOJlal cmft tec/miqul's and lIIateria/s. Appropriate!y, he described
hi1llse{fas a cross beta'eCllallartislalld a desigller. Ht 61C11l/2.;.ill.
6 .... ...J
\
/
7
L
10 Roberlo 5ebastiaJl Matta.
Malitte 101ll/ge seatil/g, late
19605. Matfa's desigll i'as a/most
I'carmllgeab/e to adapl
lo differt'llt or /le cOlllbillCd
scu/pture <('IJell Jlol in lIse.
Ht 7.56111/5ft 1111.
9 O/i<,ier lvlolI/SIII', BouloUlll
chair, 1969. Mowguc spccifically
illtcnded t/,C c!wir fo ha"e a
distinctiue persoJla/ily, f1Ild
I/Jis l/linkilIg /ed lo SOllle of the
antIJropolllorp/Iic c!wir dt'Siglls
of tIJe 19805. 'iv. 7lC1l1/28ill.
Derivatives of The Sncco quickly became available and
were relatively inexpensive and popular.
Italy enjoyed leadership in furniture design
throughout the decade. The designers Vico Magistretti,
Ioe Colombo, Alfa and Tobia Scarpa, and Mario Bellini, as
we11 as others, a11 established or consolidated their
rcputatons for clcgant and increasingly adventurous
designs. Their \Vork was often manufactured by Cassina
in Italy or Knoll or Herman Miller in the USA. Their
work, praised by critic Mario Amaya as "semi-works of
art," included forms that were part functonal chair, and
part sculphual object.
The majority of trend-setting chairs in particular carne
from Europe, and especially from Italy. Sorne, including
the sculptor Csar's chair of 1969, made use of injection-
moulded polyurethane foam. The majority of visuaUy
iru10vative dlairs, however, exploited the myriad formal
possibilities of various plastics, especially moulded glass-
tibre. Alberto Rosselli's lIlIlbo chair of 1967 and Moby Dick
chaise longue of 1969 both used moulded glass-fibre to
10 ...__...... ..J
create a flowing, bulbous but light mass. Eero Aarno's
1968 Pasfilli chair, offered in a range of six colours, used
moulded glass-fibre to create a solid and heavy-Iooking
fonn that was circular in plan, while Cesare Leonardi and
Franca Stagi's DOlldolo rocking chair of 1967 developed
the rigid struchlral strength of glass-fibre to create an
elegantly twisting plane in space.
The sculptural innovation fadcd a'Nay at the
beginning of the 19705, partIy because of the change of
moad created by the energy crisis. However, already in
the last years of the 1960s, experimental designers vvere
moving away from designing furniture that ,-vas a "semi-
vwrk of art" to being concemed with total environments.
In 1969 the British designer Max Clendi.nning arguect
that "Followcd to its extreme, huniture would be a series
of versatile, interchangeable, cushjons"
and, in the final years of the decade, designers became
interested in flexible designs and total environments -
another innovation in an open-minded decade in which
hunihue design flourished.
-
46
-------------------------------------
Ceramics
Studio Pottery
1 Bt'l'IlIll'd LencfJ, sfol/(w(11'I.' m::e:;, 1967.
Ll'llcil - (lnd all tllal he slood for 111 /crms o/
tri/tI! fa /l/nterial;;, seu;;il 'ily o/lwl/dliJlg, mili
/01'111 deril'illg from flllleliol/ - cOlltiJlI/t'd lo
illJllleuce trnditioJlnlists, bul l,,-,(ame n :.ymool
agaillsl whicJ lo rebd by f111 nnti-cstablislllllt'/II,
yal/IIS gi'JIl'rafioll o/ Cl'fnmic nrtist,:;.
Ht lfromleft lo right)
15CIII/6/1I, 10'5(1II/8ill, 21(1II/8/ill.
2 Oltofllld Gertrlld Nnl:ler, mse, (.J96.2. Tllc
\!a/:/ers brollg/lt EIII"OI'(,(lII (('mm;, fmditi0l15
lo tlll' USA w!Il'1l flley cmigrnled l/len' fo escape
!le tfllWl/S of ff/e St:colld World \Vnr. T}e
COIII/Jilllltioll 01elegllllt /01'/11 (1Ju/ bcauliful
gln:e gnl't' lid, U'ork CIIOrl1l0llS f1ull1orily
rllld iJljllltmct'. Ht 3-lCIJI!J3;1I.
3 Lllc/e Rit', slOl/fil'an' bottk. J96. Tf/e
lil4'rntiOIl of xll/pluml form is appnn:llf i/l
R"s Hwk nltJollgh, cOIIIJmred fo fJIl' Flmk
IlOlft'r.1f I.'IIImmtillgfmlll file USA, /u'r l'ork
is rt'sfmilll.'d 1I1l111mlflllCC11.
I
I
462
B
y expressing modernity and freedom of expression,
ceramics in the 1960s typified their times. Whatever
the stylc, dinner",are ",as being modernized on a mass
scale. The affluent young sought ceramics that were
stvlish, modem, and fashionable such as thc industriall\'
, ,
produced ranges from Scandinavian, Italian, and British
companies which made use of bright colours, bold
pattems, and graphic dccoration. Here ",ere tems that
were functional bul fun.
Dinncnvare also acquired a decidedly high art
connotation in the decade, with Rosenthal's Studio Linc
by a range of artists from lucio Fontana, through \lictor
Vasarely, to Eduardo Paolozzi. These ",cre relatively
expensivc ranges and indicate that ceramics and art ",ere
moving c10ser together.
But it ",as in studio potter)' ",here, in typical 1960s
fashion, boundaries began to blur. In thc 1950s, studio
potter), had enjoyed a revival and traditional potters such
as Bernard Leach were highly regarded. But in thc cad)'
19605, initiallv on the \Vest Coast of the USA, artist-
,
potters SLICh as Peter Voulkos created ",ork that departed
from ccramic tradition. Flat slabs ",cre joined to ",heel-
thro"'ll forms ",ith epoxics to create hybrids of ceramics
and art that seemed. lo o",e more to Abstract Expressionism
and Picasso than to anv of the masters of the mainstream
potter), tradition. lhe spirit of so-called "Funk ceramics"
was summed up by Robcrt Ameson: there were to be "no
academic hierarchics... no worshipful old timers ",hose
\Vord \Vas law... everybody \Vorked as they sa\V filo"
The new aesthetic of rollghness, polychromy, and
refinement was in kccping with the wider rcbel1iolls
aesthetic of the time. The forms emphasizcd the intrinsic
propcrtics of material ancl.surface, and took on tUlllsual
imagery, from toasters and type",riters to the kitchcn
sink.. Pop Art had a profOLUld influence on this generation:
for the 1960s avant garde, whether ccramics was craft or
art ",as irrelevant. For them, the materials and medium
took their place aJongsidc other creative practices such as
painting and fibcr art. AH \Vere part of a continuum of
possibilitics and a means of personal cxpression.
J
,
4 }e:;sie Tate, Mid\\'inter dilllll!r :>enlice, 1962.
As a resl//I of illcrcascd afjll/el/cc alld "dcsigll
as/ifest!,Ie." o'l'IIillg mrd desirab/e
dimrer sen'ice lIIaftered lo lIlallY yOlfllg peop/e.
5 Hall:; Copa, slOIl/!ware composife oottle,
c. 1962, Coper's fill/!/y balaJlced slmpes fldd I/p
lo a SCII/plllm/ re/atioJlsllip offorms IIJal crente
al\lodemisl-illjllleJlced bul lmditiollalist-
derj'ed 'l'Ork. HI 20.5C1II/8;1I.
6 Pder Vou/kos, mse, 19H. TI/e gl/m of tlle
1950-69 cernmic Tt'i.'O/rdioJl, VOlflkos Ilelped
plll cemlllies 011 mI equa/ foo/illg ;:l'itll ollt"r art
forllls, n.>placillg slUlpt'S illfrenledfrolll f'meliolla/
l'essels <l'itI/ scu/plllml forllls. Ht 35'5cm/J.iIl.
7 Roberf Arm,>soll, Toaster, 1966. ATllesoll
;:m5 oue of lile /eaders of lile {Vest Coasl FlIllk
1Il0'ellleJ/t. His paml/e/ed Claes
O/del/bllrg's 50ft, Pop Art sculplures iJl
tmllsformillg f!'i'eryday, ballal objects iJltoorll/s
of - to om' critic - "bmsl/
<
alld "irl//ell! social cOlI/lI/el/tary."
8 Benlk:; ml/g, C.196.J.. The 19605 saw tire ri;;e
of epIJemeTll, m/d ,dUlI ,ens lo wcome
m('lIlombifia, Sl!l1illg at /lIajor illteTllatiOJlal
tll/l:lioll/oUSl.'S by ti/e 19805. Ht 8.5cm/3'!i1l. 4
'...
...
46:
9
6
8
9 Eftare SOft;;b5, Bunna totl!llI scu/plure',
196.J.. Sott$lfSS' largl' Ct'mlllic alld glll:>s
sculptrm'S rt'il/lroduCl'd idea:' aoolll symbol.
icollogml'}Y' al/d rillltTl ill tlle colllexl of Por
alld hlll(l'aliClII. Ht 2.08111/6ft Joill.
Glass
New Organic Shapes
1 2
\
,
1 Har,yY Lilt1etoll,g/nss alJj('cts, 19,5--6.
f.ittlelOIl ,ms key ;1/ tlll' (rl'nti, ....d('i:l'1opmcllt
olglns:,. TI/e im't'lltiOIl o/ I/('il' fOrllwltll' /l/mili
fJnt he dl!5igl1cr could nl"O n /IInke,. 01111
domestic sen/e. Lit/Ie/oll's il'Ork SllOil'S I!l{' IIl'itl
sCIIlptural possi/1i/ities. Ht (fal/est) 33.5C1I1/1Y:ill.
2 Tapio lVirkkaln. Kanttarelli ,'ase, 19+7. In l/JI.'
194>-505 lVirkknln desig!1l'd n picce tlln! ,1'011
JIIIt iJltcmntiOllnl r('cogl/Uiol/. A nemal' later, {,is
Il'Ork bt'C(lJ1I1.' ilion' $('/15110115 a//(1 xuiplum/,
cOlljirmillg lVirkknln's sfnll/lillg. /-Ir S.jcm/31.iIl.
3 GlIIlJInr Cyrl/ nI/a KIlj Frt1l1ck (miIM/e), Pop
gob/els, 1965-6. Cyrll rcmemllt'ri'd l/lnl, "111
196j, nfter '/sifiIlS se<'ernf n'1"nrillllls Witll
nll tlll'ir fflllfnstic ('xo/iejisllcs, 1bt-gml fa {'II;OY
/y doillg tlll'Se go[lfds rcitll IIIl1!ticolollrt'd
Ir.: lII4Id.: lli.:m illlJ J/lmirl?d Il!feTlmt
CO/Ollr COlJll'Ilnfioll:'." Ht (/eft pnir) 16cm/6!ill. 3
464
A
fter the Second ,",Vorld vVar glass design became
more organic, with silhouettes often simple and
apparently funclional. The "Glass 1959" exhibition al the
Corning Museum in New York was a showcase for the
dominant tendencies, bul aIso a swansong. For, in 1962,
the Toledo Muscum of Art in the USA sponsored two
seminars al \'\'hich glass was blown from a new formula
that could be melted at a temperature low enough to be
workable in the Shldio ar classroom. Very soon it was
possible for designcrs to make their OWI1 glass.
In the 19605 and '70s there was a Shldio glass reviva!.
Designers moved away from farms with a clear outline to
more irregular, broken, and occasionally eccentric shapes
with uneven colour and texture, and diverse decorations.
Glass \Vas treated as a medium of artistic expression, and
even the nominallv ftmctional forms of the 1950s were
,
superseded by decorative or sculptural experiments.
Typical of the ncw tendency ",as a rediscovery of Art
Nouveau and, in particular, the designs of l.e. Tiffany
and Emile Gall. Art Nouveau, \Vith its sinuous,
sensuous, idiosyncratic shapes and often extreme
asvmmetrv, \\'as deemed to cvoke the 19605 mood of
, ,
rebellion and dccadence, Ln glass, the technique of
de-ix/Te, associated ",ith Art NOllveau, \Vas rcdcployed
and the Oallm factol)' isslled works by contemporar)'
sculptors including Salvador Dali and Csar.
Scandinavian design flourished in the 19605. Finnish
designers Tapio Wirkkala and TUllO Sarpaneva created a
free-flo",ing, adventurolls sty1c, reAccting the mood for
individualism and experimentatian. At the Kosta ",orks in
S\\'eden, Bertil Vallien and Goran and Alln \'Varff
exploited the ne"- aesthetic sensibility for colour and
flo"'ing farm. But it ",as in the USA ",here a ne", attihlde
to glass ",as most pronow1Ced. Sam Herman's work
ranged from simple and formal free-blawn lead glass,
throllgh abstract, sculptural mirrorcd glass forms, to Pop
Art-influenced gIass sculphlTCS. In the 1960s, glass offered
many crcative possibilities, and a paper presented at the
eighth Intemational Congress of Glass in 1968 Sllms up
the era: uArtist-produced gla5s: a modern revollltion."
465
I
4 Timo Snrpallei'fl, Finlandia Bamboo mse,
196.;_ T/e llller oI sCiwnlmajor mmrd:;.
5ar1/fl1/l:.:a de:;igllf'd 1IIt1I1Y dWmmf objt'cts -
from m s t ~ r o cookillg enre lo 'mppillg papel'
-1111/ is pnrfiCl/lnrly n'lJI/.'IIIbr.wdfor "is Jligh/y
sopl/istimted glns:> o[ flu! 19605. Ht 15(1II/51.ill.
5 Knj Fml1ck. Warlsila-Nuutajarvi oow/.
1967. T/e IInlll'(' oIgfnss as 111/ orgal/ic. allllosl
/h'IIg eJltily /5 captl/red lIere. Frnllck il'llllted
fIJe alljec! fa "sttlJld 0/1 ils OWIl lIIerit:;."
6 Di,:" Toikkn, Lollipop Isle, 1969. Toikkn, wllo
becml1f' nrtistic dirl!c/or of file Ambia IVorks,
desigl1ed domestir iml'eS for /(/(10111 productioll
bul Ul50 l/sed glns:;. as n seu/ptlll'1 medil/lIl for
Dile-offa,-tistie creafiOlls. 1/t 38cl1I/15! 1.
I
,
7 Snliwdor DnlJor Dalll1l. pat-de-verre scu/plnre, 1970. JI/slns Rosellt/m/
COlllmissiolled nrtistsfor tI/r Stl/dio Rnllge. so Dnl/III engnged sculptors
il/c/lIdil/g Snlmdor Dnli fo desigll "nrtistic" gfnsswnre. Ht 76cIll/;oill.
8 5nm Hall/n/l, grol/p of mirron'd fOl"/IIs, 1970. TJll'St' flI"t' I!sst'lItinfly
sC/llplures. nlld hnI'e n killsllip willl file cxpcrimcl/ls tnkillg plnc!' ill Ihe
filie nr!s illllle 19605. Ht 39clII/15;1.il/.
8
5
6

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7
4
Metalwork
Slainless Sleel
3 Keitll Tysst'II. si/pt'r
crllldelnhrum. 1966. Lih' tl,!!
mace, il tl'115 n/so cOllllllissioJled
by ale Compal/Y
01 Goldsmitlls, iJl l/lis (nse for
Exeter Unipersily. nI/ti eombin!!s
!radifioll wirll (1 cerfai" degr!'!'
ofilllloc'ntiol/. Ht 46cl1I/18ill.
2 Rol>l'rf I\'e/dl, staill/l?5s-s!ee1
fOfft'/? seto (,1966. Ve/e11 (fIld
dt'sigllers Iike lIilll ill he USA
mu Emt1J'f. '<,n' re:.pollsible
for p01/1/lnri:iJlg n coIlscn'llth'!'
A10demist slyle i{'itlll/ file
lIliM!l' e/as:; II/nrkel. Colfel! por
lit 2jCm/lO/ill.
1 SIllar! Dedill.
sih'CT Jl/llCt', 1966. COIIIII/issiol/ed
b.1( tlle 1\'or;;1I;p/ul Campal/Y o/
GoldsmitJ,;; as n lo Bat1l
l/uiras;t.". lbe macel/ses
Imditioll u'itll /l COllllllitml!llt fa
tllt' 1II000tcm agt' SOl/gil! by t11O:'('
rt'Spol/siNefor l'xpmllfiJlg Jlight'f
edllcnfiOJl iJl fIJe 1960:>.
L. 85(1II/35ill.
466
"The products of the ancient craft of the silversmith,
however modem in design, however graciously
pursued, will perhaps seem marginal to the mainstream
evolution of metalware design and as such wil! assume
the character of an essentialIy anachronistic luxury." So
wrote the decorative arts expert Philippe Garner,
summing up the situation of silverware in the 19605 and
70s. Modern, elegant silverware was, indeed, still
produced in the 1960s by lhe likes of lhe Danish finn
Jensen or the British Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths.
It was seen to its best effect where designed fer traditionaI
ceremonial settings - maces or candelabra for modem
universities, for example, and bowls or goblets for the
Church. Similarl)' as happened in glassware, there was an
Art Nouveau influence on silver design in the 19605, but
Httle was produced that broke boundaries and
conventions as had been happening in ceramics and glass.
However, the adoption and development of stainless
steel by medium to large manufacturers was to to be an
exciting development for designers producing works for
a society characterized by increasing mass affluence and
a concem with style related to dai1y living. Although it had
been in use since the 19205, stainless steeI was thought of
as a "modern" material, and thus appropriate for the
technological age. Ane\v emphasis was given to it through
flah,vare competitions SUd1 as the one organizcd by the
Museum of ContempOraf)f Crafts in New York in 1960.
In the 1960s, designing for companies such as Boda
Nova, and Pott and Viners, designers SUd1 as Robert
"\'elch, Gerald Benney, David Mellor, Folke Amstom, and
Carl Pott brought into currenc)' a modem aesthetic in
metahvare designo An undoubted modemity of simplicity
and chunkiness was complemented by a range of finishes
which were also relativelv novel, and contrasted with
,
"conservative" silven,\'are. As Carl Pott has stated, a more
modem society in which speed and convenience are
expected requires materials that are " ... much tougher,
[\Vilh] utensils ab!e to stand up to added abuse. StainJess
steel, and then also steel mixed with nickel and chrome in
special alloys, were introduced to meet thesc nceds."
5
I
I

I
6
4 Dn<'id \ld/or, staill/eSf.-stee!
Thritt cullery. 1965. TI/(' cllth}!
iunS COllllllissiolleri by he
A1illistn of Puulic 81/i/dill,?s al/ti

\Vorks nlld t..:stifit':5 fo ilIl age
WltCII tl1l! pub/ic sector ,l'IlS n
sig11 11f colI/miSSielll iIlg agCI/ t.
TllcfiI'c-piece /'n/1St' il'a:;; desigl1cd
jor rdath'ely el/fap 1IIr1!1ufactun:.
5 Tapio IVirkkala, Composition
wtler)f, 196;. IVirkknln's
Composilion has a moden,
sClIll'furIll.fi.'rl fo il. 'specinlly
flu: kllifi', whic/, /'t'scmbh's n
el/bisl sCIIlpful"l! 11IId contras!:;
('ilfl l/u' rOlllldedonl/s of JIu'
resl of ti//! CIItlt'r!!.
6 Gl'Org jl'IlSCII, Acorn
cOlldimellt set. J95J. jello;ell's
desiglls are cOllsiSft'JItly elegnllt
tllr()//gllOl/l t}e 19505 (lIld '60S.
Hl' p"T$l/l'1 dI/n/ iJlterest:; of
SCII/ptltrl.' mili si/wI'lJrk. {l/Id
mnilltnilled a crtnU'l' dialogue
b'tWi'i'1l lile /il'O.
7 Dm'id Mellor, slaiuh'Ss-stI!I!J (capot, 1965, (0111-
missiolled by file Millistry 01 Pllb/ic Bui/dillgs
alld Works. /t il/trodllced 111001'1"11, wel/-
desiglledfimctiollaf il'af? fo tl mllge 01 users ill
gOi't!l"Ilmellf cnllteel/S alld prisolls. Ht qcm/5/'ill.
8 Ame /tlCObsell, Cylinda line labfeware, 1967.
COlllbillillg fmditiou IlIlli it il'01l
sfi'em/ tlwtlrds illcll/dillg lile Associatioll o/
illdustrial Designas' lntematiOlla/ Desigll
Award i/11968. Tetlpol/lf 17CIIl/6!;iIl.
467
Fashion and Textiles
Shapes and Styles
1
-
I
1 .\'il/a Ricci dn"Ss, 1962. At the
begilllliug o/ ti/e 1960s, haute
couture sllOwed littlt l1tt'tlrl'lle55
of t]e social (lIld cultllral e/mllges
tlmf ,i'ere gafhaiJlg mOlllentllm.
Tfls gnrll1l'lIf,frOIl/ tlle Fnl/1962
colfl'ctioll, owes its sfy/e fa fhe
precedillg decadt'.
2 Dt.>siglled by Jollll AIcCollllel1, fI,e Biba lago m,; c1early :>Ollrcedfmlll
Art NOIfl'etlll, but beCtllJll' mI IlJldel/iabl.1I1960:0 5.'111100/. A ra'tllllpl'd, Art
Deco-iJl5pired lago m,; illfml1l1ud ill 1969.
3 A!tlry QlIIlllt (ul/tr!?) witll mooels il'enrillg her Ginger group e/Otl'l'';
1,I,iell mnde l/se 01simple but dramatic parten/s. Complf'fl'li by Vidal
Sassocm's lllick clloppl'd bab, "tlle look" etlllle illto ['e/lIg.
3
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~ r i s t ~ ~
\ Expon ,


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1
468
"What does fashion represent?," asked Vogue in
1959, "Decoration? Armour? A mood of
society?" Whatever the answer, the magazine thought it
beyond doubt that "For millions of working teenagers
no"" c1othes... are the biggest pastime in life: a symbol oE
independencc, and the fratemity mark oE an age group."
Youthfulness was becoming central to fashion as the 19605
began, and sources of fashion inspiraban \Vere beginning
lo change, with styles no\\' trickling I1p from the street to
mainstream storcs. In this, young fashion buyers rejected
"good laste" and high style, and no longer ctid the Parisian
hallte colftl/re fashion houses enjo), unrivalled authority.
In keeping with the mocd for youthfulness and
change, fashion became a topie of national interest and
debate in 1963 - the year ",hen "Iegs never had it so
good." The emphasis on legs \Vas underlined by the
arrival of the mini, ",hile skirts \Vere flared or ",idcly
pleated for ease of movement. The significance of this \Vas
that it \Vas the first mass fashion truly to belong to youth
- it was clearly unsuited to the older generation.
In the public's eyes, Mar)' Quant epitomizcd the nen-
mood in fashion. Her trip to the USA in 1962 \Vas highly
successful and helped to establish British leadership in
YO\.U1g fashions. Quant realized that there \Vas no\V a mass
market for the type of clothes she \Vas designing: "... there
\-\'as a rcal need fer fashion accessories for young people
chosen by peoplc of their own age. The young \Vere tired
of \Vearing essentially the same as their mothers."
Conditions \Vere ripe for development, and dcsigners
blossomed as the market gre\V. Marion Foale and Sally
Tuffin \Vere typical of the new young designers ",ho
rapidly rose to fame in 1962 and 1963. The pair left
London's Royal College of Art with the cry, "\"TC don't
want to be chic; \Ve jusr want to be ridiculous." Rather
than dictating a new fashion trend to customers, the)'
were themselves a part of it - so much so that they were
able to say, "\Ve onJy design dothes that \Ve \Vant to "'car."
It \Vas not long before Laura Ashley arrived on the scene
with her sprigged cottons for clothing and interiors. Her
influence \Vas to last for at least two decades.
><
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7 COHrreges, Space Age mllge,
1965- COl/rreges was file Jirs!
fas/lioll !lvusc fo rd/lllk jashiol1
il1 tllC 1960s, 1lI0vi1lg fo svme-
tllillg far yOllnger - a "IICW 'way
of dressing wilicfl ji/s tlle age," as
l/le fOllnder pllf it.
6 Ol/e of tlle IIlOS! nlIlIrillg
eDil/ras/s of tire time <VilS file
micro 01" /IIilli dress mld f1lc lila..;
coa/ - (/ classic 01 cOlleen/lllcHI
(lnd display. Maxi con/s pnrtly
dl!rivl'd /1"0111 the fnsllioll for
mililnryaltire.
5 Mini rires;. By /e /IIiM!e 01
lile 19605, tite milli WIIS gettillg
sllO!"ter alld hecolllillg tite 1I/osI
auiol/s expressioll 01 tire lleiV
age. Fas!lioll deterll1il1ed by e/ass
{Inri wenltl, was beillg slIperseded
by!ashioll detenllillcd by (lge.
4
4 Bilm!nsltiolls. Barbara HII/allicki
f/lld Slep/lell Fi/:sill/l1/01l illitin/ly
sold "hl alIypllotic ntmosp/tere 01
POl/l/dl1lg pap lI/l1sic nlrd SWillgillg
silor! skirls. ..f01" gir/s {lAIO wrmt
lo!s ol"ew, cheap, l/O/ ver!! ,{'e/!-
made clat/t!!:; ... ", nccol'dillg fo
olle lriter ni fIle time.
6
46S
1
1 Picrre Cnrdill, fllr-trillllllcd. WOOIlCII, plnid
conl ,{'ith ,poallen gnitcl"s, dnrk gloues, mlff
dnrk Imi, 1965. (nrdil! ml/ged frolll delllure
ami elegan! lo expressilx {lIId st'lIsnliOlln/ist;
frolll l/lis fo he/lile/s. 2
2 Os:.ie C/nrk nI/ti Allln!1dn Pollock, gypsy sl!!le
fnsJJiolJ, 1968. Tilae ll'ilS n rediscOlxry ofdlluic
sly/es in t!1I: Inte 19605. Arar! frOI!! ojferillg
f1nl!lboym/CI.', el/1I1e StY/6 expresscd SOIllCtflllS
01 file "global pillage" t1l/killS of t/w t;11/(',
470
"Mod/' lIsed both as a nOlln and an adjeetive, became the
blanket term for these young styles. The lnternational
Fashion Coutlcil in 1964 acknowledged the youth market
as a "style of fashion," and the h'ade journal the Tailor ami
Culta said, ", . .for the first time ever, many fashion
nfluenccs are cmanating from the under-23 group."
Fashion mar have been breaking down class barriers but
it was creating a new condition of membership: age.
Energy and movement became an early symbol of
YOllthflllness. Vague in 1962 caBed for "space-age clothes
that can be latmched to cram into suitcases, crush into
narrow spaces for long joumeys, and emerge at the end
laboratory-fresh." The quatation caphres several aspects
of the mood of the time with references to space (with its
teclmolagical advennue), jaumeys (the excitement of
being "on the move" as opposed to "settled down"), speed
of living (no time to pack well), and science (technology
was glamorous and progressive). The ne\,,' fashion had to
serve today's lifestyle, which did not allow time fer
changing into outfits far different occasions in order to
conform to traditians and convcntions. Young females
were now told they needed clothes that could be put on
IJ".first thing in the morning and still feel right. .. at
midnight; clothcs that go happily to the office and eguany
happily out to dinner." The pace of contemperary life
was, supposedly, hectic; and - certainly if the fashion
writers were to be believed - it was fun.
Energy and flln were dosel)' related to sexuality.
Quant stated "sex appeal has Number Onc prierity" in
female fashion designo One of the most extreme examples
was the "topless" fad of 196-:1 wbid1 received sensational
publicity, but there were also more socially acceptable
dresses with sexy cut-away sections, and bikini drcsses
with netting panels. The dresses almost invariably
revealcd less than at first seemed the case, and were
sometimes worn with a flesh-coloured body stocking.
It was in male fasbion that the shock of the new had
greatest impacto Up to the time of Pop, male clothes were
sombre and discreet. Any extrovert display was taken as
a snub at decorum and good taste. lf a woman's clothing
4 Dmlid Ht'eMer. plastic 1rl?Sst'S.
1966. Hec1Jfer's dress!!s tren'
sllppo:;ed to bl! disllOsa/lle.
lo I!le Pop dllos 01
"lIIassit,c! illifia/ impact ami slIIa/f
sllstaiJlillg pOU'I?r.' UllfmditiOlw/
fll/Jrics s/to'ed (Ollllllitlllt'lIt fo Il
fllst-cJlIlllgillg tecJm%gicnl age.
5 ElIlIIlllIllle/ Ullgllro, allllllilli1ll11
bm Illld lIIill; :::kirt, 1968. LllIgaro's
e/aliJes ,'('re pllrt c!Of/;l1g.
sCl/lpture. lllld body je'dll!ry.
E.rper!lIIell/1l1iOIl amf c.rlrCIII ;5111
'('re acceplcrl as parl o'l'/1Il1
flls!/iol1 was about ill Ihe decnrle.

2
1 /l'ITJI SJrimptoll II/odeflillg ,cool/m cnrdignll
nI/ti matehiu,'? liS"':;. 1965- CJlIlllky textllre
re/IIT11ed lo dotfillg 111 he '9605. 1t l'n$
particlI/ar/y /Oplllar witJ, tll!' YOllllg [ecal/se
01ils -;SI/n/ Iwd loetle appea/.
2 dny llres:;, 1967. FasltiOIl:; ojten
jlle/udt'ti /l/ateria/::: Cllf il1 1111 1111//$1/11/ Il'IIY, or
com proi.
'
ocntii.'4!I,1I. T/e body stockil1g m:;
115ed lo re/ni/! lI/(1desly.
3 Pnca Rabnlllll.'. metal/ie d,."55, 196j. /11 he
19605 fasll ;011 l/sed 1111 i 1111Ol'n Ipe "expnIlded
fidd" ollllateria/s. Metal drcsses colllxyed
1m lI/aS(' of lI1odcl'I1ity. progressi,jslII, Imd 11
lnck o/ sojllU.'s:;. perlmps t'qllil'n/el1t fo
Brutnlis/nrcllilec/llrt'.
Use of Materials
1
4
471
tr.l
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Textiles
3 8nrbnrn Bro'II, Expansion,
fllmislJillgfabric, 1966. TJJis
Op Art dl'sigll fol' Heals ;11
Loudol/, sholl's hall' tlle Gp Art
cmze ;u/he lIIid-196os !Inri
moved/1'011/ pnilltillg fa
ellCOlllpnS$ /10/ ollly grnpl1ics,
Imt n/so!rlrlIishillg textiles.
4 Maija Iso1n, iv1elooni fabric,
196,3. Iso/nlmd Illllnjor /!Ipad
011 file FillllisJI textile /ldus!I'Y.
Tlle ba/dlles:> 01 sea/e nlld briglltly
colol/red geomefric pattems
cOl/l1fered tlle decorl/III associated
tit! ScnlldiJlni.1iml desigll in ti/e
prei.,iOl/s decade. 3
2
1 Eddie Sqllirt'5, Lunar Rocket prillted
COltOll, 1969. Space wns n direct illspimtioll
for Olis bold ami cofol/rfll1 desigll wl,;c' /'aS
l/tended "to celebrttle IJe IlOped-for lnlldillg
01n mal! 01/ file 1/10011."
2 SI/e Thatcller. Space Walk, J969. Eddie
Sq//ires snys il ,as illjlllt'llced "maillly by tlle
tl.'c/mologJj im'Ol1.'I.'d ill attl.'lIIpfillg to place a
mml 011 file 1110011. 5cimcefictioll, a/so a slrollg
illjlllellce ill tlle 19605, 1,1ayed its part as well."
~
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472
6
5 Eddie Squires, Archway
textile, 1968, Sqlres lms
descrilNd IJOil' tIJe illspirafioll for
Archwar mil/e frOJII "1930S
cmema archifectllre. tlu' pamter
Roy Lie/ltellstlI (tlll/l1 colour
blilld fest e/mrts." By 1111.' l"lId of
tlle 1960s. tl rl"lro shle based 011
Art Deco ims becoming a key
illgrediellt ill textile designo
6 Pierre Cnrdill. 1'O01 ctlrpet,
C,J968. Cnrpet desiglll"rs J:l'ere
illjlllcnced by Pop c%llrs alld
5Jmpes. Carpets llOW e/a11l0l/red
for tlttt'lltioll just tlS mlle/I as lhe
fllrJIisllillgs t1mt stQOl.f 011 fhem.
8 Aun 51111011, {'eai.Jillg, 1969. 511ftoll relates ho,,', ill tlle eady 1960s
"mallY ll'eapers <{'eut to ..tldly meO/ltrol/ed limits bllt titen beeame /1 key
011 tite lIIore flexible tllillkillg iu illdustrinl te.dile desigll.
8
9 Op flll"lli511illg fabrie, 1966.
Tls fabric, desigllcd by B/lrb/lrIJ
Bro,"1/ for Hca/s. demOllslmles
llOiI' tlll.' Op cm:(' ill the mid-
19605 1II00'edmili P/lilltill."-: lO
grn}llties /llId fllmisllillg textiles.
7 Peter Collillgl'ood, il'l.'apillg,
1960, Collingil'ood's fexti/es
I.'xlJibit /1 sop/rislie/lted 5<:1I5ilh'ily
tOil'ard e%lll' /llld /111 exqrlsife
r/se of maferi/l/s.
was supposed to make her attraetive to the opposite sex,
the l11oti\'ation behind men's fashion \Vas, cOI1\'entionally,
to denote status. Howe\"er, red denim trousers, purple
shirts, green sweaters, and even brightly coloured shoes
were to appear, with fashion magazines reporting a
wholesale plllnder of ideas from female fashions. One
commentator bemoaned the "new concentration on
visual impact al' the complete expell5e of quality." But
expendability and the condition of continual change were
the \'ery essence of Pop.
The space race unsurprisingly inflllenccd fashion
designo PVC was a material that had to be lIsed in a
modem way - as designer 5ally Jess said, "It's a material
YOll can't work nostalgically, you ha\'e to make modern
shapes," The forms such as see-throllgh visors - often
came from the imagery of space. PVC \Vas prodllced in
"razzle-dazzle bright COIOlUS," Op and floral patterns,
"hygenic white," and see-through. But it \Vas sil ver PVC
that mast closely reflected the fashion for space,
Courreges brought out "moon girl" silver trousers in 196-1-
and, by 1965, QueeJI contended sil\'er clothing " ... fits into
current fashion like an astronaul inlo h.is eapsule."
The inexorable rise o the mini continued and, in 1967,
it became the "micro," its length little longer than the
le\'el of the Crutel1 indicating, according to Quant, that
" ... women are in charge of their sexuallh'es." From 1967
to 1969 there were annual alltumn predictions that the
mini would not surYi\'e the winter, but such a utilitarian
approach to clothing overlooked the more important
hmctions o c10thing in pop fashian. At the end o the
deeade the maxi became fashionable but did not eclipse
the mini. One answer to winter temperanues \Vas the
maxi plus mini: a mini skirt wom lU1der a maxi coat.
Other solutions \vere trousers wom under mini skirts,
and the mini skirt made into eulottes or, later, "hot pants."
The historical achie\'ements of pop fashion were
olltlined by the design commentators Ken and Kate
Baynes. The visual creativity of 1960s fashian was such,
they arglled, that "one day 'Camaby Street' could rank
with 'Bauhaus' as a descriptive phrase for a design style."
473
Industrial Design
Clean Modern Unes
-
_.
474
4
-
-
-

5
1 Offiel! illferior. TI/e grol/l1lg mmrellt.'S5 of
l/le nppenrnllCl.' of ,,'er!ldny tem5 led fo (/11
nerense il1 corpornli! idl!lltity redesiglls as
colllpnllies COllllllllllicnled l!ldl' up-to-dnfl!116S
(md sen:;/! of lJIadl'mi/y nl/d J!rogressir.jslII.
2 CnpslIle kitc}'1I nI lIe Oe:;igll Centre, LOlldoll,
1968. A, jnflllenc/! of he space mee cml be Sf'1!1l
ill lllis kilc!J('II, tlll' Sptlct.' age l!quimlellf o/ lIe
{itfed kitchl'll. ,j'itlt III00tlden p/astic;; rntIJer fhall
,mod 01' ,'('lIt'!'r;; fo IIIflximb' ('1'l.'I"Y spnce.
3 AfJ Ha/painl Auton1tic 1501 <I'ns/illg
lIIac/tillc, 1966. rile "151" is mI ('.mlllple of
"clenIlJilliIlS" il1 t/w tbigll of,l'1/ite goods in
file 19605, gi,l/IIS (111 IIp-lo-dnle nppenrtmcc.
4/01.' C%m/'O, milli kit,IJell OH Cfl5ft'rs, 1963-
E;:e hlcl/el/:, COI/M lit' mobifc ill tIJe 1960:<.
ifficieney, nll millillfri:ntioll fmd
a dt'ep nppen/ to t}e 60s' IV. J J ]cm/++ill.
5 Ke/lllt'tfl Graugi', Egg toMe /igl/ter, 1968.
D<'siglle'd for RVII:>OII, tlle' figllter e'pitomi:ed
tlm'e nspects of 1960s desigll: it ms madI.' ol
p/astic all ms '!Jite ill mlaur - LlOtll
COllllotill/\ III011emitlf - '!lile its TOlllle
, .
forlll ms: typicnJ of tlle tecndl!. Ht jcm/llill.
Innovations in Transport
1 ,\JouItOIl /Jic!,c1e. 196.. A rndicnl rdllillkof
tlt.' llicyr:h> /cd lo tllt.' MOll/tOIl fllld,.fi)/IOiI'llg it,
a -sah's of 5I11nJ/-il'll" ..1ed bicycll's 'j/" -sprillgs.
RdJillkillg /liC!fch> - lll/dml/gl'f for 60
}/,'nrs - ims t!1piclll ol ti/(, liccad.'.
2 Ford .\Iuslallg. 1966. Thl' ,\ll/slullg o.ffa,'d
t.'xcifellll?llt alld nppt'nlat prict'-
lig/ spe.'t.'.1 in 1I(,,!1I Sl!,le.
3 ,\Iilli (.Ir, Brd,,/ \Iotor Corpomlioll. 1959.
Doi'l:lIt'lt llll Alex Imd prodllCt'lI (rol/J
-
1959. tl/l' \,, h.'c(llIt' (me of file ml/s of /11,.
pa;od, Ctllll!lillillS file po:,sil.jlity oIIIIO"(,III"111
ci// /11.. pn'u'x' o/fllll.
4 COllconl'. dt'siglle,t rt11ll 1956-62. Tl1e
plfllle m:, fmiled as n sYIII/lOl of
progn-ss fllT ib s/1t.,,d. l/lid l't.'TIlted as a ,,!/ml'O!
t,'cJmofo;icnl for
21.--=
4 _
T
he rise of pri\"ate affluence and the subsequent
growth of consumerism guaranteed a golden age for
industrial design in the 19605" No longer \Vas it a qllestion
of whether or not you owned a car, n', oc refrigerator, but
rather whether you o\\'ned the right make and model.
Rather than competing on lowest cost sorne companics
began to pursue a high-profile design strategy in which
sophisticated styling ga'"e the product added \"alue and
desirability" Bralffi, for example, from the mid-1950s
began to transform its mage through the work of
designers such as Dieter Rams. It created prodllcts which
"'ere not onl" desired bllt were collccted bv stvle-
, , ,
conscious individllals and even by aesthetically aware
mllsellms, predominant among which was the Museum
of Modern Art in New York. The Pop artist Richard
Hamilton once perfectly surnmed up this attitude.
\Vriting of Rams' ,vork for Bralffi, Hamilton declared that
" ... his consumer products have come to occupY the place
in my heart and m)' consciousness that the Mont Saint-
Victoire did in CeZaIUle's."
-
Industrial design occupied a prorninent place in the
consumer landscape, and was a recurring motU in the
aesthetic life of the stvle-conscious ind\"idual.
,
Mainstream product design by the likes of companies
such as Braun, 18M, and O!i'"etti ma)' not ha,e been
directly influenced by space tra'"el, but it certainly
cOtUloted modemity and progress. The \\'idespread use
of undisguised plastics, clean-cllt or no'el shapes, and
the absence of omarnent and decoranon in industrial
design underlined jllst ho\\' rnuch the 19605 was, at the
time, ,"iewed as a break wth the pasto
Fonn itself could indicate the image of modemity. On
the one haIld, the innO\"ati'"e forms of Italian lighting and
objccts appeared progressi,"e because they ",ere a radical
break with comennons. Less innovative forms al50
appeared very modern when the)' exploited rnaterials
and coIour in a certain \\'ay. Kenneth Grange's 1968 Egg
Iighter is a case in point, and epitomized threc traits of a
strand of later-1960s designo First, although it i5
sophisticated in finish and warm in tactile quality, the

Design lar the Hame
4Brigllf/y coiol/red p!tlstic
goods. TlIe sYllflletic cfltlmc-
teristic;; of p/tlstic tI'ere l/O /ollgl'r
disgllised 1mt, ill effect, H'ere
ce1ebratedJor tlU!ir modernity,
imlJ/editlcy, tllld OOld1ll:ss.
3
w
e,:,
<C
w
(.)
ii:
en
1 EII:o 1\.lari, Pago-Pago t'tlsc.'S. '969. A
tfesigll l/110m/ion, 11Ii;; il'n;; ti i'a5t' flmt eou/d
be im>erted, offering tI small COlltnil/!'T al Ol/t'
clId, fllld ti Inrger Dile al l/u! Otllt"T. Tite form
I?r'Okes 9 3 ~ desigll, but retaills a 19605
appearllllce. Ht 3(1/1/111,1".
2 Epllellll.'l"I? by Dodo Desigl/s. The eclecticisl1I
alld decora/h'l.'lI!'s,:; of epllelllcrnl dl!sigllllrl'
((Iptllred iJl t/lis illlIstrntiOIl of protlllcfs mnde
by Dado Desigl/$ Lid.
3 Dmd Mellor. rl'1Jite disposable po/ystyrellt'
clIt/eryfor Cr05S Pnpmmre. 1969. Dis/lO:SIl-
biJit.1f becaml' /l fentllre of dl'Sigll ill I1lis
dI'Clldt'. Jt ims asslIlIIl'lf !fuII IIJere wl're 11/01'1'
;lIten:slil/g (llld CJ/joyable hill:;:s fa do ffml1
e/can 01' il'llSfJ kllls for 1'1.'-115...
4
476
material is not seeking to be anything other than that
archetypically 19605 material, plastic. Second, it is ",hite,
a "colour" associated prirnarily \Vith space and, by
extension, \Vith hygiene, efficiency, purity, and clarity.
Third, tile form has the bottom-heavy, rather ,"veighty
proportions visible in much plastics design, especially in
the hunitl.lre of Lhe time. 5uch forms may have been
facilitated by the characteristics of plastic as a material
and the technique of injection-moulding, but it \Vas more
than technological determinism that accounts for the
hea,')' shape. Taking the particular instance of the Egg
lighter, the Pop 5ensibility and \Vit of using lhe
inappropriate and incongruou5 image of an egg for a
lighter obviously appealed to Grange, but the
proportions of the objeet evoke a whole periodo The
rounded forms are to the later 19605 what rectilinear
forms \Vere to the 1920s and the streamlined shape to tile
19305. Al! signify modemity but with different
associations. The rectilinear style refened to industrial
mass-production and the machine; streamlining to the
fast movement through '\'ater and air; the rolUlded shape
to structural strength, completeness, and perfection.
Rounded, continuous forms look like teclmology in a
fuhrristic state. Emphasis \Vas no longcr given to the
rational and logical industrial proeesses of production (as
it had been \Vith Modernist design) but to a gesta/t form
\vhich seems to have been as mysteriously concei"ed and
magically produccd as a seamless gown. These rather
Marmerist formal tendencies are what now gives this
style of 1960s design such a dated appearance.
Ho",e"er, the white technologicallook was only one of
the main tendencies in product design in the 19605. More
evocative of the period were brightly coloured plastics.
Plastics in the earlier part of the cenhrry had been largely
dark or mottled because of the problem of blemishes and
colour inconsistencies. In the 19305 lighter tones were
used for radios and other consumer goods bui, although
bright colours were available in the period between the
wars, it was not until the 1950s that they were used
wdely across a whole range of products. Bright
,1 (1
....

"

.o


. ~ ~ ~

,
---
11 1\ 11,\,"'1" \ 1'''',\,'/111''11 1, '"" !,' '111 I,f,/,
(/"1/.., r,,' tl""""!"''''II'11 /1/1"",1 /0"
1/11.1,,,11111."11, /'111" II'S'lrll' I/P"'H" II/.
/111 tl/I1I..,I/'II/h,' 1/-, 0/1'/" ", 1/1, 1'11I" 111
I
5 JI/j1n/ah!e ClIshioll witll Pop gmphics by Peta MIlX, late 19605. At file
/110ft! ep!lclIll'ml el/ti of desigl1, impllcf ,m' fhe snliellt qua/!!!. Pop l/lid Op
nrt becnlllejreqJlf.'Jltly E/l/oted styles nl1d ,pae poplllnr witll t!le YOJlllg.
6 Morp/'y Richards, tonstC/", 1961. V1nry QWIIl/ immor/nli=eri t/ie tons/er
in 1966 WitJl her rinislj pril1l.
7 Ke11l1eth Gmllge. m=or, 1968. DesiSlledfor \Vilki1l5011 Sword, this snfdy
m=or /'aS casy lo IIse anri looked good. Like {he Kodak compllc/ cnl11ems by
Gn71lge, file' m=or save stylis/l11l'5s a{ Illl10demte priee. L. 13elll/5ill.
9

)
8
..
,

8 Ola! Bnckslrolll, O-series scissors. MI/de for

Fiskars, t!lis /11I1111111t' desigll is vI/sed 011 typica!
SClllldinl7<.'illll crgollomic (OIlsiriera/iolls l/lid n
seIIsil 'eee/in,'? for formo L 22cm/8ll.
9 ROIISOII, por/able hnirdryer, lJIid-I96os. The
lIIager!! olspace witli tlle as/rolll/u!'::; life-
sl/ppo!"1 system nlld he/met is C
l
okcd by t/is
por/ab/e !wirdryer. It sntisfied fhe ycnl"llillgfor
design 01/ file 1Il000e.
10 Pmd Clllrk. Pcrspcctive Design dock, lnte-
19605. FUI/diona/Iy collllted li!tlc compnred
fo IJe fllshioJlnble //lpad ollhl'se novel/y dock::;,
whicJl dreil' 011 Ihe stylistic trcllds ami bold
grnphics 01 the day. Ht 23CI/1/9il1.
7
I
New Laak lar Appliances
4
4 "Stmlriard" tdepllOl1l', 1963.
FOIJOit'illg l/le illtroductioll in t1le
UK 01 STD (Stallliard Trzmk
DiallillgJ ill 1959, tllert' m;: a
COIl;;OIIS effort to mooemi:t' 111,'
ft'1(V/IOIlC ;;y;;.tl.'lll. Jllay..d it;;.
par! (I;;;;eell 1Ierv. Ht 12CIII/-1

.....
. .. -..
_.-_ .. -
-_.-.-
.- ...
----
7

.:.
2
1 .....
1 f/tore SottSflSS fllld Killg. Valentinc por/aMe tYpCil'ritrrfor O/i,-'ctti,
1969. j,tel/ded tlU! Valentine lofor "al/Y plan' exct'J't JI mi o/fiel',
:'-O 11$ l/al fa rt'1l1illd flll.l!olle aIl/lollololIOII:; 't'OrkillS IlOlIrs, bllf mt/ler fa ktYl'
amateur poets campal/Y 011 quiet SI/I/days j'l llEe COl/lltry." Ht 35. jcm/qill.
2 Olin'tfj, Tekne 3 IYJel'riter, 196j. Qli.'eui eslab/ished itsdj 115 el
COlllpllll.lf collllllittt'd lo stylis/1Il1'5S fl5 H'el1 as e.(ficiellcy.
3 ,\farco ZmlllSO nI/ti RicJtnr1 511ppa. Grillo tl'ft'P}OIIt'. J965- Tlll.' Grillo
- JIIl'illlillg "ai!!/" - cOlllbti'i tedlllologiCllI IIlId mihily :ooJllorpJic
foml;; PitJIOII! L. (opmJ 22(1II18Iill. 3
478
monochromes became available and suited the appetite
of the later part of the 19605 for bold, unsubtle colours. In
his ceIebrated My'"o1ogies essay (1957), the phosopher
and cultural commentatar Roland Barthes expressed
misgivings about the quality of the calaur of plastic: ". .. it
seems capable of retaining only the most chernical-
laaking [calours). Of yeilow, red, and green, it keeps anly
the aggressive quality, and uses them as mere names,
being able to display anly cancepts of colour." Yet what
for Barthes \vas plastic's "undoing" became a central part
of its aesthetic in the 19605.
Plastic in a range of bright red, purple, orange, green,
yeIlow and other \'i"id colours were used for chairs,
occasional tables, television and record-player casings,
lamp bases, dinnenvare, tumblers, jeweilery, and many
other things. The bright colours perfectly expressed the
mood of the decade. Polyurethane - either wC't-look or
foaro - glossy ABS, shiny and/or transparent acrylic, and
PVC were not only used undisguised but seemed to
flaunt their very "plasticness." This trend went beyond
the Modemist "truth to materials" principie to a stage at
which the associations of plastic became part of the
"meaning" of the product: plastic was, in a way, both
form and content.
This had come about because of the nvo-way exchange of
Pop culture. Na langer l,vas it a case af popular artifacts
being influenced by high culture; in Pop culture, "high
culture" drel,v heavily on "Iow culture." The most
obvious examples were in art: Lichtenstein made use of
the comic strip, while Andy \,\rarhol plundered the
supermarket sheh'es for inspiration.
During the 19505 plastic had been used in all manner
of "cheap and nasty" ways to make toys and trinkets.
Consequently it had becme discredited in the eyes of
disceming consumers who associated it with poorly
made, easily broken, and vsuaUy ta\vdry goods
manufactured in the Far East. However, views were to
change. Consumers began to value expendability over
durability in the mid-1960s. Especially when a self-
conscious campness and tongue-in-the-cheek kitsch
47(
2
2 Ac/lilll' Casligliolll', Toio.f7oor
lamp, 1965. Tllere is mil/l/compro-
lII;sillg tecJmologicn/look fo tite
Toio. /t ms to becollle ala<'OlIrile
all/ollg /ligJlecJl dei'Olees il/ file
late 19705 alld carll, 'Sos.
Ht J.6j/ll/jft 4;11
3 Cae Al//ellli. spnce
lIIetal lamp, 1969. DL'5igners SI/dI
as A,tlellli appnxiated lile ligIJI
rt'eiglll. strellgl1l. a"d d!fl/si/lg
c1mract"islics of plastic;:. Tlu.'y
COl/id be lI/oulde1 fo prodllCt'
complex and scl/lptural fonlls.
Hf :q.7cIII/nill.
4 Ac1Ii1/e al/d Pi" GiaCOII/O
Cnsligfiolle, Snoopy lamp_ 1967_
by Fler.. Achille
Cnstigliolli admifted i/lterest
ol lile ilYlS "UI/tred l/al so
/l/udl 011 soli.'illg file problellls of
lightillg ill its fit/lesl sellse as 011
t'mp/msi:illg tlle decoratit'C rjllality
offixl/l res il'//l!ll t/lt'Y are i{'itl/out
lig/lf. ff Ht 4ocm/1jY.ill.
5 Brullo MUllan, Falkland
llnllgillg Iml/p, 1964. A metal
fmllle sllpporls mI r.'!asticaled
fabric lo create all idiosYllcratic
mrd scu/plum/ forlll, wllicJl dmws
altl'l/lioll lo itsdfas t1 dl":3igllcd
olljl'cf. Hll.6m/sff Ji//. 5
'-----....;
PO'tII" ",;.0,,". nv ...
01'>0""" .. !h. m.uim<.m
,r.:ommereed
l221 09-1 ora . """"t
(100 "',ll) I12p
l221 01_14 ".'" sr.ae.. orar....
(100 _<t) I12p
l22102-14 ......... . y.tlcw
(lOO wJn) 82p
L22103-14 ", 11'''''''
(lOO wJn) I12p
L22107_14 'lIS . o'u.
(lOO "".n) 82p
L221Q.l-16 "'. Or.M'
(15.0 wan) (1 10
"'O\'.llo'.v
(150 .... n) (110
L221Q&-16 'lIS 11'''''''
(l50wal1) (110
L2210S--16 e!u.
(l50 .... n) f:110
L2211Q-19 ., ....h,:.
(l50w.n) t:1 JO
L22126--24 t\Swnl:,
(200 ....u) [255
S Spu" .Ium"ium .h.d..
17 tu .,:,.m."., S..
cok>u, COmO,,tlOns. 0;00
",-hit. Corrol",'" ""m
""',lt 3coo.!Ie. ;Jnd
'''''''''01<:", l00-150w.". Us.e
'OW O.e< I ,.ole
LI9101..Mus'Md"M<; oaoo
1I9102--<:"'.iI"Iin'
"""
tw>d
l1' 1();S...iIluejwh'lt <>1M
19105-Pu'ole"et! eMlo
lI9106-!llueII''''''' l>M'O
EJe." U 91
1 Acrylic; 5hdes. /lo
shad. ,cuDy hun; lO"" e,a. a
14 ..iCa....
...,lh "e>
60-100 ....". Cin uH<1 W'l/I
!he uM on
!>7
Ul101-Reo

L21103-B:ue
L21104-0CJI ... bcn [4 la
2; Orb lillhl. '" l'M;l'o,"t .o;tylt<:
CDee JI., des,gnO<! as a
l>inc.nt "nitO one
hllhl'''1l 00'''1'' IV.;I.CI' (j,V"
I soh ClJt!U"O hlltll COI'I'Olol.
""Ih 1'." .ne I,mpholelt. 12 ''lJ
Co.mOIM el" t>tI UiltQ 'HIt" tho
"telnd'.11 un" "hCwn ""
..e 57 6O-1oowl:1
L2110>-wnOlI''''MI
.... h,{c
L21107-o""III/wn'll
EaeJ'l E6 97
3 Polyhltdron CO"h'llu'l4'I!
=a <h.c. 12 ms d,.m,w
heh !<JI 110 "10 _ ....1
<h'PilI. "'00' mOti can el
",''''<ll01l"h" '0 101m
.oe,"on.l.d"'IlM P"cs 11)'
OM
l0710&....."'''\. 8llp
1.07107-81\1' 90:1
L0710B-0<iIl\e 90p
L0710i-1'!!'<l 90p
JIIY_ Jla,",' lenl'ms
no. _.l ,....t,te....,
-:+- e"'" "'M o!
llwv 1010 n" ... no, "' ....,
;Jnd 1" I WfV .tlec;l.... 1"",,;
"'MIl 0tIlv _ eel'llal bglIlorog
4
1 Habitat J971. Tlli5
pngl'.from Habitat', cataloglle
5110,1'5 file mriety ol l/oi'el
liglltillg ai.'ai/able by tlle ol
tlu' dt'Cade. Uglltil/g l'Ccmllell/I/y
stl/Ii:ed in lile J 960$.
Eclectic Lghting Design
1
Transistor Radios and Televisions
-
1 \Iarco Zmlllso alld Ricl/tlrd Sapper, radio, 1965. TI/e il/gel/ious desigl/
of t/Jis radio meml/ l//tll if cal/Id be folded up fo make a oox, alld I1l11s it
il'flS ideal for tlle IIIml or 't'Omml Oll tlJe mo,'e. Ht 13cm/5ill.
2 PlIillips. PlIi/italla lrallsistor radio, 1963. TI/e "trmmie" jHfS olle 01 tlu'
grt'l11 symools 01 tlle age: if gm'f' COIl5t'lItillg fl'L'l/tlgers .ml1-to-i:mf1 pop
mI/sic alld disselltillg adulls a JIt'(ldaclle. IV. :!.o.jcm/8ill.
3 \Jarco Zmwso alld Ricl/tll'd Sapprr, fe1et.,jsioll, 1966. Here is fhe pI/re,
teclmologiCtT/ black oox, II/(' }orcrllllllcr o} mal1Y Sllllilar dcsiglls 11I file
19705. alld an importau! iufll/cllce olllligll redl dl'sigll .
.. ,- .
_... : ... :: .. ~ ..
.;.. o.! ',
....l{.. ;-...
_. ..' .. ' "';"
, .. ::::.:::. : : : ; : ~
......................
.. :: ::::'::::::::::::::::;:'\
480
became fashionable in the latter part of the decarle,
plastic's otha associations "'ere eagerly embraced. Plastic
",as inexpensivc and was associated ",ith a feeling of
impennanence, and - mast importantI)' - a sense of
immediacy, youth, lack cf subtlety, and fun. The result
was aH sorts of gimmicky, eye-catching, attention-
grabbing nm"elLics made in plashc. These ranged from
plastic-coated paper dresses to inflatable PVC cushions
emblazoned with the legend "Pop" - all of which "'ere
likely to end up being thrown away into a plastic-coated
\vastepaper basket.
A ",hole range of objects was stylcd for youth's aU-
action lifestyle of energy and movement in the 19605. Two
tems of industrial design in particular, howe\'er, typify
the Pop spirit of the decade. One was Ettore Sottsass'
Valellti/le portable typewriter for Olivetti wllich, with its
styleconscious form and bright-red colour (and orange
spools), looked more like a weekend case for the space-
age boll vivel/I" than a piece of mundane workaday
equipment. The other great symbol of movement and
.
freedorn was the transistor radio. As transistors became
widely and cheaply available, the "trann.ie" changed
radio-listening habits among the young. The image of the
hornogeneous nuclear family huddled around the piece
of fumih.ue that was the wireless became as anachronistic
a concept as rationing. The trannie's essential portability
meant that pop fans could listen to music in any room in
the house: they need never be away from the Top 20 and
need never be aurally isolated in an alicn environment of
nature or silence. The styling of sorne transistor radios,
often in plastic, underlined their associations \Vith
portability. Radios often borro\Ved the imagery of the
walkie-talkie or the arrny combat radio.
So, by the early 197Ds, there was a wide range of
product aesthetics for industrial design, deri\-ing, at one
extreme, from Modemist principies of "less is more,"
with connotations of purity, efficiency, and hygiene, to, at
the other, the Pop sensibility, which sub\'erted principies
and com"entions of "good taste" in fa\'our of impact,
novell)', youth, and flln.

481
1 1\ /a/"co ZtlIllISO nlld RiclJnl'd Snppa, Acolor h'/e;lision, lnle 19605. T!II:
spnce ag.' clt'afly lIJe desigll 01COI/SUlllcr prolllcts Sl/ell as t/is.
2 A/lIrphy, tdl','sioll, 1968. [1/ l/le 1960$ gmpltics il't'n! sOllldimt'$
npplied fo ordill/1rY tell/5, SUc/1 as telt',isiolls. lo gi;.'e /111'111 (l fnsJliollnble,
/lp-to-dnte nppt'nrmrce. Televisiol1!ti (1101 illc/lldil1g 5/(llId) 53CIII/21;1I.
I
)
3 Sony. por/av/e fe/t>PSiOII, 1959.
Tl1e l/se of I 1't1llsislors n'dl/ud l/le
si:e (1JIrl <l'l!iglIf of npplilmces nnd
/linde Ihcm por/nv/t', il'/icil
jacifitnted fllllll/-(lCtiOIl l!fstyle.
sOIlY Off{'IIit'd /li! ('ay ill
iJlllOmliolls SI/di as lh:;.
Ht 2-lCIII/9/.i1l.
4 KOf1nk. Carousel sUde
projtxfor, 196.r Tite solid. IIt'(I'"'-
duly. "gil! /Imll" fook 01 lIe
Carousel gm:'t' n n'nssllrillg
lII/?5sage ai'Olfl lite proj('ctor's
reabili,y alld dllmbility.
5 Kodak, Instamatic 100 cmlll'ra,
1963. PJlOtogrnphy llf,'cmll(' a
pOJmlar /l/nss actjity ill tlu'
1960s. nlld n 1I/11111't'r of m/l/ems
i/'l'rt' desigllt'd /0 look slyfis/l alld
w/Ji/c? Mili beillg
ens}/ tOllx' nlld t'.tcdh'llt m/l/l.'
lor /l/Olh'Y
6 Kt'lllleth Gmllgt'. Kodak
6rownic "cela (Im/t'm. 1966.
TlIe porl mil form uf this IIlIISS-
markd cnllll'ra cmllt' aboll'
Gmllge it slIitt'd
plJofogmplJiIlS peop/I' (/111'
majorly ol pIJotos takell).
5 '--
'"
Space Age Cameras and Televisions
1 L- ....J
Furniture 486
British 488
European and Japanese 490
Ceramies 494
Glass 496
Silver and Metalwork 498
Textiles and Rugs 500
Industrial Design 502
Postmodernism
Originally meaning "Iater than Modern," the word "Postmodern" has been
subject to many interpretations. The term has at its heart adistrust 01 Modernist
theories and approaches to design as being impoverished in terms 01 visual
language and restrictive in terms 01 meaning. Postmodernist architect
Robert Venturi, lar example, argued lar artists to work in an idiom that was
readily intelligible rather than esoteric, in tune with the values 01 popular
culture. Stylistic eclecticism is a key leature 01 the movement, and so is a
deliberate incorporation 01 images relating to late-2th-century consumerism.
T
he term Postmodern has been taken up in many
disciplines, including sociology, film, music,
communications, literature, and culhlral theorv, where
"
influential \\'riters sllch as Jean Baudrillard and Jean-
Fran<;ois Lyotard have explored its meanings. In his book
TJc Post-i\t1oriem COllditiolJ (1981), Lyotard saw the "Pst-
lvlodern" as a rejection of the uni\'ersai certainties uf the
Modernist \Vorld in fm"onr uf the loccd and proYisional.
Other ",riters, sllch as the Marxist Frederic ]anleson, have
seen Postmodernism as a form uf American culhlral
imperialism, 01' an expression uf l1lultinational and
consumer capitalismo Perhaps appropriately for the
pluralist \\'orld of Postmodernism, it is e\"ident that the
term is one that has been adopted in many different ways
and contexts and has a range of resonanccs and mcanings.
In the field uf design, definitions of Postmodernism
have \'aried in their usefulness. An earlv use of the \\'ord
"
can be found in the work of [he British design and
architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner, author of thc
widely read Piollccl"s of v1odcr (1949). ln a 1961
. . e
essa\' entitled "The Return of Historicism" he detected
wh<1t he \'icH'cd as an unH'elcome, but in.creasi..ngly
visible "Poshnodern" trend tOH'ards stvlistic eclecticism,
"
a feature that H'as to become one of the defining
charactcristics of Postmodernist architecture and designo
Ayear latee the American architect and designer
Robert Venhlri articulated many additional gualities
associated with Postmodernism in his seminal text
COlllpll'xily ni/ti COlltmdiclioll in Architectlll"l' (1966). The
book has subseguently given him a prominent position in
Postmodernist practice and debate in the visual arts. He
admired "elements \Vhich are hybrid rather than 'pure',
compromising rather than 'clean', distorted rather than
'straightfonvard', ambiguous rather than 'articul<1tcd', ..
inconsistent and eguivocal rather than 'direct and clear',"
This firm rejection of the tenets of Modernism \Vas taken
further in his 1972 book, Lmmillgfrolll Ln5 \1egns, written
with fello\\' architects Denise Scott Brown and Steven
lzenour. Taking exemplars drawn fram the neon-rich,
eclectic, and everyday language used in the visual
LeO: l. 51i:l'dcl/ d
e
.\'nt!wlic 011 Pa:;.qllia. j\eos
dock. 198,. T/c dc:;.ig/l dl"llil':;'
OH SOl'd('/1 ami 011 Pa:;.quicr:,
ill!el"(':;.t il/ (O/OH/" tlJld (01"11111:' {/
Jl/l'{/!I:' of tI/c 'i:'I/lJI
. e
11 of 1/ :,(,111 iOI1:'
, ." ,
for l'<'l'I"!,dtlY p/"odu(/:, /lrmIlS'1
fr,'.'/ exp/Ol"l1tiOll"; {timll.
CO!OU/". {/lId !extur,'.
Ht :>.6.jClII/IO/.ilI.
0PPO:'itl': Sfl/dio Alcll.Jfl/lill.
ill:,tll/lllfioll. T/Ii:;. dl"lJllwlic
t'1Ii,inJIIIllt'1I1. IlIld c:;,pl'cillil.lf
l/1e ex((':,:, (;f tI/t' c1UlIldclicr,
rd!t'c/:' tllt' 01'}1o:,iliol/ tl1i:,
t'xperimenta! Ali!IlI/-/1{/:;.cd g/"Ollp
to tlle rt':;.lmincd c!cglll/ce a/Ui
"g()od fa:,te" o( lIuril1:'tn'lIIll
ltallll
e
----
o ._ _
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10_ 'e'
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- -
2
3 AlesSlllldro M('ndini, Kandissi soja, 19;9.
A riel/ jllsioll o/ colollr, pnttf.'m, a1ll11101I-
jlfnctiollnl tl1is sojn nilects Alf.'lIdini's
COllllllitmCllt to tI/c possiMities ojdesigll
IlIlcollstrailll'l1lJy mass-prod/lctiol/ tec/mologies
olld ort/lodox SO/lItions, L. 1.2jlll/-I,ft jl/,
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1 Nl'i.'if1e Bm/.'l, sprl'l1d from The Face
lIIaga:il/l', MI1.'1198). Tlu:, oj tJIis
pageJro'" a kadiug style lIIaga:iJlI' i5 brokclI
l/JI 'isl/aI/Y'!'il/ dccorati.'c dl'i.'iccs and tYI'"
ill diffcreul sl.'!If.''; m1d 5i:e,;, refkctillg
illdi..,j1ualistic trellds ill tlle cOllllllercin/i:ed
sllwtillfll1l!llced sty/e vj post-PI/llkfa,;l'onablf.'
grapIJic epIJemtrn.
2 fUorl' Svttsass, Lydia g/a,;,; pase, C.1980,
T/is co/vl1rfll/ alld ilIllO;,Pati"e explorarioll
oj t/w expressi,'e al1d decorntii.'e potl'lltial
ojs/as,; is ill/1icnl h'c 01 thc ways il1 wilich
lIIl'mbcrs oI tlle Mel/lphis Gral/p sal/! cmfts
as n la/Jornlol"Yfor tlle I'xp/oral iOIl new
ideas, Ht 49clII!l91i1l.
484
3
artieulation of the fa\ades of leisure and entertaiJUllent
buildings in Las Vegas, Venturi argucd for architeets to
H'ork in an idiom that was readi1y intelligible and in
keeping with the ,'aIues of popular culture,
In faet, much of the genesis of definitions of
Postmodemist design lay in the hands of architects and
architectural writers, historians, and theorists, Charles
]eneks, like Venturi an American architect and \vriter, for
example, has been l defining ,'oice in diseussions of
Postmodemism, He has elaborated his ,"iews in "arious
articles and books, including Tl1e Lnllgllage 01 Postlllolfe1'll
Arcllifecfllre (1977) and Posfl1lolfel'1l ClassicislIl (1983), and
has also been iJwoh'ed in the design of many Postmodem
buildings, interiors, hrrniture, and other products,
Seen by many of its exponents as a radical current that
opened up new expressi,"e possibilities in architectural
and industrial design practice, Postmodern.ism was also
bound tIp with notions of the ephemeral and fashionable
in graphics, clothing, and retail design, Geoff HoUington,
a leading British industrial designer, saw it in the late
19705 as "a breathless eclecticism that encompassed
mass-merua imagery, arts and efafts, Art Nouveau and
Oeco, popular iconography and drug experience,"

Howe\'er, by tile 19805 there \Vere increasing doubts

about the usefulness of the ne'" termo Perhaps predictably,
in his 1983 critique of the Modernist architectural
aesthetic FI'OJ11 Bnullnl/s lo OU1' HOllse, the American ",riter
Tom \ "olfe extended the focus of rus trenchant
opprobrium to Postmodernism, 5uggesting that the term
had "caught on as the name for aH de\'elopments since
the general exhaustion of Modemism itself, As Jencks
remarked ,\'ith sorne felicity, Postmodemism \,'as
perhaps too conorting a term, Jt told you ",hat you \Vere
lea\'ing without cornmitting )'Olt to a particular
destinatiol1, He \\"as right. The oc\\' terrn itself tended to
create the impression that Modernism \Vas moer because
it had been superseded by something ne",,"
For se\'eral decades prior to the Jater 19605 Modemism
had been the predominant form of expression in a"ant-
garde design, Howe,'er, if had evolved from its origins as
an emphatically 20th-century a\'ant-garde international
aesthetic embracing new materials and teclmologies,
",edded to l spirit of social utopianism, to being
increasingly associated with the implied efficiency of
muItinational corporations. In an era of expanding global
markets, these included sueh eompanies as 18M, ",hose
corporate identity was made visible in produets and
cornmunication design by Eliot Noyes and Paul Rand,
Modernism had been increasingly equated with notions
of "good design" as seen in design coUections at the
Museum of 'Iodern Art in New York or in the outlook of
official bodies promoting "better" standards of design in
industry - such as the COlmcil of Industrial Design in
Britain and the Rat fr Forrngebung in Germany, From
the late 19505, however, this essentially puritanical
outlook was lmdermined by an increasingly consumerist
sacie!)': people had plen!)' of disposable income and an
increasing appetite for rapid change and the wider
cultural horizons offered by television and the growth of
foreign h"avel. Furthermore, the advent of Pop Art in
design, the Anti-Design movement in Italy and a growing
interest in semiotics and the signifieanee of popular
culture also undermined the tenets of Modernism,
\'\'riters sud1 as GiJIo Dorfles and Roland Barthes did
rnuch to d1allenge the restricted syntax of the ?\.lodemist
visual dictionary, They apened up entieing ,"istas of
colour, pattem, and omament, and offered popular,
exotic, and occasionally erudite culhual referenees ,,-hich
\Vere increasingly attractive to architects and designers,
Although the history of Postmodemist design has
often centred on the output of a number of American
architect-designers - such as Robert Venturi and Michael
Graves - or leading Italian designers - including Ettore
Sottsass and Alessandro Mendini - it aIso found
expression in many other design-eonseious countries.
ll1ese included Spain and the Czech Republic, where the
rid1 colorns, exotic rcferences, and freedom of cultural
expression of Postmodemism in many ways vividJy
symbolized the democratic freedoms that had been so
constrained lmder Fascist and Cornmunist regimes, It
aIso prO\"ed attraetive to a,'ant-garde designers in Japan
and Australia where it provided a radical departure from
pre,'alent eommereial styles,
Further in\"igorated by the iconoclasm of Punk,
Poshnodernist possibilities \Vere explored across the full
range of visual and design media, from fashion to
hmliture, interiors to graphic design, and cutlery to
kettles, Howe"er, the initially radical, yet aeeessible
fashion outlook of designers such as Vivienne vVeshvood
or the graphic llwentiveness of !)rpographers such as
Neville Brody, whose \Vork \Vas seen in the magazll1e Tite
Fnce, were soon absorbed into the more conservative
world of museum collections and exhibitions, In the later
20th eentury, a \Vorld more and more dominated by the
mass-media \Vas opened up further by the panoramas
afforded by the Internet. In addition, an incrcasingly
pre,'alent first-hand familiarity with di\"erse cultures and
styles brought about by the tremendous growth in foreign
travel led to a climate in which cultural eclecticism and
visual quotation were perhaps as rife as they had been in
Vetorian designo Howe"er, the difference in the
eclecticism of late-2Oth-century Postmodemist design la)'
in the faet that it \Vas - at its most effecti\'e - a knowing
and occasionally ironic or \Vitty meeting of oJd and ne\\",
traditional and etlm.ic, esoterie and popular, and cheap
and expensive styles and materials,
4 Hmls Hollcill, illferior of /!I(' AlIst1"inll Tr(/l'e/ CPII/re, 1975' Tlw illlcrior's
fUHelion is cmbrnccd by lo 'xotic tr(/l'c/ il/c1uding pn/m /1"l!es,
mI r,W1l11pk of Itow tite Posllllodemists sOHg1t1 /alin/.: desigll nlld IIIcnllillg.
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Furniture
lnternational Postmodern
1 ..... -'=
2 Alicl/('!c de Lucc{i,
Krislilll II7/1/e, 198'1. illll1l11illl1tl'd
pln",tic mod, I7l1d metal.rol" fhe
Alcmplli:, Grollp. De Lucclli':,
colmll/uf alld origiulll :,ollltioJl lo
file dc:,igll {/ :'I!/Illl tn/J1c
he i!1l1lJi'lltin' I1pproach of tlle
itnlilln fWllllt-gl7rde. <pit/ {l'hiel
Ile il'l7:' i11<'0/,,1'(/ }i'(lJII the 1 960:'.
Hr 6.J.CllIh..!ill.
3 AJicJwl'1 Gm'6. Stanhope
bcd, 1982. Fhe mil/lile/re fonll5-
n:t1t'c! Gmite::' arc!litcctllrnl
pedSl'ee. TlIe COlllbinntilm af
d(((el'<'II1 l/IId 1m
ce/edic mllgl' vf
l'lldo<(' lite o/JjcCI ,1'11t 1It',I' 2 __
' pOi el I titl l.
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1 EUore Sotbn:,:" P<lrk tnl/Ie, ]98;. T!Ic
''fUI/el imUl r poten/ al (:f dccoJ'(l f ..le fOI"I!I:' i:,
cxplored ill tillo' "les;;" (!{ !lis fll/l/c d6iged
by SOI/:'IlSS, t!te lIIajo,. en/n/y:>1 PO:'t-19O
IlI'l1i1 H;1l -de lta/inJI de::i\?11 jcl 'i /lf. H(lUl''I'I",
. ..
JllIlk/! il:: Alodemi::1 ((1l1l1tcrpnrf:'. '/01"11I"
cienrI!f IIO! 'folloIl' /11I lel Ol/. "
IV. 1.3111/.J.fl ;ill.
3
486
M
any of the ideas most cornmonly associated with
Postmodern furniture deri ved from the
experiments of American architect-designers who
increasingly turned their hands to de5ign in the la ter
19705 and 19805. EguaUy significant were ltalian
designers such as Alessandro Mendini, Ettore Sottsass,
and Michele De Lucchi who emerged fram the
experimental activities of the Milan-based Studio
A1chymia and Memphis Group. lhe latter aligned
themselves with the term "New Design," seen by Andrea
Branzi as being "able to influence both the world of
production and theoretical development," as wel1 as
breaking down what he described as "the barrier" that
had separated mainstream design fram avant-garde
experimentation. Designers such as Borek Spek - who
studied fumiture design in Prague and architechtre in
Hamburg and Delft - also explored the possibilities of
Postmodemism in Eastem EltrOpe.
Sottsass felt that Postmodernism vI/as essentially
American, academic, and restricted in the range of
cultural differences upon which it drew. Nonethc1ess, it5
characteristic ability to draw upon both refined and
popular cultural sources, to embrace kitsch, the everyday
and the banal, and to exhibit gualities of wit, irony, and
playflllness meant that it became a shared international
language of designo Expensive materials and finishes were
blended by Postmodernist designers with cheaper
lamina tes and plastics, industrial techniques ,,"vere
combined with inspiration drawn from the craft5, while
the mingling of references as diverse as African and
Aboriginal, Baroglle and Biedermeier, or Classical and
coffec bars offered nevv aesthetic prospects.
Bolstered by its increasJlg appearance in mllsellm
collections, exhibition galreries, and style magazines and
by its association with designer-celebrities, Post-
modernism was explored as an increasingly fa5hionable
commodity in much of the industrialized world.
Appearing Jl cOlUltries as geographically dispersed as
the USA, ]apan, and Australia, Postmodemism brallght
abollt a radical change in the appearance of many
everyday domestic funuhtre designs.
::
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c!lIli!' ,y Kllol/
ln/t'mnli(}l/ll1. 191b. Tlle ::l'ri6 {!{
t/lIlf Vt,,,tllti dt':-igl/l'd fnr
KI/ol/ fl"OIl/ 1984 011 /l/nIl}/
pcri()d:-JI'OIII Qw'l'II AIIII(' lo Arl
Ot'co. Thi:;. 51,,'mlol.ieri,t'd
t'.mll/p//! i:5 coml1il1cd il,itll pnlkm:5
dl'llil'lI fl"OIl/ ClIII!t'/l/llQmry ;:"isun/
(1111111"(' fa cn'nlt' mi origillnf
dc:-igll :'O/ufioll. Ht 85(1I//33ill.
6 ?/do Cibic, Sophia il'filllg
dt'4 for tI't' .\ 11.'1111'11;:- GrO/llJ, 198::'..
Tllc
O:lIifitCl!S, IImi calollr5
tll/! 1tlllinll u-\'C"it'
Dt'Sigl/" pelldulllt for n'cnstillg
l'<'erydny oNtel:- , imnglll1fiI'l'
;:.mys 1!lIIt llI'igt1rntc fhe
colllt'mpornry illlt'rior.
HI ,5CII//::'.9I.ill.
7 Vigllt'lIi Associnfe5, Broken
Length fnNe for Form;((I
Coloretlre, 1981. T/e broken elld
o/ tlle tnble symboli:l!'5 llEe l'IIy ill
'/lidl IIInllY progn'Ssit'l'
desigllers ill 1fJ(' later parf o/ lIJe
lot/ cm/llr!! tlballdolled I/e
cer/tlilllies o/ Modemislll JI
ftli!ollr o/ tl 11101'1.' Iillgllislicnl/y
ridl desigll t'oCtlbll/ary.

7
.il
-.
4 A/ldn.'l1 Brm. Families of Objects for
Dom(.'!>tic ..-\nimals collch. 19S6. SI/d, d>:;;iS":,
((lfi//IJ(',f 1/It'f'lplwrimf critiqllt'
tl/d! l't.',?ml trir/ lIi" im'(J/n'lI/t'lIt
. .
.ril/I RlTllical o.,;i,?1l in lta/I/ in 1ftt' 1q6o:,.
. .
Ht l.o5J1113ft jiu.
8 AIl?'$SlIlIdro \ klldilli, Calamobio cnbillf.'f, prooum.t Jor NllolYl A/(lIilllin,
19Sj-j. A!clldilli'S COllllllitmellt lo dl"Sigll jrel'dfrOIll ftmctiollfl! cO/lMnlill1s
is seell ill tl1is mi/jI/e! ,I'it" it:, rieh/y I'atfemci, cololllflll slIrfaee.
9 Bon'k 5pek, wnrdrobe ptll /igllt for Vi/m, 1989. Sipek prodl/cc!d ol'igillnl
desiglls far r('lIIo't'dmm utilitarinn pri!lcip/es. afien c1mmctl'Ti:'d by mI
idiosyllcmlic, SI.'/ISIIOllS IIse offorlll {/Ild II1ntt!rin/s. fU 2.1II/6ft 5ill. 9
4
8
British Furniture
Found bjects, Craf!, and New Possibilities

1 Fred 8aier, III11Sic staJld, 1968.

Tllis /l/llsic $/nlld InS beel1
clldowed 1I'il/l (lIte!!' pt'rSOJlfl
th1'01lgII 8oicr's dlSil'c fa "brillg
dl'comliOIl bllck ;1110 fllmil IIre."
He Tl'tllltCrf il lo "be structllm/,
110/ jusi sllIfoce dccomtioll."
HI1.24 111/4ft.
2 ROl/ Amd, Cone tnbll' (lI1d
c1ulil's, 01/('-011 Ud, 1986.
Fas}iolledmili IIIIl/rria/5
nssocinlerf witlt !Jig/ lr:cJmology -
sted, gl(155, (111.1 all/lJliltillJII - l/lis
l/milI/TI! nppt'l1rs as if (1 rdie
rOIl/ a plSi em, (1 sYlllbol oi L I ~
I/rbml riceny. 2
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488
T
he 19705 and 'SOs sal\' the emergence of a number of
fumjture designers ",ho reinvigorated the British
design landscape through an incorporation of fresh ideas
and a striking exploration of materials, form, and calour
wmch challenged many conceptions of fumiture-making.
Significant among the new group of designers was
Israeli-born Ron Arad who, with Caroline lhorman,
founded One-Qff Ud in 1981 in London. Arad's earl)'
work was typified by the use of "found" materials, as
seen in his ROi'l!r chair (1981) and Aerinl light (1981) in
which he utilized redundant car seating and a discarded
car-radio antenna. Such objects may be seen as critiques
of industrial mass-production and Modernist affinities
with new materials and technological sophistication.
Lndeed, the name of Arad's company, One-Qff, indicated
opposition to Modemist and conveyor-belt modes of
production. Arad's 1986 COlle chairs in steel, glass, and
aluminium defy conventional expectations of seating
whid1 make cornfort and ergonomics a priorit)'. Instead
they seem to be an independent, sculptural - almost
totemic - archaeological remnant from the decay of urban
society. Similarly, the COlle table eontradiets everyday
hmetional expectations, its implicit \veight counteraeted.
by its support on finely pointed legs.
Arad Jater became interested in exploring the
possibilities of mass-production, and he designed products
for eompanies such as Driade, Alessi, Vitra, and Kartell,
as well as producing a number of striking interiors.
Aseeond British designer who was interested in using
"fOW1d objects" in fumiture design and who also worked
with serap metal was Tom Dixon. His work beeame
increasingly widely known in the later 19805. In common
with other designers of the period, including Danny Lane,
Dixon cxplored the aesthetie possibilities of craft as an
antithesis to the more polished forms of mass-produetion
and the mainstreamforrns produced by the manufaeturing
industry. l11.is could be scen in his S ehair from 1986, a
witty post-industrial critique of Vemer Panton's celebrated
injection-moulded plastic ehair designed in 1960 and put
into mass-production by Vih'a for Herman Miller.
3 "1'01/1 Di.\'OII, Bird lal/lIge
cJmil'for Cnpellilli. 1991. nI.'
l'!ollgat.-d fVl'm vf I/Ii,; c1l11ir, ;:cJcll
fllc c1mmetcr 01{/ "ird,
demomfmlt'S fll/.' import(lIlCl' ill
IIIl1J1!1 Posll11odcmist 01Il
sYlllbiotic rl'lntiollslJip llt'fil'I'l'1l for/ll
f1l1d IIIt'l'lllillg. Ht 95C111/37/ill.
\
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4 Tom Di.\Wl. S el/nir. 1980. TIII:
m/he/' (rt/lit' "'1.1,'('/1 of /1I:.:,
nllt/lltlptmWI'J'JJic :.t'n! n
(l"'II/Ji/II/I'II! fo illdi"idlltllih/. J
Slllt' nll/S tltis d'llir lmk::; bnek fa
I/h' dari/y /lmi 01
Vallel' PlTllffl/l':, dnS:,ic (lIr of
1967, Ht 99(1II/:lOill.
5/01111 Mllkep'llcl'. Throne.
C.lgSS. T/t' blllgillS con/olll'S fllld
tllpcl'illg kgs eDil/NI/ca ,pit/ tite
(11 rt'illg /il/l.'s of tlle pl.'lfomted
bllek proi.
1
ide /l Il'itty, dccorntil('
desi,?l1 soluliol/ lo IlIl' (rlllctiol/n/
, .
I'l'oblCIII senlil1,1;.
6 Dmll1yl.alll'. Etruscan chair.
1992, p!nlt' glnss. TIle l/se of
c/'lldely sllnpcd ,!(glass
nlld Iltnl nl111os1 Iltr
fllllctiollal plll'pOSC rt''enl the
wa.ll ill <l'lliell a cmjfs--oriellfed
explorat/oll oj lIIafl'l'ia/s pro'id6
11((1' tit-cora/ 't' pas:,il'ilit le:, far
t'i'(r.l{dayabJccts. Ht 85cIII/33/o1ll.
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fab/e, 199';. Far ft'lIIo'ed frolll the
c(l('l. c1eml g'omdric 01
\lode",ist drsigll. LnIlt"S
dt'comth'e, st'el1'llgly casua/ l/se
ofglnss mI idiosYllcmfic,
illdj,idllal interpretatioll 01 tlEc
lIa/urc alld COllstructioll 01
ordillnry t/illgs. Ht ..ocm/l5,:ill.
8 Carf Halm, Fat Ladyelmir,
(.1992. AII nlltitllesis of the slcek
"l/1ac/ille nest/dic" a:5:;Q(iatclf
l'if1II'.-IOlfl'rllislII nI/Ji HigJT.ell,
tl,is dtosigll exJtibits IIUlIly oj tlle
nttrilllllt'S implied by /lle title nlld
lIIay Wseell as n wilty l't!nctiOIl lo
tllt' "dt.'Sigl1l!r" ctllOS oj lite periodo
489
1
European and Japanese Furniture
Aeslhelic and Polilical Freedoms
1 HIlI/:' Hol/ein. Mitzi :,(:fa. 1981. A/ade hl th<'
Ua/ia/! CUlllplln.ll Po/tmnum. tl1i:, :'o}n l'Il:' Dile
uf 11 series '!! Holleil/ ('lIie/ dre,l' on t!le
:'tl/i:'tic l/lid (lf
, <. e e .
Art Oectl Ill/d Holly,cood. \V. 2m/6ft bin.
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2 Philippt' S/nrck, e/mir:,. c. 198j. Tllis 'l'illy nlld illl/om/i<'e 1I.l111rid
dC:'igll IIInk6 11"1' (!("e,'cm! slyl6 nlld mn/crin/". Ht 83C/ploill.
3 Tos/iYllki Kitn, \ Vink 1980. Kitn dn!i!' 011 n lUid!' l'Ilug!' (:f "Ol/reS,
i IIcflldi liS 1\ lickey j\;10llse for tlle en1'-/ike Ilend rests. L. 1.2311I/4ft Ji11.
4 Tnkc!1obu 19l1l'n"hi. Zao stoo/. C.1990. Ocfyillg nssfll1lptiol/s IlVOllt forlll.
Ihe orgl1llic s1IJfncc nppl.'ll rs too fragilc lo SI(pport tlIe sifiel: lIt ..6clII/l8i1/.
490
M
any designers represented here reflect thc cthnic
diversity, cosmopolitan spmt and cultural
eclecticism that characterized this periodo For instance,
Japanese designer Tosruyuki Kita established offices in
both Osaka and Milan, and Czech-born Borek Spek, after
studying in Prague, Hamburg, Stuttgart, and Delft, set up
rus practice in .the Netherlands. Designers dre'" fram
many different sources and influenced each other: Spek
for example, \,\,as closel)' associatcd with the re-
emergence of avant-garde design in the "New Eluape"
that emerged with the thawing of relationsh..ips between
the former Eastern and vVesten1 European blocs. In 1988
the Czech group Atika (inc1uding Jir Pelci) attacked the
ftmctionalist, conservative ethos of socialist design in
their Gallery Dilo exhibition \",hich featured a number of
semantically charged Postrnodern objects. TI1ey were
influenccd by Spek who, although he had left
Czechoslovakia in the political hlrmoil of 1968, began to
establish contacts once more in bis homeland from the
mid-1980s onwards.
Following the death of the Fascist dictator General
franco in 1976 a similar invigorating new design
vocabulary had developed in Spain, typilied in the work
and outlook of Javier Mariscal, bascd in Barcelona. In
France, Philippe Starck emerged as a leading
intemational designer in the 1980s. Although bis \vork
does not always fit easily into any straightforward design
category, his prioritization of intuition and feeling over
function, together with bis insanable stylistic, symbolic,
and cultural eclecticism, align him \vith many key aspects
of Postmodem designo
TI1e way in which diverse influences may be embraced
by a single Postmodern praduct may be seen in Kita's
versatile Willk seating for Cassina. It is highly versatile,
easily convertible fram armchair to chaise longue, and in
common with many other Postmodernist ",orks draws on
a \Vide range of SOluces. In its 10\'" configmation there are
allusions to the Japanese tradition of sitting on the fioar,
\",hile in its chaise longue reclining variant it draws on the
sophistication of Western urban living. It also alludes to
New Frontiers

1
4 Tomas Tm.'l.'im, faIJ/c, 1990. TIII: aSSllll1l'd
rl'ctilillcarif}f of tI/t' faIJh>top (wd /itaa/
fUllctiolls of thl' s1/l'portiJlg legs are chal/cl/sed
ill Tm'l'Ira's imlii'ltlta/istic {'xploralioJl or
l'altem, colOllr, allel eXI1Tt'55ir'i' [arm tllat in
:>eme <l'IIy;; ec/loc!S tl/" COllet'ms o/ ..e
Ita/iml de;;igller5 ill tlt" 19'10s alld ear/y 19805.
5 Japier \fariscal, Alessandra arlllc11f1ir, 1995
TI/e colO/lr/ul desigll ec1lOe5 rile free-flO<l'ing
/orlll5 o[ Mnri;;caf's grapllic d6igJl il'Ork nlld
expiar.':> file ;;wlptllrtll po5sibilitit'5 offeml bH
illjt'cted polHllrt't11f1ue. HI ].12111/3/t 8ill.
6 fir Pe/, Atika grOIl/, exllibitioll. TI/e
COJltrOi'cr;;in/ Alika grOl//, illlafe 1980s Prnglle
clllvraced Weslem Posfmodem dcsigll idcas. 6
1 S/,im KllnllllJJfl1. :,too/. t9qo. Tllt' '!f
t nm::llf(l'llf 11I11fail1lll' pro"ide fT ,:<1fid :,Wfl'
/Jfll:idc;: rl r.":/ltl:'' lo ,\!o.1alli:,t
110' 'I/;: '/orlll fol/o,!':, fl/lK! hl/l.., 71lt' ft1rm fin:'
I1lml'!:'! ',fi:';:'.lked" JI file Il<'lt,tic '.\-pltmlfioJl o/
tl't' m,7!<'rill/'lllld tlJ,'f'llldm i::. c1,lll'lIg"lj
11:'" ti t lJIt'dilllll. Hf 5'01l/.! 1 li.
2 &m'k Sipt'k. &..mbi e/Mir. qS;-6. 5ip.'k
1I<'1p.\f lillk Irc:::tcTII Pll:'tllltl<kmi;:m I1lld tllt'
,\mt;.:,mi., , tll' C:.,c1J RcpuNie. Ha,', hl'
'xlllt"",;: U/e n<,:,tfl," ic ,,(ii({i'n'ut
mlf.'TJ/.. 'I1hl -(/l/lclioll,,1 fiwlI/:'. HI ;601l/30il1.
. .
3 7(mll!;: Tm't'im. Syh"ia d,;rfrolll tI/t'
Tr<1nsfigllralion .'-I.'rit':" 1990. In tlli:i- c1l1lir
tlit' (''III j',' PIlrt arclJift'(f-dt';;io..:lll'r
. ,
c!l,T!h'IlSI'S tra.fitllw/ 'XP'dlltiolls
fUl1aitm, (oftmr. alltl ;;ltap... HI -;'CIII/J9iJl.
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Iconoclasm
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1 Forre:;;t 'Ayas, The Pink Chair,
c.1995. FOTm I1l1dftmctiolllm'l!
di::soh'cd ill /f/ICOII<'i.'lltiOlla/
COIl;;tnlftiOIl, comp1emcllted ll!!
//It' 1IJ1t'.\]/t'CIl'III/$l' 01CO/Ol/T. lt ;5 a
"isllo! sfalClJ/t'IIll1/flf njh'cls titefilie
or/5 background of Ifl;s AIII('ricolI
:xu/ptor-desigller. Ht 76c1ll/30'-".
1
---
2 .... ..1
2 rorrt':;f AIYt'r,;, Kilimanjaro llt.'d,
IIInllllfncfllred by Art l't IlldllMr', C.J995. Thi:;
pnrody tif tllt' lJ'd dispt?IIX";; wilh tl't'
fllllcfioJltlf llJ1rp(l5c of tIJe fOllr (orm'r po:'ls a:,
enrriers al tllC SlIrrol1J1dillg CIIrfaill, ,l,hile ti/(,
(Ol/'t'lIfiOllnl :;olidify of f/e slt't'/1I/g slllfa((', is
riellied by its apparenf 'jloa/il/g" alxn'e tJ1t'floor.
3 Bjom Norgaard, Sculpture chai,., 1995. T/is
al1t/lropoJ1/orp!lic design S!IOWS /hc aftel! clase
rt'latiollsllip jlctil'eel1 ar/ mld iJl late
2otJcell/l/ry prodl1cts. TI,is ,ms a
collalomlioll ,l'itJ, tite S'I'eltis!1 malllifnctllrer
KiiI/t'1I10 {('I/Ose out/mi el1lpJmsi:::.ed artis/ic
cOlltellt mt/ler fl/(1/1 pmcfimlity.
4 Mats TI/l'seli"s, lron Piafe Eas\' Chair,
199.J.. AlfJlOlIgh fargelyfabrimted from mi
il/dusirial mnferia/, defi!Jerntel.lI o/d
jasIJiollc'd-lookillg dl!:5igll i:; fin reIllQ'<d /ro'"
tllt' (kal/ lIIachi"e-made of AfOlh'miSIII.
492
tra\"el, as seen in its adjustable headrests and ability to
recline, which are reminiscent Df aircraft and automobile
seating. Reference is made to the exuberance ofPop in the
vibrant colours of the almost casual, zip-fastened slip-
over cover5, and al50 to Mickey MOllse, seen in the
amusing eal"-tike forms of the head rests.
Until the 19705, Scandinavian design \Vas \Videly
associated ",ith an aspect of Modernism that blended the
manipulation of c1ean, elegant forms ",ith a respect for
traditional crafts and a strong sense of social democracy.
Howevcr, in the 19705 design in Scandinavia was affected
by industrial and economic uncertainties, and
individualistic designers such as lonas Bohlin and Mats
Theselius in Sweden, and Stefan Lindfors in Finland,
began to emerge. From the early 19805, Bohlin's rumiture
proved to be a significant challenge to Swedish traditons
of elegance in design, as his background in the contrasting
worlds of civil engineering and interior design led to an
adventurous exploraton of contrasting materials.
Kallemo, a Swedish company fowlded by Sven Lundh in
1963, manufactured a number of Bohlin's designs. Its
launch of the COllcre/e C"nil' in 1982 reflected the firm's
embrace of individualistic, often fine-art-driven designs
in limited editions, which caused considerable disquiet in
conservative manufacturing circles. Theselius, another
designer associated with Kallemo, also exhibited an
iconoc1astic streak in the way in which he used traditional
materials as, for example, in his 1roH PInte Ensy Chair of
199-1 in which the material. rather than the form,
questioned notions of function. Stefan Lindfors, an
internationally recognized and often controversial
Finnish designer, explored expressi,-e, a-functional, and
rather un-Scandinavian design possibilities in rus insect-
like Scarngoo table lamp for Ingo Maurer in 1987. Even
large companies associated worldwide with the muted,
affordable elegance of Scandinavian Modem were not
impervious to international developments and sought to
exhibit a more progressive face. Ikea's PS (Postscript)
collecton of -10 pieces, for example, which \Vas not
designed fer mass-production, was launched at the Milan
Fum.ihlIe Fair of 1995.
New Scandinavian Design
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1 table, 1995. MadI!

fl'OlII I/emilI /orks 01 bicycles
idl/ II tm!f-Iike tnbletop 5111fnCl!,
!Jis is n Jlarady o/ftmctiollnlislII,
n/llloM aplNnril1g as IlII are/mcol-
ogicn/ rellmnl1t. Ht 56cm/:n.ill.
2 \In/ma Dil::el, Seashell c!mir
for P.P. Alob/er, C.1995. Expcri-
il'il1 form flJld lJIaterial:;
t/lis dt'5igll ('xlt'lIds tlu.' 'OCflbl/lnry
o/ ;pil/ il:; HOIl-ful/dial/a!
nnl/S fllld '5ides. Ht 1.:!JJll3ft J J ill.
3Jir Peld, Flag so/a, mnde by
SIl/dio Peld. ]990. Pdci, n /t'(l1er
ill C:t'cI, Pa:;lmoJem &'5;gll.
IlImlplf/ntn1//lefal ill
w/CoJll'lIfiol/nl i'fllfS. Hl're, Ihe
brvk.'1l f1l/S prvfik uf /111'
l1t1ck ml1nllc/'(1 fhefloIt'iJlg.
/nl1l/tll'd-like fillenr dCI!ICl/fs.
3
6
2
1
Ceramics
America and Europe
1 :-"',/lI,,/ic Du Pa;;'ll1ia. Carrot ['"",', 198:!-.
Lih' l,tl,a .\lcmpfli:" Gral/p dc;:igllt'r;:. VII
P,bqUIl" 1/:".'.1 II .',Tic!.l/ vf J'i1ftt'ru:",
((litlllr:;, ,JIId {'TI/dl/h',!"l 1(1 CIlIi','jJ 11
;,';.1,' ITllm (lr d""i.';:lIt',j pn'dlid:".
HI 5,'tllIi " ill.
2 .\ liel/II" Gnli"<'';. Big Dripper Ji)r Scid
P,ll'dl Ud. lQS-,. /11 lJII/IJ(l1l {'it/ /l/all.1I o/ha
P,l;;tll/(l,/t'rll d,'.";lla;;, Cmr..::, cXl'h'Tl',f ["OhlllT
/11 l/Ji;; lirip-filta J411 lb"
- --.
It'ITll1/M-:':/,l:'d 1',1:,,' n'pn':'t'lIf:' J,',lt alld tlll'
'/OUT {Jf (1ftl',' dtik 11,,' [JI'h' ('<'II /iHt'"
;:gllifu mI,/,.
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:::::
3 Rt11'al 1''l/llIri, \ill<'gl' Tc,'set.
t 9$6. Tlti:: .t;mr-picCt' /t',l::<'!
f{l' illl/(l'llti'I' ((ll11p<1/1.11 Sil'id
POil't'lJ t'xph1/" t/' .fb/Itlllrl/Jlt'
idc,J t/lb/>- 01' micn1-
Ill"cilil,'(tlll"t' in J (HJtl/ml
1II1'!11II1:" )f 11/[':',
e
4/ kidl' \ \'/lI'/IlIJ1i:,. Siena p'pp,'r
)1(lt. 1980. \\'/ll"/mlli:, CXphl!6
II(' nJl/c,pl
in !la (rl::IJillllll/1/1' pm'laill :'a/l
lid peppl'!" pof:'. T/:: t'i:'l/il/
fll:'lI! I1rc!lifeL"tun' 1m,! di:;1I
I!1I' :'1111711 :'CrlJc Ilfpi(i.,:, fhe
l',l':/II/{ld,'rJ/i:'1 (JI"
, .
di:,cipi i/111I',l! ltlll! Idl! rit':,.
494
P
ostmodernism fOLmd a particularly potent iorm of
\'isual e'-pression in what \\"as sometimes to
as micro-architecture - glass, ceramic, and metal prodllcts
dcstincd far the dining table or kitchen
sites of con:;lImption that beca me ahnost the afflllent
domestic cOllnterparts of the spot-lit mllseum plinth. As
architect and historian Paolo Portoghesi remarked, "the
objccts \\-hich embellish l hOllse and \\'hich \\'e use in
e\-eryday life are like architechlral details, they gi\'c a
feeling in a room in \\'hich \\'e Ji,e. And that cxpands the
means o{ communcation."
In thc late 19705 and ear1\- 19805 the cOIl\'entional
outlook of many manllfacturers was increasingly
confronted by the experimentation and frcsh thinking of
a\'ant-gardc designers and collecti\es such as the
i\lemphis Group in Milan. In their \\ake, uU1O\'ati,'e
companies such as S",id PO\\'el! Ul the Unitcd Slatcs <ll1d
Alessi in Italy ",ere qllick to realizc that there ",as
significant COl1sumer interest in the purchase of designer
dinner services, sugar bowls, and salt and pepper milis.
The commissioning by eommercial complnies of
celebrclted architects and designers made the designs of
Robert "enhlri, .\lichael Gra"es, 1nd other
recognized indi\'iduals financially accessible to a much
wider dcsign-consciolls consumer c1ientele.
Postmodemist celebrated their entre to the
domestic ell\'ironment \dth the design of colourful,
decorated, and "isualIy sophisticated products that ",ere
intcnded to be seen as mueh as to be These three-
dimensional objecb often assumed l role eqlli"alent to
the painted cOIl\'ersation pieces of carlicr periods at the
dUU1er tables of afl1l1enl, stylcconscious urban d\\'ellers.
r-.lany celebrity designers such as Arata isosaki, Richard
.r.leier, Paolo Portoghesi, Ettore Sottsass, Philippe Starck,
and Frank Geruy \\'ere commissioned to satisfv the
. ,
"oraciolls appetites of this ne", audience. The latter
group enjoyed usulg - and being seen to use - prodllcts
that \Vere also to be fOllnd in the display cases of many
museums and in the pages of lifcstyle magazines
feahlring latc-20th-century designo
5
7 O!ll"llt/I,ll Hr!till'1", Round<1bout muell /ro;:d. 1qSb. TIl I ' l!(
pic' dlll'io IV! (O/!fltl'lll tI) tmdifi(llw! Ha/l/c!" dr,'(' (11/ 1I/1I1!,
:'t'llr':,.!,)/, 11,'1" di:,tilldi"'!!1 ::Iridmt dl':'('I;!1:'. fjlp/ /It ,111.

8
5 .\kll1plJi:, Grtl1lp. Colorado
t.'p0i. 1985_ (a}olll":',
,1JId t,Y0f<11 ji 't' ,:I,Jnl(fl'r o( tll:,
k,I/'I,1 ,\!L'mplli::' .ei:,iJ
lell.f';'l" im'l\;illl1tiY :,llllti<m:, ror
--. .
l'',r.lIdll.lf {l/li,",-f:; (lIId hl
fl,. {t'i/:'!"-,',!ti 'l' II/. 11ril/S
L. ,//l.
61...:
7
6AII11'1'l'::;l' Po::;. Collector'S
Cupo plw'/rlill. 1I1<l111((,lc/ur,'d
f../ R,l:,,'llt!l.li. lqSS. TII,' ,1IIti-
.f1ll/fft1Il"! 11!figllnltitl1l (;( file
1l'iH-/IIJlldkd i:: lIdica/h','
tI/" ti"'t'dc1/1I
",.. Ji/,I/'/e ft.
,
Di,ll11. -. :;011 ..ill.
8 Pda 51lir- Caliil'mi,l Pedch
(l/l'. lQ8.:'. pit'(' ,"11,1.1''" /11,'
"Xl.'II/ /1' ('lidl filJl(/i,11l
ti' /'t' prll.'"kllt in
Tlle /lIIl//','llllJ! t''-
('["IIJ' ll/Id.tilTlJl [Hor,'
tI' im'ilt' lIilll It1iI.j,
,\kmplJi'". HI ::!("5CIII,Sill,
9 .\ll1ftl't1 nl/lIl. CU(u!u::o
Callonl5 plll, lQS::!. Ollt' III tll.'
Rara .-\"j.,.. f Ran' Bird:i-J :i-t'ri6 {(Ir
S"rri, tll.' :oolllr/,I';(
<Ji'.'r
{uII-ti(lIl, T/IHII 11
. e
/'d"I't'lI prllr/lld l/lid ((l/I:i-IIII1I'/"
I1l1d 'l/lpltnlim/l.lI
n'il'(thlll
,1'itl1 the Illlalt.' "/6:i- a/'on'...
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Beyond Funclion
1 Hi/toll 1\ lcCoJllJieo, i\e\"ada
llO,dJor Dalllll, 1991. AlcComJico
Oftl'1I rima':> 0/1 imngery, :i;Uc! as
tlls caC/IIS, r>Jafillg fa his I/nfh'l!
Ari:Olln. His flse oforgnllic form
recnlls earlier Cl'ys!n! desigl/s
pl'{xillced by file fn'lId, 01111111
eompall!J. \V. JO.5cm/lll.
2 Richard Alnrqllis {/Ild Dnut"
lvJnriolJi, gablel tl'itll teal"" sfcm,
'990. The appnrt'lltly l/ol/se/15im/
bll'w1 of goblel (md teapot
revenls IlOw illll1gillntiol1 {/ud
OrJ/lllllell/li/ illtert.'sf ovaridl!
fUl/elioll.
Ht :!.6cm/lOill.
3 Borek Spek. glnss.mrl!for '\!o<''Y
80r nud Ajeto. $UcJl dt,:;iglls s'ow
how illdt'.111t1fity, idiosYllcmcy.
(Inri nrtis/ie e.\pressioll iJlform
Pos/moden! dcsign ill fas/cm
El/rope mld s typiml o[ Spl!k's
illlagil1a!i.,., r1'Ork jl1 glns>.
Ht aeftJ 2SclI//nill.
4 Borek Spt.'k, Herbert crystal
",1St' Jor Driade. 171(' stt'irlillg
decorath.'!' e1em('llts ol t/lis jalltasy
in g/ass Im.'t' aslrollg lleo-Bnroqlle
j/r1t'our n!ld sllOw I!le chnracfl:risfic
.'er"/.' aud "SlIa/ im'f'IIIi7.'eJll'5s for
rdlicJ Spek l't'cmllt' l'idely
kllotl'll. Ht 2jCm/IOill,
(
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496
P
rogressive glass designers began to break away fram
the domination of traditional and Modemist pattems
and forms in the Pop era of the 19605, The possibilities of
strong colour, for examplc, were seen in Gunnar Cyrn's
"Pop" glasses produced by Orrefors in Sweden from
1966. Such ad\-enturous approaches were taken much
hlrther by Postrnodemist designers, Their work, which
included large and small-scale pieces, ranged fram
dccorative objects for fashion-conscious domestic
enviranments, collectors, and muselU11S to 1ulO\'ative
furniturc designs (sllch as those by Danny Lane),
Small-scale designs included the colourful blo",n glass
bowls, drinking \-essels, and containers by J\ lemphis
Group designers sllch as Ettore Sottsass and Marco
Zanini; these ",ere produced by Toso Vetri d' Arte 11
Murano in the earl)' 19805, More prevalcnt, though, were
the exotic glass, metal-corseted perfume bottles by thc
French fashion designer Jean Paul Gaultier in the 1990s.
Glass \\"as explored in the extra\'agant fantasies by the
\-('rsatile CLech Borck Spek, cornmissioned by man}'
manufacturers and organizations, includllg the Centre
lnternational de Recherche sur la Verre in Marseilles,
Following collaboration for several )'ears from the earl)'
19805, Spek together ",ith tlle highJ)' taleoted )'OLUlg
Czech glassblolVer Petr NO\'otny, founded the Ajcto
glasslVorks in 1989. l1Us adventurolls campan), sOllght to
extend the technical and imaginative possibilities of glass
fabrication, specializing in series of limited editions for
eompanies such as Driade in Haly and the Steltman
Galleries in the Netherlands and the United Sta tes.
Similar initiah\'es \Vere tmdertaken by companies
such as Daurn in Franee, which in\'itcd leading designers,
11cluding Philippe Starck and the American stylist Hilton
MCCOlUlico, to work on ncH' ideas for its crystal products.
Scandina\"ia also salV sorne shifts aH'ny fram its
eharacteristie Modernist c1arity of form, brought about
through explorntion of greater freedoms associated with
the art glass mo\'ement and an increased k.nowledge of
American shldio glass which impacted on \\"ork at Kosta
Boda and other Scandina"ian glass manufacturers,

Stretching the Boundaries

1 2
3
5
3 Oitw Toikkn, Visil o Old
Lady, 1995. Toikka, n Fimli:;1E
desiglll'l" of gtass, textiles. nlld
(1!I"lIulcs I'lll a 111 Ilu'
Ambia, Rorstmlld, fllld A-lnrimckko
companles, Ims become ''1tr.'1y
k1101l'11 Jor 's origillnlily, 11;SI/{/{
:,opJzistimtioll, alld metap/orj.
4\ltlrkku Salo, Joumey to Tray.
(,1988. TI/ese dioslflleralie,
tlll/llropomorpflic. fllld decora/h't'
picCl's exude !le jlal'ol/r of
ardmt'Ologicnl discorwies frOIll 4
::;O/lle dis/(lJIt cm nlld ex/libit SOI1lI.'
of file <l'lIys in ;:dlic/ nrfistic fllld
{Ietipi/y /l/ase ;11 l!Je later
201/1 celltllry.
5 1\ Jarkku Salo, Colossus, '989.
TIt:; cofolfrfllf J'h'Ct'. il'ficll U'as
produml 111 Fin/ami, ec1I()('S ti/e
ideas of micrD-nrclJilt'cfllrc muf
"tabit' lnlldscapes" tlwl iUl.'n'
beIIg e.tplorl.'d iJl Ita/y ami lit.'
USA. TlIe "(01055115" is in
a micro-sculf/flln'.
6
1 Hans Godo Frnbel, Hammer.
1980. Frnllt'l's gla:>s Imll/lller
(/lid nai/:; rmcap$ltlate tlu.. Post-
morie",is/ rejeclioll of 'On"
jol/ou's fimetioll," T!Je fi'agilily of
he lIIeditllll rellde!'5 file hammer':;
fUl/c/iall illlpossible ill tJis pit'Ce of
<'iS/fal.!'it. IV. 30.jCm/l,2ill.
2 Jnlllcs Hnnlloll, Rodeo bowl
from fIJe l3adger and Snake
.;enes. 1981. n,is AIIIL'Ticall gltlss
dt'Siglll'r stretcf,i'S tlle 1II{'(Illing alld
fimctioll afbowl dcsigll. Expai
mellfa/iOIl in l/U! cmjls providl'd ti
llOt J0I1jt> of I/e'i!' gmerntioll dcsigll
possibili/ies. Ht 56clII/22ill.
6 }t'(/II Palll CtllIflier, Corset
P('1"l11l' bol/k prOliuced by
Venaies roe/u'f 011 eDil/Tal for
Parfllllls. 1991. CJmlll'lIgiJlg
COlI'L'elltioIlS il/ l/lis, (Dllfimng
$t'ries of corse/l'd pafi/lIle bolllr:;,
fasllioll dcsigller Galllticr dreil'
for illspirafioll 01/ !lis 0,1'11
COllfllre colh'ction5, in 'I'Jlich ltigll
fashioJl Illld 'S/n'I.'/ cul11m' mergt'lt
ill f/e mll'l-Ject('d alld lIot't'1lf::'t'
of IIlldenl'i'fIr as ollfer gal"lIIC11fs.
2
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3 Afie/ulel Gnlt'L'S. Bird kettfefor
Afessi, 1985. clase corrt'spoll-
dellce belil'eell form and mem';lIg
illllle PostlllOl.Il.'rllisl arma/In}
/l/ay be St'I!II ill Grm.'cs I'itty l/se
of 11Ic bird-slUlped w/listfe alld file
higl/-pilclled soul/d it gi<.'t'S off
wlu'lI lile slaill/esssleel kettle i5
boi/illg. Hf 26c1ll/1O'l.ill.
3
1
2 Frtmk Ge1/ry, Pilo ketl1e for
AIt'Ssi, 1992. Olle ofti St'ries of
Alessi kellks llml are as ml/e/I
cou<'ersatiOll pieus as IItensi/s for
boilillg il'tlter, il is ti PI/U 01/ /lle
ji.:;/ kett/e Witll ils l/st of ti flyiug
jish for a w/jstfe. Form foJlOiL'S
style mtlu:r tlU/Il fimclioll.
H/185(1I//71.;II.
Silver and Metalwork
1 Pllilippc Starck, 1101 Bertaa
kett/eJor Alessi, 1989. n,s
scu/pluml aJI/IJli1li1l1ll kdlfe 111I5
becoll/e somellliJlg of(1 desigll con,
ti Postmooemist cOl/fliet
betweell form t1lld fimctioll. T/,.
desigll 'qmsellts fIJe metn-
morp/losis of tlle f!t'crYday iJlto ti
fnshiol/ statemt'lIt. NI 2jCm!roitl.
Steam Icons
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J
ust as they had in the media of ceramies and glass,
Postmodem designers found opportunities in silver
and metalwork to further their exploration of the
domestic landscape in small-scale lighting and table-top
micro-architechrre. A notable instance of this \Vas the
Alessi company's Tea alld Coffee Pia:=n series, launched in
1983. Under the guidance of Alessandro Mendini, 12
prominent intemational designers including Graves,
Hollein, ]encks, Portoghesi, Tusquets Blanca, Thun,
Tigerman, and Yamashita \Vere cornrnissioned to design a
tea and coffee sen'ice inspired by arcrutecture. In true
Posbnodemist fashion the resulting series dre\V on a
variety of stylistic and culhlIal sources and, in keeping
with the designer celebrity ethos of the decade, were
initiaUy produced in limited editions of 100 (Iargely
destined for collectors and museums) and launched
simultaneously in intemational centres of designo
Table lights, SUdl as those in painted steel and glass
designed by Malteo Thun for Bieffeplast in the mid-
19805, explored similar small-scaJe architectonie ideas.
11le aesthetic boundaries of other domestic artifacts were
also stretched further, notably in the field of domestic
kettles, where Richard Sapper, Michael Graves, Philippe
Starck, frank Gehry, and others designed for Alessi.
E\'en refrigerators took on architectonie forms, as with
Roberto Pezetta's 1987 Wi:nrd designs for Zanussi (see
p. 50-1). Many other previously mlU1dane domestic items
also received. attention from designers from the 19805
onwards. These included door fumiture, \Vhere eompanies
sllch as the Gerrnan manllfacturer Franz Schneider Brakel
(FSB) comrnissioned designers sllch as Alessandro
Mendini, Mario Botta, Hans Hollein, and Arato Isozaki to
focus their attention 011 handles and knobs.
Of CQlIISe, fresh th.inkng revivified many other fields
of silver and metalwork design activity, as, for example,
in the jewellery of Spanish designer Ramn Plg Cuys,
"vho often blended valllable materials such as silver with
more mlmdane materials SUdl as Coloreore. In the same
design field Nonvegian designer Tone Vigeland also
maniplllated materials in fresh and witty "vays.
From Microarchitecture to Madonna
-
."/
1
1 raolo Por/aglles;, Tea and CaHee Piazza
servicc for Alessi, 1983. Tl1is six-piece limitcd
cditioll rejlected preocCIlpntiolls witl! lI1icro-
architecture and ecJlOed he decomtive slyles
01 Ihe early 2.otll-cclltllry Wiener 'vVerkstiiUe.
2 Mattco T//lm, Hornmage aMadonna
cllt/ay, l.J Ga/erin tema/ional serie:;
1986. Black polyamide n uf gilded decora/ioll
are l/sed lo ('uoke he g/amoral/s <uorld of US
sIal' MndOlmn. L :!Ocm/8ill.
3 Ramn PlIg ClIytis, /ie Charal Mermaid
broocll, 1989. COlllbillilIg silper, ColorCore,
alld paillt, Spallis!r desigl/eI" Cllys explores
f/u.' (ellsiol! bcttl'ecll t!Je poetry of Ihe fit/e alld
he eOlltms!s 01101"11/, CO/Ol/T, nl1d /I/n/erinls,
rllforcillg t/U! Iiybrid natllre o[ tlle II/cl"mnid
lierself, J/lllf-lIllIlWIl, /wlf-fish. L 15'5clII/6il1,
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4 Talle Vigclfilul, Necklace of Nails, 1982..

Vigelal1d embraces lite 1I11expected ill lIis use of
illdustrial e/emcllfs, fml1sfol"lllillg jUllcfiol1al
illlo dccorati"l'f' compol/t'Ilts, (/lid exploril1g file
acsfl1etic possibilities ofcom/Jinil/g f'7.'eryday al/d
11/01'1' expens1.'e II/aterials. Oial/l. 2.1 cm/8'/,i1/.
5 TOII/ 5addil1gtoll, jewellery, lafe 1970s. /11
COIllI1IOI1 vifll a l1umber of experimental
jewellers of t!le period, 5addingtol/ explores
II/aferials, fillishes, a!1d "isl/al refi.'rellCi's ill a
gmpl1ic lllfilmcr far removed fmm fhe clega!1l,
polisllCdonus of lIIail/sf realll jewellery desigll.
6 Osear Tusqllets Blanca, Salvador
cnlldlestick5, mmlllfacfllred by Oriade, early
19905. Tllese nSYllletrieal ealldlcstick5 Iwue a
crude, allllos! are/mcologieal c!w/"{/cter al1d
appear as iffasloned frOJII drippiug wax
gatllerillg ill a pool. Hf 46clII/18il/.
499
Textiles and Rugs
Cultural Diversification
, .\'at/m/ic 01/ Gabon
tl'xli/e/or ,\lemphi:;, 198.2. T/:;
priJltl'lj cofto" lt'xti/c l/mil':' 011
Dl/ Po:.>quicr's CX1It'riL'llCt' 01 ti/e
ridl/Y pnttt'rlll'lt, gt'IJ/IIt'fric
desigll:!, o/ n i'nridy o/ (U1111n':'.
TI/(' lwiglzt, 1m:'!! jlllfna I'l!flects
lite lvklllp/lis cOIlIllJi/ellllo
/he di':,i[{1I o/
(1cl"ydaylfli!1gs.
2 Alell1phis 1"lIg, 1986. :;Ilmple /JI
IViltoll cnrpt'lillg. J\lkmplJis
Jlflrticipnllts dn'' 011 (l ;:{'idl'
'nridy ofS(Jllrct'$. H'rt' tllt'
gari:.>11 cOII/m:.>/:; ;;tmdd/t' file
oordcrlillf'S oI kil:;clt rmd
progn':':'l'1.' taste.
3 He/f'II Litlllfll/ll for fngfis/l
EcCt'l/tric,:, Gaud, 1985, prillted
ji/k. Tlu' eo/fng'-lik 1m::'!!
sl/r/aee ol t1j:; dc:.>igJl rt'1kct::.
COlllclIlJ'orary iJltert'S/ JI
qlla/nfioll t1l1d Tc'illh'Tprt'lnlioll
jrolll ffle pajI.
4 fiome senrJ. Elio Fiol"lleci
opellt'd !lp lInlinu desigll relnilillg
to tite slrat styks of 1960s
LOlldol1, explllldil1g frolll a sillgle
Alilallese store fo /1{,COII/l' 171/
i 11tentatiO/1I7/ fas/ iO/1I701('
(lIferprise. Tl/is ('c/ecHc mix of
colollr, /I7th'l"II, alld Sl,lIIr({'
material t}fI1{fit'S the l'J'hl!lIu'ml
lfll"llst of
e I
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extiles and ntgs provided signifieant opportunities to
explore the often brightl)' colollred, riehly decorative,
and cllltllral1y diverse references associated with the
Postmodemist olltlook. Barbara Radice, a key chronicler
of Memphis design, described the textile designs of one
of the grollp'S fOlUlding members, Nathalie Oll Pasqllicr,
as embracing "Africa, Cubism, FlItllrism and Art Deco;
India, graffiti, jtUlgles and town; science fiction, caricature
and Japanese comics,"
The bringing together of di\'erse visual and cultural
rderences, which was seen in much a\'ant-garde design
m Italy ;', the 19705 and 19805, had al50 been a hallmark
of many of those ",orking in the fashion arena. This was
typified by the influential work of British designer
Vi\'ienne \Vestwood who, in her irnmediate post-Plmk.
phase, drew on imagery associated with buccaneering
and patterns drawn from ethnic cultures and the
Appalachian mountains for her fashion coUections of the
earl)' 19805, British companies such as Bodymap,
e5tabli5hed in 1982, The Cloth, establishcd in 1983, and
English Eccentrics, established in 198-t aIso explored
fresh decorative possibilities in textile designo
Surface pattern was also explored by graphic
desjgners, jncluding the iniluential Neville Brod)', known
for his umovative layouts for the British style magazule
TIJe face, The rapidly changing \Vorld of printed
ephemera provided designers with a considerable range
of opportunitjes to explore new ideas, whether for record
sleeves, magazine covers and layouts, or ad\'ertising,
Similarly, in the United States, CalHornian New Wa\'e
graphics did much to influence and enrich the \'sual
voeabulary of two-dimensionaI surfaees. lndeed, other
intemationaliy celebrate<! graphic designers sueh as the
Barcelona-based Ja\'ier explored a range of
pattern-bearing media, including textiles, as a means of
extending their design repertoire,
As was the case in mmlV othcr media associated with
,
Postmodem design activity, arcrutects sueh as Michael
Graves and Robert Stem ,,,ere aIso extremel)' keen to turn
their hands to textile lnd rug designo

Quote Unquote
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1 AlesSlIl/liro Akllrlilli. mll
l/al/gingfor \JlISt'O Alclymin.
198os. C/osely (Issocintillg
-itll ti/e COl/ce/JI of"Rc-
Dl'Sigll" ill lile 1970:>, Melldilli
expn"Ssed tJie 'il'1l' 11ll1t il U'ns
irtl/nl/y impossiMe fa desigJl
eomp/elely /le'l' forlll5. 1Jere tht.'n'
are strollg ecllOt's botll of ti/(,
gt.'OlIIdriconl/s of Art Dl.'co {/lId
filef1ntllC:>s of IIII/eh Pop dl!sigll.
2 Robe,-! le Hros, Le Pilleur
d'Epa\'e, IIIm11l!aClllred by
No/Jilis FOII/lIIl, Fnmce. Inte
19805, upllo/st!!,.!! faurc/wnll
/lIwgillg. Tlle gmpilic illforl/lnlity
(Inri ...slIa/ eDil/mi o/ t/is fexiile
dt"Sig/J l/lIderlillt'S tll(' /IIporlml'
of /larra/IPe ill /l/1Ie/1
COIlfl>mpomry desigll.
3 He/ell Yllrdley, rug, J985.
AUhollg/ Yard/ey's tl'Qrk recn/ls
{f IlIll1/ber 01 tlll' elt'lIIl'llts al
Modemist desigll tllrol/gll
use ol triallglt's. rectnllgks, (lIld
Illllutt'd pakttc, tf/( slmpt':; an
loosely, aflllost casllally drai'II.
alld eXlIde a persollallallguagc
far relllO'edrolll Machilll,'-
Ase olijecti"Uily.
,
-
5/a,ier AInriscal. Munecos fal/ric
mrlllllfaclllr!!d by Trafica de MDl.tas. Spaill.
earJy '995. Mariscal flflrJIesSl'd IOJlufar
C1//trlre in flll? IISt' of cmddy drail'1I cartoon
c1lf1rflcfel's Iv at'at!! a li'dy, fas/ivl1abh' h'xti/f.'.
4 TillllU'y & FO'il,ler. Empcrors' Headsfrom
011.' j\h'o-Classicaf CoJlcelioll. 1985, Tillllll'Y &
FOi,!t-r'S 1151.' offragmclltl'd moti/s drnwlI from
al/cient RomefOrlJ/5 a dccoratil'l.' pastiche in
111i:; collage of bllsts.
2
5
1
3
4
I

:
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,
,
,
,
,
,

.....;
!"'\




,




.....;
Breaking the Mould

1
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.....;
Industrial Design
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2 Ro" ATmf, Concrete Stereo
sysfclIl, 1985. /11 cOll/ms! lo tlu'
1\ rOl/cmisl neslfwtk of I//l/IIY
COl/tcllIpomry nI/dio prodllc1s, ti/e
II/TIltnbfe, tllllplifia. mlfl spt-Ylkas
are::;el in "disfrt'Sx>I," reil/forero
ml/at'It'. Tite c.\'JJOS('f 'ire II/t':;/I is
indicalj,c of ft:c1moJogi((l/
/mllsellce. IV. 50CIII/19Y,;1I
3 Daniel Wt'il, Bag Radio,
dcsigllcd 1981, IIInlllljnc/llred
1983. Higltly visible througil 11//:
tn1lls/ucCII/ plnstic decom/ed
('I/pelope, lile rndio's ,mrf:; are
set'lIIillgly mlldolll/Y, y,'t
pocticallyarmllged.
Ht Jocm/lll,ill.
4
4lall/es Dysoll, DC02 De Stijl l'flCI/IIIII c/{:r/JIcr
/mmched ill 1996. Usillg primary cofOlm;
illsfead of ti/e 1/I';lCfS/l1 aestfutic, Dysoll
Imllsformed lile l'flCIII/ll1 cleal/er from IItilitarial/
objecllo slyle icolI. Ht (approx.) 5OCIII!l9!,i1l.
1 Aki Maila, Tamagotchi,
/1.11 B(lIIdai, 1996.
TI';:; inteme';, ...' t"1ectrollic '0.1/
i:: cOllcerJIed ,l'itll tI'l' can' of
ti "irtllnl pet, or "cybt'11f!1.-
\ InlllljactllTt'lt " casing of IIIfIIlY
cofol/rs n/Id palfl'TII'5, il sofd 40
/JIillion world,l'id(' 'l'iIIlill lil'O
Yt'nr,;, of ils IIInrket [mlllcll.
Ht 501l/21-ill.
5 Roberto Pr...elta. \\'lZarcl rtfrigemtor, ZnIll/SSi,
1986. Pce/ta's desigllllloPcs iltt'l1y frolll tlle
fargdy filllcliollal jonlls of IIIl11ly kile/tell
appliallccs, becolllillg 1111 arcflileclllm/ me/apllor
topped by 1111 idiosYllcmficflag. Hf 2m/6ft 6ill.
5
-- "
Functional Fantasies
1c:iiiOiiiii
1 jOl/uthall Ive alld J\pp/e Uesign
Temll, i-mac cOlI/puter, 1998. Tl1e
i-mac rt'presmled u desigll
SOlllliol1 tlml Jl1IlImllized u
Ji/IIertv fl/I/chol/a/ vbjecl. lt
Inmsforll/ed the gel1emliy
blllky desktop colI/puta illto a
fashiollab/e icon /hrollgh the
iJl traductiOIl of st reamli lIed
forlll alld a clIoice of c%l/r.
MOl/itor J 30.5cIII/1 2ill.
2 Masas/to Taka511110, lzumi
rSpring) kitc}ell, lI1allllfactllred
by TosJba, early 1990s.
3 Oml-B, Squash grip tootlI-
bTIIsh, TOdl/ced ill JIe 1980s alld
'90S. AI/hougll crgolloll/ic in
/mus of /IIe jloruil1g "S" forlll
of it:; mJldle al/d ulIgled Ilend,
l/le use of c%ur elldows /Jls
flll1ctiol1a/ implemellt witII a
p[ayful, fasJioJlable, alld
epllcllleml appeu/. Ht nCIII/8Il.
4 PJi/ippc S/arck, Fluoc<lril
foo/llbrush, IIImllifac/urcd by
GOl/pil Labomtorics, 1989. T!1is
ftmctiollal object IIas becollle a
desigll iccm set 011 its "p[illtil,"
tl/rol/Xll Starck's interprelatiol/
OfColIslalltill BrnllCllsi's Bird
5cl/[plllrc. Nt 25CIII/1O;II.
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F
olJmving a series of tedmological developments
after the Second World War, industrial designers
were increasingly freed fram the Modemist constraints of
"form follO\'\'s function." The appearance of the transistor,
followed by significant developments in microelectronics
and the advent of the silicon dl..ip allowed designcrs thc
freedom to explore forms that no longcr nccdcd to hOllse
cumbersome working parts. While Japanese designers at
50ny responded in terms uf innovative, miniahtrized
products such as pocket transistor radios (far cxamplc
Modcl 610, 1958), portable televisions (including Model 80
301, 1960) and the ubiquitous Walkman (launched in
1979), Postmodemist designers were able to explore very
different qualities in contemporary product designo
Daniel Weil's Bag Radio, initially conceived in 1981,
poeticaliy revealed its component parts in a transparent
but decorative PVC envelope. Witty, and an implicit
critique of Modernist convcntions, it cmbraced the
csscncc of a fashionable consumer producto Ron Arad's
Concrete Stereo was another design that attacked the
rectilinear clarity of the modular black box units that
comprised contemporary hi-fi systems. Il had ils
electronic components set in rough, seemingly
disintegrating concrete. A seeming archaeological relic of
the Fordist production era, it embraced many of the
charactcristics associated with Postmodern design such as
ambiguity, irony, and ephemerality. Such experimentation
had coincided with the publication and impact of
theoretical and critical design texts on both sides of thc
Atlantic by Barthes, Venturi, Eco, DorAes, and others
interested in the culhtral significance of visuallanguage.
The pO\ver of a design vocabulary that embraced
popular culture both as a revitalizing force and a rejcction
of the Modernist canon proved attractive to many
designers and consumers. Indeed, Postmodernist
industrial design couId be found throughout the
domestic environment, \vhether in the bathroom (\,vhere
such interventions included Philippe Starck's Ffllocnril
toothbrush) or the kitchen (the Italian Alessi company
\vere quick to recognize the kitchen's cultural significance
-
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Fashioning Function
-
2 fuliml Browl/, Vercingetorige
Il/arlll dock for Rexifc, lta/y,
1994. Tili:; dock was desiglled
wit/ referellce fa lIe I1l1ciellf
Gallic cIlieftaill Vercillgetorix
WJIO rose IIp agaiust juJius
enesar - al/IISiol! fo Ihe (Uarrior
is seell ;1/ lIe lie/lllel-likeOJ"llI of
file casiug. HI 901l/31,ill.
3 & 4 George f. Sowdcn (/lid
Nat/wlie Ou Pasqllier, Neos
docks, 1986-7. Tfc allllosl
totcmic appcal"flllce of hese
docks parallcls the aval1f-garde
explorafioll of lIIicro-arc!litcctllrc
alld tablc /al1dscapcs, Thc l/se of
calour mld decoralion for I/le
stl'1lcll/l'e al1d dock faces is
typica/ of the Mcmphis desigllel's.
Dimll345cm/IJ'II.
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1 $watch 1/IntcIJes in fitted cases: Eggsdream,
Magic Spell, Hollywood Dream, Hocus
Pocus, LeaL (/lid Encantador. Tite faet tllnl
he llame Swatch is a !lybrid crea/ioll,
tlIlIalglllllated frOIll t!le words StO;ss alld wate/l,
lel1ds il {/ certaill Pos/moJerllis! cachet. Frolll
lile later 19805 lile $watch becmlll.' a higlily
poplllar!ashioll nccessory throllg} ils varidy
of pa/temed faces (lI1d sfmps.
504
4
as a domestic gallery in the homes of an increasingly
affluent urban elite). In the l t t l ~ in many courttries of the
industrialized world, were displayed often brightly
coloured and playhil gas lighters, egg-cups, corkscrews,
and other domestic equipment that complemented
Alessi's range of designer kettles (see p. 500).
Even everyday cleaning equipment, such as vacuum
cleaners, were increasingly seen as objects ,,th style
status and v,'ere designed as decorative items in their O\\'n
right rather than necessarily stored out of sight when not
in use. The British designer James Dyson, whose
technologically irulovative designs did much to boost trus
trend across a wider social spectrum, played with
Postmodernist styles to decorative effect in his De Stijl-
inspired "Edition" vacuUffi cleaner.
The surfaces of many other domestic products became
bearers of rieh and varied decorations. Iconic in this field
has been the SwatcJI ,""atch, launched in 1983. By the
beginning of the 21st century, the Swatcll had become the
best-selling watch ever with sales of over 200 million.
Cheap enough to throw away rather than repalr, each
watch has the same mechanisms, thus rendering it
capable of differentiation only through the design of its
face and strap. From the late 1980s onwards the Swatch
became a fasruon accessory, with the Swatch Design Lab
in Milan produeing more than 70 designs per year, often
using well-known designers such as Matteo Thun and
Alessandro Mendlni. SImilar ideas have been explored in
other product fields as, for example, in the deeorative,
brightly coloured, and pattemed interchangeable covers
for mobile phones produced by Nokia and others.
Such an interest in pattern had characterlzed the ,,,'ork
of a number of avant-garde designers in the 19705 and
1980s in the United States and ltaly, particularly those
assoclated with Studio Alchymia and the Memphis
Group. The design freedoms established by the ltalian
avant-garde in the 19705, however, have ereated aclimate
today where almost anything goes and pattem, eolour,
and novelty tend to be used for for their own sake and
lack the Postmodernist cultural depth of 20 years ago.
Decorative Domesticity
1
1 Emesto Spicciolnto mJd DIIII/(' DOlIl.'gmJi,
m:or, madI! by Crea:Olli Cm:",i, 1987. RiltJ/er
like Stnrck's Fluocarilloot1Jbmsh, tI,is m:or
1ms Inkl'lI 0/1 a siel'k, sCII/pll/rallook, rel/deng
ir ti 5tyled cOII/II/lJ1ily mlller t/mll n merefy
fl/llctiolll1l desigll SO/lItiOIl for allei'eryday task.
form folfows !osflioll. L 19CII//7'1I.
2 GI/ido Vellll/rilli, Firebird gas
/igfltersjor AJessi, J993. Y/lis
nl/tiful desigll ,pilb its briglit/y
colol/red, a/most jUllk-y/orllls,
typified Alessi's plaY/lIf altitllde
fa file desigll of IIUlJly hitllerlo
gel/eral/y alisten' jl/lleliollal
tem;; for ,lIe domeslic kitd/lm.
Ht 26.jcm!loYill.
3 \llarilllekko (llIri Tllrku TV,
Unikko Smooth 50 lele<.'isioll,
2001. Y/U! Fims/ dt'sigl/
compa"y I'vlarimckko collaborated
witll TlIrku TV fa produce
brigltl/y pnttemed for
teil."1JisiOJlS, /IInkl/K lIcm tems
of inlerior decora/ion ratiJer
I/lnll 1lI10IlY"/(IIIS pieces of
It'cllllolo.<;icnl eqllipllll!lIt.
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4 Tosfribn, Walky slillllille s/ereo cnssel/e
player. Tlle dt'cornth'l' sl/Ifnce o/ tlris eolo/lrful
prod/lct S11OW5 flOU' /hc nvt1/lI-gnrdt'
explorn/iolls of s/lrfnee ami decornfioll by
progressive desiglll'rs ill Ita/y, fIJe USA,
alld elsf.'wllt'l"l' ,'ere fakclI 111' bYlllnillstrel1m
ml1lllfl1cturillg COIII1'I1I1;I'$. L. 14elll/5V,ill.
4
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506
The Contributors
The Publisher would like lo thank the foUowing expert
contTihutors to TlIe Elemen/s 01 Desigll.
NoiH RiJey, lhe General Editor of Tlle ffemell/s of Desigll, is a
specialist writer and lecturer on the decorativc arts. A part-time
tutor al Sothcby's lnstitute of Arl, Londan, and a lecturer fer the
Workers' Educational Association, she contrihutes a regular
(olumo to Historie HOIl5e, the joumal of the Historie Houscs
Association. Her books include Ti/e Art, Tlie Victorinll Oesigll
SOl/rec Book, CiftsJor Good C/lildrell: TI,e History DI ClliIdren's Olllla
1790-189D, and Stanes' Pocket GlIide fa Ten CMdies. She was a
contributor to Sotlleby's COllcise EllC.lIclopedin 01 Flfmilllr" and
Miller's Al/fiques Ellcyc1opedin.
Patricia Bayer, the Consultant Editor and contributor for the
Early Modernism and Art Deco chapters, is a specialist in 19th-
and 20th-century European and American decorative arts and
designo Among her books are Ar/ Oeco /lIferiors, Art Orco
Archilrctllre, TlIe Arl Oeco SOllree Book, Lnliqlle Perfllllle Botfles,
TI/e Art o/ Rell Ln/iqllc, and the Sotheby's Co/leetor's ClIide lo Arf
NOllveall and Arl Oeco. She has contributed to Sotheby's COl/cise
Ellcyc/opedin of Si/ver and T1Ie HOl/se of Lber/y. Since] 993 shc has
been the Arts Editor of Ellcyc/opcdin Alllcricnlla.
Helen Clifford (Neodassical silver and metalwork) studied
History at Cambridge, follo\\'cd by a PhO at the Royal College
of Art. 5he has worked as a Course Director at the University
of Essex, as a Leverhulme Research Fellow at Balliol College,
Oxford, a Research Fello\\' at Warwick University, and is
presently Course Tutor at the Victoria and Albert Museum
and the Royal College of Art in London.
Max Dannelly (The Aesthetic Movement> gained an MA
in Fine and Oecorative Art from Sotheby's Institute in London
in 1988. He is now Registrar and 19th-<entury decorative arts
expert at Ihe Fine Art Societ)' in London. He \Vas recenlly
decorative art curator of Tlle Willter Alltiques 5/101:1.1 in New
York. Prior to his current position, he researched and
catalogued 19th-eentury American and European decorativc
arts for Hirsch1 and Adler Galleries, New York, and waS
consultant for Victorian property for The Natianal Trust of
Scotland. He contributes essays to exhibition catalogues for
The Fine Art Societ)' and has ",ritten for various joumals,
including The Magazine Antiq//es, Tew York and Flfmitllre
HislonJ, Ihe joumal of the Furniture History Society.
Jane Gardiner (Renaissance, Baroque, and Rococa pottery)
is a specialist in early European ceramics and glass, 17th- and
18thcentury architecture and design, the caurt art of Louis
xrv and Chinese export porcelain; she teaches and lectures
\Videly. 5he began her career at the Victoria and Albert
Museum in Londoo, latcr bccoming a tutor 00 the 17th- aod
18th-century Decorative Arts course at Sotheby's lnstitute; she
is now a Senior Lecturer. 5he is a member of se\'eral societics
including !he French Porcelain Society, the 5ociet)' of Court
Historians, and the Fumiture History Society.
Mary Greensted (Arts and Crafts Movement) has a
postgraduate diploma in gallery studies and became an
Associate of the Museums Association in 1976. She has
curated a number of touring exhibitions, including Alan
Pelers, Fl/mif//re Maker and A1fred aud Loltise Powe/l, Happy
Workmanship willI Cood TllOlIg1lt. She is now Decorative Arts
Curator and Visitar Sen'ices Manager at Cheltenham Art
Caller)' and Museum.
Sally Kevill-Davies CBaroque, Rococo, and Neoclassical
ceramics and porcelain) is a freelance writer and researcher
based in London. 5he has been responsible for the re-
cataloguing of English porcelain at the Fitzwilliam Museum,
Cambridge, srnce ]991, and a resident expert on the BBC
Al/tiques Roadshotu since 1997.
Rachel Layton Elwes (Contemporary) is a curator in
Mcdicval and Modem Europe at the British MlIseum, and
curatorial assistant at The Gilbert Collection, London. She
was formerly assistant curator in lhe department of decorative
arts at the Camegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh. Her
exhibitions theTe inclllded Three COllfemporary Metafsmit/ls:
/nlimale TrndiliOlls and fn PlIrsuit of Objecfs: ATribule to
Deeorntive Arfs Col/eefors. Prior lo this she held rcsearch
assistant posts at the i\tctropolitan Museum of Art and lhe
Philadelphia Museum of Art. She lectures widely on !he
decorative arts.
J.R. Liefkes (Renaissance and Baroque glass) gained a masters
degree in art histor)' from Leyden University in 1986. Cmatar
of Glass and Metalwork at the Haglle Municipal Museum from
1990--2, he is now acting Chicf Curator of the ceramics and
glass deparhnent at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
He has been president of the ICOM lntemational Glass
Committee since 1995 and editorial adviscr of the Coming
Museum of Glass /ollrnaf ofGlass Stlldies smce 1998. He is a
regular contributor to Vormen "it VlIllr (a Dutch quarterly
magazine on ceramics and glass) and is a speaker at
intemationaJ seminars on Renaissancc glass and pottery.
Andy McConnell (Rococo and Neoclassical glass) is a
professional writer, researcher, and leclurer specializing in
antique glass. He owns a large callection and writes regularly
for magazines on both sides of the Atlantic. His book, Tlle
Decallter, AH I1Il1slrnled Hisfonj, is published by the Antique
Collectors' Club.

Dr. Alan Powers (Modernism) studied history of art at the

University of Cambridge, completing his PhO in 1983. He
was Vice-President of the Twentieth Century Saciety from
1995-9. He has curated maoy exhibitions including Modcl'll
Brifaill, 1929-39 (Design Museum, consultant curator), Sir
Albert Ric/1tlrdsOI1 1880-1964 (RIBA Heinz Gallery), and Serge
CJtermayeff (Kettle's Yard, Cambridge and the De La Warr
Pavilion, BexhiU); and he has ",riHen for magaLines such as
Apollo, Voglle, RIBA ol/mal, and l'Vorld oI'Jlteriors. Dr Powers
has been a senior lecturer at the Universitv of Greenwich
,
since 1999,
Daru Rooke (Historical Revivals) specializes in Victorian
arts, industry, and social rusto!")'. He has a postgraduate
degree in Art Gallery and Museum Studics from the
Uni\ersity of Manchesler and has been Ihe Senior Curator
at the Leeds lndustrial Museum since 1996. He has given
radio presentatians far BBC Radio -:1, contributed to the BBC
programme Home FroJlt, and curated and prcscnted the
Channel-:1 documentary 1900 HOl/sc.
Mary Sehoeser (Renaissance, Baroque, Rocoeo, and
Neoclassical textiles) studied design at the University of
California and completed a post-graduate course in Museum
Studies at California State University befare gaining an MA
in Histo!")' of Art at the CaurtauJd lnstitule of Art. A textile
specialist, she is consultant archhist and curator at thc
Landon lnstitute and Liberty of London Prints. Her most
recent exhibition was Makillg Tlieir Mark (1896-1966) at
Central St l\.larhns, London, where she is also a research
fellow. 5he is a member of the RAE Art and Design panel and
an examiner fer various uni\ersities in the UK. She is textile
adviser lo the Biltmore Estate, North Carolina, English
Heritage and The National Trust.
Timothy Schroder <Renaissance, Baroque, and Rocaeo silver)
worked for Christie's London from 1976-8-!, latterly as Director
of the silver department, and later became Curator of
Decorative Arts at Los Angeles COtmty Museum of Art. From
1989-91 he ran his own business, dealing in silver and worles of
art and, after selling it to Partridge Fine Arts, developed their
specialist silver department. From 1997-2000 he was Curatorial
Consultant and later Kceper of the Gilbert Collection, Londoo.
He 5 a Iiveryman of the Goldsmiths' Company and a fonner
chairman of The Silver Society.
Adriana Turpin (Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, and
eaclassical Eurapean furniture) read history at Oxford
Univcrsity before undertaking studies in Medieval Art at
the CourtauJd lnstitute in London. A Deputy Director of
Sotheby's Eurape, she is tutor on the 17th and 18th-century
Decorative Arts course at Sothcby's Institute in London,
spccializing in furniture and designo
Lisa White (British Rococo and Neoclassical furniture)
read Modern History at Oxford and later worked at the
Victoria and Albert Museum in Landan, specializing in
English furniturc and upholstery; later she taught History
of Decorative Art at Bristol University. Since 199-1 she has
\\'orked in Bath, at the Building of Bath Museum and is
currently Curator of Decorati\'e Art at the Holburne Museum
of Art, Bath.
Nigel Whiteley (Space Age) is a professor in the Department
of Art at Lancaster Uni\'ersity and has recently rcturned from
a period at the Gett)' lnstitute in Los Angeles. He has been
a visiting professor at the Nationallnstitute of Oesign in
Ahmedabad, the Indian Institute of Technology in Bombay,
and the Central Academy oE Art and Design in Beijing.
Jonathan M Woodham (Postmadernism) studied Fine Art at
Edinbllrgh College of Art before lIndertaking postgraduate
studies at the Courtauld Institute of Art in London. He has
been an editorial board member on the internationally
renowned ol/mal 01 Desigl1 History since its launch in 1987
and also serves on the intemational ad\"isory board of a
number of leading periodicals induding Desigll IsslIe5. He
lectures frequently and and is currently Professor of History
of Design and Director of the Design History Research Centre
at the Uni\"ersity of Brighton.
Ghislaine Wood (Art Nouveau) attained her MA from
Birkbcck CoUege, University of Londan. A spccialist on Art
Nouveau and Art Deco, she has lectured at the Oslo School of
Architecture and The Royal Academy as well as the Victoria
and Albert Museum in London where she has been a curator
in the research department since 1993. 5he is thc Curatar for
the Art Deco Exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum.
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Sources
The following is a lisl o the contemperary
publications menlioned as SOlUCes in
7711: Elemmts of Dt.>sigll, logether ",Ih page
refcrcnccs. A nwnber in italics indicates Ihal
lhe citation accompanies an illustratian.
Renaissance
Ovd, Mellllllorplloses, Venice, 1-1:97; p.20
Pellegrino, Francesco, Ln F/ellr de /n Sch'I1Ct'
de POllrtmictllre, Venice, 1530; p.IO
Picolpasso, Cipriano, Tlm:e Books of he
Potta's Arl, Ital}'. ,.1557; p.22, p..?]. p.24
Sambin, Hugues, Oelwre de /11 dil'ersit des
termes, Burgundy. 1572; p.J6
Vasan, Giorgio. tl'('S of tlle Arfists, Italy,
1550; p.12
Zoppino, Gl; Ullil'ersali di tutti e be;
dissegni. mccami (' lIIodemo lllPOri, \lenice,
1
_'>
:XJ_; 11.39
Baroqu
Chippendale, Thomas, TI//' Gel1/1Clllnll &
Cnvillet-A1nker's Direclor, England, 175-1
(further eds 1755 al1d 1762); p.9-J., P.95,
p.98, P98, P.99
Gribelin, Simon, New Book of Ol'llallJ.:JIts,
London, 17O-i; JI.71
Marot, Daniel, NOI/l'eall Upre d'Orf(!'l'rerh',
The Hague, 1712; P.73
Mocldcr, C. de, Proper Orllalllt'llts to bt
ElIgrm:''1'd (lll Pinte, London, 169-1; p./3
Rabel, Daniel, (arlouc!le:> dt' d!ffirentes
illPCllliol/s, c.1625; P.IO
Stalkcr, John and Parker, George, Treatise
of }apmll1illg and Vamisllillg, England,
1688; p.S8
Vianen, Christian van, !vIoddli Artificiosi,
Utrecht, 1650; JJ.7o
Rococo
Blande!, Jaeques-Franc;ois, De fa dislribll-
tioll dt'S maiSOI/S de plaiSllllec et de la deorfl-
/ioll des difict'Sl.'ll gllt'rfll, Franee, 1737; IJ.81
Darly, I\latthias and Edwards, George, A
Ne'il' Book of Chil1/?S(' DeSigIS, London,
175-1; P.95
Decker, Paulus, C/i"est' Arclliftoctllre, Ch,il
alld OnlallJelllal and Cotfe Architectllrl'
Decomted, London, 1759; p.108
Germain, Pierre, Elmellfs d'Orflf.'rerk,
Franee, 17.t8;P.lJl
loee, William and John, Tlll'
Ullh'l'rSllI 5ysll'1lI of HO/lsflOfd Fumitllrl',
Londoll, 1762; p.9-J., P94, P.97
Johnson, Thomas Olle HlIIufred Imd Fifty
Ncw Desiglls, London, 1761; P.95
Loek, Matth.ias, Six SeOllees, London,
17-J.-.l.; P.94
Manwaring, Robert, Tlu: Clmir-!vIah'r's
G/lidl', London, 1766; P.96
Mariette, Jean, Arehill'C/llrl' Frflll(ais, Paris,
1727; p.&l
Mcissonnier, Juste-Aurele, G'II'<,n', Franee,
17-J.8; p.l U, P.115, p.116
Roubo, Andrc-Jaeob, I'Arl dl/ Mellltisil'r,
Paris, 1772.; p.85
Rudolph, Christian Friedrieh, Eillige Vases,
Augsburg, p.118
Saint-Auban, Charles Gerrnail1 de, CArt dll
Bl'odeur, Franee, 1770; p.125
Sayer, Robert, Tfu: Lndieio' AIIIIISt'lIIell/ 01', tllt'
IVhole Arl of /appmmil/g I//odt' Easy, London,
1762; p.1lO
Upholslerers, Society oL C('II/eel HOl/s/lOld
Fllrnitllre, London, 1760-2; p.9-l
Vardy, John, SOllle Dl'Siglls of Mr llligo /Olle:>
tUld Mr IVilliam Kmt, London, 17-J...i; p.121
Neoclassicism
Aekennann, Rudolph, RelKl$ilory of Arts,
London, 1809-28; P.139, p. H2, p.156
Adam, Robert and James, '1'lle Works ill
Al'ehiteetllre, London, 1773-1822; p.HO,
".14, p.I77, P.177, ;'189
l3eunat, Joseph, Dt'Si.f;lIs fol' Al'ciJift'ctlll'fll
Omallll'lIts, Pars, c.1813; 1J.103; 1'108, P.109
Carter, J., Tlle BlIilder's I\lngn:im', England,
177-1-78; p.qo
Cntalago degli Alltichi MOIlI/IIICllti, Italy,
1759; p.l-J.9
Chambers, Willam, A Trt'aliSl' 01/ O"i/
Architectllre, London, 1759; p.l77
Cochin, Charles-:\lieolas, Slt11;Jlicnlioll al/x
Orflf.'res, Pars, 175-1; p.l91
Delia Bella, Slcfano, Rnceoftll di \/asi Dh'l'rsi,
Paris, 1639-18; p.J88
Delafosse, Jean Charles, N01/l'clle leol/ologic
Historique, Paris, 1768; p.130
Del/e Al/tidJitll di Ercolrmo Esposle, ital)',
1755-92; P,152
Denon, Vi"ant, Voyage dalls In t3l1sse el /11
Hall/e Egyp/t', Paris, 1802; p.161
Diderot, Denis, Elleydopidie 01/ Didiolllwir,'
Rnisol/Il dt'S Sciellees, Paris, 1771; P.159
Dugoure, Jean-Dmostht'l1e, d'AI'flWsqIlt'S,
Franee, 1782; p.206
Hepplewhite, A. (Gcorge Hepplewhile),
Tlu: Cabillcl-Alakn's alld UpllO/sll'l'I:r's Guid,',
George Hepplewhite, England, 1788 (first
edition); p.1 H, p.HO, P141, p.1.J.1, 1'.143,
P.145, p.15-1
Hope, Thomas, HOllsellOld FlImitul't' (/lid
[l/feriar Dccvmfioll, London, 1807; p.129,
p.I-l2,pJ43, p.156,; p.183, P.183
Hugues, Pierre Fran;:ois, Baron
d'Hanearville, AlltiqJlils Elrusqu('S,
Grecqlll's el ROlllaille:>, Naples,
1766-67; p.l77
Mrcll :1( gt'sc1mlaeh'Ollm A-liiL'l'IIl, Lepzig,
1805, p.H7'
Laugier, Abbe, Essai sllr I'Archih'Ctllre,
Paris, 1753; p.126
l\lcissonnier, Juste-Aurele, Oellt're (Upre des
Lt'gulI1':;), Franee, c.175O; p.l88
Msangerc, Pierre La, Cul/ectioll de Meublt'S et
Objels de Colit, Franee, 1802-35; p.136, p.156
Neufforge, Jean Fran;:ois, Reeeui/ EllllCII-
lnire d'Arc1litt'clllre, Paris, 1757-80; p.126
Pastorini, B., A Nt"w Book ofof
for Girtllldo/es alld Glass Frfllllt'S, England,
1775; p.l.l0

Perder, Charles and Fontainc, Pierre-

Franc;:ois-Lonard, Recueil de dt'coratiollS
illtricurt's, Paris, 1801; p.128, p. 1)5, P.193
PiranesL Giovanni Battista, Le AI/lic//il
ROlllflll" and \/('dute di ROllla, Italy, 1756 and
17-18-78; p.126
Richardson, George, .\Jt"I' for Va:<es
ami Tri"ads, Landan, 1793; P.139
Sheratan, Thamas, Cabilll!l Dictiollary,
Londan, 1803; p.1-I2
Sheraton, Thomas, rile Ca/lille!-!vIaker nlld
llpllOlstefef's DmwillS Bnok, Landan,
1791--l; p.I-!2, Jl.143, p. T45, p.15-!
Smilh, George, i\ Colh'ctioll of OC5iglls for
HOIIscllOld Fumilllft' alld !l1!cl'ior Dl'comtioll,
Landon, 1808; p.l.lT, p.1-I2
Tatham, CH., oj Allciellt OTl/a-
1II1'1Itn/ Arcllitccfl/rt', England, 1799; P.139
Tatham, CH., Dl.':'igmfor OmfllllCllto/ Plate,
England, 1806; p.t91, P.191
Vien, tarie, SI/itl! dI! Vo:.'(';;. Paris,
1760; P.192
'Vinckdmann, Johann Jaachim, HistOlY oj
A/lcit'llt Arl, Rarne, 176-l; p.126
\\Iood, Robert and Dawkins, James, Ruills
nj Pallllym and R1/ills of 8alllbt'ck, London,
1753 and 1757; p.126
Historie Revivals
Arrowsmith, A. and H.W., HOl/s('
Decomto,;; alld Painll'r';; CI/ide, Landon,
1S-W; p.210
Bridgens, Richard, Fumitun' ,l'illl
Calldl'1abra alld fnlaior Deconltioll, Landan,
1838 (2nd ed); JI.:H3
Canner, Robert, Cnbillt'/-Arnkl.'r's r\5sistalll,
U.$., 1S---!2; p.21-1
Dolmetsch, Heinrich, Ol'/lCIlJ/l'IIfellsc1Ult::.,
Stultgart, 1887; p.213
Downlng, A.J., Tlle Arc/liteclllre ojCol/lltry
HOIlSCS, New York, 1850, p.210
Gleason, Pietorial Dmoig-RoolII
C11ll/1fl1l iOll, U.$., 185-l; JI.2 1 2
Jones, OH'en, TI't' Gmllllllflr (!f Ommlll'lll,
London, 1856; p.213, p.250
King, Thomas, TI", A1od.'m Slyh' o/CalJillt'l
I\'ork E;rempl!fit'd, Landan, 1829; p.220,
p.no
Loudon, lC., EIIC},cf0pfll'dia ofCottagl', FarlJ/
mili \filia Arc1litt'ftllrl' al/d F/lTl/itllr.:,
London, 1833, p.21O
ol/mal oj London, 1S-l9-52; p.2lO
Klligllt's Vas/,,,, mld Omallll'l/ts, c.1833; p.2..J2
Rickman, Thamas, AII Attl.'lIIpt to
Discrimillate the Styles oj EI/g/is/
Al'cIJifectllre, London, 1817; p.21O
Sh<lW, Henry, Speciu1l'lIs (!f Allcicl1t
Fllmitllrl', London, 1836; p.216
Viollet-Ie-Duc, Eugene, DictiOlll/{lirl.' dll
Alobi/il.'r Fmll(aise, ParlS, 1858-75; p.2H
The Aesthetie Movement
Booth, Charles, MOlfall SII/farl.' Omallll'lIl,
:\'cw Yark, 1877; 1'.269
Cook, Clarence, T/le HOll5<' and
l\'Ital SltaJl \Ve Do I\'itll 0/11' 1\'alls1,
York, 1878 and 1880; 1'.250, p.253; p.250
Easllake, Charles Lockc, Hillts 011
f IO/lsl.'1lOliI Tastl', London, 1868; Boston,
18
-" "-2 ,- ,
1_; p._:::J ,p._:::J..
Edis, Robert W., Dl.'ComtiOJl mtd Fllmitrt' of
Tow!1 HOl/SI'S, London, 1881; P.256
Talbert, 13ruce, Cotllie Farllls al'plil'd lo
FI/mitlln:, Birmingham, 1867; Boston, 1873;
.,-., ')=,
p._:)_, _J"<, p.2j-1
"'att, WilIiam, Elrt FlImit/lI't', London, 1877;
p.25S, ".259
Arts and Crafts
Cnbmt't Alaka ami Art FllrlllsJer, Tllt',
England, 1S80-S9; p.2S-l
Cobdcn-Sanderson, A.T.]., fue Allllldl/s:
IlIlfll;;lrilll {fea/;; a/Jli tl/e BOllk Bt'auf!fu!,
England, 190-l; P.276
CI'(/ftSIl/(/II, Tite US, 1901-1916; p.28-l
SIl/dio, '1'111'. England, establbhcd
1893; p.28-l
Art Nouveau
CArt doraW, Paris, 1898-191-l; p.301
Art 1'/ Decoratioll, Paris, 1897-1938; p.301
CArt lIIodertlt', Brussels, 1881-191-i; p.30l
Ckkomtjy KIIlIsl, \Iunlch, 1897-1927; p.301
L'Emulatiml, Bmssels, 187-l;. p.29-l
KllJIst I//Id Kml::taJllfit','rk, Vienn.'!,
1898-192-l; p.30S
Grassct, Eugene, Plmlfs (/lId tllr AppJiCd-
tiolls to Orunllll'/If, Landon, 1897; JI. JOT
Haeckel, Emsl, del' Nall/r,
LeipzIg and Vienna, 1898; P.301
jl/gt'lld, Die.l\lunich, 1896-1920; p.301
vloser, Kolomon, Dit' Que/le, Germany,
1901;p.J'6
Pall, Berlin, 1895; p.301
\ler 5aerlllJl, Vienna, 1898-1903,; p.301
Modemism
Pilgrim, Dianne, Tltl' Maellilll' ill
Aml'rica, C.5., 1988; p.388
The Space Age
5/11/1in.II Tilllt':' Ca/ollr SI/PI/1elllt'/II, Britain,
launched 1962; pA53, p.-l56
SI/t'ctator, TIt,. Britain; pA5--!
Tailar ad CHIII'r; Britain, pA70
\/08'1/1', U$.; pA52, pA70
Pasbnodernism
FaCt', Tltt', Britaln; p.500
]encks, Charles, Arc/litccll/rc, TlIe umgllnge
al Postmodml Arc/ilccture and Postmodem
ClnS5icislII, 19n and 1983; p.--!&I
l\'otard, Jean-Frafl';ais, T1Jt' Posi-AIOlieru
COIllfitiall, France, 19S---!; pA82
Pe\"sncr, i\ikolaus, Piolll'l'r:: \ Ifldt'm
D.sigll, 19-19; pA8::!
Ventllri, R., CO/llplexily alld COJltmdictiOIl ill
Arc!litl'cll/I'l', U.S., 1966; pA82
Venturi, R., Seott Brown, Dcnise, ,md
lzenour, Stc\"cn L('al'llillg fl'Ol!1 Lns
U.$.; pA82
"'olfe, Tom, frolll Bnlllwu;; lo Ollr H01l5t',
V.5.; pAs.J
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Glossary
see separate cntTy
Abstract Expressionism a painting
movement fusing abstrae! <lrt ",ilh
expressionislll and allowing lhe
subconscioll$ to express itself - a
form of auloma!ic painting.
acanlhus a stvlized leaf ornament based
on the planl, Acnlll1l1fS
sl'illOSllS, aften seco in dassical arehitec
tuce and Dne of tlle most widelv usee!
ornamental forms in lhe decorative ar1$.
acid etching techniquc to cngrWC a
dcsign into glass using hydrochloric cid-
thc [onger lhe vessel is exposed lo lhe
acid, lhe deeper lhe relief.
Adam Reviva! lhe l<lte 19th-century
re\"ival of 18th-ccntllrY Neoclassical style.
Adam 5tyle lhe British forro. of 18th-
cenrury Neoclassicism, introduced by the
Scoltish ardtects, Robee! and James Adam
in lhe second half of lhe 18th century.
Ae5thetic Movemeot a development of
lhe de5ign reform movcment during the
18605 and 1870s in whkh "Art for Arts
sake" \\,,15 the ehief impulse. The style \Vas
mueh influenced by Japancsc decoration,
late 17th- and early 18th-<entury English
domcstic design, and blue and while
Chincsc poreelain. Simple forms and
unclllttercd surfaces were a reaction to lhe
hightly elabarale produets of mainstream
Viclorian laste, while amament \Vas often
placed asymmelrieally. Typical motifs
included sunflowers, fan shapes, peacock
feilthers, and bamboo.
air twist a bubble of air drawn out to form
<1 l.\'islcd or :.piral chalUlel. or channels, in
Ihe slem of a glass; a lype of decoranon
used from the mid-18th centu;'j especially
in Brilain. Other lypes of twists incorporate
strands of while or coloured glass rocts.
ti la catlledrale a French chair, intrOOuccd
c.1825, with sculpted Cothic architectural
details sueh as erenellaled top rails,
crockets, pinnacles, and folate spandrels.
alI'autica fram the ltalian for "after lhe
antique," decoration derived frum
c1assical inspiration.
alpaca an alloy of slerling sil\'er \\"ith
nickel added for strength.
amaranth also known as purpleheart or
palisander, a fine-Iextured tropical timber
from Cenlral and South Ameriea used
for vencers and marquetry since lhe
18th eentury. Purplish in eolour when
first cul, it becomes a rich dark brown
when seasoned.
amphora a type of two-handlcd vase with
a spreading mouth and foot. narrow neck,
and roundcd bodv used to store wine or
oli\'e oil in andent Greece and Rome; the
form. is imitatcd in Neoclassidsm.
anthemion a stvliLcd floral motif based on
the honeysllckle, secn in dassical design
and much llsed in lhe Neoclassical period,
usuaUy as a repeating ornamen!. The term
is often used, interchangeably. for the
paLmette which it closely resembles.
appliqu from the French for "applied,"
omamentation made scparately and then
applied lo an objed. On fabrics, decorat'e
sntching or seams are llSually llscd to bide
the edges around the appLiqu.
aproo the "skirt' of wood joined lo the
bottom of ., picce of case fumiture,
tabletop, or seat rail oi a chair. It may be
shaped and dccorated or a simple bando
arabesque originating in the Near East, a
pattem of intricate and stylized
interh"ining lea\'es and scrolls. popular in
16th- and 17th-<entury Europe and re\'ived
in Ihe 19th centu;.. ln 18th-<entu;. Franee,
the term was applied to designs
of figures and scrolling foliage.
arborescent design lIsed in textiles, a
pattern resembling or based on a tree.
arcadiog deri\'ed from archilectllre,
decoration composed of a series of linked
arches; oflen found on fumiture and
panels in the late 16th and 17th centuries.
armoire from Ihe French, a large
cupboard wilh two doors and usuallya
sheli or two, used for storage cspecially
of linens or clothing.
armoriaI a coal of arms or heraldic
decoration.
armorial ware sil"er, cemmies, or glass
decorated with a coat of arms, famil)' crest,
or other heraldic ornament.
Art Deco pre\'alcnt from c.1910 to 19-W.
a design slyle known for its bold (olours
and geometric shapes. The name comes
from the 1925 Exposition des Arts Dcoratifs
et Indllslriels MOOemes in Paris.
artificial porcelain another term for soft-
paste or imitation porcelain.
Art Nouveau poplJ!ar in Ellrope
from the 1890s to (,1910, a decora ti ve
arts slyle based on sinuous CUl"\'es,
fio\\'ing lines, asymmetry, and organic
forms, often incorporating flower, leaL
and ioseet monfs.
Arts and Crafts Movement led bv the
8ritish designer William !\Iorris, a 19th-
and earl)' 20th-<entury mo\"emenl by
lftists ad\"ocating a returo to simplicity
and functionalism in dcsign and quality
of materials and craftsmanship.
Auricular style thought to be originally
baSt.-d on the shape of the human ear,
decoration in an undulating, rippling slyle
found on late 16th- and 17Ih-<entur\"
northero European sih'er and fllmiture.
aventurine from the Italian 11i'<'f.'Jltlfra,
meaning accidental, a Iype of translucent
dark brown glass \dth gold specks
produced by the addition of copper crytals
to the multen glass; the tcrm 'lIso applies
lo glazcd finishes such as lacquer wilh a
similar speckled, mclallic appearance.
baJuster probably deri\'(.-d from \'ase
forms, a columnar support such as atable
or chaie leg. or the stem. of a drinking glass,
formed from. a series of cun"es or knops\
gi\'ing a dccorati\'c undulating profile.
banding in furnjturc, a deeorati\"e veneer
or inlaid strip in a contrasting colour or
m"terial such as mothcr of pearl or metal,
"pplied around the edge of a dra",er front,
table top, or panel. The direction of the
grain on the \\'000 determines the typc of
banding: strajght banding, cross banding.
or herring-bone (or feather) banding.
Bargello (also caUcd flame stitch,
Florentine stitch, and Hungarian stitch) a
simple form of embroidery, using stitches
in a zizag or flame pattern in gradl1ating
shades of colollr; it \Vas first used in
Hl1ngary during the ll1iddle ages and I"ter
spre"d throughout Ellrape ",here il was
especiaUy popular for llpholstery in the
Baroque periodo
Baroque originating in Italy, a hea\'i!y
sculpturallate 17th- and early 181h-
ccnturv c1assicallv based st\"le found on
- - -
architecture, fumiture, and other objects
incorporating an extrayagant use of plant
forms such as Ihe acanthus, human forms
such as putti, and other motifs set in
curvaceous shapes, oen making use uf
slrongly Iones and colours_
BaroqlleHo a style in Ital)' based on Ihe
Rococo but influenced by the Baroque.
bas armoire a type of lo'" bookcase
or cabinet, introduced in the early
18th centur)'.
base metal an)' non-prccious metal such
as brass, bronzc, iran, and sleeL
basrelief (or low-relief)" a sculptural
form thal projects onl)' slightl), from the
surface, with none of the design being
undercut (see also high relie).
Bauhaus foundcd by Walter Gropius in
1919, a Gcrman school of architecture and
applied arts that aimed to create prototype
designs for mass-produced e\"Cryda)'
items, using austere, geometrie forms, and
modern materials such as tubular steel
and plastics. lis funtlonalist approlCh
grew out of the Arts and Crlfts
and led tu Modernism*.
bead and reel a c1assieal border ornamenl
formed from alternating groups of beads
and oblong spindles or reels.
beading a decorative border of cast and
applied or embossed beads of the samc or
graduatcd sizc, uscd on 1Sth-
and 19th-ccnturv ccramies and metal\\-ork.
beaker a cylinderical d rinking ,-essel sorne-
times tapered or with an everled rim, with-
oul a handle or stem, afien with a fool rimo
bellflowu see husk
bentwood a of fumiture-
making, by bcnding lightweight, solid,
or laminatcd* wood with steam_ It was
developed by Ihe Auslrian l\lichael Thonet
during Ihe 18305 and 18405. Earlier, the
American Samuel Gragg of Boslon had
patenled a method of bending solid wood
for the frames of chairs, and, later 1ahn
Ilenry Beher explaited a lamin<lled fono
for his elaboT<ltelv carved fumitlUe.
bergere a term deri,-ed from Ihe French
word meaning sheep fold, to
describe a type of deep-seated
armchair wjth back and <lrms enclosed,
often with caning or leather upholstery;
sometimes the 1rms and top mil form
<1 contlnllolls Cllrvcd cndOSllrc.
Berlin woolwork popuJar in Europe
and the US during Ihe 19th cenlury, a
type of can\'as embroidery using coloured
wools and designs originaJ1y imported
from Berlin; manufacturers prO\ided the
pattems, which ",ere then transferrcd to
camas, as a way of marketing Ihe "'0015.
Biedenneier a bourgeois style of decorati\'e
art practised in Austria, and olher
parts of Eastem Eurape c.181O lo 1850,
characleri7ed by bold, classical shapes with
reslraineci, well-executed decoration. The
style was influential on laler design,
especially in the early 20lh ccntury_
biscuit <1 ccramic bcxi\- Ihat has becn fired
but not glazed. Biscuil porcelain, used for
statllettcs and SClllplllres, has a nisp, dry
matl appearance.
blaucde-Clue a type of white Chinese
porcetain, uSllally in the farm of figures,
left lInp<linted and co\"CTed in a thick ",hile
gl<lzc; it was cxported to Europe from Ihe
17th century onwards, and was influenliat
in the development of European porcelain
Ihe ead)' 18th centur),.
blmlc de POllyat l type of while hard-
paste"" porcelain prodllced at the Pouyat
faclory, Limoges, Fmncc, in the mid-19th
centur)'.
blaze a typc of fan-shaped cul-glass
decoration,
block print a longused method of
applying a pattem lo f.1bric or paper, using
a wooden block ",ith the dcsign carH_'CI
into il in re\ersc, leaving Ihe dcsign raised.
Oye is applicd lo the block, which is then
positioncd and pressed on Ihe fabric; Ihe
pattem is extended by repeating Ihe process.
bluejohn a contraction of the French,
/l/1.IIjmml!, lo describe the decorath-e
f1uorspar mined in Derbyshire in the
18th centur)'; mainly purplc and blue in
colour, somctics ",ith 5l1l:'aks of brown
or yellow, il "'as <lIso popular in France,
wherC' much was exporlcd. The
metalworker, Boullon, made
spectacular use o il in combinanon with
for candelabra, perfume bumers,
and other ornamental items.
bobbin lace a type of lace made
throughout Europe in the 17th and 18th
ccnturies, espccially in the Low Countries,
where threads on bobbins were p<lssed
around pins projecting from a hard piIlO\\'.
bocage from Ihe French \Vord meaning
"Ihicket," used to describe the tTees or
foliage surrounding or supporting a figure
made of parcelain or pottery.
bomb a French ",ord meaning "bulging,"
used to describe the swelling comex
shape found in furniture made during the
Rococo periad, escpecialJy on conunodes
and chests of drawers. A similar shapc in
the US is known as "kettlc shapc."
bone china a durable Bntish porcelain
consisting of kaolin (china day), petuntse
(china slone), and dried bone. The Spode
beg<ln using iI in 179-l to compete
with Chinese imporls made of hard-paste
porcclain; bone china is still used today.
bOtllleur dll jour l lady's writing desk,
cst<lblishcd. bv the late 18th cenlun-,
, .
often fined with toilet accessories, with
shekes and pigeonholes al the back, a
f1at writing surf<lce al the front. and a
drawer underneath.
boteh leaf-shaped or pine-cone motif
derived from Persi<ln and
lndian textiles, which \\'<15 the inspiraban
for European paislcy patlerns.
BouJlework a lype of marquctry, named
after Andr-Charles Boulle (16-12-1732)
who de,eloped it, which was used to
decorate high-quality fumitur' from the
late 17th century with cbany or
lortoiseshell and brass cul inlo inlricate
dcsigns. Pewtcr, mOlher-of-pearl, and
were sometimes incorporated inlo Ihe
work, and bright colours, espeeially red,
blue, or grecn could be introduced by
painting or stainlOg the tortoiseshell from
behind. The technique continued in use
during the 18th centur)' and enjoycd a
re,-i,al during the e<lrly 19th when
it was sometimcs rcfcrred lo as Buhl work.
bow front the comex cuned front on
case fumilure.
bracket foot a supporl for case furniture
in \\-hich two ",ooden pieces shaped likc
brackets are mitred and joim.. 'CI together;
popular in the 181h ccntur)'.
breakront l term for a piece of case
fumiture with a protruding central section.
bright-cut engraving popular during the
Neoclassical period, a type of engraving
used on metal where the surface is cut al
an angle to form acets th<ll reflccllight.
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briJliant cut a teml deri\'ed from a
Ie<:hnique of diamond culting and used
to describe Ihe complex, deep, and high.ly
polishcd cutting of glass de\'eloped in
the enited Stales during Ihe sccond half
of Ihe 19th ccntury. lI.."Chniqucs and
malerials, as well as skillOO immigrants
from Europe, allo\\-OO the development of
cul-glass techniques that crealed a material
known for its clarit)' and brilliance, while
ncw te<:hnology enablOO CUI....ed lines to be
madc in a cut-glass patlem.
Bl"itannia metal a typc af pewter
conlaining a relati\'ely high amount of tin
with added antimany and copper bul no
lead; de\'eloped in lhe la le 18th cenlury il
\\'as a harder and slmnger pel\'ler Ihan
had been used previously.
Britanni3 standard from 1697 to 1720,
Ihe compulsory amount of sikcr uscd in
making sih'crware, which was 95.8 pcr
cent pllre (sterllng sih-er IS 92.5 per cent
pure); Ihe higher standard was set lo
pre\'ent the melting down of sterling
silvcr coins to make silver",are for the
dOlllcstic markct.
brocatelle a17th-century Frcnch term,
l<lken (rom Ihe lt<lliiln [mecate/lo, for a type
of WO\'Cll fabric, llStl,ll1y silk or \\'001, with
a raised pilllem on ,l smoolh background.
Or a variegated milrble tlscd for table tops
in the 18th-centllry .
broncit (also known as bronzite) a type
of glass mainly made ilt Ihe Lobrncyr
filclor)' in Vienna, c1910, incorporating
malt black meta]]ic decoration of animals,
Oower5, figures, and geomelric shapes on
c1ear ar malt gla<;<;.
bucranium applied omament in the form
of a ram's skull,
buffet an early fonn of a sidehoard, orgin-
allya tiered structllre for displaying
\'aluables; 16th- and 17lh-centllry English
e,amples might incorpor,lle an enclosed
section or a drawer, and are knowTl as
court cupbo.lrds. ;\lore genera]]y Ihe terro
is uS<.'CI for sidebo<lrd or side cabinet.
bunting a lighh\cighl, loosely \\'o\-cn
collon fabric, usually used for m<lking
f1ags or festive decoralions in swagged or
drapecl form,
bureau made from lhe earlv 18th centurv,
. .
i"l typl..' of wrlting desk ",ith a sloping fa]]
fronl, l..'Ilclosing a filted interior \\'ith
pigeonholes and drawers, and usually
wilh drawers below.
b"reau , cylilldre (or S<'cr8nir,, iI
a type of bureau with a slatted cylinder
top that roUs up lo e'pose a flat writing
surfacc, Probably first designed by Jean-
Fr,lm;ob Deben (c.1721-63) it became a
popular form in England as well as Francc
later in the 18th cenhuy.
bureau cabinet a bureau (see abo\'e) \\'ith
a c,lbinet enclosed ,,'ith doors abm'e Ihe
wriling section,
bureall Ma::ari" !lamed in the 19th
cenlury afler Cardinal i\!aLarin, chid
minisler lo Louis XI\', a Iype of late 17th-
cenlury \\'riting desk wilh eight legs
joined by slretchers and decorated in
boulle marquetry.
bureall plat French term for a flat-top
writing desk, afien cO\'cred with lealher,
wilh a drawer in the fricLe belo\\'.
cabochon i'l gemstone in a srnooth domed
shape; i'llso l raised circuli'lr- or Q\'al-
shaped motif,
cabriole typc of leg found on European
furniture from the late 171h ccnturv that
has a gcntly cur\'ing, i'ltlenuating S-shilped
profile, wider al the top and tapering
towards (he bollom.
caddya de<:orati\'e \\'ood, metal, ceramic,
or ;Iass cont<liner for storin& tea.
calcedonia firsl produced in ltaly in Ihe
15th cenlury,.l type of glass imitating
Ihe colour and \'eining of chalcedony
(or agate) and olher semipreciolls slones. It
\\'a5 popular during lhe RenaisS<lllce and
ag,lin in Ihe 18th ,md \\'as produced
in Britain and Bohemia in lhe 19th
known ,lS Sc/lllld:glll"S in Gennany.
camaie", en a Frcnch term for dcscribing
a p,linling oi lhe samc colour bul lIsing
different Iones, simulating a carneo.
carneo a c1assic,ll omamenl re\'i\'OO in
the Ren,lisS<lnce and 7'\eoclassical
consisting of a gem, hardstone, or she]]
carn.-d to sho\\' a relief design sllch as a
c1assic.ll grotlp, heild profile, I<lndscape,
or agilinst a contrasting background.
cameo glass cased glilss, consisling oi Iwo
or more layers, in conlr'lsling colours, wilh
a c<ln'ed or elched design in relief. The
technique \\'as kno\\'n in anlquity and
re\'i\'cd in thc 19th centurv.
carease (carcass in the L:S) the basic
slructure of a piece of case furniture, often
a foundation for \eneering.
cartouche from the French for "scroll,"
a dccorativc motif in the shape of a sheet
of papcr with scrolling ends, bearing a
monogram, inscriplion, or picture in lhe
centre; it takc lhe form of a shield or
'ablel wilh a decorated frame and was
especially popular in 'he Rococo periodo
caryatid of Greek clas<;ical origin, a
draped femaJe figure acling as a column
supporl, found on :\'eoclassical and
Empire-style fmniture.
cased glass glass of one colour co\'ercd
with il layer or layers of a differenl colom;
the smface could then be engra\'ed or
parlly cut away to re\'eallhe layers
bcnellh, The technique was de\'eloped in
Bohemiil in Ihe carl)' 19th centmy and
later copicd elscwhere,
case furniture pieccs with a box-like
carcase slruclure which mav be fitted ",ith
drawers, shelvcs, or doors, Examples
include chests of dr,lwers, cupboards,
bookcases, and bllreaux.
caSS01Je an Itilliiln chest from Ihe Renaiss-
ance period, often incorporating claborate
car"ing, painling. or inlays. They were
oflen made in pairs ilS \\"edding pr<;"s.;'nb.
Celtic style a de<:orated 5tyle associated
wilh Celtic peoples, who spread fmm
central Europe to Spain, Italy, and Britain
c.250oc, incoprorating curdlinear patterns,
espeeially intcrlacing knots, with stylized
sinllous animal and human forms; it \\'as
the inspiraUon for much Arl
design, espeeially al the Glasgow School.
centennial see Colonial Revi\'al
centrepiece ilem designed to decorate Ihe
centre of a dining table; scc epergne.
ceramics from the Greek for the
term lo describe c1ilybased products
hardened by heating al high lemperatures,
inclllding earthenware, porcelain,
stoneware, and bone china.
chamfered the surfac<..' crcated by cutting
or pl<1ning ,lJ) edge al an angle, especia]]),
in wood and stone\\'ork.
chair en cabriolet (or JaHleui! en cabriolel)
armchair with a padded and cun'ed back.
champlev an enamelling technique
where areas of metal are hollowcd or
etched out and filled with an enamcl
paste, then fired in a kiln before being
polished down to the le"el of the metaL
chasing a technique for ereatiog relief
decoration in metal, cspeciaUy silver, by
using hammers and punches to push the
metal into a paHern; unlike engraving, no
metal is removed, Embossing and
repouss are forms of chasing,
cherub an tlrehitectural motif used fram
the 15th century onwards consisting of a
winged child or child's head; it was a
popular motif on furniture, silver, and
ceramies, especially in the B..,roque periodo
chevron a zigzag pattern.
cJiarosclIro from the Italian meaning
"Iight" and "dark," the plaeement of lights
and shades in a pictoritll work of art.
chiffonier from the French term
chiffolllliere, for a small chest of drawers,
or side eabinet inlroduced in the carly
19th century, with one or more sheh'es
abO\'e a sidcboard, usually a drawer in
the frieze and a cupboard below,
chinoiserie the fanciful Westem
interprelation of Crunese ornamen!,
consisting of figures and motifs such as
pagodas, birds, dragons, and frehvork
applied to aH kinds of decorative art fram
the 17th ccntury onwards and particularly
popular in the Rococo perioe\.
cire-perdlle see lost-wax casting.
c1assical see Neoclassicism
dois01U1 an enameIling lechnique where
fme metal wire 15 attached lo metal,
forming a neh\'ork of cfoisiolls (compart-
ments), which are then fil1ed with enamel
paste before the object is fired in a kiln.
coffee can a cylindrical, straight-sided
cup for drinking coffee, made during the
lale 18th and earl" 19th centudes.
Colonial Revival also known as
Centennial in the US, a period 100 years
after the signing of the Declaration of
lndependence in 11/6 in which American
furniture was made as an authentic
reproduction of high-quality colonial-style
furniture; patriotic motifs inelude buffalo
heads and American eagles. Centennial
may also refer to items made especially for
the celebrations that took place in 1876.
Colonial style a furniture st)'le found in
Ihe American colonies from c.1600 to 1780,
charaeterized by tumed baluster decora-
tion, surface carving, and painting; also the
18th-<entury European fumiture style as
interpreted in the Spanish and Porluguese
eolonies of South America.
eQmmedia dell'arte Jively, sometimes
ribald characters (rom the !talian folk
theatre, including Harlequin, Columbine,
Pantalone, PuJcinella, and Pierrot, modclled
in porcelain at r-.leissen, Nymphenburg, and
other European faclones.
cornrnode a Freneh tcrm for a
dra"'ers, especially a grand or decorati\'e
one; aiso, a piece of fumiture made for
storing a chamber poL
composition an inexpensive plaster-like
material made of whiting (chalk) and size
or gllle (or [(.'Sin, sawdust, or ground rags),
osed to make rclief mouJdings and can'ed
effects on fumiture.
Consu1ate style a French style of
Neoclassicism pre\'alent during the
political Consulate period (1799-18().1)
and leading into the Empire
eoqllille d'oellfthe rrench term meaning
"eggshell"; see eggshell porcelain.
crack.ling/crazing describing the eHect
on glass when its temperature is abruptly
reduccd during tiring, crealing an o\"cr-all
decoration of fine cracks; or a similar result
on ceramics caused by differences in lhe
expansion and conlraction of body and
glaze during firing.
cranberry glass (also known as ruby
glass) a 19th-cenlury Brilish or American
glass with a pink hue created by adding
copper oxide or gold chloride to thc glass.
credenza thc Italian term for a sideboard
in the 19th century it was often used to
refer lo a side eabincl with a central
cupboard and open sheh'es on eaeh side.
cretotme a type of unglazcd cotton
or Iinen fabric wilh a slightly ribbed
surface and prinled designs, used for
curtains and fumiture.
crewelwork embroidcry with two-
ply erewel wools, usually on a linen
background, popular especially for bed
curtains in the 17th and 18th centuries,
and rcvi ved in the 19th.
cristallo a soda glass de\'eloped in Veniee
in the 1-1t.h centur)' that remained malleable
long after healing, allowing il to be formed
into elabarate shapes it eouid be decorated
with enamelling, gilding, trailing, or
engraving but was too brittle for eutting.
crizzling a defect consisting of a network
of fine erlcks, resulting from deterioration
in old glass.
crocket an ornament shaped like a
curled or bent leaf or cusp projecting from
a gable or spire in gothic archilccture and
used in fumiture and metalwork in the
Gothic shle.
crystal glass a type of eolourless,
lransparenl Icad glass, also known as
"quart7. cryslal" because of ils light-
refleeting property; it is often heavily
cut and engraved.
cup and cover a type of bulbous tuming,
resembling a deep bowled cup and domcd
lid, found on fumilure supports from the
mid16th centun:.
cut-card decoration a lechnique used on
sil\'er, in whieh !lat sheets of metal are cut
into a pattem such as lea\"es or s\\"irls, then
::>oldcrcd to the body or cover of a piecc to
form rcHef decoration; the techn.ique was
popular among Huguenot silversmiths in
England 1nd France in the late 17th and
earl\" 18th centurics.
cut glass decoration made into glassware
by cutting groo\'es and faeels by hand or
wth a wheel. First developed in ancient
Egypt. it was employed by Bohemian
glassmakers in the 16th and 171h cenluries.
The de\"elopment oE soft lead glass led lo
its popularity in England and lreland in
the 18th and 19th centuries. Styles include
blazes, fluting, splits, hobnail, and
diamonds. "Brilliant" cut* glass was
developed in the US in the 19th century.
Czech Cubism an early 20lh-century
archilcctural style de"eloped by architecls
and designers in Prague \\'ho \\'ere
influenced by the gl-'ometric arrangcments,
angularity, and distortion of Cub15m; some
of the designers experimenlcd with the
use of prisms, triangles, and pyramids.
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damask a reversable wo\'en patterned
fabric, usuall}' of silk or li.nen.
damascening a decorative metal
working teclmique where fine metal
wire made of gold, sil ver, or copper
was inserted into grooves cut into a brass,
bronze, or iron body, then flattened by
hammering; originally developed in the
Middle East, the technique spread to
Europe in the 16th century.
dauphin the cidest son of the king
of France.
dentil from the Latin del/s (tooth), a
decorative ornament found in Classical
architecture undemeath comices,
consisting of a rol\' of small rectangles
that give the appearance of teeth.
De 5tij1 from the Dutch for "the style," an
cad)' 20th-century group of radical Dutch
artists and architecls, linked with lhe
Gennan Bauhaus school, who rejected the
excessive Art Nouveau style in favour of a
simple style with an emphasis on logical
function and construction; forms were
asymmetrical, using strong lines, squares,
and rectangles, in pure primary colours,
dinatlderie originally brassware from
Dinant, near Lieges, but during the Art
Deco period a term used for hammered
and chased ornamental metalwork,
whether silver, copper, pewter, or stee!.
Directoire style a
French style, in fumihue,
rcflceting the political Directoire periad
(1793-99) and recognized by austere
dassical forms, sometimes deeorated
with revolutionar)' s)'mbols sueh as the
fasces (an axe bound by a bundle of
rods) and the cap of liberty.
dllclzesse a type of long upholstered
armchair with a roundcd baek - an eady
\'ersion of the ehaise longue, ha\ing
evolved from the daybed; the type with a
separale part which can be used as a seat on
ts awn is called a duc!e55C bris.
earthenware pottery mOlde of a da)' body
and fired in a hIn at low tcmpcraturcs,
creating a porous objcct that requires a
glazc to make it waterproof.
bniste a term derived from the word for
ebony, denoting a Freneh cabinehnaker
specializing in veneered furniture.
ebonized wood tha+ has bccn staincd
blaek to simulatc cbony.
ecleetidsm the indiscriminate use
of historical re\'ival styles during the
19th century.
eggshell poreelain a type of thin,
delicate Chinese porcciain imitated in
Japan, England (Minton), and Ireland
(Belleek) in the 19th century.
electroplating a method patenled in
in which sih'er is plated onto a base metal,
such as copper or niekel (EPNS), lIsing an
electric curren!. to produce a Illodestly
priced item with the look of a more
expensive metaL
Elizabethan Reviva! a st)'le popular in
England between the 18205 and 18505,
inspired by the so-called Elizabethan
style*.
Elizabethan style the name sometimes
given to the architectural and furniture
style predominant in 8ritain during
Elizabcth 1'5 reign (1558-1603); it was
actuallv a continuabon of the Renaissance
style, and eharacterized by symmetrical
facades, arcaded friezes, strapwork,
grotesques, arabesques, heraldic motifs,
and bulbous supports.
embossing the technique of creating
raised designs on metal (or leathcr), by
means of machine or hand work; it can
be carved, chased, or repouss"".
Empire style the na me gi\'en to late
Neoclassieism in Franee, mllch influenced
b)' Napolean's designers Percier and
Fontaine, and, in turn, influential on styles
in the rest of Europe and America.
enamel a type of decoration that involves
fusing a glassy substance coloured with
melallic oxides to a metal surfaee bv
means of heat; techniques include c/wmp
leve, and C!Oi55011I1*.
enamel colours made from
metallic oxides mixcd with powdcred
glass and used for decorating porcelain,
potter)', glass, and meta!. TIley are fixed by
firing in a low-temperature or muffle-kiln.
encaustic tile a clay tile decorated with
inlays of a contrasting coloured clay; ti
Medieval technigue revived in the mid-
19th cenhlTY not<lbly by Herbert Minton.
engraving a teclulique to decorate metal
or glass by cutting fine lines or dols into
the surface using a sharp tool such as a
diamond point or rotating wheel. l\llaking
a print il1\'olves a similar process of
engraving on a metal plate before
transferring the design to papero
ellsemblier the Freneh term for an
interior designer.
epergne an elaborate centrepiece for a
dining table, made of silver or glass, with
a central bowl and branching arms that
support remO\'able bowls, used from the
mid-18th century for fruit, sweetrneats,
and condiments,
tagere the Freneh word for a type of table
with hvo or three tiers llsed to sen'e food
or display objeets, similar to the English
and American whatnot*.
Etrusean style the Neoclassical style of
c.1760-1800, based on the decoration of
dassical Greek vases, at the time thought
to be Etrusean in origino
tui a small decorative case made of silver,
gold, ename!, lacquer, tortoishell, or other
material and often of tapering form with
a hinged lid, designed to carry uscful
personal items,
fal;on de Boheme from the French,
meaning "in the style of Bohemia,"
referring to glass made in the 130hemian
style, often brightly eoloured.
faienee French term for tin-glazed
earthenware. The word is derived from
Faem:a, whcrc much eady ltalian maioliea
(tin-glazed earthenware was made). TIle
German term is Fayence; the Dutch, Delft;
the British, de](tware.
faIl-front secrtaire a door or closure for
a eabinet, desk, or bureau which is hinged
at the bottom and drops down to form the
writing surface, supportcd in one of
several ways: by cords at the sides, lopers
or struts pulled out from the carease or
metal guadrants attached to the si des.
fatltellil the French term for an armehair
introduced in the ead)' 18th century.
Federal style the American Neod<lssic<ll
style, popular from c.1789 to c.1830,
ferronier French craflsman working with
wrought iron.
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festoon looped ornament consisting of
themes such as a flo\\"ers, ffuit, eaves or
d,aperv "'cocrallv wilh suspended cnds
_ o.' '
and sometimes punctuated ",ilh lion
masks, rosettes, or other
dassical motifs.
filigree fine silver or gold wire twisted
lo form lace-like decorative openwork.
fina! a dccoran\'e knob faund on
furniture, metalIVork, ccramics, aod glass,
sometimes used as a handle. Popular
shapes inc1ude Ihe acorn, pinecone, and
um or more ('labarate forms such as
animals, ffui!s, aod flon'ers.
fIame stitch see bargello.
flashed glass Ihe techniquc, den:-lopcd
in Bohemia in Ihe cad)' 19th (enlur)', of
applying a thin film of coloured glass lo a
\'e55el, by dipping, and Ihen decorating il
wilh [ight engraving. Ruby red was lhe
usual colour but amber and green are
also fOWld.
flint glass the name gi\cn to English
lead glass, developed by George
Ra\'enscroft in the 16705, wruch was
made \\"itl1 ground flinls or sand with
the addition of lead oxide.
fluting the opposite of reeding, a pattern
of \'ertical conca\'e groO\'es on a column
or othcr surfan." 50metime5 painted or
inlaid in trompe l'oei}* style.
fretwork pierced geometric decoration
with intersecting lines, usually repeated to
create a band or border. If the H'ork is not
pierced, it is known as "blind" fretwork.
frieze specifically the horizontal band
found belo\\' the comicc on a piece of
case furniture or, more any
horizontal strip of decoration on hnnitlnc,
sil\'er, or ceramics.
gadrooning a continllous pattem of
\ertical or diagonal convex curves or lobes,
fOWld on furniture, sil\'er, and ceramics; an
irregular form i5 known as knulling.
Galmzteriewarell derived from the
German word for "courteous," small,
preous accessories mClde for personal
use such as scent bottles and /is*.
galuchat the French term for shagreen*,
named "her M. Galuchat, who used it in
the 18th century for covering sheaths.
garniture usually \'C1ses, but sometimes
other ornaments used for display, made
in sets of three, five, or se\en.
gasolier a decorati\e fixture fur gas
lighti.ng, lIsed from the 1820s until the
introdllction of electric lighting in the
18805. UsuCllIy made of brass, it resembled
a chandelier, \\"ith a central shaft, through
which the gas travelled, with branches
which supported plain or coloured
lampshades covering the gas burners.
getlre pittoresqlle the fully de\e1oped
Rococo style from c.1730, characterized
by exaggerated ilsymmetry and scrolling
ornament incorporating nilturalistic
themes such as shells, rockwork, the
seasons, or Aesop's fables.
Georgian a largely meaningless term
referring to hlmihlre md other decorati\'e
arts during the reigns of the four kings
of England of that name, George 1(17H.....27),
George TI (1727-60), George rn (l76o-1820),
and George IV (182o-1830).
gesso a mixture of plaster of Paris or chalk
and glue size, applied to create a smooth
surface fur painted decoration and gilding
or, bllilt up in layers and sometimes
car\'ed, for relief ornament.
giallo antico from the Halian meaning
"antigue yellow," a marble-like substance
containing calcite or aragonite found in
cavcs or near springs; iron oxide gi\'es it
thc yello\\' colour. It was used for the tops
of commodcs and tables in thc 18th and
19th centuries l'erde nl1fico is a green type.
gilding the application of a gold finish
to metal, ceramics, n'ood, or glass. The
methods are: water gilding and oil gilding
for furniture acid gilding and size gilding
for ceramics; honey gilding for ceramics
and glass; and mercury or fire gilding,
matt gilding and clcctrogilding for metaJs.
girandole from the Halian for
Catherine wheel, a calldelabrum,
elaborate \Val! sconce"", or can'ed
bracket with a mirrored back.
Glasgow school a late 19th- and early
20th-century group of architects alld
designers led by Charlcs Rennic
Mackintosh and his wife Margaret
Macdonald based at the Glasgow Seool
of Art. Thev \Vere known for their version
of Art Nouveau, which inc!uded Celtic
ornament and stylized fioral motifs, using
slraighl or gently curving lines, and were
especially infiuelllial in Europe.
glaze a glassy coating applied to porous
ceramic bodies to waterproof them,
creating a 5mooth shiny surface; alead
glaze is transparent, while tin glazc is
opaque. Decorati\e effects can be
produced with the addition of other
Sllbstances such as wood ash, saIt, or
metallic oxides, and by \'arying the kiln
temperature during firing.
gold leaf wafer-thin sheets of gold used
for gilding.
Gothic a stvle based on Medieval
architecture, characlerized by pointed and
ogee* arche.:;, tracery*, pinnac!es*, cusps,
crockets*, trefoils*, and gllatrefoils*.
Gothick a decorati\'e strand of the 18th-
century Rococo style, inspired by Goth.ic*
architecture but without concem for
historical aCCllracv.
Gothic RevivaI (also known as Neo-
Gothic) a rebirth of the Gothic* style
re\'i\'ed in Europe in the 1820s and in
the US in the 1840s. The \'arietv known
as Rcformed Gothic, led by A.\V.N
Pugin, was infillcntial on the Arts and
Crafts lvIO\'ement.
Gout Grec from the French "Greek taste,"
the contemporary term used in France in
the 1760s to describe the early Neoc!assical
style, with emphasis on geometric forms
and decoration based on the ancient
architecturc of Greece; motifs include
\olutes*, bay leaf swags, vitw\ian scrolls*,
palmettes*, ilnd guilloche"". Sometimes
known as Louis XVI stvle.
Grand Tour a tour of Europe, and
sometimes further afield, usually lasting
one or two years, made by afflllent
British men on completion of their formal
edllcation, allowing them to ab50rb the
culture and history of the major European
cities, especially those in Italy, as \Vell as to
collecl works of ilrt and antiquities; these
tours were al their most popular in the
18th centurv.
Great Exhibition, TIte shortened
version of "Tbe Great Exhibition of the
Works of lndllstry of AH Nations:' the
(irst international exhibition, held in the
Crystal Palace, London, (rom vlay to
October 1851, to indude manufactured
items from arOllnd the \Vorld. The goal
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of the cxhibition was to promote trade
and imprO\'e public taste.
Greek key a pattem based on ancient
Greek decoraton consisting of inter
locking right-angled lines; it was olten
used in a continuou$ band in classically
inspired omament.
griffin or gryphon a popular Neoclassical
motu consisting of a mythicaJ animal with
the head, wings, and claws of an eagle
with the body of a lion; it originatcd in the
ancient East and was associated with
ApoUo, god of the sun, wmch is \\'hy it
often appears on Iighting forms such as
candelabra.
grisailIe a type of painted decoranon
with a calour palatte restricted to black,
while, and creating the impression
of a sculpted stone reHef or carneo.
gros point trom Ihe French (poilll
meaning "stitch"), cross-stitch embroidery,
usually on canvas.
grotesque an elaborate type of ornamenl
consisting of linked figures of humans,
animals, mythical beasts, or birds among
intertwining scrolls and foliage, often in a
vertical structurc incorporating candelabra
forms; based on ancienl Roman painted
decoranon found in Italian grottt', or
subterranean ruins, The decoranon was
first popular during the Renaissance.
gllridon a small table or stand on a
pedestal foot for holding a candelabrum,
tray, or basket, introduced in France in
the 17th century, Louis XIV forms were
somenmcs can'ed in Ihe shape of an
African figure bearing a round tray.
guilloche a patlern of continuous
twisting bands forming interlacing circles,
sometimes enc10sing rosettes or other
monfs; derived from classicaJ architecture,
this omament was revived in the
Renaissancc and was widespread in the
Neoclassical periodo
guttae a decorative elernent representing
stylized drops of water, usually taking
the form of a row of triangular beads
occasionaUy used in Ncodassical fumiture.
gutta-peccha a trpe of cubbery malerial
dC\'cloped from the resin of a J\lalaysian
trC'C in the mid 191h century. It was
moulded to make fumiture decoranons
as a substitute for carving, as well as for
dolls' heads and golf balls,
hard-paste porcelain (or true porcelain).
the high-fired lranslucenl ccramic body
used by the Chnese from lhe 81h cenlury
AO and rediscovered at Mcissen, c,1709.
hacdstone see pietce dure,
Hausmaler the German term for "home
decocator," a freelance porcelain or faience
painter who worked in his own studio
independentl), of a factor),.
hecaldic decoration ornament repre-
senting elernents of heraldry such as coats
of arms, sheilds, emblems, and crests.
hessian (burlap in US) used in the
upholslery of seat fumiture.
highboy an American variant of the
chest-on-sland or tallboy, uSllally with
cabriole- legs and a broken pediment-
made throughout the 181h centur),. The
form consisting of a side table fitted with
drawers and similarl)' supported on legs
is known ilS a lowboy,
high rclief decoration that protrudes from
the surfilce of the work with wldercutting.
Historicism the recreation of historic
styles in a spiril of scholarship and a
search for authenlicily,
Holzshnittblumen from the German
for "woodcut flowers," a type of floral
decora non used bv lhe Miessen facton'
, -
frorn c,17.,10, with indi\'idual f10wers
copied from botanical engra\'ings.
I,tel a French term for a mansion,
Huguenots French Protestants, many
of whom f1ed after the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes, which had allowcd
freedam of worship, in 1685. Huguenot
refugees were oftcn highly skilled
craftsmcn, and the)' were influential in
other countcies such as Britain, especalIy
in the fields of sih'ersmithing and textiles.
husk (or bellflower'") a Neoclassical
monf based on a stvlized husk of coro
oc a bell-shaped flower llsed in bands,
swags, or \'ertical drops, sametimes wilh
ahemating beads.
Byalith glass a type of opaque Bohemjan
glass made in scarlet or black, developed
in the earl)' 19th century.
incised decocation a pattem or
inscription created by scratching a surface
wilh a sharp 1001.
Indiennes floral embroidered and
printed cottons from India popular in
17th-century France and England which
continued lo influence European lextile
design in the18th, Flowers with stylized
paltcrning n the petals and splaying fem-
like eaves were t)'pical elements.
inlay"a decoratin technique in which
one type of material such as bone, horn,
ivory, marble, metal, mother-of-pearl,
tortoiseshell, or coloured wood is set into
recesses made in the surface of another,
usually the salid \\'ooden surface of a piece
of furniture.
intaglio an Italian lerm for inciscd
decoration in wmch the design is cut iota
he surface being decoratcd, as opposed lo
carneo, in which thc decoration protrudes;
intaglio dccoration can be faund on glass,
ceramics, metalwork and hardstones, The
Ccrman term fol' this type of decoration is
fiefsclmilt, meaning "deep cut."
intacsia an Italian term for a type of inlid
decoration oc an earl)' form of marquetry
in which \\'oods of different colours and
sometirnes other materials form a realistic
architcctural picture oc stilllife; il is fOllnd
on panelling and fumiture from lhe 15th
and 16th centuries.
istorinto lhe ltaUan \\'ord mcaning
"with a stocy in it," referring to the
painted decora non of mythical, biblical,
or genre scenes found on Ilalian rnaiolica.
japanesque term l'eferring to the
decorative style popular in Europe,
c.1862 to 1900, inspired by japanese arto $ce
also japonisme.
japanning the European technique
developed in Ihe 17th century of
decortlting case furruture or small objects
sllch as boxes oc trays with coats of
vamish in imilation of Chinese and
japanese lacquer-, usuaUy in black, grecn,
or scarlet bUI occasonallv white, Unlike
lroe the \'amish used
\\'as made of sheUac, gum-lac, or seed-Iac
(from the COCC/lS lacea insect); relief
decoranon was achie\'ed with a cornpos-
ition of $3wdust and gum arabic and parts
"'ere often gilded.
]apanisme (or lapoJlaiserie) a style inspired
by japanese art and design that f10urished
in Europe and the US from the 18605,
encouraged by the renewed tTading
beh,'een the West and Japan and the
display of japanese wares at intemational
exhibitions. Designcrs of thc Acsthctic
:\to\'emcnt were particularly infIuenced
by the style, using japonese motifs sueh
as birds, sunflowers, chrysanthemums,
prunus blossom, bamboo, fans, and
on fumiture, ceramics, and metalwork.
jugendstilliterally meaning uyouth
style," the German and Austrian term for
Art i\'ouveau, wmeh was adopted from
the Munich-based art publication /Ilgelld
(first published 1896).
Kakiemon deri\'ed from the name of a
17th-century japanese potter, fine white
porcelain sparingly and asyrnrnetrically
decorated with flowering branches, birds,
and rockwork, in a distincti"c palettc
including iron red, blue, turquoise, yellow,
and black. The imported japanese \Vares
weTe much copied in Europe in the first
half of the 18th centur)'.
kas from the Dutch word kast, a large
cupboard or wardrobe for storing c1othes,
originating in Holh:md in the 17th ccntury,
and introduced by immigrants America,
particularly New York and New jersey, in
the 171h and 18th centuries..
kettle shape US term; see bomb.
kilim a tapestry WO\'en rug without apile
with c1ear colours and bold pattems.
klismos a type of chair de\'eloped in
Ancient Greece, with a conca\'e back and
inward-curving splayed, or sabre legs.
The form was adopted in the early-19th-
(enlury i\'eoclassical periad.
knop a decorati\'e knob on a lid, often
used as a handle, or the finial" at thc end
of a spoon handle. The term also refers to
the dccorati\'e buJge on the stem of a
drinking glass.
kneehole desk a writng desk with a with
a central recess for the user's legs, usually
f1anked by drawers; the recess is
sometimes fined with a shallow cupboord.
Komai a japanese techn.ique for
decorating combinations of different
metals in geometric shapes with various
scale, frel. and other pattems to fonn a
patehwork effect. It was imitated in Britain
and America from the 1870s, al the height
of the Aesthetic Movcment.
kratee a two-handled pottery \'essel
with a wide mouth used for mixing
wine and water in Andent Greece, and
adopted in the 18th eentury as a suitable
classical shape.
kylix an Andent Greek pottery h\'o-
handled drinking \'cssel with a shallow
bowl and a stcm. The form \Vas used
as part of the Neodassical decorati\'e
\'ocabulary in he 18th and 19th eenturies.
lacea pavera from the Italian meaning
"poor man's laquer," a type of decoupage
(also known as arte povera, or "poor man's
art" and lacea contra/alta or eounterfeit
laquer) that originated in Venice in the
17505. Contemporary artists could not meet
the demand for lacquered work, so printers
made sheets of engravings that were
coloured, cut, then pasted onto the
prepared fumiture befare numerous layers
of vamish were applied to re-create the
high gloss found on lacquer decoration.
The technique was copied in France, where
it was renamed decoupage, from the French
cOllpa, meaning "to cut."
lacquerwoek a Chinese and )apanese
process using a "amish made from the sap
of the lacquer tree, or Rlll/s t>erllCifllla, to
form a hard, smooth,lustrous surface to
protect and decorale objccts made of woad
and fabric. The lacquer b apped in as
man)' as 100 thin layers, \Vmch may be of
different colours, especially red and black,
and ma)' inelude designs of figures, from
nature, or with emblems. European
imitations are known as japanning and
vemis
Iadder-back term describing a chair with
a series of horizontal bars on the back.
Iambrequin from the French for pelmet,
originallya heraldic term for the scarf or
mantle on a knight's helmet The wore!
has come to describe a lace(jke scalloped
border pattem of swags" and tassels, often
used in dccoraton and also
popular in thc carly 18th eentu.ry.
lamination the process of sandwiching
thin strips of \Vood togelher, wilh the graio
running in lhe same directon, to form a
stronger material for making furniture;
Thomas Sheraton was aware of the
technique, and it was most successfully
exploited by Michacl Thonet, jOt'Ul Henry
Belter, Charles Eames, and Al\'ar Aalto.
lapis lazuli a type of semiprecious,
opaque blue stone with flecks of pyrite
(or fool's gold), used in pietre dure",
laNici"o frem the Italian InH/? (milk), a
type of elear glass wilh an embedded
pattem of opaque white threads of glass;
it was made from the 16th century.
laNima known as Afitdlglns in German, a
type of opaque white glass, or an objecl
decorated with i1.
Laub-u"d Batldelwerk the Ccrman term
for "Ieaf and strapwork," a popuJar early
18th-century decoration of interwining
leaves and strapwork, often surrounding
a cartouche.
leather papee as the na me suggests,
a paper \Vith the texture and gloss of
leather. The japanese are renowncd for
thei.r paper, or wlls/zi. Thcy called leather
paper yookl1J1shi and fl1keYI1 sl/ibori, and
thcsc were strong enollgh to be used
for making pOllches and lining boxes.
]apanese paper was sometimes lacquered
to strengthen it, and during the Edo period
japan exported leather paper to Europe
where it was hung on walls likc wallpaper.
Jemon squeezer lhe shape of a pedeslal
foot on glassware resembling a kitchen
tool far squeezing lemons.
lion's-paw foot a fool can'ed or cast
in the shape of a lion's paw, found on
fumiture, metalwork, and other warcs
especiallr in the 18th and 19th centuries.
linenfold a t)'pe of woodcan'ing,
resembling folds oE hanging fabric,
afien found on room panelling and
fumiture in northem Europe from the
15th and 16th centuries.
lithyalin an opaque marbled glass madc
in imitation of predous stones, developed
by the Bohemian glassmaker Friedrich
Egcrmann c.1830.
lit en biitea" from the Freneh meaning
"boat bed," an early 19th-century Empire--
style bed with cur:ing foot and head-
boards, often in S-shaped scroll form. The
bed \Vas designcd to be :.cet lcngthwise
against a wall, with the cxposed side
claborately decorated.
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loggia an open-sidcd gallery \\'ith a roof,
usually o\"crlooking a courtyard; a
loggetta is a small versl0n.
lost-wax casting a method of casting
to form objects made of glass or metal
such as sil\'er and bronze, using a \\'ax
model encased in a clay mould. The
wax is melted, and escapes, or is "Iost,"
through holes made in the mould,
allowing room for mol ten metal or glass.
Once the meta! or glass has cooled and
hardened, the mould is separaled to
remove the object. The technigue is
kno\\"n as cirt! perdlle in French.
Louis XIV style architectural and
decoriJti\c arts stvle fashionable in
France during Louis XIV's rcign
(16-13-1715), emphasizing grandeur,
symmelry, formality, and luxury, using
molifs inspired by classical art.
Louis xv style archilectural
and decorative arts slvle fashionable
in France during Louis XV's reign
(1715-7-1), including the Rgence period
(1715-23) when Ihe king \\'as a minar,
characterized by smaller, lighler forms
\\ith naturalistic molifs such as shells
and rockwork and progressing to the
full-blown Rococo taste.
Louis XVI style see Cot Cree.
maiolica Italian tin-glazed earthen-
ware, de\eJoped from lhe 1-llh cenlury and
reaching ils peak in lhe lat", 15lh and early
16th century. The term was first coincd in
Italy in the l-lth cenhifY from Hispano-
.\Ioresque lustrewares imported lo Italy
from '"Iajorca; these wares were an
inspiratian for lhe Halian pottcrs.
majolica a corruption of the lerm
"maiolica," 19th-century British and
American lead-glazed earthenwares
that \\'ere elaboratelv modelled and
decorated in the strong, rich colours
found on maiolica.
maki-e from the JiJpanese for "sprinkled
illustration," a dCCriJtivc technique in
which gold powder or coloured filings Me
sprinkled onlo a design in wet lacquer".
marchand mercier a member of a
separate Parisian gild combining the roles
of dealer in furniture and works of art and
interior decorator, cxcrting grciJt influencc
on taste and fashion through his
patronage of designers and craftsmen,
especially in the 181h century.
Mannerist style from lhe Halian mmlt'ra
meaning virhlosity or sophistication, the
late Renaissance decoralive style deyeloped
in the 161h century, making much use of
perspective and attenllated forms, and
incorporiJling exaggerated, twisted, and
fantastical animals, sea crealures, and birds
ensnared by grolesques and slrapwork.
TIlis type of improYization on c!assical
comentions was seen at its most highl),
dcvcloped in Florence and Fontainebleu.
The st)'le evohed into the Auricular and
led to the Baroque.
marquetry decorative vcneers on
furniturc, comprising different coloured
timbers and sometimes olher malerials
such as i\'ory, metal, or mother-of-pearl,
arranged to form pattems, motifs sllch as
flowers, or pictorial subjects.
Mary Gregory glass called after a glass
decorator at the Boston & Sandwich Class
Co., to describe at type of 19th-century
coloured glass painled with designs of
children, using a white or pink-white
palelte. Jt originated in Bohemia and was
a!so produced in the US and Britain.
meander in textiles, a wave-like pattern.
meullisier the French term for a joiner
or maker of furnhlre in solid wood;
distinct from an bllistc", who made
veneered furniture.
mellble adetlx corps French lerm for a
cllpboard with llpper and lower sections,
sometimes called an (mI/vire" ( dcux wrps.
micromosaic a type of pietre dure"
decoration made up with minute segmenls
or tesserae of coloured stone, popular in
the 19th century for Halian souvenirs
ranging from small brooches to whole
table tops depicting \'ie\\,s in Rome. The
term is also applied to Ihe wood mosaic
techniqe used in Tunbridge ware.
rnillefiori from the ltalian for "thousand
flowers," a glassmaking teclmique in
which glass canes of differenl colours are
embedded into a glass bod)' in such a way
that their cross section forms a pattem.
The technique originated in ancient
Rome and was reYived in 16th century
Haly, but it is often iJssocialed with glass
paperweighls made since the 191h century.
Moderne conlemporary French term for
\\hal is now (since Ihe 1960s) kno\\"[l as
Art Deco".
Modernism inspired by a need lo
escape from past excessi\e decoration,
a style of the early 20th century that
cmbraccd machinc tcchnology and
fa\'oured geometric forms and smooth
lmclutlered surfaces.
Modernismo a Spanish term for Art
Nou\'eau.
mOl1 a ]apanese heraldic badge, originaJly
fur identifiCiJtion on the battleficld or to
distinguish famlies, but later uscd as
decoration on export wares and adopled
as a motif in Ihe Aesthetic slvle.
monteith a large ceramic, glass, or sil\er
vessel with a scalloped or notched rim
to hold the slems of wine glasses while
suspending their bowls in cold water to
keep them coo!.
Moresque decoration see arabesque.
moul en TJleiu pressure-moulding
technique for French Decoratiye glasswares
produced from the eady 19th century.
Nancy School the group of Frcnch artists,
hcadcd by mile Calle, Louis Majorelle,
and Victor Prouv, dominating French Arl
NOll\'eaU al the end of the 191h cenlurv.
navetle fmm the French word for shuttle,
but Llsually translated as boat-shaped: a
horizontal form wlth pointed ends.
Neodassism the style biJscd on the forms
and ornamentation of ancient CrecCl:' and
Rome which lasled, with varlalion5 in
emphasis, fmm c.1760-c.1830.
niello a compound consisting of sih-er,
lead, copper, and sulphur, inla id into
metaL usually silver, and heated to form a
design on the surfiJce. The technique \\'iJS
devcloped in Renaissance Italy and was
ver)' popular in 19lh-century Russia.
nymph in classical rnythology, one of Ihe
minor divinities of nature represented by a
beautih:.l maiden living in a mountain,
tree, forest, or body of water.
ogee a shallow S-shaped curye such iJS that
fOlmd in a moulding profile; also used to
form a Golh.ic-style poinled arch with
reversed curves on either side of the apex.
Omega Workshops a London-based
design enterprise led by Ihe art critic
Roger J-ry (1866-193-1) from 1913 to 1920,
with the aim of encouraging yollOg artists
and improdng Ihe quality of design
gencrally. It \\'as strongly infIueneed by
Fauvism and Cubism and by Afriean art,
and although eommercially unsuceessful,
it lec! the way in the application of abstract
design to fumiture, ceramics, and textiles.
opaline a type of translucent while, or
coloured, glass opaeificd with tin oxidc or
bonc ash. It was developed in Franee in
Ihc 1820s and later made also in Bohemia
and Brilain. Opaline glass was produeed
in a range of novel eolours and was often
decoraled wilh painting or gilding.
openwork a generallenn for pierced
deeoration.
ormolu a dcrivative of the Freneh or
11/011/11, meaning "ground gold," mereury-
gilt brOI17e, used for decoralive furniture
mounls and items sueh as clocks in the
18th and 191h centmies.
overlay glass see cased glass.
oyster marquetry a type o veneer
created with wood from the branehes of
trees slieed across to form cireles or ovals.
paktong an allo)' of copper, zinc,
and nickel used in China for small
domestic items such as bells and door
hinge:. ':lIld in Britain Ihe 18th
and early 191h century as a replacement
for silver in candlesticks, sah'ers, and
fireplace ornamenls. It ceased to be used
when the less expens"e niekel sih'er
was developed.
palisander see amaranth.
Pa1Iadian style inspire<! by Ihe 16th-
centun.- \\"ork of the Italian architect
Andrea Palladio (1508-80), a c1assical sirle
of European archileclure of the firsl haH of
the 18th which particularly
affected furnilure in England ",here the
movemenl \\"as lee! by Lord Burlinglon
(169-l-1753) and the archilect Colin
Campbell (1673-ln9); WilIiam Kent
(1685-17.18) was its chid dcsigncr. The slyle
is recogniLable by ils solid, symmetrical
forms with colLurms, and
scrolled brackets and decoraled with
caryed masks and Iion
paws and other fonns derived from
c1assical architecture; Ihe fumiture is afien
grand wilh considerable use of gilding,
especially for chairs, pier lables, and mirrar
frames.
palmette a c1assical ornamenlal motU
deri,'ed from a stylized palm leaf, c10sely
resembling lhe anlhemion'" and much used
in Ihe periodo
papier-mach a substance made fram
paper pulp which could be pressed lo
from panels or mouldee! into shapes and
decoraled wilh paint, japanning, gilding,
or inlays of motherofpearL It "'as used
for small domestic items such as tra"s and
lea caddies from the 1770s, and also for
fumilure in Ihe 19th centun.'.
pareel gilding or partial gilding, furnitllre
or silver gilded in parts to conlrast with
Ihe ungilded areas of decoralion.
parian a grainy \\"hite porcelain named
aher the Greek island of Paros (famed
for its white marble), llsed for busts and
figures in the 19th ccntury, also known
as statuary porcelain.
parquetry of geometric formo
piite-de-verre from the French, meaning
"glass paste," a translucent glass made
fram powdered glass mixed with colour
and fired in a mould. The technigue \Vas
used in ancient Eg)'pt and rcvi,'cd by the
French in Ihe late 19th cenhu)' for
decorali\e relieEs, slatueHes, and
'e:.:.eb.
patera a decorathe c1assical me<iallion or
rosette in a circular or o"al shape.
piite-sllr-piite from Ihe French, rneaning
"paste on pasle," the rncthod denloped
at senes c.lS.50 in which 10\V-reUef
dccoration \\"as created on ceramies b,'
building up ayers of slip, sometimes in
different colours, and Ihen carving the
design into the surface.
patina (also patinalion) Ihe fine
surface sheen on furniture, crealed when
age and use builds up a layer of dirt and
polish, and 00 melal such as bronze
Ihrollgh oxidizatioll.
pediment lhe lriangular gable
surmounting case furniture such as
cabinets, bookcases, and long-case c1ocks;
it may be "broken" with a gap at the apex,
or "swan-necked" \\'ilh opposing Sscrolls.
pembroke table a small square, o\al, or
round lable wilh h,'O drop lea,'es, and a
central frieze drawer, Ihought to ha"e been
named after the countess of Pembroke;
produced from the mid18th century.
Pennsylvania Dutch the American folk-arl
style of a community of Germans (Dutch is
a corrupton of Dellts<:ll, or Gennan) and
other northern European immigrants who
settled in Pennsyh'ania and produced.
colourful decoration with \\'ith slylized
,
motifs from nature such as tulips, birds,
and the spiralling rosctte (or pinwhcd).
penwork a painling technique
llscd for decorating fumiture and small
items such as boxes ",ilh designs in black
or colours, original1y lo imitate inla id
or lacquer work.
petit point tent stitch embroidery
on eanvas.
pier the section of wall found bet"'een
t",o windo"'s on the same wal!. A pier
glass is a lall, n<lrro\\' mirror designed to
for this space and often surmounting a
side lable or pier lable.
pietre dI/re from the Italian fur
"hard stones," a form o inlaid
decoration with semi-prccious stones
and marble such as agate, chakedony,
onyx, jaspar, lapis iazuli, and malachite,
The i\ledici workshops in Florence were
famous for piclorial forms but it was
also produced in Rome. The kchnique
was used mostly for table tops and for
panels sel into cabinels. comprising
of individaully shapcd slhers of
semiprecious stoncs such as agate,
ehakedony, jasper, and lapis lazuli.
piggin a small ",ood, ceramic, sil\'er,
or glass "essel wilh a rodlike handle,
originally for transferring cream or milk
from a larger container.
pinnacle a slender upright structure
found on top of a buttress, gable, or 10"'er,
usually ending in aspire; often found in
Gothic architecture.
plate items made of gold or sih'er for
domestic or ceremonial purposes.
pliqlle ti jOllr an enamelling technique
similar to c1oisonn* but without a metal
backing, allowing lhe enamels to appear
transparent.
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plush stitch a type of needle",ork sntch
popular in the 19th century for creating
a raised design by cutting the stitch to
seulpt an animal. flowcr, or othcr subject"
pomegranate a \\'idely use<! decorati\"e
monf in plaster\\'ork, furniture, sih"er,
textiles, and ",oad car.-ing, symbolic of
fertilitr and abundance.
Pop Art a style thal emerged. in Britain in
the mid1950s but reached. its peak in ;\le'"
York in the 19605, ""here the c\"cryday and
the massproduccd \Vas gi\"en the same
rceogninon as the tmique" Ad\"ertisements,
producl packaging, and coOlie slrips part
of the aesthetic.
porphyry derived from the Greek word
porpllyros, meaning "purple," a hard
\'o1canic rock usually of red.dish colour
and used. for the tops af tables and
commodcs"
portiere a French lerm for <l. door curtain.
PorUand vase a blue-and-wrute Roman
glass vase, C.lOOBC, once awned
by the duchess af Partland; it was the
inspiration for Wedg",ood's jaspar warc,
as well as for imitations by 19th-century
glass and ceramics manufacturers_
Post-Modernism a 19705 and 1980s
movemenl that slarted as a reactian
against Modem.ism, il promoted the use
of bright colours and decoratin elements
from both the past and presenl.
pressed glass a mass-production glass-
making techn.ique that m\"Oh"es pressing
molten glass in a pattemed mould; il first
carne inlo use in the US from the mid-
1820s and in Europe from the 18305"
prie-diell from the French "pray God/' a
10\\' upholsterOO kneeting chair with thc
back fonning a padded desk or annrest.
printie decoration on glass consisting of
a shallow, conca\"e o\"al. or circular cut.
prunt a decorative blob ol molten glass
applied to a glass vesse!.
purpleheart see amaranth"
putto (plural putti) either a eherub
or a winged inlant's head, a popular
ornamental motil from the 15th-century
onwards and often seen amid scrolling
foliage bearing or in panels
of grotcsqucs....
p""to in aria from the Halian "stitch
in the air," an early type of needlepoinl
lace ",ith the pattem built up from tiny
buttonhole stitches.
quatrefoil a lour-Iob<.."CI. shapc secn in
Gothic tracen',
Queen Anne styJe !he restrained form of
the Baroque c1assical style seen in domestic
design during !he earl)' 18th century, and
re\"i\"ed as par! of!he Aesthetic
in Ihe later 19th centun:
,
raiJ a horizontal membcr in a piccc ol
lumiturc dcsigncd to support the vertical
mcmbers, sllch as a rail in the lramework
of a piece of case lllrnilure or the seat rail
in a chair.
redware a type al rustic American 17th-
and 18th-century stoneware with a red
day body and covered with lc.,d glazcs"
Rgence the Frcnch style of c.172D-30,
during the regency ol Philippe duc
d'Orlans (1715-23) for the young Louis
XV the eady period of Rococo".
Regeney style named alter the British
Prince Regent, who ruled for his lather
1811-20 before becoming Gcorge IV, a
generk term lor the Neoclassical style in
Brilain c.1800-3O.
relief any decoralion Ihat is raised abo\"e
Ihe background surface; see bas relief or
high relief.
Renaissanee from the Italian, mcaning
"rebirth," the re\'ival of dassical Greek and
Roman art and ideas that began in
Florence in the l-lth century and
e\'entually spread throughout Europe.
The style is based on syrnmetrical
architectural and seulpturaJ forms wilh
dassical motifs such as troprues,
leaves, and human and ffiythological
creatures and
repeat a continuous pattern designed
so !hat the pattern along the edges on
a section of fabric or wallpaper will
match up with Ihe pattem on a
neighbouring section, allowing lhe
pattem to continue seamlessly"
repouss a French term, meaning "pushed
back," lor cmbossed deeoration on metal
made by hammering from the back so that
Ihe design projecls from the fronl surface"
reserve an area ol a design, usually
on ceramics, that is leH frce of O\'cr-all
decoration, to be fillcd with a choicc
motif or scene.
Restoration style also kno\\'n as Carolean
style, the decorati\"e arls style linked lo Ihe
reign ol Charles 11 (1660-85), after his
resloration to the throne. In contrast to the
previous austere Crom\\'ellian style, it
reflected ataste for opulcncc wilh French,
Dutch, and Portuguese influences"
retieeUa glass from Ihe halian for
"network" a type ol fntticillO glass in
which the opague threads form a fine
pattern of crossing or reticulated threads.
reticuJation a net or \\'eb-like pattern
created by lozenge-shaped, pierccd,
interlaced, ar inlcrwo\"cn dccoration.
rinceau the French terOl for a
conlinuous scrolling 1110Iif, usually
consisting of or vine leaves;
used in carved, moulded, and painted
Neoclassical decoration.
roeaille from the Frcnch, mcaning "rock-
work," asymmetrical decoration deri\"ed
from rock and shell forms originall}' used
in grotto decoration, especially popular
during the Roeoeo periodo
rock erystal a mineral consisting ol
pure silica and found worldwide, it
has been used as a dccorati\"c material
for man}' centurics, and was imitaled. in
the 19th century in a lorm ol high-reJief
glass engraving.
rockwork see rocnilfe.
Rococo lhe st"le which e\'oh"oo lrom a
,
lightening of Baroque formalil)' in early
18th-century Francc, to cmbrace more
naturalistic and non-c1assical decoratian
characterized. by asymmetry, scroll,,"ork,
exoticism (for example
aod pale colours; it alfecled all the
decorati\"e arts in Europe and America at
leasl until the 1770s"
Rocoeo Revival (also known as Nco-
Rococo) a revival of thc style"
Roemer (or fomer) a type of German
drinking glass with a wide hollow slem
which was often decorated with prunts"
usually made of waldglas, praduced. from
lhe 15th century onwards and was the
inspiration for the Bcitish rummer.
roundel a flat, circular shape used as
a motif.
nunmer a Briti:;h short-stemmed drinking
glass with a wide bowl and solid,
:;ometimes square, foot, made from c.1780.
rya rug or ryijy rug, from the Finnish,
meaning "coorse" oc "rough," a type of
thick rug will a shaggy pile from Scandi-
na,a; traditionally parl of a bride's dO\\TY.
sabre leg a chair leg shaped like the
cuncd blade of a sabre, with a conca,e
cune, popular on late 18th-eentury
Empire and Regene)" style chaies in
Eurape and eady 19th-eentury Federal
style chaies in lhe USo Scc 'lIso klismos.
salor! French \\'ord meaning "drawing
room" or "parlour."
Samian ware or lerrn sigillntn a type of
red glossy Roman poner), whidl was
imitated in Silesia in the early 17th
centur)' and by \-\'edgwoad in the 18th.
satlg-de-boeujfrom lhe French term
"ox blooe!." a plum-red glaze for ceramies,
de,elopcd in China in the eael)' 18th
centur)' and imitaled in Europe in the 19th.
satin or boi,; 5tltiJl. A tropical timbcr from
Gu)'ana and Guadeloupe ranging in colour
from greyish red to ruddr brown, and with
a fine-grained. satiny finish, much used in
18th--<:entury Frcnch furniture.
scagliola a type of polished imitation
marble made from powdered or chipped
stones mixed with plasler of paris and
colouring malter, Hrst used in ancent Rome
and de\'eloped in 16th century Italy;
used extensi\'el)' in the 18th centuey to
simulate pietre dure dL'Coration for table
IOps and pancls.
Schulz codex lhe design skelchbook
creatcd by Johann Gregor Horldt
(1696-1775), a ;"1eissen decorator noted
for chinoiserie-style designs and pattems;
it ",as the primary' source for Meissen's
chinoiserie decoratons c.I72Q-lO and was
used at lhe factof)' until the end o the
19th centun'.
Schwarlzlot rom the German "black
lead," a type of decoration on glass and
ceramics in black or brown enamels;
popular c.1650-175O and re\"i\"ed at the
end of lhe 19th centurr
sconce a candleholder designed lo be
hung on the walt consisting of a bracket
or arm "'ith a socket to hold the candle
and a backplate to magnify and reflect the
light; sometimes called a girandole'" in the
Rococo periodo
secrtaire French term for a writing desk,
also used in English for a cabinet with a
desk section hidden bchind a drawer front.
serpentine an undulaling curved fonn
seen on case furnihtre, lables, and chairs
especiaUy in the Rococo periodo
settle an early form of seating for two
or more people, consisting of a bcnch
tdth a back and arms; used from the
Medieval period to the 19th century,
especiaUy in farmhouses and taverns
and re\,j\,ed as a household piece by the
Arts and Crafts designers.
Sezessionstil see Vienna Secession.
sgabello a type of chair originating in
Renaissance Ital)' wilh a salid car,ed.
back and board supports instead of egs.
shagreen Ihe granular skins of sharks,
rays, and olher fish, usually died greeo and
used to cmer small items of furniture such
as boxes and tea caddies or !he "'riting
surfaces of desks; me material \\<1:> u ~ to
great effect in the Art Deco periodo
Shaker a style of furniture made in
the American Shaker community from
the 18th century, based on simplicity,
functionalism, sound craftsmanship
3l1d economic use of materials
withoulornament.
Sheffield plate a thin laycr of siher thal
has been fused to a sheet of copper (or
copper sandwiched between 1\\"0 layers
of silver) before being construcled into
a useful object; it was made in Britain
bct\\"ccn c.17-12 and c.I8-10 as a less
expensi\"e substitute for solid sil\"cr, until
il was replaced by electroplating, which
required less skill and labour.
side chair a chair without arms, originally
placed against a ",all when not in use,
often part of a sel.
singerie an ornamental theme incorp-
orating monkeys found in most areas of
Ihe decorati\"e arts in the 18th centur)".
snuffbox a smal!. liddcd box made of
gold, silver, porcelain, i,ory, tortoiseshelL
or other precious material, oflen finel)'
decoratcd, for keeping snuff - a finel)'
ground, sccnted tobacco - fresh and dry.
soapstone or soaprock. Smooth,
carvable, steartite with a slightly wax)'
appearance; a component of sorne 181h-
centur}' English porcclains.
sofa table designed to complement a
sofa, a long. narrow lable made from
the early 19th e n t u f ~ usually with two
frieLe drawees and a flap at each end;
eady trpes had decorati,'e end supports,
laler styles pedestals.
soft-paste porcelain also known as
imitation porcelain (or in French ptite
telldre). Made in Europe as a substitute
foc hard'paste porcelain before the secret
of hard-paste was widely known.
sphinx a mythological creature of
Egyplian origin, with a woman's head and
a lion's body, sometimes with wings; used
in classical ornarnent.
spiU vase a cylindrical "ase for holding
spills, slivees of ",oad for lighting candles;
sometimes made in paies for lhe
mantelpiece.
squab cushion a loose flat shtffed cushion
used on a seat.
steartite scc soapstone.
stipple engraving a technique for
decorating glass by means of tiny dots
made with a diamond or olher hard point,
producing Iight and shade effccts.
stoneware a hard, non-porous pollery
body made of clay mixed with stone.
strapwork a decorati\"e feature based on
ribbons or strips of leather, consisting of
interlacing slraps and scrolls, sometimes
with grolesques or incorporated into Lnllb
IIlld BnlldelwerJ.'"", much used from the
Renaissance on",ards, especiall)' in
northem Europe.
stretcher the horizontal rail or bar between
Ihe legs of chairs, stools, tables, and
cabinets, designed to add strenglh; it Ola)'
be car\"ed, tumed or plain.
>
cr
ce
J)
en
O
en
w
c..:l
-
Q
Z
W
eL.
eL.
ce
521
en
w
t.,)
-
e
z
w
Q.
Q.
<C
522
-
stria a stripe or line; striations are
irregular parallel or swirling lioes that
occur in glass for c,ample when being
manipulated by shaping tools.
SllrlOllt de table a French term for an
or centrepiece for the tablc"
swag a of imitabon drapery or l
garlaod of flowers, fruit, ar lea'"es" A
popular Neoclassical ornamento
sweetmeat dish a shallow dish for
holding candied fruits, prcsen"es, and
pastries, made of sih-er, glass, or ceramies.
ta.zza a shallow bowl on a stemmed fool,
made from the 16th to 19th eenturies of
glass, sih-er, <lod eeramics_
temmoku an iron-brown glaze used on
oriental polter-y sinec carly limes, and by
20th-century European ::.tudio potters.
teot stiteh (also known as petit a
plain diagonal stiteh going oyer one or
more threads of the ground fabric, which
is usually caovas"
term a male or fcmalc bust or half statlle
surmounting a tapering pillar to form a
sllpport or simply as applied dccomtion;
used from the Renaissance onwards_
terracotta from the Italian, meaning
"bakcd earth," a type of 10w-fired
unglazed earthcn",are, using an iron-rich
c1ay thal a rcddi!'h colour_
tete-a-tefe (also known as a cabaret) a
French lerm for a lea or coffee sen-ice made
for Iwo people, consisling of a pair of eups
and S<"lucers, a teapot, suerier, eream jug,
aod a tray; also a type of sofa with eun-ed
ends, or a ]9th-eentury "loye seat," in the
form of two armehilirs joined side by side
but faeing in opposite direetions_
thyrsus a rod with pinecone terminals
often entwined wilh ribbons of \"ine lea,cs;
an attribule of bacchus, used as a
N"eoclassieal molif.
tole from Ihe Frcneh tole IJeiJlte, meaning
"painted iron," or painted
metah\-ares, usually smal1 items sueh as
tra\"s and boxes_
tracery delicate laUice shapes \\-ith
interlacing lines deri"ed from Gothic
architeeture <lod ornament and used in
architecture and fumiture during the
Gothic Re,-i\"al in the 19th eentur\'.
transfer printing a mcthod de,-eloped
in the mid-18th in whieh a
ceramie objcct is decoratcd by co,-ering
an engra"ed copper plate with ink,
transferring the inked design to a sheet
of p<lper, then pressing it onto the \"esse1.
trefoil il deeorati\"e motif,
eonssting of three lobes, resembling a
do'-er lea.
trompe I'oeil from lhe Freneh, mC<lning
"Irick of the eye," painled or nlilid
deeoration intended to imilale a Ihree-
dimensional image in two dimensions, or
to simulate another Iype of surfaee, as in
marbling, ebonizing, or graining_
Troubadour style the Freneh '-ersion of
the Gothic Re,"i,-al", but more in keeping
with the slyle, popular from
c.1815 into the 18-l0s"
trllmeall a Freneh term for a or pier
glass; also thc HaE<ln l1<ln1e for a
with a tall super strueture.
veillellse 'he Freneh term for a tea or food
warmer kept on a bedside lable"
vencer a thin la\'er of a decoralh-e wood
or other material applied to <In em of
furniturc made of a plain, less expensi,-e
wood. The technique uf making and
applying nmeer was widcly used fram the
late ]7th century; maehine--eul '-eneers
were first used in the earl,' 19th eentun'.
. .
vemis Martin named after Guillaume
l-.Iarln ;;md his brolhers, Ihe French
technique for
verre eglomis named aftcr <l Frcneh
picture framer Jean-Baptiste Glomy
(d_1786), a technique of glass decoration
by applying gold leaf or paint to Ihe back
and engra\"ing a design which is then
protcctcd wilh another layer of glass, metal
foil, or ,"arnish_ \Iade in aneienl Roman,
l-.Iedie,-al, and Renaissanee periods_ 11 was
again popular in the 18th eentury.
Vienna Seeession founded in 1897, an
anli-establishment group of a\"anl-garde
artisls, designers, and arehitects including
Josef Hoffmann and Koloman ;"Ioser, the
founders of thc VieMa
is the Austrian \"ersion of
Art :\"ou,-eau_
vitruvian seroll a wa'"e--like palier
of repeating \"olutes", mueh used in
c1assicalomamen!.
volute a spiral $Cro11 or coiL supposedly
inspired by Ihe shape of a ram's horns, as
on nn Ionk eapitnl; a common classical
tnotif.
Waltglas or forest glass, an eMly type of
glass wilh a greenish tinge de,'eloped in
easlern Europe during lhe :\lcdie,"al period_
whatnot (freneh a
stand eonsisling of open shelves and
somctimes a dra,,"er or t""o, popular in
the 19th ccntun'_
wheel engraving a tcchnique known since
Roman times for decorilting glass, using a
small rolating ,,-heel filted ,,"ith a disc of
stone or copper and an abrash"e paste,
Wiener Werkstatte The Secessionist
\\'orkshops (1903-32) founded by Josef
Hoffmann, Koloman Moser, and Frit7
Warndorfer with the <lim of fusing
arehitecture and interior dcsign into a
total ",,-ork of ar!." Furniture, metal"'ork,
glass, ceramies, jewelry, and graphics were
produced in a distinetively fWlCtionalisl
and often rectilinear stde of the Venna
artists.
worktable a smillltablc fittcd "'ith
shallo", drawers or sheln:s ,lnd a pouch
below for sewing eqllipmcnt_
zoomorphic ornament bilsed on
animal forms.
Zwischengoldglas from the Germm
for "gold between glass," i1n andent
teehnique de\'cloped by Bohemian
glassmakers in lhe ]8th ccnhlry, eonsisting
of engra\'ed gold leaf sandwiehcd between
t\\'o layers of glass_

Index
Page numbers in it,l/iC refcr lo the
il\ustrations and captions
A
Aallo, Ana -.106, ';06
Aaho, Ah-ar 353, 358, 386, 386-" 392, ':06
,\amia, Eero .jS, 461
Abbiati 151
Abildgaard, :\.:\. lj.:!
Abraham & Strauss ]89
"bstracl MI 422,-!-lO
Abstrae! Expressionism 462
Acadmle St. Luc, Rome 126
acanthus motlf .p., H
<1Cid e!ched gla<;<; 238-40, 139
Acier, :\Iichel Victor 162, 163
Ackermann, Rudolph 139.1.,12,156
Adilm, J.lffil'S 138. 1-10. 1.+, q.l, 177
Adam, !<obcrl126. 12&-9. uS, 138, lj8-.o.
}.,\O, LJ-.:!., 152, J-'.J. 159.111,1". lSS,
188-9.198,198-100.200.222,258
Aclam Rc,",-aill2 .:!.:!.:!. 258
slyle. glass 1;6-;, 1u
Adler, Christian 165
Adler. Friedrich 323. 32';. 325
AEG 3-15. :;.l6
Acstl1ctic \lm"ement 213. 250-73, 217, 300, 350
ceramics 262-7, 262-;-
fumihlIT' 25+-60, 25..-61
glass 266-,. 267
siker lnd melah,-ork 268, 268 9
textiles 270, li0-1
wallpaper 272, 2i2-3
Aftleck, Thomas 98, 98, 99
Africa 33,36,352, 357, -186
Air-King 376, 377
aircraft .-n, .Ji)
Airline Chair Ca" 39J
Airstream -P3
Aitken, John 15-1
Ajelo -196, .J96
Albers, Anni -112
Albert, Fritz 31i
Albert, Prince Conc;orl219
Alberti, loon Batti<;t.l 30
_\Iessi -!SS, -19-1, -198, +98, .J99, 503-1. 505
AIC5Sio 5<lrri -;05
Alexander I. CZ.lr 170--2
Algardi, Ales5<lndro +-1
Allan Te:l.tiles Ji5
nlflllllim molils lO, 16,21,22
AIS<lce-Lorraine 318
Alt<ITe 28
aluminium -12-1, "Poi, +-12, .1.16
Amillicnbllrg 83
Amaya, ,\ITio -161
Amelung, lohn Frcdcrick 1S6
American Chir Company 12i
American Ci\'il War 233
American Re\'olution 19-1
amphora \"l5eS 17-1, li5
Amslerdam 50, 69,110
Anchor Hocking 366
r\nderson, Da\id 320
...\ndcrson, Dicderich ,icol,lUS 198, 198
Andre, milc 302
Anglepoise lights -118, .119
Angleterre :".:eoclassical 177, 18-l, 18.1
animal motifs, Art Dcco 353
Ansbach 53
Anti-Design mmemcnt -185
Renaissancc nterest in 20-2
Ant\\-erp 16-17, 28, 18, 3.J, 37, 50, 50, 56, 72
Apple Design Te<lm j03
Appleton 203
.lpplianccs "t'<' l'!l,<lric,ll .lppli,mces
,uabesque dccor<ltion 1-1, 16, 1i, 12:, lJ, 2-1, 15,
39, 128,206
Arabia 315, JI;;, .;;+' -136, .;;;, .;65
Arild, Ron -188, .JS8, 502, 503
Arilnjuez, Royal Pa11ce 01128
architecture
Art :':ou\"eau 298
Baroqlll' -10
Early 330, 332-3
influence on textiles and \\'illlpaper 202,
202
128---9
Postmodernism -l82-i, -186
Renaissance 10, 30
Rococo8o-3
Arend, Jacob 56
Arflcx .Jjl
Argentan 10-!-
Argy-RousSC,lll, Gabriel 36." 36:;
Aristotle 10
lITm()in-s- (cupboards) 16, J6
Arnl?"on, Robert 462, -!-6;
Arnou" Lon 218
:\mstrom, Folke-l66
.\rp, Je.1n (Hans) -100, -123, ..135
Arrowsmith, H"\\'. and A. :!10
Art Dcco 350-11, 3jo-;;
cer.lmies 360-2, 360-}, };;
fumiture 3jO, 353, 3S4-9, "..-<), 392
glass J52, 36-1-6, 36.+-;
mass-produced wares .md industrial
design 376, 3;6-;
sih-er and mctalwork 36S-/1, }68-;1
textiles 372--1, 372-5
CAr! Dl;ClJmlif301, 333
Al't ('f Dcoralioll 301
Art et Industrie "91
Art Fllmiture 15-1, 260
Art Fumiture Alliance 1:;9
L'Arl A1odeT11t' 301
". ,,--. ,,- "98-3'9 330 3-''' -':n ,... rt .,ou.-eau _:JJ, _1/, _ _, ,J_, JJ\J,
353,378
cera mies 31-1-15, .';1 5-J;
fu 10' 1" mlhlre .. _- J,301-J3
glass 318---20, ]l8-n,-I6-I
siker and metalwork 322-:;, 322-5
textiles 326--8, 32H
326. 328
art pottery 287
Art PotterY 5tudio 262, 261, 16J
..l,rt \\'orkers' Guild 2/-1, 28S
Arte Vetr,lia luranese -106, '0i
Artek 3S6
Artel Cooperilti\"e 3-10
,\rts and Crafts 213, 27-1-9/, 298,
300
", 3 <3
7
<9'
,;);)-,
ceramics 262, 186-i, 287
furnture 28-S5, 279-8-1, 313
glass 288, lSS-I), -102
sih-er and metalwork 290-2, 290-3
tC:l.tiles 29--1-6, 19.f...()
\\",lllpaper 29-l, 296, 296-i
Arts and Crilfts Exhibilion Socieh- 27-1
.\shbee, CR. 276, 279, 282, 183, 2S-.. 288, 290,
290-3,292,325,330
G" 358
Ash\\"in, Frederick 166
Assoc:iated Artists 260
,lstrallamps 18
Atelier 374
Atika -190 .J91
.. \u Bon \Ii1rch 356
..\ubl'rt, Felix 316
Aubcrt, Jungman and Stinco-l.58
.-\ubusson 374
Audran, C1audc III SO,82
Augsburg 17, lS, 37, ji, 5S, 5, 116, lIS
Auguste, Heno 191, 192, J93
August, Prmce J.f;
Auguste, Robert Joseph 188, 192, 191
AUgll-.;tus the 5trong, King of Poland 6-1
Aulenti, Cae .,79
..\lImont duc d' 116
Auricular st\le -12, 50. 51, 70-2, O
Australia -185,-186
Austria
Art Deco
ceramics 361
Art NoU\"eall
glass 320
metal\\"ork 32-!-, 325
textiles P7
\\"allpilper 326
:"'rts imd Crilfts glass 2:S9
bentwood furnitufC 226
Earh-
ceramics 3-10, 3-+1
fumiture 3:H, 33-+-5
gla<;<; :H2, J-J-2-J
-.;ih-er ,lod metalwork 3-1+-6, 3-H-;
Ic\tiles 3-l$,
rumiture JO,.,>, 309

fumihlfC 1-18, qS
glass tS-t 18.J-j
porcelain 16-1
sil\"Cr J9J
glass 28, 28
Vienna Secession 30S, 330, 350
Wiener \\'erkstaHe 330-3
AI"dli, Frrlllcesco Xilnlo 21
:\\'iSSCall, Charles 230
Axminslcr Carpeb -!-11
B
Baccarat 182, JS1, 236, 2:36, 238, 138, 2m, 240,
141. 266, J51, 36-l
Bacchu5, George & Sons 13.1
Baciocchi, Elis.l 151
BilCkh,lu<;en, Johann & SOhne 3-18, 3-l8
backslools 1.1
B.lCkslrom, Olof 4;
Bagge, Eric 374, 412
Baier, Frcd +88
Baillie Seott. 276, 217, 281, 282, 1.."1-1, 18:;,
296
Baird telesion .+J;
Bakaloh'its, E. & $ohne 320,:H2
Bakclite 359, 316, -116, .J16, +1;
Bakcr, Olh'er 290, 193
Bakc\\"cll, Pilge and Bake\\"ell ISO
Ballcts Russcs 352, J51
Ballin, C1audc i.J
BalEn, C1audc 11117
Ballimore 15-1-6, 19-1, 195
B.1ndai 501
Bang, Jacob E. 406
Bannister Hall 205-7
Barbcrir,i family-l--l
B<1Tbct. lcan -J-2
Barbicri, Gillscppe 150
Barbizet 230
Barcelona 28, 311
Barcelona n(emational Exhibition (1929) 380,
3
S0
Barman, Christian
Barnard, BI<;hop & Bamard 168
Bamard, Ed\\'ard 191,191
Bamard, EdwilTd & $ons.J11
B.'1mard, Jane -110, -!-1 T
Emest 16
B.'1msley, Sidney 2;8, 1S0, 281
Baroque -10-79, 82,-186
cerilmics 62--1, 61-5
furniture -1--1-61, 61, 92 523
524
glass 66-9, 66--9
sih"er and metalwork 70-5, 70--5
textiles 76-8, 76-8
\\"allpaper 76, 76. 77. 78, 79
Baroqlletro 92
Barm"er, Angdo 26
Sarader, Ercole 366, 106, 407 .B9
Barovier & Toso 366, -106, 47. 439
Barr, Flight & 83rT 168
Barron, Phyllis 296, 296, .P4
8arry, Sir Charles 214
Barr)', Joseph 157
Barthes, Roland -178, -t8S, 503
Bnrtmmlllkrug (jug) l-i, 25
Basile, Ernesto ]10, 311
bat-printing, (eramies 168
Sateman, Hesler 190
Sateman family 191, 19-1
bath chairs 223
Bathurst, Lord 159
Batley, H.W. 258
Battam, Thomas nS
Baudisch, Gudmn 362
Baudrillard. Jean 482
Bauer, leopold 28;
8auhaus 277, 353. ;79, 3St -122, -153, ..Ji3
ceramies 398. 398
fumiture ;82, 383
glass 367 ..JO-J, 40..
lighting .pS
sih-er and metalwork no, .po. 41I
textiles 412, 41]. 415
Baumgartncr, ,"ldchior 57
Baumhauer. Joscph 86. 86, 132
BaLlr. Johann n8
Baynes, Ken and Kate
Beach 13o\'s
Beales, Rita 415
bean bags 454, 458
Beardsler, Aubrer 298, ]00
The Beatles 452, 452, -16]
Beau'ais 374
bedhangings 77, 79
be<!,
Angel, 49, 6r
Art i\.:ou\"eau ]02, 306
Baroque 6L 61
brass 226, 227
couch 1-l-l
Elizabethan re\"i'-al 216
exhibition fumitun.' 22]
four-posI19, 61, 214
Gothic re,"i\'al 2I..
Neoclassicism 136, 139, %4], l-l-l
papier mach :3.25
Poshnodemism 486, 492
Reformed Gothic 255
Renaissance 1-l, 14, 17, 79
Rococo 96, 96
beechwood furniture 33l, 33-1
Beert, Osias 28
Behrens, Peter 282, 283, 288, 308, 31-l, 316,
333,338,3]9,345,346,349,353
Beilby, \ViIliam and l>.lary JJ2, 113
Bel Geddes, Norman 353, 376
Blanger, Fram;ois-Joseph 126, 128, 132
Belgian Congo 300, 323
Belgium
Art Deco
ceramics 362
textiles 373, 375
Art 300, 302
fumiture J06, 307
glass 318
metal"'ork 322-3, 32J
textiles 327
waUpaper 326
carh \Iodemist fumiture 338, 339
Bell, Solomon 174
&11, Vanessa 333, 336, -ll-l
/Jt>lIt dOllm' dishes 12, 22
Belleek 2jJ
Belli. Valerio 30
Bellini, l>.lario.t61
Bcltcr, John Henry 213, 220, 22-i-6, 227
Bcncdetlo, J\'laestro 22
BCndictus, Edollard 372, 37-l
Bcnham & Froud 268
13enneman, Jean Guillilllme /33, 135
13ennett, Jolm 265
13enney, Gerald -W2, 442, -l66
Benou\'ille, Louis 304
Benson, \V,AS 274, 27), 276, 279, 288, 289,
290,292
bcntwood furniture 156, 225. '''6, 334, ]3''-j,
383,HO
Brain, Jean -l6, -17, -18, 52, 53, 61, 61, 6-1, 74, 80,
82, 86, 89, lO, lOS, 110, !lO, 1J.I, 117
Beran, Otlo 3Jo
Bergc, Henri 318
Berkeley House, "'otton-undcr-Edgc 113
8l'Tkclllt'1'r (beaker) 29, 29
Berke, & Ga\" Co. 219
, ,
Berlage, H.P. 307, JO;
Bcrlepsch-Valendas, Hans Eduard ,on 323,
3-l0, ]41
I3erlin
glass 108
japanned furniture 58, 59
Neoclassical architechITe 129, 147
porcelain 163-5, 16-l. 170
Rococo 83, 88
Wiener Werkstatte 332
woolIVork 2-l5, 245, 29-l
BcTnadotte, Sig\'ard 446, +l8
Bernardi, Gio'"anni 10
Bernini, Gianlorenzo -l-l, 45, 72, 82
13errr, duchesse du 82
13ertoia, Harry 426, -l27
Bcrlram, Anlhony-110
Best, R.O. .119
Beunat, Joscph 203, 2oS, 209
Be\"an, Charles 255
Biagio di Antonio 15
Bianconi, Fuh'io -1-39, 4-.f0
Biba 468, 469
bicn-:les ,--
..1>
Biedermeier sirle 1-l8, 14S, 1&1, 184,308,.JS6
Bieffeplast 498
Bielefeld, Charles 225
Biennais, r-.lartin-Guillaumc 192, 193
Bigby, P. 199
Bigclo\\', Erastus 2+l
Bigot, Alexandre 3H
I3indesboll, Thor\'ald 315, 315
13ing, Siegfried 298, 300, 301, 304, 305
13ing & Grondahl315, 31j, 436
Birler, Samuel 226
Birmingham 191, 198, 200, 201
Bissardon, Cousin & Bony 209
Bizouard, Valry 410
Bjom, Acton 446, 4.JS
black basaltes 166, 167
blacksmiths 291
Blades, John 183
B1adwell, John 95
b/llIlC-dl'-clJillt' 6-1
Blois 7-l
Blomfield, Reginald 280
Blande!, Jacques-Fran,ois 82, &1, 84
Bloomsbury set 333, 336, 348, 41-l
Blount, Godfrey 294
blucand-while ceramics 62,106
bluejohn 199
Blue Papcr \ \'archouse l
Boc.h Freres Keramis 362, 363

Boda :'\O"a -l66
Bodendkk, Jacob 7-l
Bodymap 500
Boehme, Charles L. 195
Boffrand, Germain 8z
Bogler, Theodor 39S, 399
Bohemian glass 66, 66, lOS, 108-10, 182, 18l,
184-5, 23-l, 236, 236, 237, 2-l0, 240, 318-20,
)20, 343, -l0-l
Bohlin, Jonas -492
Bohm, August 239
BoUeau, Jean Jacques 189, 191
Boizot, Louis-Simon 160
Bolek, Hans 345, 3--l-6
Bol5O\'er, Thomas 196
Bonacina, Pierantonio-nl
Bonaparlc, Jrome 1-l7
Bonfils, Robert 352
bo"II.'lIf dll joUT &1, 86, 132
Bonomi, Joseph 129
Bony, Jean.Fran,ois 207
Bonzanigo, Giuseppe :\Iaria 150, 151
bookcases S6, 97, 99, 1Jl, J 45, 155, 214, 2J 7,
254,359
Boole, T. & R. 263
8001h, ChilTles 267, 261
Borghesc family-l-l
Borromini, Carlo 11-l
Borsani, Os\'aldo 431
Borsalo, Giuseppe 151
Bos, Cornelis 13
Bossard, Johann Karl 243
Bosse, Abraham ..6
Bossi, Antonio 83
Bnston 5-l, 55, 98, 15l, 202,277
Boston & 5.'ndwich Glass Co. 237
Bostwick, Zalmon 142
botanical paintings 206-8
Botta, \'Iario -198
Bttger, Johann Friedrich 6-1, 64
Bouchardon, Edm 100
Boucher, Franl;ois 80-2, St, Sl, 102, 229
Boucheron 376
Boulle, .\ndr Charles -l6, .;" 56, ScI, 86, S;, SS,
13 1,220
boullc\\'ork -l6, 47, 51, 52.131, 220
Boulton, 183, J90, 191, 1%, 1'}6, 198,
,.,s
Boulton & Fothergill 180, 199
Bourbon, Ouc de 1]..l, 1I..
Bourdieu, Pierre 3S1
BOllrgeois, Ojo -l12
Bou\"al, ;vlaurice 322
Bou\"ier, GLlsta\'llS Arthllr 252
Bol\' porcelain 104, 105, 105
BOY"in, Rcn 33, 36-7
Bracqllcmond, Flix 262, 263
Bramante, Oonato di Angelo 10-12
Brancusi. Constantin 423, 503
Brandenburg J 92
Brandenburg, Elector of 67
Brandt, Edgar 352, 368, 368, 369, 372, 374
Brandt, i\larianne 353, olIO, 418, 41S. -IJ9
Bran.. i, Andrca .JS6, +87
brass
Arts and Crafts 290
brass beds 226, 227
Ear1y i\lodernism 34-.f, 34j, 346, 3+7
"1''00 .... eoc aSSlClsm _ ,200
Renaissance 3.,\
Braun -HS, -1-18, -l75, 477
Braun, Artur-1-l8
Braun, Frwin HS
Bredendicck. Hin -l18, "p8, 419
Brcgcr, Carl-Arne "'46, 4-18
Breuer, 358. 382, 383, 392, 39-1.
394,-153
I3reuhaus dc Groot, Frilz August 410
I3ridgens, Richard 213,216,216
Briot, 37
Brstoll13,I68
Britain
Aesthetic 252
ceramics 262, 262-;
furniture 256-8, 256-9
glass 266--;, 267
sihcr and metalwork 268
textiles 270, 270-1
\\"allpaper 272, 2;2-3
Arl Deco 352
ceramics 360, 360-1
fumilure 358, 358
glac;s 366
siker and metah,"ork ;68, 370, 371
textiles 3;2-5. 373, 37-1
Art 2'XQlweau
ceramics 315, 316
sih'cr and metalwork 325. 325
textiles 328, 329
wallpaper 328
Arts and Crafts 27-1-7
ceramics 286-7, 287
furnitme 278-82. 279-82
gl<lsS 288. 288-<]
sikcr and met,1lwork 290-2, 190-]
textiles 29-1--6. 294-6
wallpaper 29-1, 296, 196-7
l3aroqlle
fumiture -18, 48-9, 61
glass 68. 69
pottery 62. 6;
sil"er and metal\\"ork 71, 7-1, 74
textiles 77
\\'illlpaper 76. 77, i9
Contemporary .I21
ceramics -135-6, 435, 437
furniture -12-1, -124-5
glass 4-4- J
siker i'lnd mct.:llwork -1-12, +.p
445
Earh 333
ceramics 3-10. 34-1
fumiture 336, 336
textiles 3-18. 349
historic re,-h-als 212, 216
ccramics 228, 228
fumiture 21-1. 220, 220-2, 222, :5-1
glass 23-1, 234-5
Great Exhibition 2IJ, 213
wallpapers 2-18, 24-8-9
Huguenols in -13, 75
380, 381
ccramics 396-;, 397
fumiture 392-4, 392-5
glass -102.42-3
industrial de:sign 41;
Iighting -118, 419
siker and metalwork -110, 411
textiles -H2, 4-I2-Ij. "H-I
:'.!eoclasscism 12S-9
ceramics 166-8, J66-9
furnilure 138-+1. 138-"'5
glass 176-81, 177-80
mctal\\"ork 200. 201
sil,cr 188-91, 188-<]1
textiles 202, 206, 208
\\-allpaper 202, 205
Postmooemist fumiture -188, 488-9
Renaissance art in 13
Rococo 83
fllrniture 9-1-6, 94-7
glass 112-13, 112-13
porceli'lin 104-j, 105
pollery 107, 107
sil\"er and metalwork 112, 119-20, ng-21
texliles 1l2, J23. I2j
16th centur\"
fumiture 18. 19
glass 28
gold and sh-er 31.}-l, 3i
textiles 39
Space Age .ISO
ceramics 462
fashion -168
sih-er and metalwork 466
Britain Can \Iake It exhibition (19-16) --l12,.J.2-1
British \Iotor Corporation 4-7;
Bro.ldwood, John & Sons 282
broc,lde 38, ;7, 8, 122-4, 206, 209
Brody, ;'I.:e,iIIc 484. -185, 500
broncit \\'are 3-12, 3.,.2
Brongniart, A.T_ 160
bronze37,116-19
Broome, Isaac 233, 265
BroSilmer, Hans 3J
Brosse, Saloman de 46
Broll"n, Barbara 472, 473
Broll"n, F. Gn.'gory 373
Bro\\'n, Ford 256. 274, 279
Brown, Julian 504
Brhl. Count 100, 100
Brunelleschi. Filippo JO
Brunet, l\leuni & Oe 372
Bmns\\'ick, Dllke of 89
Brllssa, Os\'aldo 109
Brusscls 79, J22, 298, 326, 331, 332-3
I3russels carpets 2-1", 244
I3rustolon, Andrea +-l, 4j
buckles 200, 201
Budapest 301
Buen Retiro 173
Buffalo Potlery Company 286
buffets 259, 30-l. 307. 30S, 392
Bugatti, Cario 310, 311
Bull. H_J_ 375
Bullock, George 145. lI6
Buquoy, Count Georg \-on 18-1, J8.,.. 185.311
ll/lr.','1I/ ,i (-"U,I!".. 130
bureau cabinels -18. 5l. 56, SS. 89, 91
bllunll Jllnt -16, 84, 86. 130
Burges, \\'lIiam 2.15, 25-1, 279
Burgkmair, Hans 19
Burlington, Lord 120
Bume-Jones. Edward 266, 267. 27-1, 281
Burylin, Sergei .P4
Bussicre. Emest 318
Bustelli, FranL Anton 100
busts 62, 63
Bute. Earl of 140
Buthaud, Ren 362. 362
Butterfield, Lindsay ]29
Butterfield, \\'lIiam :5-1
Francis Il J
Buz, Tommaso -106, 40;
Byrdcliffe Colony 276, 2&:1
e
T/I/! Cal'IIct \Iah" ami Art FlIrnis//l'r 2&:1
cabinets
Aesthetic l\lo'ement 252, 253, 256, 257-<],
258,261
Art Deco 354,356
Art Nou\'eau 303, 308-1]
Arts and Crafl'i 279-81. 183, l84
Baroque +-l, 45, 46, 46, 48, 50, 50. 52., 53, 53,
5
6
,57
Early l\lodernism 333, 334, 335, 336, 336
exhibition fmniture 222
Gothic re\i\al 214
lacquered 58, 59
2'Xeoclassicism 131
ld French Style 210, 221
Postmodemism 487
Reformed Gothic J.55
Renaissance 1-1, 15, 16, 17.1;,18
Renaissance re"i\al 219
Rococo 97
Caffilglolo 23
Caffiri, Jacques 84-,119,130
Caffieri. Philippe 131
Caillon -.:47
mlcer/ollio glass 26, 27, 66
Calder. Alexander 44;
California 277, lS-l, 333
Callot, Jacques 6-l
carneo glass 13-1. 237. 138, 239. 240, 318, 319
cameras 481
C.1meron, Charles 152
campaigo furniture 14-1
candelabr.l l. Jl5, 116, 17i. 18;,32], ;2-l-. 325.
]4--4,345.3-1-6,"'42,4
66
candelabrum motif 10,12,17
candlest,md 84, 94
candlesticks 32, 112-14, 120. J83, 186, 189. 190,
193. 196,196,199,200,200.3/1,499
cane<! furnitllre -18, 4S, 14--1, 382, 383
caneware 166, 167
Canterbury 13
Capellini 1)89
Capello, Gabricle 15 T
Capodimontc 103. 172
Cappel1in-Venini & C. 366
car mascots 36-l
Carabin, Rupert 305, 305
Cara\'aggio 26
Carder, Frederick 320, 321, 366, 367
Carde\\", l\lichael 397, 397. 455
Cardin, Picrre 470. -+72
Carlin, Martin 132, 1j8
Cario l, King ofSpain 172, li:!
Carlton Towers, Yorkshire 2-l-4
Carlton \Vare 360. 361
Carlyle, Thomas 27-1
Carnaby Street. London 45J. -173
Carpaccio. \'iUore 11
c.lfpets 2-1-1, 244. 295, 3-18, 349. 351, 373, -112.
-l-12-13,472,500.500-J
Carron IrOn\\'orks 200. 201, 2:16
cars -122, 4ij
Carter, John qo. 188, 189
Carter, Stabler & Adams 360, 360
Carter, Truda 396, 397
Carter & CO_ 341
Cartier 376
car\"ing 1j, 4-1, 45. -18, 213, 216, 217, 218, n8,
219. 22-1,22-l-
Cam-ardine. George 418, 4-J9
caryatid figures 71
Caserta, :\aplcs 83
caskets 10
Cassina -130, "31, 461,-190
caS50II (chests) 14, 15
cast iron
Aesthetic 253, 259, 268,168
Art :'\!ou\'eau 322
B.lfOCjue 75
historic red\-als 213, 226, 126. 227
Neoc1.1ssicism 200, 201
Castel Durante 22
Castelton China 400, 401
Castiglioni, Achille 430. 4]1, 479
Castiglioni, Pier Giacomo -IJO, 431, 479
Castle, \Vendell 461
Catalonia 311
Catherine the Creal, EOlpress of Russia 120,
525
526
J31, 152, 160, 160, 166, 170, J;'O
Cattea\!, Ch.ules 362, 363
Ca\'.llort.l, Fr.lneo ..30
Caylus, Comte de 100
Cellini, BenwnulO 13,32,3-1.37
Celtie re\"i\'aI260, 313
CenITal 5chool of Arts and Craft:;., London
277
Centre Internationl de Rcrhcrchc sur la
Verre, .,\96
Centurv Guild 27.,\
cer.1mlCS
Aesthetic :-"Io\'ement 262-7. 262-,
Art Deco 360-2, 360-], ]
Art Nou\'eau 31+-15, ]J,-J
Arts and Cr,lftS 262, 2S6-, 287
Conlemporary H"\-6, n.;-
E.ul\ :-"Iooernism 3-10, 3,,o-I
h" t" "1 """'3" S 15 one re\"!\ a _ __Ir'" :J,22 -33
\lodemism J96-''01, 397-WO
Postrnodcmism "\9"\, ..9..-j
Spaee Age -Kl2, .;63
:'t'"t' nlso porcelam; pottery
Csar .,\61, .,\6.,\
chairs
Aesthetic \IO\'ement 2),-Q
illa mtllMmk 215
illn rIlt' S,
Art Deco 3,0, 35"\, ],.;-" J,7
Art :'loU\'cau ;0;-10, jT2-1;
Arts and Cr.1fts 2iS-SO, 282, 282-5
Baroql1e "\6, "\8, ..S .;9. 50, 53, 5]. 59
/0SCrc 8-t 142
cmpcal/ 2.;.6
CIIntle 157
dllc!lcsst' 8-1
Eadv i\'lodernisrn 33-1. J]''-" 337,
337---9,338
Elilabethan w\'i\'aI21-J7
fh' 221
Gothic !"'\'i\'al 215
India-backed -I8.''9
klislllO:' 13'' 1]4. 1],. I.IS. 1,2. Jj6, 15,
\Iodcmism 3,9, 380. ]S2-" 383.
38-1, 38']-95
:\:eoclassicism 132, 1)3-5. 13.,\, 136, 1]S.
1-ID. 1';::', l+.. J.;6-9, 151. ljl-.,.. 156-5
ld French St\"lc 221
Postmodemism 48;-93, 'SS, .,\90-2
Rcformcd Golhic 2H, 255
Renaissanee 16. J;
Rococo &l-6, S5, 89. 91. 92, 92. 9-1-6, 95-6.
9S, gS
sgllbt'l/o l'', lS, -lS. 4S
silloH demi/e 16, 1i
Space Age ..,O. "\5"\, ..,.-61, "\56-S, .,\61
upholstered 60,61
ch<1ise longuC's 358, ''3J
Ch<llon, Louis 322
Chamberlain, John Henry 255
Ch<1mberlain's \\'orcester 168, 169
Chambers, Sir William 126, 138. J38, 1,6, 177,
lS8. 18g. 19S, J99
Champion's Brislol J67, 168
Chance Brothers "\02. ''03
chandeliers 483
82. 102
Chapin, E1iphalC't q9
Ch.lplet, Emst 31.,\, 31..
Chapman. Priscilla -136
Chareau, Pierre 356, J5i
Charlecote Park, \\'.lr\\'ickshire 21;'
Charles I. King of England 48. 70, O, 72
Charles n, King of England 6]
Charles V, King of Naplcs 83
Charles VII. King of S\\"eclen 61
Charles VIII. King of France 13
Charleston, Susse\. 336
Charpentier. Ale\.andrc 303. 30;
Bra:>,; & Copper ]i6
Cha\\-ner, Hcnry ISO
Chcbea-Dcrb\' 166
Chclse.l Kcramic Art \\'orks 26.,\,265
Chclsea porcelain 10'', 103
Chene\' Bros, 372, 37.,\
Chermayeff, Serge 338, 37';, 392, 392, 39.,1, '12
Chesapeake PoUery 26..
chests 18, 19, 356
chests of dra\\"l'rs 55, 279, 388, 38S-g
Albert 368, 371
Chicago 277. 18.,\
Chic.lgO \\'orld Fair OS93) 301
chiffoniers ]"
Chigi f.1mily +l
Child, Robert l.f2
chlmne\-pieces 21g
China 352
and Aeslhetic :-"Io\-ement 230-2
fumituf'{' -lB
porec1.1in 22. ';2, 62. 62, 6.,\
Chini 31.,\, ]16
d,ilwix'ril' -12. 6-1, 64. 6;, S2. 92. 9;, 9" 105. JOj,
1"--1 " 111. __ .log
chintl- 76. 202, 205-7. 2..6
Chippendale. Thomas 9"\, 95-.), 96, 9S. l3S.
J38, 1..2-4, 1,9
Chippendale style 213
Christian V of Saxom' lS
Christiansen, H<lns 2S6
Chrislofle & Cie 168, 26g. 368, 371, '''3
Chubb & Co, 259
Cibic, Aldo ,,S7
Cincinnati 260, 261
Cincinnati Art PoHery Co, 26..
Cioffi, Antonio 172
Clae-;z, Pieter 29
CIMence. Duke of 16S
C1Midgc's Hotel. Londoll 35 1, -112
C1ark. James Ud 3j8
CI.uk, Ossie +,0
Clark, Paul.;;"
classical Re\'i\-al3.,!
el
"
aSSlClsm "J. , ......=>. __,2J2
,11:'<) :\:e<Xlibsh.:bm
Clemenl VII. Pope ]0
Clendinning. :-"Ia"\ 45/, -l61
C1ichy 236.237
C1iff. C1aricc 360. 360-1. 397
C1ift(lIl Potten' 286
clod.s
Art Deco 371
Aesthetic \lo\""cmeI11257, 26J. 269
Baroguc ''7, ''9, 73
Conlernporary style 420. 4''7
/l.lodernism ''16.''I
Ncoclassicism 131, 1,15, 15,, IS2
Postmodl'mism 482, j0..
Rococo SO, 82, go, 101. 106
Sp.leC Age '',7
enamelling 262, 262, 268. 269
The C10th 500
clothes X'l' fashion
co.1Ches 5" 6J
CO.1lbrookdale 1,9
Coalport 168, 169.228.228,229
Coatt'S. \\'ells 392. 416
Cobb. John %, l.f-i-
CobclenSanderson, T.j. 27-l, 2,6
Cochin, Charles-:\:icolas 192
Cock. 12
Cockerell, Catherine ''11
Codman, \\llliam C. 25;
coffee sen'ices 233, ]..6. 3;0. 3;6, 396, -101, ''1O.
.66. "\98, ''99
Colberlaldo, Friccllinde de
Cole, Henn' 2]5
Coleman, \\'illiam Stephcn 263
Colenbrander, Thoodor Christi,ln 314
Coll.lerl, Adriaen 3';,];
ColJcutl, Thomas Edward 256, 25;, 258
conector's c.. bincls 57
Collingwood, Peter .;
CollillS, \\'illiam 18;
Collinson & Lock 219, 2j;, 158. 25g, 2;'1
Cologl1e 2-1, 25, 62
Colombini, Gino ''-I6
Colombo, Joe ';5'', ..55, --J.61, i7'
Colonial Re\I-.. I 233, 260
COIOllll<l, Edouard 303. 326
colour supplcmcnts "\33 .,\56
Cometti, Giacomo 310, 311
Ct'IIll1lt'lfin ddl'Art.' 6-1. 100, 100. J05
(0"""650 work 57
commodes
Art Deco 355
Baroque "\6, -1,
:\:eocla""icbm 130, 133. l.f.;--. 1"\9, 150.
13;.1,9
Rococo 8.,1, S... 86, S;. 91, 91, 92. 93, %, 96
Communism -lB5
Comml1nih' China .--
_ ,J, 1
Comolera 23J
eompacls 376, 3,6
La Compagnie des Arts 330, 35.,\
compt'Jldinrio potlery .,.,
Complon POllery 2/i
computers 50]
Concorde ..;;
Cond, Prince de 13 J, 15]
Connccticut Ri\'er V,ll1e\' 136
Conncr, Robert 2H
Com.. n, Tcrellce .,133, "\50, 453, -Ij6
Consolid,lted Lamp & Glass CO. ''DO,
Constrnclh'ism 352
Consulate sl\"Ie 128, 13-1, 13..
consumeri"m 432-3. --1-75. -lB2 .,\S5
cOllflldor_ <cabineb) 33, 53
Contcmpor<1l'Y .,\2Q---.,\9
ccramics 43-1-6, n.;-;
fumiturl' .,12-1--32, -12';-33, +l6
gl.. .p2, ..I3S--tO, ..;S-''1
plastics and appliances +l6-S, ++6-q
siher and melal\\"ork -I-l1, .;...p-;
te... tHes +-J...I, ';+-I-j
Cook, Clarence 250, 2;1. 253
Cooke, \\'illi,'m 22"\, 11";
Coake. \\'illiam & Co. 273
Cook\\"orthy, \\'illiam 168
Cooper, John Paul2gJ. 292
Coopcr; Peter 22;
Cooper, Susie 360, 360, 396, 397
Copeland 228, 229, 233
Copenhasen J70, 17J, 301
Coper, Hans "\36, ..6]
copper, Arts and Crafts 290, 290
copperplate engra\'ing 76-8,
Cork Gla5s Company 178
Caroing Glass \ \'orks "\02, -lOS
Coroins \Iuseum, :\:e,,"" York-l6.,\
corpor,lte identity-tS--l-3
Corradini, Antonio 92
Corlona. Pietro da -+5. S2
Cos\\'ay, Richard 95
Coleau. Joseph 160
Cots\\"olds 292. 336
Cottier, Daniel 263. 266
Couier & Co. 232, 263, 266
cotton fabrics JN, 12,.202-5,246.296, ;,5.
,p.., ';15. +-15, ';,2,,00
Coty, 363
Council of Industrial Design .,\85
I

\
Counter Reformanon
Couper, James & Soos 26
469, 4i1, 473
court cupboards 19
Courtauld, Louisa Iqo
CO\'enlry, Lord LU
Cowan Pollerv Stlldio 360, ;61
Co\\"les, George 190
Cox & Co.
Cox & Sons 157
crackle glass 2..1-0
craft production 213, ..132
TlIl' 284
"Craftsman" strle
Craftsman Workshops 28.;.
Cranhrook Academv of Art 373
Crane, \\'alter 151, 253, 262, 270, 272, 1;;, 281,
282, 296, 307
crcam,,"are 162, 166, 166
Creazoni Ca"ari 505
(sideboards) H, 15
Creil 162
Crespin, Paul119
Cressent. Charles 80, S:J., 86. 86
Creusot 182
CR'\\-e1,,"ork --
"
Cri.lerd, 8;
cristnl/o glass 26
Crompton, Rehccca ;7;
Cross Papem"MC ';'76
Crozat, Pierrc S5
Cruikshank, Georgc IS;
"crystal" glass In
Cnstal Palace, LOI,don 213, 2.,1,8, 2';'9
Cubism 352, ;5;, 363, ';'00, 4l-t
Cllbism, Ceeh 331, 333, 338, 3-10, 3';'1, 359,
""'
Cucd, Domenico
cup and co\"cr motif '9
cupboards 1;, 18, 19, 50, 51,136,336,357
Curling, R.B. and Sans 18,
curlains Ji. 2-16, 2+6
Curtis, Jacopo 56
cut glass 1//, 178-81, ISO, 23-1, 23+, 235, 237,
238,238-9,288, 189
cutlen" :,<,,' flalwarc
Fran..;ui" 83, SS, as, S9, 116
Cuys. Ramn Puig +99
Cyrn, Gunnar -196
Czech Cubism 331, 333, 338, 3-10, 3"P. 359,-IO..J
Czech Republic/CzcchosIO\'akia -tS5
furniture -190, 49J, +93
glass 341. 36;, -IO..J, ';'05, -1--10, ''40
eschka, Cad atto 34-i, 3+-1, 3';'5, 3-18
D
Da Sih"a Bnlhns, h-an 373,374-, -H2, 4U
Dagly, Gerhard 58, 59
Daguerre 132
Dahlin, Nils 91
Dal, Sah-ador -lOS, 46-1, .;.65
Dalpayral, Pierre-Adrii'ln 31-1, 314
Daly, \laUhe'" A. 26.;.
dlmask 38, 39, 79, In, 123, 204, 10S, .209, N;
D.1DUnouse, A. P9
Danasc \Iilano +-+6
Danhauscr, Joscf 1-18. q8
Darh", \latthi.1S 95, 201
Darmstadt 287, 333, 34';', J.l6, 31-9
Darras. Andr 305
Dartington Hall 395
Dar,,"in, Charles 301
Dasson, Henri 111
Daum, Auguste and Antoine 318
Daum Freres 318, P9, 322, 350, 365, ]65, 369,
-164,465,-196, .;.96
Dawnport 168
Dad, Jacques Louis 12" n8, lH
D.wid-.\ndersen 371
D.widson, George & Co. 135
Da\'is, Alexander Jackson 111, 21-1
Dawkins, Jlmcs 126
D,lY, Le,,"is F. 270, 272, 2;1
Day, Lucienne .,l24, ++-1, 4';'4
Robin -12-1, .f:J.';', ';'15, ';'3.J., 4-1--1, .;..;.+' -j';'9,
';'56
d.. ybcds 5-+, 8-1, 135, 15;
Oc Lucchi, \ichele 486, .;.86
Dc .\lorgan, William 274, 275, 276, 286, 287
De Pas, Gionalhln 45';', 458
De Saedeleer 373, 375
De Stijl 363, 38-1, -153, 504
Dearle, J.H. 195
Decai:-., Alexis 198, 199
Deck, Joseph-Thodore 150, 262
IX'Cker, Paulus 108
Dccocur, Emile 362
Dcoration Inlrieure .\Iaderne (DJ ..\!.) 35+-6
Dcorchemenl, Frln\ois-mile 365, 365
Deerfield, 29-1
Dehmel, Richard 339
D.:kora/in: KilI/sI 301
Delafosse. Jean-Charles 130, 130
Delaherche, Auguste 31-1, 314, 362
Dclauna\', 'cholas ;, 75
Dcli'lunay, Roherl4J2
Del,luna,', Sonia -j12
DelalUle, [tenne 33
Delft ';'1, 62
DeHa l3ella, Stefano 66, 72, 74, 188, 188
Dcnmark
Art Nom-eau 315, 328
Contemporary style -120, -132, +33, 436,..J.1-2
386, 406, -110, -118, ';'19
'coclassicism 170, 1,0, li1
Rococo 91, 91
Space Age-l66
Denon 161
Depression 388, 390 .ros
"Depression' gl'lSS 366
Derbv 166, 16" 168, 170
Derb,"shire 226
Deruta 22, n
D:><1mond-Charpentier, ;'3;-
Dcsfonlaines, Henri Bellery 304-
Dcsfoss el Karth 1.+8
Design Centre, London 4i4
Design Council 3SO
desk sets ;68
Deskey, Donald 353, 359, 359, 372, 373, 37--1,
388,389
desks
Aesthetic Mo\'ement 255
Art Deco 35+, 358
Art Nou\"eau 303, 306, 311
Arts lnd Crlfts 278, 184
Baroque 56
Contemporary styk no
Early 338
:-'Iodemism 389, 391, 393
:\eoclassicism 131, lj:J., 137, 139, 145, 1-18,
1.;.8,151,15+,155, J5;
Postmodemism 48
Rcnaissance 19
Rococo 86, 97
Desprs, Jcan 370
Desprez, Barthlemy 182, 183
Deutscher Werkbund 18;, 333
De\"lin, Stuart +-11, 466
De\"On 226
Diamond Glass Company 366
diamond-point engra,"ing, glass 27. 68, 69. 69
Diderot, Denis 126, 159
Dicderich, Wilhelm Hunt 369, 371
Dierra, Louis 391
Dijck, Floris \an.p
Dijssclhoff, Cerril \ \ 307
dimllldt'rt' 356
dinncrwarc -162
Dior, Christii'ln -i20, .pl, H3, +/.5
Directoire st\"le 128, 13-1, lJ.., 192
Disney, \Val!
disposable fumiture 458
Ditze!, Jorge +59
Dit;>e!, Nanna 459, ';'93
Dixon, James & Sons 152, 268
Oixon, Torn 48S, ..89
Dobson, Frank 372
Doc," ,-, , '"' ?33 '6'
'"" 1--)' -)-, - ,)-
Dodd, Jane Porler 164
Dado Designs .;.;6
dolls' houses 5:J.
Dolmetsch, Heinrich 213
Domin, Andr 356
Dominique 355. 356
Domus Aured, Rome 12
Donald Brothers
Donatello 10
Donegi'lni, D.mtl' 505
Dordrecht 69
Dorfles, Cilio -l-S5, 503
Dorn, 351, 373, 313, 37-1, -112, '13
Ooucet, Jacqlles 352,355,356
DollIIO., 262, 287, 315. 316
DO\"l'S Prl><;s 276
Do\\"ning, Andre\\" Jackson 210, 214, 216
Dresdcn 18,64,88,90, lOS
Dresdner \\'crkstiitten fr Handwerkskunst
333,338,338
Dresser, Christopher 250, 152, 253, 159, 260,
160,262,162,267,267,268,268,270,17,
?7') ,-' '9' 33' 3'3 _,_, 1)'-)' _, J
dressers 16, 281, 181, 183
dressing tdbles 55. 336, 358, 359, 389
Drilde -188, 496, 499
Drouais 130
Dryad \\orkshops 282
Du Cercea u, Jacques Androuet 16, J6, 33, 37
du Paquier, Claudius 6-l, 6., 65
Du Pasquier. :\athalie 481, .9.;., ::;ro, 500, 504
Dublin l;'S
Duboic;, Femand 322
Dubois, Ren 131
Dm"'Shury, Wi1Iiam 166
Dufrcne, 314
Dufy, Jei'ln 362
Dufy, Raoul362, 374
Dugourc, Je.ln Dmosthene 128, 131, 132, 13-1,
1-19, 149, 206, 107
Dunand, lean 355, 356, 359, 368
Dundas, Sir Lall"rence 1.;.2
Duplessis, Jean-Claude 131
Duprc, Da\"id 47
D'Urhino, Donato 45';', --158
Drer, AlbfL'Cht 10, 30,]1.33
Dutillieu i'lnd Thileyre 109
Du\'inage, F. 169
Dll\'ier, Claude Jl5
D\\"ight, John 61, 63, 107
dyes 2-15, 270, 294
D,sart, E1isabeth 59
D\'son, James 502, 50--!
E
Eames, Charles 390, 391, H3, 41';', ';'26, 427-8,
429, -146,-15-1,460
Eames, Rav ';'29
Earlv
ceramics 3-10, 3-:0-1
furniture 332, 333, 333-9, 3:H-8
glass 3-12, 3P-3
527
528
silver and metalwork 3-W-6, 344-7
textiles 348, 348---9
earthenware
Art Deeo 360, 362
Early Modemism 332
Neoclassicism 166
Roeoeo 106-7, 107
studio polter), 397
Iin-glazed 20-2, 20-1, 2-l, 24, 62, 62, 3-10
East Indies 53, 158
Eastlake, Charles Loeke 215, 252, 25.l, 256
Eastlakc style fumihue 260, 260-1
bnistes .J6, 56
Eberlein, Johann Friedrich 100, 100
ebony fumiture 53, 53, 56
Ecclesiological Society 254
Eekmann, Olto 328, 328
ecleetieism -182
Eco 503
Edinburgh \Veawrs ..O-l, .J15
Edis, Robert \\l. 256
Effner, Joseph 83
Egermann, Friedrieh 18-l, 185,236,236,311
Egremont, Lord 96
Egyptian st)'le 13-1, 135, 136,137,1-12,208,
209,256
Eiehler, Fritz 448
Eissler, Caspar Gottlieb 116, 118
Ekeo -l16
clcetrieal applianecs -116-18, 416-19, -122, -H8,
.J48-9, P7, -l98
Elcetrolux -l16
Elgin 376
Elizabeth, Empress of Russia 120
EJizabethan revival212, 216, 216-17, 22-1, 2+f
Elkington & Ca. 2-l2, 243, 268, 268, 269
Elkington Brothers 196
Ellis, Harvey 28-l, 284
Elmslic, George Grant 325
E!ton, Edmllnd 287
embroidery 39, 39, 76, 78, 79, 245, 29-1, 29.J, 327
Emerson 376
Emes, Rebeeeah 191, 291
Empire State Building, New York 352
Empire style 129
eeramies 160, 162, 16-1, 168, 170-2, 233
fllrniture 136, 137, 1-17, 1.f7, 1-18, 151, 153,
156, 1 >7
glass 177, 180, 182, 183, 183, 18.f
ormolu 198
silver 191, 192, 195
Emulation 29-1
enamel 3-1, 7-1, 120, 268, 269
enamelling glass 27, 28, 23-1, 235
eneaustie teehnique 228, 228
end grain mosaie 22-l, n5
Endelein, Caspar 37
Endell, August 308, 308
Engelhardt, Knud Valdcmar 315
England see Britain
English delft 62, 63
English Eeeentries 500, 500
engra\"lng
eopperplate 76-8, 77
glass 67, 67, 69, 69, 110, 110-11, 239, -l06,
44
1
silver 72, 120
Enlightenment 126
e115embliers 350, 35-1
Erbrieh, Adolf 34.J
Erdmannsdorff, Friedrieh \Nilhelm \on 1-l7
Erost Ludwig, Duke of Hesse 282, 333
Este, sabella d' 20
Estey Manufacturing 389
etehed glass 238-10, 239
Etrusean style 128, 129, 13-l, 134, 160-2, 172
Etrusean ware n8
Eugene, Prinee of Savo)' 83
Eugnie, Empress 230
Evans 376
Evans rurniture 425
Evelyn, John 44
exhibitions 213, 218, 222, 222-3, 252, 301,
-l22-3,-l28
F
Fabbriea Reale Ferdinandea 172
fabrics see textiles
rile Faee 484, -l85, 500
Faenza 20, 21, 22, 23
faienee 62, 62, 106, 107, 170,341
Faienee l'vlanufaeturing Co. 26-1, 265
Faleonet, Etienne-Mauriee 102
Fallingwater, Pennsylvanja 337
Far East -12, 56
Farag, 0d6n 313, 313
Farnese, Cardinal Alessandro 10, 15
Famese family 1-1
Farqllharson, Clyne 288
Farr, Christopher .J13
Farrel!, Edward 2.J-3
Farroil, Josep Pey i 311
Faseism -185, -190
fashion
Contemporary slyle -120, 421
Space Age 46&-73, 468-71
Faur, Camille 368, 371
Fallvism 342, 352
Favre Petiperre & Ce 203
Featherstonhallgh, Sir Mauhew 95
Federal Glass Company 366
Federal style 15-1, 156, 156
Fehr, Pau1368, 371
Fenton, Malthew & Co. 196, 196
Fentons 233
rcrdinandu IV, King uf Naples 172, 172
Fereday, J.T. 239
Ferrara 15
Ferro Toso-Barovier & C. 366
Festi\al of Brittlin (1951) -l22, -l2-l, 424
Feuilltre 320
Feure, Georges De 305, 322, 326, 326
Feuerrieger, Kurt 399
Fiammingo, Jacopo 56
fibrt'glcl:>:> fumilurl;' -l27--8, 4-l6, -l5', 'l
Fiedler, Johann Christian H7
Fiedlcr, Johann Goulob q6
Field, ErastllS 244
Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520) 3J--l.
figures, eeramie 64-, 65, lOO, 100,13-5,105,
160,162,163,166,267,171-2,34,352,360
figurines, Art Nouveall 322, 322
Fildes, George 216
filigree glass 26, 27
Finland
Art NOllVC<lll 313
eeramics 315, 315
textiles 328
Contemporary style -l20
ceramics c136, 437
furniture -132, 433
glass -l38.....W, 438
textiles..w..t, 444
Modemism 386, -l06, 406
nationalism 277
Postmodemism -192, .197
Spaee Age -1b-!, .J72
Finlandia 465
Finmar 358
Fiorueei, Elio 500
fire grales 200, 200
fireplaees 42, 268, 268
First World \\'ar 298
Fischer von Erlaeh,].B. 118

Fisher, Alexander 292, 293, 29.J

Fiskars 477
Fitzsimmon, 5tephen 469
flame-stiteh pattem 76, 76
flashed glass 2-l0
flat-paek fumiture -l32
flatware (eutlery) 118,3-15,347,371,411, +12,
443,467,476,499
Flaxman, John 191, 191
Flemish art 13, 42
F1emish furniture 16-17, 17
F1eteher, Benjamin 282
Fleteher, Thomas 195
Flight Woreester 168
Flindt, Paul 35
F1agl, Mathilde 3-!1, 342, 3-18
F10renee
Baroque -l-l, 44, 45, 57, 6-1, 66, 66
historie revvals 233
Neoclassicism 151, 151
Renaissanee H, 20, 33
Roeoeo 92
Florenee eathedral 10,3
Floris, Comelis 12, 13, 3.J, 37
Flos 479
Flatner, Peter 18, 33
flower molifs
Art Deea 372
Baroque -\'2-3, 71, 76
historie re\'ivals 247, 249
flower paintings 206-8
Foale, "'-'Iarion -l68
Foerg, J. 20g
Fogelbert, Andrew 190
Foggini, Giambattista 44, 44
folk art 277, 296, 300
Follot, Paul )22, 356, 356, 373
Fontaine, Pierre-Frano:;ois-Lonard 126,128,
128,129,135-7,136, 1.l7, I.f7, 150, 151, 156,
183,192,193
Fontaincblcau 13, 13, 16,24,33,36,129,133,
218
Fonttlna, Carlo-l-l
Fontana, Lucio cl62
Fontana, Orazio 21
Fontana Arte 419
Fontes, Marquis de 45
ForJ j',lutor CM:> .J75
For1l1 -158
rormica Coloreare 487
Fomasetti, Picro -130, 430, 435
Forsyth, James 254, 257
Fostoria Glass Co. .J08
found objeets cl88
fountains 71
Fauquet 322
Foxton, W. Ud 373
Frabel, Hans Godo 497
trames, Baroque 44
Franee
Aesthetie Movement
eeramies 263
glass 266
metalwork 268
Art Deeo 350, 352
cera mies 362, 362-3
furniture 35+-6, 354-7
glass 364-5, 365
sil\'cr and mctalwork 368, 370-1
textiles 372, 373, 374-
Art Nouveau 300, 330, 332
eeramies 314, 314
furniture 302-5, 302-5
glass 318, 318-19
siher and metalwork 322, 322
textiles 326,)26
Arts and Crafts 287, 287
Baroque -lO,-l3
furniture -16, -16-7, 56, 60-1
marquetry 57
pottery 62
siher ;1, ;..
textiles ;.;9
historic re"i\"als 212
ccramics 230, :']0-1
fllrniture 21-1, 216. 218, :'18, 220
wallpaper 2-18,
Huguenots -13, 75
](Ipo,j$/II" 252
\Iodernism
furniture 383, 383
industrial design ,pi
sih'cr and metalwork _po
textiles -112, .J 1J.
'\:eoc:lassicism 12&-8
fumiture 130--6, 1]0-6
glass 182, 182
porcelain 160-2, 160-:'
sih'er 192, 19:'-]
textiles :'0:'--9
wallpaper :'06
Poshnodernism
fumiture -190
glass -196
Renaissance 13
furniture 16, 16
glclSS 28
pottery 2-1, :!.J, 25
sih'er ]1, 33---l,]3
Romeo 80-2
furniture 8+--6, 8.J-/
porcc1,lin 102, 102-3
pottery 106, 107
sh'er and metalwork 11.J, 11/
textiles 122-], I2j
Francis L King nI' Franee 13, 16.33-4,36
Francis &. Cronk :'0]
francis W. Little HOllse, lll1110is ]3;
Franck, Kaj -B6, .J]/. -1]8, .J.Jl, .J65
Francken. Fraos 50
Franeo, General -190
Franglais Empire glass 183, 18]
Frank, }can-\ liche! 356. 35,
FrankeL S- ]-+9
Frilnkcnth<l116t 16.;
Frankfurt 53. 380
Frankl, Pilul 359, ]59, 388, 38S
Franz Schneider Brakel <FSB) -198
Freclerick l. King 01' Prussia ,5
Frederick the Creal, King nI' Pnlssia 83. 129,
q6. 163
Frcderik IV, King of Denrnark 66
French RC"olution 13-1, 160, 212, 220
Friberg, Bemdl .J]6
Friedlander-\\ildenhain, \Iarguerile 398, 399
Fricdmann. Eduard 3-16
Frieclrich \rilhelm 111, King 01' Pru"'Si,l 16-1
friezes 7J, :'73
Fritsche, William :'35
Fritzsehe, Georg 65
Froment-\Ieurice :'.J2
Fry, Roger 333, 336, 3-10, ]41, 3-18, H9
Fuerst, Ed\\'in -IOS,-i09
Fuhrlohg, Chrislopher 1]9
Fuller. Loie 322, 312
functionalism -127. -I35 .....8
"Funk ceramics" -162, ..6]
Fumess, Frank 2;5, 260, 161
fumiture
Aeslhelic .\IO\emenl :';.J-61
Art Deco 350, 353, 35-1-9, ]5..--9, 392
Art Nou\'eau 302-13,302-13
Arts ,lnd Crafts 27S-S5, 279-8-l, 313
Baroque -1+-61, 61, 92
bentwood 1;6, 226, 33-t JJ-l-5, 383,-130
car\"ng 9-1, 224, 2:'4
cast-iron 226, :,:,6, :'27
Conlempor.uy :.Iyle .p.J-jj.""'6
Earh' 332, 333, 333-9, 33+-8
Elizabclhan re"i\-aI216, :'16-J;. 22-!
exhibition furnilure 222, 222-]
glass 2j8
Gothic rC\'i\-al21-!, :'1.J-15. 22-1, 25-1, :'54.
279
laminatecl \\"ood 226,22,. -12-1, .P4. 416
t I f -tu "6 S' 3S" "9' "o, me a unu re _ , __ " -' _, :1, o") _, :I:>-t,
-i
28
'\lodemism 353. 358-9, 358-9. ]81--9;.
383-9-1, .J2-1
Neoclassicism 130-58,130-59
ld Freneh Style "')"')0, :'20--1
p'lpier m,icM :':';, 226
Postmodcmism -!S6-9:!, .;.S6-qJ
Renaissance 1';-19
Renaissance re\'i"al 218, :'J8-IO
RococoS-!-98, 220
Space Age -15-1-61. -154-61
'-eneers ?'J-I, 21;
Fumiture Shop, s..,n Franci:<oco 5_P
Frstenburg 1;3
352
G
G-Plan -12-1
Gabriel. }acques*Anges 126
Gaillard. Eugene 304. 305, 326. -,1b
Ca/cric L'\rl XClI/i,'llll, l'.lTb 298, _'jl',l, 301
Calle, Emile 301, 302, jO:', 318, ] I s" 19, -16-1
Callen-Kallela. :\kseli 313, _1 J" 3:!S
Gallerv Dilo -190
Galuehat 355
CambIe HOll5e, P"s,ldend, Californi,l 1S';:
Gambs, Hcinrich 152
Gardiner, Ed\\'ard 282
Gardincr. Sidney 195
Gardner 170. 171
Cardner, Thomas S:,
G,lmer. Philippc-l-66
Garrard 191
Garrick, Da\"id I.p, .203
Gasparini, \Iatlia S3. 92,149
Gale, Simon 366, -106, 400
Gates. John !\lonleilh -108
gales. wTOughl-lTOn 75
Galti, ..;.;., ..1')8
Gaudernack. Gusta\' 320
Caud, Anloni 311,]It
Caudreau, Antoine Robert S-I, 86
Cauglln, Paul 315, 326. 32/
Gaullier, Jean Paul -196, .J9/
Cauthier, Camille 30]
Ca,-ina uf BoIOb"na 3S2
Gehr\". Frank -19-1, -198 .J98
Gely.J. :'3J
Gl'm Clay Forming Co. .J0o
Ccne\"Tiere, :Vlarcel 356
Cenoa 39,""', 60, 72, 92, 93, 151
l'illore-;;qlU' SO, 94
Gentile. Antonio JO
George 1, King of England .J9
Ceorge 111. King of England 172
Ceorge IV, King of England (prince Regent)
129,142.183, 183,2-12
Gemlain, Fram;ois-Thomas 116, 116
Cermain, Pierre TT,
Cermain, Thoma:. SO, 116, 116
Cermany
Art De<:o 366, 367
Art 1\'oLlveau
eeramics 314. 316
glass 320, 320
metalwork 323-5. ]:!-I
textilcs ]:'7
\\"i\llpaper 326
Arts and erafts 282, 28]
ceramics :!86, 287
metal\\"ork 293
Baroque
furniture 52, 53, 56, 59
glass 66, 66, 67, 67
marquetry 57
porcelain 64-5
pottery 62, 63
s.il\'Cr 7-1, /5
Earl" .\Iodemism 333
fLlrniture 338, 338-9
30S, ]08, 330
sih-er and mclal\\"ork 34.J, 3-16
texllles 3-18, 3-19
historie re,i\'als 218, 233
\Iodernis.m 378-80, 3,9, 380
ccramics 398, 399
furnilure 3S2, 3R3
industrial design .JI,
sih'er and metal\\'ork -110, -110-11
tl'xtiles "'15
:\\"'OC1,hsieism 129
furniture q6-. 1-17
18-1, 184-5
pc\\"ter :'00
porcelain 162-t 16]-.J
Renaiss.,nce
furniture 7-18, J8
gl'lSS"19,29
gold 37
poltery 2-1. 25
-, "" 6
S\ "er ]1, :1:1, 35-
Rococo
furniture ,S8-9o
porcelain 100, 100-1, 105
sih-er and metaJ\\'ork 116, nS
textiles u.J, 1:'j
CC511I11tks/1,'rk 300. 307. 326
Chiberti, Lorenzo 30
Giambologna /1
Gi,lTdini, GiO\'anni 72. 116
gilding -18. -19, 5S, 58,98, 102.13, 136.1..10.
J.fl, 151. 160, 16J. 16;, 172. 1/6
<,.;iles, James 113, 113, 176-7
gilt-brom'e decoration 201
Gimson, Emesl 277. :'/8. 279, 281, 282. 282,
2S],.291.292,336.]56
Giorgio, \laestro.22
Gir(lrd, Alexander
gilt"I"iP,'rk (Iattice\\'ork) 3""', 3-17
Glasgo\\ 300
Clasgol\" School 28]. 308, 325, 32;, 330
Glasgo\\' School 01' Art 2'S. 328. )29
glass
Aesthetic \lowment :'66-" 267
Arl Dt..'Cu ],.2, 36-\-6, 364-/
Art NOU\'cau 318-20, 3J8-:'1,-I6-I
:\rts <lnd Crafls 288, 288-9. -102
Haroque 66-9, 66---9
Contemporary strle -In, -138--10, nS-"'l
Early \lodernism 3-12, ;.;..2-3
engl'<l\"ng 67, 6/, 69, 69. lID, 110-11, .239,
-106, ...41
historie re"i\'als 213, 23+--10, :'34-.Jl
!\ lodernism 402-8, .J02-9
'\:eoclassicism 176-87, J;6---87
Poshnodemism 484. -196, -196-7
Renaissance 26-9, 26-9
Rococo 108-13, 10S-13
Space Age 464, .J6...-;
teehniques
glass-fibre furniture -1.27-8, ""'6, -154, -161
glazes 26-1, 1S/, 314, 315, 3J5, 362
529

530
flamb 3I!, 3q
Icad 24, 25
lustre 20. la, 22, .21, 276, 287, 31-1, 31:i, 316
sal! 24, 25. 62. 63. ]16
1'111111-"/1 '9-
Vh_/.;){
tin 20-2, 20-J, 24, 61, 62, 3..10
Gleadowe. ]68, 371
Gleason 212
Glomme Si
Gmelin, Loopold 308
Coaj]
Gobelins facton' 41, 46, 74
Godwin, E.\\'. 250, 256-8, 258. 259. 260, 261,
2
"0 ,-, '7., 179
--1 .-'-.-{;I.-'
Goether. Eosander \'00 j
gold
Baroque 70-2, 70-]
Renaissance 30-2, jI-l, 34, 35-7. 36-7
Rococo 116. lI, 120, 1.21
Goldeo House of :\:ero 22
Goldfinger. Emo 386. 394, 395
Goldfinger, :\ick 395
Goldman, Paul ,p6
Goldscheder Faclory 362, 362
Goldsmiths & Silversmiths Ce. ]68
Gole, Pierre 46, 46, +7. 38, 59
Goodden, Raber! -102, .jO]
Goode, Thomas & Ca. .262
Gorham :vlanufacturing Ca. 325, ]25, 370, 371
Golhic ]0,
Gothic rcd\'al 9-1, 142,210
ceramies 228, 2.28, 230, 233
fmniturc 21-1, 214-15, 22-1, 234, 25';-5, 279
n1USeulM Gothie style 23-1, 254
textiles 2-1-1, 2-16, 246
wallpaper 202, 2-18, 248
Golhic sil ver 35
Goulden, Jean 368, 371
Guupil Laburatories 503
Goupv, ...lareel 365
"
Gout Etrusquc 13-1, 13';
Gout Gree 120, 126, 130, 130, q6, 132, 153,
192,192
Gouthiere, Pierre 126, 132, 198
Grad!, Hermann 31-1, 316
Gragg, Samuel156
Granehet 86
Grand Raplds, -Ub
Grand Tour 126, 157, 177
Grange, Kenneth 474, ';77, 481
Grant, Dunean 333, 336, 336, -I1-l
graphic design 500
Grasset, Eugcne 301, 326,]26
Grassi, Anton 16-1
Gratzen 18-1
Gra\"es, \liehael 486, -19-1, ';9';, -I9B, -:98,
500
Gray, Eileen 350, 353, 355, 356, 357. 359. 373.
378,38-1,385
Gray's Potter)' 360
Great Exhibition, London (lB51) 211, 213, 214,
218. 221,221,222.224, 23';, 244
Greatbateh, Daniel 174
Greek style 126, 1-12, 144, 188, 191, 352, 356
Green, Arthur Romney 279
Greenah'ay, Kate 263
Greene, Charles Sumner 28-1, 285. 337. 337
Greene. Henrr :\Iather 28-1. 285. 337. 337
Grcene & Greene 281, 333
Greenwood. Frans 110, 111
Gregorr. \'Iary 237
Gregory. Waylande 352
Grenzhausen 3-10
Gribelin, Siman 72
Gricci, Giuseppe 103
Grierson. Ronald -112, 4013
Grill, Anlhony 91
Grimani. Pietro 65
('11 griStlilk painting. porcelain 161, 162, 168.
168,170,173
Groh, Guillaume 218
Gropius, \\'alter 358. 39-1, 395.-lO4
Grossmann. Karl Auguste 146
grotcsque omament 12, 13, 1-1, 16. 22. 24. 3-:.
H, -J6, SO, 129, 206. 207
grottoes 2-1
Groult. Andr 355. 356, 3,2. 37-1
The Gro\'e, Harbome, near Birmingharn 2jj
Gruber. jaeques 303, 318, 319
Grueb\" Faienee 313, 31,
Gubbio 22, 22
GI/trilloll 84. 13-1
Gucrlain 352
Gugelot, Hans 448
Guibcrt. J"hilip 60
Guild, Lurelle 3,6
Guild of Handicraft 276, 290. 291. 292. 330
Guild of St George 276
guild system 37, 13-1
Guimard, Hector 304, 305. 31-1, 322. 322
Gulbrandsen, :\"or.l 398. 399
Gustadan Si de 152
Gust.l\'sberg 315, 361,362,398.399, H6. 436.
n7, 4-14, -146
Gusta\'us 11[. King of S\\'l'<lcn 132, 153
gutta-pereha 22,
H
Habit.lt -150, -153, 456, 479
Hadelands Glass\"erk -106, 406
Haeekel, Erost 301, 301
Hafncr, Dorothy 495
Haga Pa\"ilion, Sweden 152
The Haguc 326
Hahn. Carl 489
Haines, Ephrain, 15-1
hairdr)'ers H6
Hait, George 2il
Hald, Ed\'ard 366, 36" -106
Hall China 401
Hall-in-the-Tirol 28. 28
Hallesche Form 399
Ilals. frans 111
Iiam House, England 59
Hamada. ShoJi 267
Hamburg 301
Hamilton, Richard -175, 4;;
Hamilton, Sir \\'illiam 177
Hamplon Court -18, 49, 75. ,9
HaneaniIIe. Baron d' 177
Haneock, Joseph 196
Hanka. PaulJ06
Hanseatie lcaguc 7-1
Hansen. Frida 328. ]28
Hansen, Fritz 433
Hapsburg Empire 38, 108, 1&1
Haraehe. Pierre 72. i-l
Hardman, John 2-12, 2:p
hardslones 1-1.44,45,57,5,,151.226
Hardwick. Philip 221
Harcwood. 1st Earl of 143
Harewood House, Yorkshire 128
Harleman, Carl 91
Harmon, James 497
Harracho\" glassworks 185, -lQ..l. 440
Harris. Kale 325
Harris, Thomas 257, 238
Harrison. James 200
Harrison, John 233
Harrold. Robert 99
Haslcmcre Pcasant Industries 276
HaLlpt, Georg 152, 15.3
Haupt, Josef 148
Haur, Jean 133
Haun', Henri 209
decoration, glass 109
Haussmalm 209
Ila\"iland 263, 362
Heal, Ambrose 280. 281, 281, 358
Heal's +45. 472, 413
Heath, James 223
Hechter, DameI4,]
Heckmth, Hein 395
Heemskerk, \\llem \'an 69. 69
Hciglein, johann Erhard ;5
Hcinkcl. Gusta\' 363
Helsinki -l36
Heming. Thom.ls 121, 1 ,189
Hemphill. Joseph 1;5
Hendersen. Da\"id 1,4
Henderson, :\"igel 445
Henningsen. Poul-l18, 419, 422
Henri Deu' ware 228, 229
Henry VII, King of England 26
Henry VIII. King of England 19.31.33--1
Hcnry, Hippolytc 249
Hepplewhite, Gcorgc 1-10, 141-3, 145, 1-17, 15-l
Hepplewhite style 213
Hepworth. Barbara -II-l. 415, -l23, -I+l
Herbert Terry -l18
HereulaneLlm 126, D8, 152. 162, 162, 172, 172
Herilage, Roberl 425
Herman. Sam -1M, 465
Hermsdorf 67
Heme, lewis 121
errara, Juan 37
Herter Brothcrs 218, 253, 260, 261
Hen" 133
Hesse 52
Heslaux, Louis 302, 303
Hell'etson & 257
Hewson, john 20-1
Heywood, Higginbottom & Smith 2409
Hevwood Sumner. G.M, 289
highboys 98, 99
Hildebrand.
Hildebrandt, Luki'is \"on 83
HiUe -12-1, 425
HiUiard. :'\ieholas 30
Hirst. R.\l. 196
Hispano-\Ioresque 20. 22
historie re\"i\'ab 21D--l9
eeramics 228-33, 228-33
fumiture 21-1-26. 214-:q
glass 23-l-10, 234-41
silwr and mctalwork 242, 242-3
textiles 2++-6, 2';'; 7
wallpaper 248-g
HK Fumiture 425
H\[V Co" 417
Hoc1lsc1l11ifl glass 67, 6;
H6chst 103
Hoentschel, Georges .3 J 4
Hoffmann, Josef 290, 308, 309. 320. 320. 32';',
326.3.30,33, 331, 332. 33-1. 335, 3-10. 3-12,
3';'2,343,3-I4,346-g,348
Hofman, Vlatisla\" 333
Hogarth, \\'illiam 119. 120, 120
H6hr Grenzhausen 31-1
Hokusai 258
Holbein, Hans 30, 31, 3-1. 36, 289
Holdaway, Bernard 45,
Holland ;;el! '\etheriands
Holland, Henry 129. 1-12
Holland & Sons 219, 2j4
Hollein, Hans 485, 490, -198
Hollington, Geoff -l8-l
Holmegaards Glas\"erk ';'06
Hol)' Roman Empire 83
Homar, Gaspar 3Tt
Home Arts and Industries Association 1.77
,
Ilomenkollen ]l2
Homer, \ \"inslo\\' 2M
Hamer Laughlin China Ca. -100,';00
Hooch, Pieter de 51
HoO\"er -116
Hope, 129, J ..p. In, l.l3, 156, 183,
18],198,199
Hoppenhaupt. Johann Christian 83, 88, 89
Hoppcnhaupt, Johano :-'lichael 83, SS, 88, 89
Hopps. J.H. 28;
Horejee, Jarosla\" 333
I lome, Henry 296
Horoldt, Johann Gregor fH, 6./
Harrx, :Vlatthijs 151, 153
Harta, Victor 298,299,306,307,322, ]23
Horti, Pal]l]
Horton, Charles Ed"'ard 25;
HOfwitt, :'\athan George 390
Hotel JOb
Hotel Soubise, Pars SI
Hotpoint .J'';
hound-handlcd jugo:; 1;';
Houston, 290
Howard & Son 1.11
Howell Comp.-my 390
Ho,,"ell & James 25;
Hra7dil, Casp.u 3;5
HubbiUd, Elbert J.86
Huocner, George li5
Hueck, Eduard 3';-1, 3-16
Huet, Christoph 82
Iluguenots .l), 70, .J, 75, 105, 119
J-1ukin & Heath 268
Hulanieki, Barbara
Hull Traders
Hungary
Art :'\ou\-eau 313, ]1), 315, )16, 328
Arts and Crafts 277, 282
Hunt, \\'illiam Ilolman 256
HlInter, Alee 3,5
HlInter, Dard 2S5
Hunzinger, George 260
H\'ass, ="'eils .J.93
H,-idt Peler
, ..yy
H!m/it/i glass 1&J, 18.;, lS5
1
18\1 .J75,-!8-!-5
Igar.1shi, Takenobu .J.90
litt.1la .1
T
3, H8, nS, +10
Ike.1 .J91, ';93
Imhoff famih' 35
Imperial Glass Co.
Imperial Hotel. Tokyo 360, )61
lmpressionism 333
lnee & 9-1, 9';, 97, 138, 1.f5
India 58, ]n
fumihlre 53, 53
textiles 38, 76, 7S, 12-1, 125, 208, 209, 270
lndicnne motifs 12-1
Indonesia 53, 300, 307, 31-1, 326
industrial design 212-13
Art Deco 376, 376-7
\1odemism 380-1, -116-18, ,P6-19
Postmodernism 502-5, 503---4
Spaee Age -17+-80, ';7.;-8J
Industrial Re,-olution 210, 212
inAatable fumiture -158
intarsia 1-1, 15, 17, 19, 2J,
inlerlaeed omament 21, 11, 22, 2-1, 25
Intemational Fashion Council-l70
Inlemational Sih'er Co. )76
Inlemel--185
lreland 178, 1;8-9, 23-1, 277, 282
Iribe, Paul 355, 356, 372, 37-1
irideseent glass 320, 320
"Irish" embroidery 76
Irminger, Johann Jakob 6-1, 6.;
iron X'l' casi iron; wrought iron
irons -116
Iroquois China Company .J.36
lsasaki, :'\fata -l9-l
Islamic arl lO, Tl, 277
lsokon 358, 39-1, 39+, 395
lsola, Maija m, +72
lsozaki, Arato -l98
Issigonis, Alex +75
istol'illto wares 20-2, 20, 62
Ital)'
Art Oeco
eeramies 362, 362
glilSS 366, 367
sih-er and metalwork ]71
Art i\"oll'-eau
cemmics 31-1
furniture ]10, 311
Baroque 40, 80
fumiture +1, +-1-5, 92
glass 66
metah"ork 72
Jlidn' dI/U 57
poreelain 6--l
pottery 62
te,tiles ,6, ,s, ,9
Conlemporary -l10
applianees
ceramics -B6
fmniture Ha, +.50'-1
gla55 +39, -1-10
historie re"i,'als
eeramies .2]2, 233
fumitme 218
glass 237
"Iodernism
glass -106, .fo,
lighting -liS, .f19
Neoclassieism
fumitme 1'>0-1, 151
parcela in 171, 1,2-3
Postmodemism --185
eeramies -I9-l
fumiture --l86 .;86-;
industrial design 5O-l
te'\liles 5CXl. ;;:00
ReniliS5anee 10-13
fumiture Icl, 1+-15
glass 26-8, 26-,
pottery 20-2
sih'er and metal\\"ork 30, ]2, 33, 36. 37
lexliles 38----g
Rocoeo 82-3
92,9.2-]
poreclain 10;
Sp.KC Age
eeramies 462
fumiture +55, -158-61
lighting --l75
I\'e, Jonathan 50;
i"ory 57, 7..1, 300, 323
Izenollr, Ste"en --l82
J
Jackson, TE. 289
Jackson & Graham 222, 257
Jacob, Georges 132, 13-l, 13.J., J)5. 1.52
Jacob-Desmalter 13-!-6, 1]6
Jacob Freres 1]+. 135
Jacobs, Carl .J.2..J
Jacobsen, Ame --B2, +32, ..J.Jj, +6,
Jacobsen, Jaeob --lI8
Jacquard, Joseph-\Iarie 2MJ
Jallol, Lon 35-1, 356, 359
Jallot, \lauriee 3.5-1
James 1, King of England 60
James 11, King of England 61
Frederie--l82
jamnit/er, \Ven/el 35. 37
J

p- _1 4 "0
a u"', "'1..' Y3_.,Uj,j .339,.;HV,y4J
japan 352
md Al'Sthelie \ lm'emenl 250-2
furniture 58. -190-2, +90-1
industri.11 dcsign 502-3, 503
inAuenee of 256-8, 260, 26-1, 268, 270, 277,
300, 3D/, 397
porecl;in 6-1
Postm\ldernisrn -lS5, -l86
jilpal1t1l'd furnilure -lS, 55, 58, 59, SS, 1]1,
q], I
252, 2(;2, 262, 26]
34-1, _H';
jaspcr\\'arc 166, 16;
Jcekyll, Thom,l:> 256, .256, 26.."). 268
Jcffrcy & Co. .2;'.2, .2;-}
Jeliff, John 260
Jencks, ChMlt.'S -1&1, .J98
Jennen'i & Bctlridgt.-' 225, 'n6
Jensen, Gl'Org 292, 369, 371, ],1, -lID, -1-12, 4.J.3,
+l6,-l66, +6
Jensen, Gerrit 56, 58, 59
)l-:;.s, 5.11ly 473
Jcsscr, Ililda 3-l2, ].J.2
JesiI, Rome 72
ewellen .J.ll, +99
Joe!. Beny 358, 358, 373, 3;'5, ]93, -l12
Johnson, Thomas 9-l, 95
Johnson \\7", building, Racinc, \\'isc(\nsin 390
Jolm510n, Fdward 276
Jones, Alletl +57
Jones, +2, -18, +8
Junes, O\\'cn 213, 248, .2+8, 250, 256, .25i, 270
Jordlll, TB. 22+
Joseph 1, King of Portuga192, 116
Josphine, EmprCS5 13_', 136, 161
Jouberl, Rcn 35-1
jOllrl/a! (Ir :!1O
. -
journals 301
Jueker, K.ul J.
jllgl'lld 301
298, 308, 3Dq, 330, 33S, 339, 3.J6, 350
Juhl. finn -132,':;]
Julill c \', I'(\re l.J
Jully, Lalh'e de 130, 130
jungnickel, Ludwig 3.J2, ]';2
jutrum, Ame jon ":';1
jU\Mr.1, Filippo 82-3, 92,11-1
K
Kabarelt Fkderm.lus, Vienna 33-l, 335
Kaendlcr, Johann Joaehim M, 65, 100. lOO, 101
Kilgc, Wilhelm ]61, 362, 398, 399
KakiemOI\ ware 6-l, lO';, 105
Kiillemo -192, 492
KaIlenborn, Joseph 3]6
Kambli, 88, J.6
K.1ndem Co. +IS
\\'assily 36,
Kandler, Charles 119
Kandy.1 -12-1, 42+
Kann, LOOn 31-l
Karhul.1 Glassworks --lO6, ';06
Karlsruhe j6]
Ka rtell -lSS
Kashmir shawls 2
Kassel67
Kauffer. Edward \IcKnight373, -112, 4J2, .P3
Kauffmann, :\ngelica 1M, 16" J69
Kayscr, & Sohn 323-5
Keith. How<1Td +25
Ke1mscou Press 276
Kendall, TH_ 22-l
Kennedy, John F. -ISO, +52 531
532
Kent, Rockwdl 360, ;60, 3;6
Kent, WiIliam 120, 12]
Kenton & Co. 250
kettles 290, j';5, 3-16, -198, ';95
Khanh, Quasar -158
Kilburn, \\'illi.lm .202, 208, 205
Kimbell & Cabus .260
King, Perry .;,5
King, Thomas 220, 220
Kingston, 2nd Duke of 11';
Kinsardck, Lars 31.2
Kirehner, Johann Cottlicb 60l
Kirk, Samuel 210, 2';3
Kila, Toshiyuki -190-2, .;90
kitehens -l-l2, -l-l6, .;i.;, 503--1
kitehenware -l-l6-S, .;.;6
Kitschdt, A. ni
Kjaerholm, Poul ';59
Klagmann, J.8.J. 2-12
Klcnzc, Leo "on 129
Klimt, Gust.1\" 330, 3j1, 332
Klinl, Kaare 386
Knobelsdorff, Georg \-on 83
knockdown fumiture-l56
Knoll ';26, .Pi, 428, 4-+5 .;60, 461, .;S,
Knoll, Florence 5chuSI -127, ';.2,
Knowles, Charles 29,
Knox, Arehibald 292, 293, 325. 325
Kny, Ludwig -102
Koblenz 1.;6
Koch, 386, 3S,
Kod.lk 477, .;Sl
Koepping, Karl 320,]20
Kohn, Jacob & Josef 33-1, 33.;
Kok, J.J. 31-l
Knigl ieh-Bayerische -Manufaktur,
Nymphenburg 3-10, 3';1
Koppd, Hcnning +U, .;.;3
Kosta -1.3S, ';39, ';';0,-16-1
Kosta BOO.l -196
Kothgasser, Anlon 18-1, lS.;, ISS
Krsn Jizba ';0S
KmlllMnll/ck (beaker) 29, 29
Krenek, Carl ;';S
Krug, DieboH j6
Krug, Ludwig 31, 33
Kuhn. Bcalhe ";j,
Kmmcl, SS
Kunckel, Johann 67
Kunstgewerbcschulc, Vicnna 332,).10
Kuramata, 5hiro '9I
L
La Farge, John 267, 320, pI
L.l Granja lS.;
La Pierre 136. 156
{l/cm pOl'era 92, 93
lace 39, 76, 76, 77, 78, 79, 122, 125, 20';
Lacostat, ).1'. & Cic 20.
lacquered fumiturc ..J2, -18, 58, 59, 97, 137, 158,
355,356,357
Lajoue, Jaeques de 11,
L
,
. R -21 350 --- 6 36- a que, ene.J ,3.22, , .J:l.J, 3 ';-5, :l
Lalique, 5uzanne 36.
Lallemanl, Roberl 363
Lamb, James 25;, 258
Lambcth Faienee Ca. 262
Lamerie, Paul de j, ;.;.119,119-20
laminated wood fumiture 226, n" -12-1,
';2-1, -126
lampas ,. 20;
lampwork glass 320, 320
Landais, CJ. 230, .2;1
Landberg, Sils 439, 4-+1
Landseer, Ed\dn 2-6
Landueei, Antonio 150
Lanc, D.lnn\ -188, .;89, -196
L.lnglois (upholsterer) 2.;6
Li'mglois, Pierre %
Lannuier, Charles Ilonor 156, 15,
Lan\"in, Jeanne j5j
Laplerre, Franeis 61
Larche, Raoul 322, 322
Larcher, Dorothy 296, 296, ';1';
Larscn, Jack Lenor.J-..l-.f
Larsson, Carl 283
Larsson, Lena --l58
Las Vegas --l8-1
Lasdun, Denys ';5j
Jatex foam upholstery ';;1
Latham, Richard 43';
Lalrobe, Benjamin Henrr 15;
1nlticillo glass 237
1oltimo glass 26, 2;
Lall., Jean-Pierre Si
L.lugicr. Abb 116
Lauren,in, 3,2
Lauro, Agostino 311
La\eme, Estelle and Erwinc .;61
Lawson lime lne. ';16
le Brun, Charles -/-l. S" 7-1, SO
Le Corbusier 353. 378, 353. )83. 386 .;93
Le Cear, Jean Laurent 129
le Hros, Robert 501
Le Lorr.lin 1]0
Le 172
Le Pautre, Jean )2,,1
Le Pautre. Pierre 80
Lea, 5. j51
Leileh, Bemard 28" 397, 397, -136, ';;7, -162,
.;62
Icad glass 69
k'athcr 33, 53, 356, 356
Lcbcau, Chris 326, 327
Lebrun, Charles--l
Ledoux, Claudc ::\"colas 196
Leeds, Thomas Osbom. 1st Duke of 60
Leeds pollery lO;, 166
Lefe\-re, Robert 19j
Lger, Femand 373, Ji3, -l08, .; 15
I.egrain, Pierre 356. 35;
I ehmann, C.E 91, 91
lehmann, Casp.lr 67. 6;, 110
Leiden 69
Leipzig Desigo $chaol 399
Leistler & Son 21';
Lejambre, A. & H. 260, 261
Leleu, Jean Fram;ois 130, 131, 155
Leleu, Jules 35-1
Lelong. Lueien 365
Leloy 231
Leman, James In
Lcman, John 79
Lenoblc, mile 362, 36;
Leonard, Agathon 31';
Leonard, Robert 376
Leonardi, Cesare '55, --l61
Leonardo da Vinci 13, 30l
Leopold JI, Emperor of Austria lSS
Lesourd 206
Lespagnandelle,
LClhaby, \V.K. 2S1
Lettr', Emil -l1O
Le\"asscur, Etienne 13 J
Lewis \\'\"11dham
'- -'-'--'
Leyland. Frederick 256
Libbey Co. -IDS, ';09
L,be-I' & Co 250 ,=.0 '60 '6- '90 '9- '. . ,_JU,_ ,_ 1'_11'_ ,_--,.
301. 325, 329
Libisch, ]oseph 366
La Libre ESlhelique, Brussels 326
Lichlenstein, Roy ';2, -178
Licbes -12-1
Liebcs, Dorothv .;..
Lieulaud. B.llth.lzar 131
Liger. Isaac ;2
lighting
Art Deco 35i, 365, 365, j69
Arl ::\"oU\-eau 322
Contemporary slyle ';22, .pS, ..q
Early i\lodernism 3';5
-l18, ';lS-19
Ncoclassieism 18,
Postmodcrnism 493, --l98
Space Age -175, .179
tille 326
Limbert, Charles P. CO. 281, 2S5
Limoges 102, 230, 230, 2;1, 26;, 362, 368
linerustaWalton 272
Lind, Jenm' 21,

Lindberg, 51i8 ';" +.J--..I

Linder, AJf .;93
Lindfors, Sldan -192, .,l9j
Lindstrand. \'ieke 366, 366, 439 ..O
linen 39, ;6. 12';, 205. '15
linenfoJd panelling 16
Linnell, John 138, 1-12
LinneU. \\ll1iam 138
Linthorpe Pottery 262
Lion, Eugene 287, 2B,
Lion e'chet, Carel Adolphe 307, 30;
Lisbon 92
/it1l.I/o1m glass 18-1, 236, 236
Litmann, Hclcn 500
Littleton, Hane, .;6.;
Lh'erpool Corporation 183
Lloyd Company 390, 391
L6ben<;lein, l\largarete Heymann.. 399
Lobrneyr, j, & L. 318-20, 3-12, 3.P
Lock, i\latthias 9-1, 94-, 95
Loctz"\\'itwe 3n, ;';2, ;.;;
LoeI\"Y, Raymond 3.53, ;80, 390, 'J" -123, ';3';,
-1-18 .;.;8
Lamer, Berlold 332, 3-10, 3.,l0, 3';1. 3-18
Lomazzi, Paolo '5.;,-158
Lombard\ 151
London 301
Camab\" Slreet -t51
foreign craftsmen 13
glass 28, 28, 68
"old and <:ih-er ,-
o . ...'
po
tier\"
- ,
silwr 3I
textiles ;9
London delft 6.2
London Intemational Exhibition (1862) 222,
"8 -'9 "O ,=' .. - __ , __ ,-..... ,_J'"'t, -)"t, -))
'-ondon lnternational Exhibition (187-1) 25,
London I;ndergrollnd 381
Longton Hall 10';, 26;
Longwy 269
Loos, Adolf 33-1, -10-1, 405
Loos, Pieter de 51
Loosdrech li3
Lord & Taylor 359
I05t wax easting 276, 290
Lotlo. Lorenzo 12
Lotl... \\'itwe 318-20, 320
Loudon, J.e. 210
Louis XIII, King of Franee-l8
Louis XIV. King of Franee ';J, -16, 56, 55. 59, ,;,
74, SO, 221
Louis X\'t King of France SO. 102, 1101, 11';, 132
Louis XVI. King of Fr.mce 132
"Louis Quatorze" re,h-al style 220
lo\\ O, & J.G.) Art TIle \\'orks 26-1, 26" 260
LO\\ Countries
pottery 2-1. 62
X't' nlw Belgium; f\:etherlands
Lllbclkin, Berthold 39-1, j95
Llldo\'isi famik..w
lud\\-ig II, King of B.l'-aria 1]1
lundh, S,"en -l92
lundin, Ingeborg -l]S
lustre""are 20, 10, 12, 11, li6, 3H
bceu, Edward 165
b"un, June -l-l5
lyons 1";', ,9, 111, 113, 101', 2-l6, 1";'i, 316
l,otard, Jc.ln-Fralll;ois -l82
lysle, Anthony de 28, 18
M
1\1cArthur. \Varren 353, 359
1\IcConnell, John ..;.68
:-'IcConnico, Hilton -l96, ";'96
\lacdonald, \largarelj15, 319
\ lac, Jean ..;.6
\Iachinc Age 359, 390
"\Iachine .\rt" -lOS
\ lc1ntne, 5.1.mucl 15-1-
\Iackintosh, Charles Rennie 2S, 279, 150,
>8> >S- 30S 330
- -,- J' ''>-7';)-)'
\Iackmurdo, AH. 2i1, 28-1, 2B..;.
\ laclaren, Denham 392, 392
\lclaughlin, :\1. Louise 1&]
\1c\lullin, John 19-1, 195
:\ladonna ..;.99
\Iadrid, ROYill Palace 83, 92
\Iaes, :"icholas O]
\laffezzoli, GiO\.lnni 150
magazines ..;.8..;., -l9.-I, 500
:\(ilggiolini, Giuscppc I.J9, 15(1, 15]
1\lagistrctti, Vico 461
\ lagnus, E.e. 226
1\lagnussen, Erik 370, 371
\lahcr, George \Vashington 18..;.
:\lahlcr, \larian ";'15
mahogany 158
muiSelL'i11 (drinking glas,;) 29
\Iainz 53, 89
- 1- 'O-' "
malO Ka __,10-1,_...
\lairet, Elhel-lH, ";'J5
La \Iaison \lodeme 301
\ laita, Aki 50':!
- 1- "S '6'
maJo Ka _ ,219, __
\Iajorca 20
\Iajorelle, louis 301, 302, 303, 319, 3",]11
\lakepeace, John 'b9
\Iale\"ich, !Casimir 398
\lallet-Sten2'l\s, Robert 350, 353, 356, 35..;.
\Ialta 39
\ langiarotti, .-\ngelo ";'1'1'
l1Iimiml (style) 12, 104
1\lannerism 17,30, 31, 3]-j, 36, 37, 3, 70, 72,
5,-l76
\Iansard, -l6
"-'lanship, Palll 353
1\lantua, DlIkcs of 21,31
i\lan",aring, Roberl 96
i\laple's 383, 353
marble, inla id furniturc 199, 226, n6
:-'Iarb\", F ';10
:\Iarchand 199
I1/nrc111711d lIIuch'r 86. 132
\ larcks. Gerhard -IDl
\larcolini, Count Camillo 162, 163
:\1.1TC, ,,\ndr 350, 35.1
:\lari, Enzo ..;.6
\Iaria Fcodoro\'na, Empress lj3
\laria Theres.1, Empress 83
\Iarie Antoinettc, Quccn of France 126. 129,
,
-. 1-' ,-- ,-, ,--
J_, ;);), ;) .. ' ),
:\larie de \lcdici, Queen of Francc..:6
:\Iarieburg 170, J;-O
\larienbad 332
\1.1Tiette, Jean 801
.\Iarimekko -1-44, ..;...;...;., 50;
\Iarinot, \Iaurice 36:;, 36j. 361
:'I.1.uioni, Dante ";'96
:'I.lariscal, Ja\'ier -.190. ";'9J, 500,
:'I.larks, Henry Stacy 26.:l
:\Iarlborough, Duke of 188
:\I.lronune Printworks j':9
\IMot, Daniel.p. -l8, ':9, 50, 61, 61, ;-3, 75, 78.
i9. 11 -l,ln,21

Art Dcco 3;
Art NOll'eau 302
Baroqlle -.16, ,6, .., .18, ';9, 50, 53, 56, 56, 57
Earl\' l\lodernism 3]6
Neoclassicism 130, HO, 7...j, J..:6, 147, 151,
1;3,158.159
Renaissance 17, 18, 15, 19
Rococo 86. SI'. 88. 91. 93
\Iarquis. Richard ";'96
\IMselHes 106
.\IMSh & Jones 251, 155
\Iarsh & Tatham 139
:\Iartin, Robert \\allacc 287
:\Iartin Brothers 25, 186, 28i
\Iarlitz, \\Ilhelm Gottlicb 90
\Iarx, Enid ";'1"
\lary 11, Queen of Engl.lnd ";'9, SO, 5.1, 58, 61.
6!, 1
\Iarv of \Iodena 61
:\Iary Grl'gory glass T;7, 131'
lasbro StO\"C Grate Company 226
fumitllrc 338
1\ lason, 1\ Iiles 168
1\lason's ironstone 169
i\lasreliez, Louis 152
mass-prodced \\"ares se.' industrial design
Massanetz. Karl 3-+3
I\lassier, Clement 31-l
i\lathclIn et BoU\"ard 2":1
\lathews, Arthur 333, 337
:\lathcws, lucia 3J!, 333, 337
:'\ lathilde, Princcsse 211
:'\lathildenhijhe 282, 333,
\Iathsson, Bruno 386. jS
:\l.lhsse, Henri ]66, -lOS, +H
\ latsys, Comelis 13
\Ialt :\lorgan .-\.1"t Pottery !6..;.
\Iillta, Roberto Sebastian ..;.6J
c.:\l. 9J
\latusch, Johann 53, 8S
i\1.lufe, Edward 358, 358
:\Iaugham, Syric 358
:\ laurer, Ingo -l91
:\1.1" Peter .:-
1\lax Emanuel, Elector of 8.1\'<1fia 83
\laybeck, Bemard 155
\Iayer, Alfred 3..;.6
I\layodon, Jean 361
i\lazza, Sergio ":55
mcandcr dcsigns In, 115,106
i\ledici. Cosimo I de' 1.1, 15
I\ledici, Francesco de' U
i\ledici, Lorenzo the \Iagnificent 10
:\Iedici, Piero de' 10, 30
:\Iedici family -H, 6-l, 66, 218
\ leier, Richard -.l9--l
\Ieigh, Charles 1!5
\lcissen 6--l, 6..:, 65,100. JOO, 101, 10";', 105, J05,
16' 6- "8 '1' "O _.1 ;),_ ,_;)_,.:.:1 ,,) -.,J1
\Ieissonnier, Juste-Aun?le SO, 102, 106, 11+-16,
lI";'-lj. 18S, 2-l2
:'\lekeren, Jan Y.1I1 56
:\Iellor, Da\"id -Hl, ';.j!, -l66, ..:6" ..:;-
\Iell}", George -l52
\leh-iUe, George, 1st Earl 61
11Il.'lIIt'/lli lIIori (ruined $Cenes) 18
\lemphis Group 338, ,S-l, 0486, ..:56, 451', -19-1,
';9";',";'95,-l96. 500, JOO, 50-l,50'
Alessandm ..:5., -l85, -lS6, ..:8, -l98,

\lcnnl'CY 102, 10]
\lcnzcL Joh.1nn Sigi::.mund 1&1-, JS5
\ lerch.lndisc \Iolft of Chicago -l2S
\ lerder, Philip 6S
\lere, C1ment 356, 356
Flint Glass Co. 169
\lerkelbach, Reinhold 3-l0
l>.kSopot.lmia 352
:\ lessenger & Phipson 18;
llH"'tal f\,1rnitllre 226, 127, 35!, 383, 392, 39-l,
012 S
"lois 404, ";'05
\lctal"k, :-'lilan 440
mct,ll\\"ork
Acsthctic :\IO\"Clllcnl 268, :l65-q
Arl Dcco J6S-71, j65-1
Art \.:ou\"('au 322-5,
Arb .1Ild Cr.lib 290-2, 190-3
BaTUque i0-5,
ContL'mporolfY style -H2, ..;..;.1-3
EMly 330. J.I--l-il. 3'";'-1'
historic T('\-j,.lb 2-l2, 142-;
\Iodembm -lIO, ';Hl-Tl
:"eod.lssicism 1&';-200, lSS-!J/
Postmodemism -l98. ';91)-'1
3O-i, jo-
Roco<o 11+-20, 11';'-11
Sp.lee Age -l66, 0166-1'
:\Icthucn, lord q..:
/!I,'//1>Ic , del/X fllrp" 16, 16
1II':1I1'l d'11PI'Jli 136
i\le\dam, Floris ..;.3'1
Christian l52
\'lever, F.E. 100
i\le\'r's Ncffe J.l2
:-'lichelangc1o 10, 12, l-l, 30
\IichclSt!n, A. ";''';'3
lj I
\Iiddle East, influencc of 300, 311
\Iid\\'inter, Roy -+3';. H5, ":3;-, ..:6j
\lies \'an der Rohe, Ludwig 353, 380. 3S0, 382,
383,38-1
\liIan 37, '1]
:\liIan Fumilure F.1ir (]995) -192
\1ilan Triennale -l"', -l30, "13], H.. "l
\1il.1O lVorld Fair (1906) 301
\Iil.mi, Giacomo 172
:\Iildner, Johann 18-1-, 155
lIIi/it'fiori glass 16. 27, 136, 237, 2-10, 14J
:\liIl('r. Herman ":2-, -l2S, ";'28. ";'J9, ..:..;.5, -l-I-;-,
-.161, o4SS
1\lillcr (Ilcrm,m) Clock Co. ";'I
\Iiller, Ilo\\".lTd po
i\liller,Samuel 178. 19
i\lilnc, Os\\"ald P.351
i\ling porcelain 61
i\lillistry of Public Buildings <lnd \Vorks (UK)
_,67
\finton & Co. 112, 228, :!.lS.119, 230, 262.161,
>6-
- ,
\linton China lVorks 163
\Iiro(fsky, \\'enzeslaus 5S
mirrors 33, ..:5. 50, 5" 92. 9..:, 95, 136, qo, 1.p,
l-H, J50
\Ii<;"ion furniture 2&1-, j]
\Iitelli, Agostino.;-;
\Iodernism 277, 298, 37S--H8, ;-8-';19, -l20,
-l22 .g5
ccr.lmics 396--';01, 39i-lOO
furniturt' 353, 358-9, j58-J. 351-Jj, 383-904,
-l2-l
glass -102-8, ";'02-9
industrial dcsign -.1]6-18, ';16--J9
melah\'ork -llO, .po-lI
and Space Age -l53
te-.:tiles -l12-1-l, ";'11-15 53:
534
s..'r! n/;;o Early
\Iodemismo (Spanish Arl :\"oU\'cau) 311
Alll<t..mislllf' Sil'l/te.' 298
\lodigliani, Amadeo 352
}, loelder, C. de i3
\Iohn, Gottlob 185
}, lohn family HH
\loittc, Jcan-Guill,lume 192, 193
l\lolitor, Bemard 13-1, 135. '37
Cilrlo ..130, -l30
i\lonart \\'are 366
}"loncrieff's Glass n'orks 366
Ivlonlagll, Ralph, Dukc of .J9
monteith /3.197
}, [ool(',-ser, \ Villcm 69
\ loore, Albert 253, 262
;.. loare, Bcmard 287
\Ioore, Ed\\'ard Chandler 268. 26q
\Ioore, Henry -U3, US. +H
}, loore Brolhers .263
\Ioorish rcd,-al 256-8. 260
\Ioresque motifs 10, 16
\Ioritz, Andreas no
\Iorris, \1.1\" 294, .295
\Iorris, :"eil.pj
\torris, Robcrt 112
\1 - "'-11- '13'::" "1'" "-0 m .. orns, I lam _ ,_....... _U"lt, _1 .2,0, _/_,
27-1,276, 27i, l7S, 219, 281, 282, 28-t, 294,
'9- '% '9' 300 .. -
- J' - ,-, ')JJ
\Iorris & Co. 252, 253, 256, 266, 267, 270. 272,
28' '8'
-'""". -/), -, - ..
\Iorris of Glasgol\' 424, 425
)' ...Iarshall, F<lulkncr & Co 222, 274,
288,288
lorton, Alcxandcr & Son 413
mosaie, pielr.. durl' 44, 4,
Paolo 151
\Ioscoso, Victor 45J
Georgc \lichael 120,120
\loser, Koloman 3O..c;. 39, 326. 32;, 330. 331,
.:n ."" ""0 "., -, " '1-
... ) .>-t ,J1_. J1"1t. >..... ) ...
:H6, :HS. 349
\Ioser, Lud\\ig & SOhnc:H2
\Iosle\', A. 203
\Ioto\\"n .J52
mouldcd glass 186
\Ioulton ';'75
mounts. fumiturc 86, 86, 158
\Iourgue. Oli"ier 46J
\Ioyr Smith.lohn 2,;. 262, 26;
\Iueha, Alphonse 326. p6
\lueller, Karl 233
\Iulhouse 326
\Iller, Albin 293, 346
\Iiiller, Gcrd Alfred 448
Karl L.H. 264
Freres 318, 319
\lller-Mllnk, Pcter 411
i\llln<lfi, Bruno 446, 479
i\[unehausen. \"011 J39
i\ [unich 70. SS, 308, 346, 348, 349
\[unthe, Gerhard 312, 315,]15, 328
i\luona. Toini 434
26, 28. 66, 2;6, 238, 366. --106, 407 .J.J9.
+lO, .J96
\lurdoch. Peter 456,438
\lurphy 481
\Iurphy, Henry George 3;0, 371
\luITay. Keith 288. 396, 397, -102. 403
\luseo Alch\"mia ,al
\luseum of Contemporary Crafts, :\'ew York
<66
\luseum of \lodC'm Art (\10\IA). :\"e\\" York
380.390,391, -lOO, -108.422-3,--128.--175,485
mllseums 301
mllsi( stands 158.30,,307, 48S
Forrest 492
N
:\'abis 326
:-.!ahl.lohann August 83
302, 318, 350
:\'antes, Edict of.J3
:\'aplcs n,.56, 56, 126, 151, 172. Ii2
N,'polcon 1, Emperor 12i, 128, 129,13-1, 136,
1]6,160--2,161,182,18-1, 1S4, 192, 198, 212
Nnpoleonic \Vars 183, 184,216,233
Nnpper, Harry 297, 329
Nnppcr & On\'enport 370, 371
Nnsh, A. Oouglas -lOS
Na"h, P<l.ul -l02
'!ational Theatre, London .Jo,;
'Jalticr, lean "Iarc 81
nahlf.,lism, textiles and \\"allpapers 206-8, 20S
:",:,'lzlcr, Gertrud .J0l, .;.62
:\atzler, OUo -101, 462
';48
needle\\"ork 2--15, 245
:"':egroli workshops 37
:"':elc;on, George -;20, 426, -127, .Pi-<j, .J28 ./4i,
,60
:\'eo-Gothic 237, 2--l2
'\eo-Renaissance 218
'\co-Rococo 212, 212, 220, nI, 237
:\eoclassicism 126-209,353
ceramies 160-72, 160-7}, 3-1, 398
furniture nO-58, 130-59, 356
glass 176-87, 176-8(
sih"er and metal,,"ork 7}, 188-200, lS8-201,
34-1
textiles 202-8, 202-9
wnllpnpcr 202--8, 202-<j
i'\cro, Emperor 12
Ncsficid, \V.E. 256, 257
i'\ethC'rlands
Art r-\'Oll\"eall 300
ceramics 31-1, 316
furnilure 307, 30,
metalwork 323, 323
te\tiles 326, 32,
ano<lle -ro
fumiture -18, 50. 50-1
glass, 66, 66. 69, 9
mMquelry 50
pottery 62
sih"er and metal\\"ork -12, 70, 7--1
still-life paintings-lO
Contemporary style -139
Huguenots in .J3
\ lodernism 3S-l, 3Kt
Ncodassicism
ceramICS 1i3
furniture 152, 153
metalwork 201
Renaissanee 13, 17, 17, 29
Rococo 91. 91, 110, 111
Nellfforge, Jean Fransois 126, no, 152
Neumann, Balthasar 83, 83, 116
:-'!eureuther, ES. 2J2
;'\!e\ers 62
:'\!e\\ Brcmen Glass 186
:\'e\\' [)enl -100
:\'e\\" England 5-l
:\ew England Glass Ca. 18i, 237
:\'ew Hall 16ft 168
:\'e\\" Ha\"en Clock Company 269
look --120, .p1, .J23
:\'ew York City 5-l, )-+, 55, 98, J55, 157, li5,
3
"
;)_, ;);), ;);)/, ;):)_, ;X)
Jessie 295, ]29
i\"ewlyn 290
Rhode Island 5--1, 98
Nicholson, Ben 397, 41-1, 414
Nkholson, Nancy 414
:\'ideryiller 162
nidIo :H
:\,ielsen, Harald 371, 37'
:\,ielsen, Orla \lolgaard';]3
:\'iemeyer, Adelbcrt 3-Rl. ).j1
:\'ieuhoff 58
;"'it'lIil'e KUI1SI 307
Nicu\\"cnhuis, Theodor 307, 307
Nigg, Joseph 164, 164
Nilsson, Wh,'en -110,-+11
Nimes 24
Nizzoli, Ivlarcello 4-l8, 448
Nobilis Fontan 501
Noguchi, lsamu .J27, 428, 429
Nokia 5{)..l
:\'onsuch chcsts 18, 19
:\'urgaard, Bjom 492
:\'oritnkC' 360
:\'orman & \\'hittle 96
,\-OrllUllldi(, SS 3.50
i'\orth Africa, influence of 300, 311
?\orth Carolina 55
:\"orthern Industrial Chemical./4i, ++S
:\'orthumbt!rland, Duke of 180
:\'orthwood, John 239, 2..KJ
:\'orwa\"
Art Deco ]69, 371
Art :\'oU\eau
fumiture 313
glass 320, ]20
textiles 328, 32S
Contemporary style -+41

cerarnics 398, ]99
gl<lsS .J06, 4-06
l1ationnlism 277
Norwcginn Tnpestry Soeiety 328
Norwieh 13
GiO\"Mmi "Iaria lS
7\!O\"otny, Petr-l%
:\'on Bor 18-1,496
:\'oyes, Eliot -lS5
:\'uo\"a Alchimia 'lB,
:\'urembcrg 31, 33. 35--6, 37, 67, 6. 108, liS.
12
4
'\urmesniemi, Antti .f33, -+59
:\lIutajarn 4]li
:\'ymphenburg 100, 165.2].1, Tn, 31-1, 316,
3-10,341
l'\ymphenburg Palace 83
:\'yon Ji]
o
ook fumitllre 18, .J8, 51
Obcrkampf 202
Obrist, Ilermann 308, 308, 323, 326, 32j
Octo group 49J
Odeon cinemas 394
Odiot, lean Baptiste-Claude 192,193
Oeben, JeanFranc;ois Si, 130, 130, J32, 13;
Oeder, Georg Chrishan 170
Oertel,loh" & Co" ]42. 343
office fumiture .:60-1,-l7-f
Ogl'l' designs 39
Ohr, George E. 287
Ohrmark, Erie Jjl
oillamps JS;
O'Keeffe, Georgia--lOS
Olbrich, l\laria 282, 293, JOS, ]09, ]24,

Old Bleaeh Linen Ca" 3ij, .Jl--1
Old French St)'le no, 220-1
Old Hall Earthenware Co. 262
Oldenburg, Claes 463
OhC'tti 4-18, -175, -liS,.JSO
Omega "'orkshops 296, 333, 333, 336, 3]6,
3-10, J41, 3.J8, 349
One-Off Ud -!SS, .f88
O':'\eale, Jeffreyes Hammel lO.f, lOS
Oneida Communily 3i7
Op Art 4,2, .fj, ';7;-
opaline glass 182, 182, 2J6, 238, 2';0
Opificio delle Pietre Dure, Florence 1ol,-H
Oppenord, Gilles larie 50,
Oral-B 505
Organic design 390, .129, ol32, .f]2, 434
Organic Design in Home Fumishings, New
York ol28
Organic -l23, 435,
Orlans, duc d' SO, lH
Orloff, Prince 192
Orlo\', Count Grigory Gri\'ozo\'ich 170
ormolu 75, 11&-19, 136, 198, 198-9
Orrcfors 288, 366, J66, 36" -106, .f06, 438,

Ortmann, \Ialhias 91
Osbome House, Isle o \\'ight 2';1
Osbourne, Arthur 265
Osler, F. & C. m, 2j.1, 238
Oslo 301
Osterreichische Postsparkasse, Vienna 334
Olt & Brewer 233, 235, 26-1, 265
Ottoman texliles 38
Oud,J.j.P';J9
Oudry, jean-Baptistc 85
Richard 206,20,
O"id 20,20
O\\"ens Illinois Glass Co.
o\'ster "eneer 57
P
P&O 425
Pabst, Daniel 255, 260, 260, 261
Paimio Sanatorium, Finland 386
painted decoration, furniture -lB, 50, 50, 5"\,
57, HO, 140, 142, 158
paintings, still-life -I0,.f2
Paisle\' sha\\"ls 208
paktong 200, 200
Palagi, Pelagio 129, 151, 151
Palais Stoclet, Brussels 3]1, 332-3
I'alaao Brancone dell' Aguila, Rome]O
Palazzo Caprini, Rome 10
Palazzo Colonna, Rome.fJ
Palazzo Pitti, F10rcnce 72
Palano del Quirinale, Rome, 209
Palano \'ecchio, Florence 1-1
Bemard 2ol, 2.f, ""S, 230
Palladianism 83, 120, IJO, 138
Palmq\'ist, Swn 459
Pamphili family-l4
Pan 30]
Pankok, Bcrnhard 308,308
Panton, Verner .;]2, ';50, 459, -lSS,
,8,
Paolini, Cesare 45';, 458
Paolozzi, Eduardo -H-I, U5, 462
papelera (\\"riting cabinet) 16, li
paper furniture -t56-S, 456, 493
papier mach 213, 225, 226
Parian \\"are 22S, 229, 233, 2.3)
J'aris 33, SO, 136, 198,200,301,350
Paris Exhibition (1855) 222, 223
Paris Exhibition (1937) 569, 381
Paris Exhibition Cni'-ersclle (1900) 298, 301,
30';, 305, 350
Pars Exposition des Arls Ocoralifs et
Induslriels \locIemes (1925) 350, 551, 355,
357,358,383
Exposilion Cni\'erselle (]S7S) 258
Paris Jnternalional Exhibilion (1S67) 222, 222,
150
Paris 321, 322
Paris porcelain 161, 162, 162
Park, \laJcolm S. .;J;
Parker, Elizabeth 76
Parker, John 188
Parker, \\lliam 177
Parker-Knol1 -l2-l
Parod, Oomenjco -l4, 45
parquetr:' 52, 86, 131
Parzinger, Tommi 428
Pascal!, James 94
Passenger, Charles 286
Pastorini, B. 140
prite-de-verre 318, ]64, 365, j65, ,16"', 465
pMe-slIr-piite 228,229,230,231,262,263
Patcnt Office 253
Pater, lean Baptiste Joseph 101
pattern books lO, ]8, 83, 119-20, 154, 156, 196
Paul, Bruno 338, 338, 339, J45, 3-t6
Paulin, Ida 566
Peace Da\'id "1 ,
Peaeh, Harry 282
pearlware 166
Pearson, Joho 290, 290
Peche, Oagobert 330-2, 3';2, 345, 3-1-1, J.46, 346,
J47, :H8
Pecl. jonathan .205
Peel & Co. 203
PEL 358, 380, 395
Pelei, Jif -190, 491, 493
PellaU, Apsley 181, 183, 18], 2-t0
Pellegrino, Francesco 10
Pel1elier, Ren 49
Pelletier family
Pembroke, Earl of 48
Pcnguin Books 39';
Pennsvl\'ania 186
Pennsdvanian Dutch 175
Pepler, :\larion -t12, ';15
Perder, Charles 126, 128, 128, 129, 135-7, 136,
1-17,147,150,15],156, lS3, 192, 193
Permoser, Balthasar 6-l
Pernon, Camille 208
Perriand, Chariotle 383, 383
Perrin, Geddes 183, 183
Persian shawls 208
Pesec, Gaetano 455
Petersdorf 67
Petersen, S\'errc 406, 400
Pelit, Jacob 230, 231
Pelit, Philippe 33-1
Pelzold, Hans 35, 3i
Pe\sner, :'\ikolaus
37, 200, 2IJO, .201, 290, 324, 315, -1--11
Pl'zctta, Roberto 498, 502
Pfistcrer, Peter .P9
pharmaey jars 20, 24
Philadelphia 54, 55, 9S, 98, 15"', 156, 157, 194,
194, 195,20';,277
Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition (1876) 218,
233,233,238,250,260
Phiko .p6
Philip V, King of Spain 92
Philips 449, 480
PhiJipson 2';5
photography.;81
Phyfe, Duncan 13-1, 155, 157
pianos 218, 223, 2S1-2
Picasso, Pablo 352, 436, 437, -162
Piehler, Johann Adam SS
Pieolpasso, Ciprano 22, 2j
picturesque style 129
pier glasses 45
Picrcc, H.R .f03
pie/n. dure (hard slones) 1-1, .f4, ';5, Si, 57, 132,
151,226
Piffelti, Pietro 92, 93
pilgrim bottles 74
Pilkington's Royallaneastrian 287
PiI1emenl, jean-Baptiste 12], 12-t, 149
Pimm, John 55
Pinder Boume 161
Pincau, :'\icolas SO, 8-l
Pirali, Ezio 4';9
Piranesi, CiO\'anni Batlisla 126, 128, 150, 176,
177
Pirclli 431
Pirsson, James 223
Pitman. Bcnn 261
Pitmann, Agnes 26..,
Pitl:-;, Thomas 121
186, 187
Pitl"burgh PJatl' Glass Company 391
Piu:> IV, Pope 27
PlA:'\ Lid 39..,
pl.lnt stand... 33';
pla...tic... -t-l-S, ''-q
fa.,hloJ\ .f;'1
furnitun: .;::!b, -127-8, +16, .;.;;, 454-5, 461
indu... lri.ll dl..... 176, .f'4, -t76-80, .;,6
p/iqu,,-,-}t1Ilr en.lmd1ing 310, _120,322
PHI/Ol'r, r('rdlTland nm 52, :;1
Plum('J\t & St:lmer.. h...im JO;
Plumct, Charil'" :ro:;
Plycr.lfl ';26
Ph-moulh
plywood 11Irnllure 3...%, 1,s6, 392, 31)-t,
J9';-;, -12-1, .p., .;26, ..,110, -t:;-l, .;5.f
Poircl, l'.lll1 H;,17"'
Poirier 86, ,s7, 132
Poli, Fla\'io J67
Polidorn da c.H,1\'aggio 11
I'OI1i1illOlo, t\ntonin 30, 30, 33. 37
Pollock, \manda 470
Pollock, Jackson ';.p
Pollrano\' 490
polyurcl!lan..., -t78
Pommer.. fddell 53
Pompadour, de 102. 130, IJO
Pompcii 126, 129, l3S, 162, 162, 172
Pompci.ln !>tylc 136, 1:;2.230,251
Ponocn\', KrJ 141
- .
Ponti, Cio 362, 368, 5,1, -lIS, .; Iq, ';]0, 431, UO
Pontypool 200
Poole Poltcry 360, ,>00, '>Q6, 397, -t35
Pop An -132, 4;2, .f;;', 402, ';0J, .f;,
-t78,4SO,-IS3,-t92, -196
pop mllsic -152
poredain
.-\rt "oU\e.lU 114, 315
Baroqut.' 64, 6.;- ;
bluc;l1ldwhitc 22, 42, 42, 62, 61
Ear1y i\lodcrnism 3.; 1
historie rC\'i\'als 230, 230
NeoclassicisOl 160-72,160-73
Rococo 100-5,100--5
;;,',' a/.;p (eramies
l-l, 15
I'ort-grundt- I'orselaensfabrik 315, j99
Portoghcsi, POlolo -t98, ';99
porlrilil he.ld!>, in roundels 20
Porlugal
c....r.lmics 106
furniture 53, 53, 56, 92, H9, 149,491
poslers .;]2
Postmoclernism 381, -!S2-505
cer.lmies -I9..,, 494-5
furniture 486-92, 486-93
gJass .;8.;, -t%, 496-7
industrial design 502-5, 503---.,\
sil\'er and mctalwork 498-9
texliles 500, 500 1
Polsdam 67, 83, 88, HO, 129, 147
Polt, Carl 466
polter:'
Baroqlle 62-3, 62-5
536
E.uly :--'Iodernism 33.2
166-72, 166-/3
RcnaisS<lncc 2Q--l" 20-5
!ituda potlcry 287, 3-10, 362, 397, 39,. +35.
462
";"'1.' ceramics; glazes
POu\"at :230, 2]1
Powell. Alfred .286, 287
Powell. Arthur \Iarriott 401
Powell. &lrnilb\" .rol, 402
Powell, Harn' 288, lS9
PO\\'t'II, ]am<.'S & Sons 288, 28S, 289.-102
Po\\dl, Louisc 1;9. 286, 287, 194
332, ,3.l0, ;40, 3-11, 3-12
1'02zi, Ambrogio 'l"Ij
P.P. 493
Prague 67, 70
Prairie School 28-1
Prei..sler. IgO.17 70S
preso;ed 186, 23-l, 255.137, 238, :.ql
Pr\"<hl, Pil'rrc 71
Priec, :\braham ;6
Pricc, \\"illi"m 28-!
I'ri...di,lI 215
Primaliccio, Francesco 13. 13.)j. 3-1, 36
printing. textiles :q
prints 36-7, D, 51'1, 300, 301
Pritchard, jaek 39.;-
Prohibition -lOS
Prom"c, Victor 302
Pwn.'ncc. comtcssc de 131
Prllssiil 83, 129
Prutschcr, 0110 183, 189, 320, 310, 33-!, 3-12
Prylz, Thorolf 320, 310
psychcdeliil '+j]
Pllchweiser, Johann 88
Pllgin, A.\V,N. 210, 111, 214, lq, 11j, llj,
228, llS, 24:2, lp, 2'/j, 2-16, :Q7, 2-18, 2.J8,
- -, 7'
_:J_,_:J",_ ..
Puiforcat, Jean 368, ]7, .JI7
Pllig, Alejo ClilpC'S 311
Pulpilcl, \Iilos .J.;.o
I'unk
Puritalls 5-l
Purkersdorf 5.,n,ltorium 33-l, 33j
PVC -173, -l7S
Pn" "9
. n
Pyne, Benjamin ,1
Pnc" -102
Q
QUilnt, \Ian' . .;.6$, -170. -173
QUilr!i, Eugenio 311
QmYI1 -173
Queen Annl' style 5-1,112,252-3,258,260
Queen's House, Greenwich ';'1
Quennell, CS.H. lSJ
Quen'ellc, Anlhony 15,
A. 12]
R
Habanne, Paco ';"J
Rabel, O.lniel ,o
Race, Emest -12-1, ';'2';', ';'2j, -l5,
Radice, B.lrbara ;:;00
Radio Cily \Iusic Hall, Xew York 373
radios 376, 3;" -116, ..p6, +lS, ..5, -I76,..J80,
.J-80, jOl, 503
Ral'rcn 2j
Raimondi, \Iarcantonio 20, 11
l<ambouillet. \Iadame de 61
Rams, Dieter .J-48, -175
Ramsden, Omar 289
Rand, Paul -185
Rilndolph, Benjamin 98, 95, 99
Ranson,Paul]16
Raphael 10, 12, 20, 11, 22, 128, 129, ljO, 215
Rapin, Henri ;6;
Rapson, Ralph .p6
Raslrelli, Sartolomeo 9J
Ral fr Formgebung -185
Rateau, Armand Aloc'rt 353, 356, 35,
r.lllan fumilure 253
Ra\enhl'ad Glass -102, -+03
Ran.'Oscroft, Ceorge 6S. 69. 177
Ra\'ilious, Eric ..W2
RCA .J-16
realism, te"tile designs 20S
Rebel MI Centre 333
Rc"mier. \1.ldame 1;';'
Redgra\e, Rich,ud 249
Redoulc, PierreJoscph 208
_...l"" ,., ,._
..-u ,." ,:1
RCCH'S, Huth 373, ;,3, 37,!, -11-1, 415
Rdorml'd Gothic stvle 25..1. 2,..;
- -
rdrigerators -I9S. jOl
Rgence slyle 11-1, lI,
Regency style 129. 1-1S, 177. 191
Rehn, Je.ln Eric 153
Reiber. Fmile ::69
Reino\\-, Chrbli.ln 89
Reiss, Winold 331, 333, 337
R':mond. Picrrc 132. 13i, 1-1i
Rcnaissancl' 10-39
furnilllre 1-1-18, J..-19
glass 26-9, 26-9
potlcry 21)....1, 20-5
sih'er <lnd rnelalwork .10-7, 3(1-7
texliles 38-9, 39
Renaiss.11lCe re\"i\'all12
ceramic::. 228, 219, 2]2, 233
fllrnittlfe 218, 218-19
metalwork 2-l2, 1..;3
[{cnd.ll, Goodhart 218
retict'//(I glass 66
Re\ere. PalllI9-l, 194
red\'al st\'les 211)....19
Rc"ile 504
Reynolds, James 98
Rhe<1d, FrL>dcrick H. -100. 400
Rho1fs, Chilrles 3/1, 313
Ricci. :\in.l .J-.6S
Rice, Bcm.1rd & Sons ';10
Rice, LOlllS \\'.
Richard-Ginori 362
Richardson, George 139
Richardson, Joseph 19-4
Richardson, Joseph Jr 19-1, 19.J-
Richardson's of Stourbridge 13.1
Rickman. Thom.1S 210
ru=i()Jll' -120
Ridoout, john Gordon 3i6, Ji,
Ridgway .J-.2j, 4H
Rie, Lude 4;5, H6 .J-.62
Riedel, Frilnz Anlon IS.J-.
Riegel, Ernst 323. j2.J-.
Riemerschmid. Richard 282, lS;, 288, 288, 308,
38,31-1.316,326, 32" 338, 338. 3-18, 3':-9
Riesenburgh, Bcmard \an I -+,
Ril"scnburgh. Bcrnard \'an 11 (B\'RB) 86. S,
Ricscner.Jl'anHenri 129,130, 131.132, 133, 1.52
Richcld. Gerrit 3S-!. ;S.J-, -118, 415
Riss. Egon 39-1, 39.;
RiUer. Chrisloph 35
Robert, Hubert 13-+
Roberls, TImmas 49
Robil,eau. Adelaidl' 287, 315, 3J,
Robinct. bmai'1182
Robinson, Gcrrard 21-1
RobsjohnGibbings, T-H. 359. 359
rock crystal31, 3-1, 36, 3" ;8.1;;
rock-erystal glass 23-1, 2;5, 238, 239, 2-10
Rockefeller Cenler. New York 353
Rockingham 22S, 228
Rococo -13, 70, 80-125. 300
and Art :\oU\'eau 305
ceramics 100-5, 100-,
fumiture 8-I-9S. 84-99. 220
glass 10&-13. 108-13
sih'er 112, 11-1-20, n";-lI
textile-; 9-1-6, ]i")-4, J 22-5
wal1paper 122, 12-1. 11-+-.:;
Rococo re\i\'.ll
cl'ramics 228, 128,230.1;2,233
fumihlrc ")")6
melal,,"ork 2-12. 24;
textiles 2+1, 2";'+. 246
wallpapers 2-18
Rodm.ulon \Ianor, Gloucester::.hirc 2,6
rOCII/t'r5 (drinking gla:>:>cs):!9. 29
Roentgen. Abraham SS, 90, 1..;6
Roentgen, Da\-id q6. 1-17. 152
Roettil"r::.. 192. 192
Rogers. \\'.H. 218, 219, 21-1
Rohdc, Gilbert353, 359. 3SS. ]88. 359, 41,
Rohde, Johan 292. -110
Rolling Slones -152
Roman C'lhoIic Church -10
Roman Empire 33
architecture 30
MI 128, 132, 136
.1lld :-\rt 352, 356
and i\coclassicism 177, lSS, 191
Romilno, Giulio 12, ;2, 36,151
Romantic i\IO\ement 206, 20S
I{ombic, Ruba .+00
Rome
anliquities 126, 129
archilecture 10-12
Baroque -10, -I-l, 45
furnitllre 61, 91, 151, 151
mL"ti1lwork 72
piefrt' dure 57,151
Ronai, Joszcf Rippl 32$
Ronson ";14, 477
Rookwood Pottery 2EH, 315
Roose\elt, F.D, -100
Rrstrand 170,31')'31j
Rose, Hajo 41 j
Rose, \Iartin ;68
Rosc lron \\'orks 368, 371
Rosenborg Casile, Copl'nhagcn 66
RoscnthaI43';',43,.-I62,495
Rosc\'ille POllery 360, ;61
Rsseger, \\'. 410
Rosselli, Alberto -161
Rosselti, O.mll' Gabriel .27-1, liS
Rossi. Cario 153
RSsler. Karl ;6;
rosso antico 166. 16,
Rossu Fiorcntino 13, 13, 33. 3-1, 36
Roth, Enun\' ..; 11
Rolterdam 69
Roubo, AndrJ<1cob $,
Rouen 102
Rousseau, Clmenl350. 355. 356
Rousseall. Jean Jacques 126
Rousseau de la Roulii!re J19
Roussel S,
Roux, Alc"andcr 11,. 118
Ro\\"diffe, \V. 358
Ro\\"l.md. Da\'id .;.60
Royal College of Arl, London -1-12,-168
Royal Copenhagen 315
Royal Wilton Carpet Faclor}' 3i4, -112, .;. 11, .J-.I j
RO\'al \\'orcester Porcelain CO, 161
Roycroft Community 28-1, 284. 15j, 286
Rozenburg 3J..1, ;16
rubber furniture -12-1
Rubens. Pelcr Paul 50,60, ,0, 72, 2]1
Rckert, i\lilrtin Joscf 345

Rckl (A.) GI.w,worl.....<; ''O'

Rudolf 11. Empcror 70, jO
Rudolph. Chrbti.111 FriL"l,.lrio.:h llS
rug:; ,:...' e.lrpcb,
Ruhlm.lllll, 350, 35-1. 55-l, 361.
373.37"\
Rundell 191
Rundel!, Bridgl' & Rundell 18&-91,191
Rupcrl of the Rhine. Prince 6]
Ruskin, John 2:H. 27"\, 276. 288. 300, 378
Ruskm PoUcry 2S7, 28;-
Gordon 281, ,2S9. 29T, 192, 392,
NJ.-I-
l
-'
Ru.. 'CIl. R.O. (Oick) 392, 595
352
,\rb Olnd Crafts 282
\Iodcmism ]95
'coclac;c;ieism
fumiture 152, J5J
mctalwork 200. ::01
porccl.1in 170-2, lj1
ql
S
Saarinen, EeTO 390. 591. "\13, .p6, "\17 .,\18,
"\5"\, .;6J
S.1arincn. E1ieI313. 31], 359, ]59
S.1aril)c!n. Loja ]59, 373
S,lbattini. Lino ''''J
Saddinglon, Tom -1-99
Saint-Aubnn 125
S<lint-Cloud 102, 182, ::08
SI LOllis 182, 237
SI \\Iorld Filir (1904) 301
St \larlin's Lilnc Acadenw 119
St l'ctcrsburg 152, 170. 170
Sainl Porchilire 24, 25, 219
S.1kicr, George -lOS
SalcL Gabricle 66
Salcm, (>, lassachusells 156, 156
5.111aio, J.1COpO del 1;
5.110, I-.larkku Oha..g;
salt-gla/c<l 2"\, 15, 61, 63. 107
5.1Itcr, Tom ''5J
5.1h-i.lti, ,\ntonio 237
5.1h-iati. rranccsco 10. 51, 36
5.1hin, Anthony 110
5.1mbin, Hugues J6
5.1mbonct Robert ';''5
Samian ware 166. 16
5.1ndoz. \Iareel 362.363
S<lng. Andrea.. 171
5<lng. Jacob 110. JIl
5.1ng. Slmon 110
5.1n5 Sollci. Potsd.1m 83, SS
$.lnta \Iaria \Iaggiore. Rome T!.
5.mt.1 \laria Xuo\a, F10rcncc 10
Sapper. Richard ..8, ..So .;51. -198
Sare. loel and John 19'
Sarpane\a. Timo H8--40, nS. -1M,
5.1rton. Eleanor \labeI333
5<ls<;()()n, \dal .;6S
Saundcrs .U9
5.1undcrs, Paul 95
5.1\onncric 373
5.l:\onv 162
Sbarri, Bastiano 10
xllglioln 57-8, 5;
Seandllla\ia
Arl Deco 371. 373
Art '\oll\eau
hlrnitun.' 5I1-J5, 313
Icxtik-s 328, 318
Contemporary sty1c .,\23
ecramics 436
glass -I38--lO. 438-.P
metal\\'ork +12, U3
.,\.,\.,\
\loclembm 420. .,\::3
cl'ramies 398, 39"
fumiturc 386. JSu-;-. 390. "\1:!, -IJ1-_;
gl.1SS "\06 ..oo
Postmooemism 491. -196
Spaee Age
eer.1mics -162
furniture .,\'l.,\-6. -I5S-q
gla..s .,\M
.;,'.' n/:'4,l Denmark; Finland; '\on\.lY;
Swcclcn
Searpa. AIf.1 461
Searpa. Tobia ..J9. -161
scenic designs, textiles and wallpapcr 202, 203
seent bottles ]P-, 56.;, 365, 565, "\96. ''9j
Scheibe. Karl J5J
Sehellenbhel, Gertraud \'On 323.31.,%
Scherf. \\"alter & Co. 325
Scherrebcck 328
Sehmkd. KMI rricclrieh 129. 1-17. 14
Sc.hlcmmcr. Oskar 379
Sehloss Brhl 83
Sehloss Chi'lrlottenburg. Berlin 83
Schloss Pomersfelden p-
Sc.hloss Wilhclmslahl 83
Sc.hloss \\'orlit7 1-17
Schlumbohm. Peh.'r 4''1
Sehnell, \Iartin 89
Schofield, Jeiln ';57
Sch6nbnllln 83
5chonhcit. Johilnn (ar! 16]
Sehor, Joh<lnn [Jaul 4-1,''"
Schott & Genossen ''O-l
SChOllm<ln, Aerl 69, 69
5c1rtlJlk (cllpboard) 17. 18
Schreckengost. Pillll 400
Schreekengost. Viktllr 360. J61
Schroeder HOllSI'. Utrccht 418
Schultl, Richard 460
SchuL,: Cade\ 64
Schum<lchcr, F. 374
Schum<lcher, \1i1Ttin SS
Schwanhardt. Georg 67
SC/l'Ilr::io! glass 108, 5''3
Sehwerdfeger, Jean Ferdin.lnd J 51
Schwinger. Hermann o
Scol<lri, Cario ..j... 458
Seolari. Gaet.1no ....9
:>canelOS j. 569
scootcrs -/.11
ScOpp.l, Or.12io ;-1
Scotland
Art Deco 366
Art '\ou\eau 330
fumiture 309
sih-er and metalwork 325. 315
textiles 328. 519
'\eoclassicism 100
Scolt, Digby lSS, J91
Scott, 1s..1ae Elwood 26.J.
Scolt, Sir \\"alter 216. 2-15. 145
Scott Brown, Oenise-182
screens
Aesthelie \IO\ement 256. 1]j
Art Deco ]5). 359, ]68. J69
Art Xouwau J03, 39,)1;
Arts and Crafts 295
Contemporary stylc ';19
[ar!" \Iodcmism 336. 336
Historie Re\'i\'als 145
\Iodemism J85, 386
scrollwork 21
sculpture
Arl NOll\eall 322, 311
Baroql,le 4-1.';5
ceramic .;63
COlltemporary style 423
.;1"...... .,\ 64. .. 65
SI...'..... l ..n 1:>ullding. Vicnn.1 330
'X'o.:lIlld \\'urld \\..lT 392. -100. -120, ,130 .w2,

.. ,.=tll'''
\rt lU1UH.'.lU ,1"
'''-'I>o.;I,..,..o.:.1111.I. / ,. 14';. q'. q6, q5,
I'i ,. I ';t,
S:-" '1-
Juhn 27;
SL'l:ldun, Juhn ]'"IIM.! :!;:!. :!;I,
Sccm-. [nid 4:';
D,mid t<:;
Seguso, Arch1l1wd.. :ll:"
Seifert, K.\l. ,..'
::;();
1':='1, n2, 1, j, / ;.
Sequeir.1. Domingo.. r\nlnniu d\.' /.);
Sernlricr Bo\'y. Gust,wc _,0o, 3U;, T'.'l, N
settees 60, &1. Ijo, 2;8. 35;
Setti. Simone 5j
settle 281
SeYen )ars' \\'M (1756-63) 162. 192
5e\res 102, t03. 132, F,S. 160-2. lb,'. lU/.
182, "8,119-31, 230,31"\,314, 350, 3b2
Sc\-mour. J.1ne 51. 3-1
5cymour. Jol-m 15-1. 150
Se:('ssi{IIlMil 298. 330
sgnbdlo chairs 48, ..S
shi1Tkskin 35"\, 555. 356
Sharp. Robert 188, 188
Sh"rpe, Eric 278
Sha\\', Henry 216
Sh,,\\,. Richard i'\:orman 252. 25"\, 154
shawls 208
Shl.'ffidd 191
Sheffidd pI<lte 196, 196- 7. 24-2
Shcnango [Jottcry 401
Sheraton, Thomas 1-12, I'']. .;j, 14-7, 154
Sheraton stde 213
Shirayamadani. Kataro 315, 51;
Shire. Peler 495
Freclerick S. 267
shops 301
Shre\ e & Co. 190
Shrimpton. Jean 41
Shnldcr,J.1fllCS 119. 111
Sicih- 56
sideboards J55. 2J;. uS, 127. 259, 2;8. 301. JI3
Siebel. Franz ,-\nton lS.;
Siegel. Gust<l\ 3:H, 33';
Siemelb -1-1;
Siena 11
Sika, Jutta J.W. ;4J,}H
Sill"Sia 67. 67, lOS, loS. 110, no. 111
silk-scrccn printing -11-1
silk textiles 35-9. ;;-9, 112-'', 20';, 10;. 109.
1'',3''S
sil/n de fraile (ehair) 16. 1;, 61
siher
Aesthelie \IO\ement 168
Art Deco 368
Arts <lnd Crafb 290-2. 190-5
Baroqlle .jo, 42. ''4, 0-5. 72
Contcmpor.uy stylc +l2, 441-3
[arly .\Iodcmism ).1.4, 344. :H6, ].j6-;
furnituTC 56, j8
historie red\als 2"\2, 2''1-3
\Iodemism 410. ''lo-Il
l'eoclassieism 18&-94, lS8-95
RellaiS'XInee 30, Jo-," 36-
Rococo 112, 11-1-20, n''-21
Space Age "\66 .;66-;
Siher. Arthur 296
Sih'l'r Studio 197. 328
Simmcn, Henri 362
537

538
Simmonds, R.l. 4J1
Simonson, Lee 380
Simpson, ),1.8. & Sons 272
Singer, Susi 3m, 340
Spek, Borek -!86, .87. 490, 491, 4%, -1-96
Sissons, W. :q.j
Les Six 305
skyscraper style, fumiture 359, 388, 389
slate 226
slipware 6]
Sloane, Sir Hans 105
Sloane, 'N & J. 373, 374, 415
Slodtz, Antoine-Sbasticn 8+
Smith, Benjamn 188, 191
Smith, Daniel 188, lSS
Smilh, Gabriel .2oJ
Smith. Gcorge 141, 142
Smrcko\", lud\'jka 404, '+05
snakeskin 33-1, 35';
snuffboxes 74
Socchi, Gim"anni 151, IjI
Socieh- of Blue and Whitc :'\ccdlework 294
Society of epholstcrers 94
Sodoma q.
sofas
Ar! Dcco 357
Art :\"ou'-eau JJJ
Contemporary slyle .P7
\llodemism 385
Neoclassicism 1]8, 1.p, 146, 149, 156
Neo-Rocaeo slvle 111
Postmodernism 484. 490
Renaissance re\'i\-aI218, 219
Space Age 460
Solis, Virgll ]6. 37
Solon, Lon Viclor :ql
Solon, 228, 229
Sony 481, 503
Sorensen, Oskar 369, 371
Sorgenthal, Konrad Sorgel \'on 1M
Sollsass, Ellore 463, 4i8, 480, .;84, -185, -186,
486,-19-1,-1-95,-196
South :\frica 56
South Amcrica 53, 158
Southwark 18, 19
So\ict Lnion 381. -11-1, 414
Sl'f' ti/so Russia
Sowden, George .;82, 504
Space Age -130-81
ceramies -162, 463
fashion and textiles -168-73, 468-13
furnilure 45-1-61. 45.;-61
glass -lM, 464-5
industri.ll design -174-80, 474-81
ighting 479
melah\ork 466, 466-7
Spain
Art NOll\"eaU 311, 31'1
l3aroque 53, 61. 77
Neoclassicism
fumiture 1-19, 149
glass 184
porcdain 173
Postmodcrnism -185, -190
Renaissance
furniture 16, 17
glass 28
potlery 21, 2-1
silyer ,-
" textiles ]8
Rococo 91, 92,124
Sparton Corpor.ltion ]77, -1]6, 416
Specialied School of Glassmaking,
Stcinschonau ]67
The SpccltltOT -15-1
Spence,6asil424
Spencer, Edward 292
Spicdolato. Ernesto 505
Spiller, Goufried 67
Spindler, Heinrich Wilhelm SS, 88, 146
Spindler, ]ohann Friedrich SS, 88
Spitalfields 79, 246, 247
Spode 168, 168
Spooncr, Charles 281
Spooncr, William & Co. 197
sprig motifs, textiles and wallpaper 20-l, :!Oj,
20S
Sprimont, Nicholas 104, 105, 119, 120
Squires, Eddie 472
Sri lanka 53
Staatliche 1\lajolika-M<lnufaktur, Karlsruhe
3
6
]
Stabler, Harold 397,41I
Stafford, John 1j9
Staffordshire 107, la,. 113, Il], 166. 168, 169,
'87
- ' .. J ..
Stagi, Franca ';55, -161
stained glass 267, 267, 288, 320
stainless steel 4-42, 4-43, -166, 466-7
Staite \ ,"illiam 397,397
Stalker and Parker 58
Standard \lObel]82
Starck, Philippc -190, 490, -19-1, -196. -198, 498,
503,50J
Statc Porcelain Factory, Berlin 399
steel
damascened steel 37
furniture 152,382,383,392,39-1,428
Neoclassicism 200, .201
stainless steel -l-n, 442, 443, -166, ..;66-7
sel' n/so Tu/ti
Steckasc 391
Stcincr, F. & Ca- 328, 32"9
Stcltman Galleries -196
Sten, Henrik 170
Stern, Robert 500
Steuben Glass Works 320, J21, 366, ]66, ]67,
408
Steubendlle Pottery -100, 401
Ste\-ens, Alfred n8, 229
Ste\"ens & \\llliams 235, 2]9, -102, 40]
Stickle\", GUStil\- 28-1, 284, 2<14,
Sti/e F/oun/e 298
Sli/( Lib..rty 198
stilllife paintings -lO, 42
Stilno\-o 4-49
Stockholm 57
Stoclel, Adolphe 332
Stoer, lorenz lB
Stolzl, Gunta -112, .P3
Stone, Ed\\'ard Durrcl! 426
stoncwarc
:\rt NOll\'cau 31-1, 314
Arts and Crafts 287
Baroque 62, 6J, 64
Contemporary style 4J7
historie rcyi\-als 228, 228
Neoclassicism 166, 174
Renaissance 2-1, 25
Rococo 107, 107
sludio poltcry 397, 4]5, 462
stools 18, 47, 1;':', lJ9, JJ4, ]57, 426, 428, 4]1,

4J3, -1-1}O, 49
1
storagc units 39-1
Stourbridge 2J4, 2-10, -102
strap\,'ork 13, 1J. 17,18,2-1,]],36, ]6, ]i, J9,
42, -16, -18, 2-lS, 249
Strasbourg 106
Stratlon 376
straw marquetn-
J)/
Strawbern Hill, \liddlcscx 9-1, 21-1, 214
streamlining 390, 390--1, -130
Strcct, George Edmund 252, 25-1
StrengelJ, 1\larianne 445
slriped pattems, textiles and wallpaper 20-1-6,
206
Stmad, Oskar ]43
Stuart,]ames "Athenian" 126, 128, 138, lJ8,
139,198,198
Stuart, Robert -102
Stuart Crystal-l02, 40J
T/lt! Stl/dio 28-1, 301
Studio Alchymia 483, -186, 50-l
Sh.ldio l'clci 493
studio pottery 287, 3-10, 362, 397, J97, 435, -l36,
437, -162, 462
Stupinighi, Turin 82-3
Le Sty/l' GlIilllllrd 298
Le Sly/e \ ft'frn 298
Stde ]900 298
Subes, Raymond 368, 369
Se, louis 350, 35-1
Se ct \Iare 350, 35-1, 35-;
Suetin, :\icolei 398
Sugawara ]55, 356
Sul1i\-an, Louis 325
sulphides, glass 182, 183
Summers, Gerald 392, J9J
Sumner, G. Hevwood 2;9
sunburst molifs 352, 355
SI/I/dny ..kgmpll -156
S/llldtly Times -153
Suprcm<1tism 398
Surrealism 394, -130
SuS5' Freres 269
Sssmanhand, Richard 366
Sutherland, Graham -W2,.J..W
Sutnar, Ladisll\' -l0-l, 405
swags, textiles and wallpaper 20-1, 204-5
Swatch \\'atchcs 50-l, 50'
S\\'cdcn
Art Dcco
ccramics 362, 362
glass 366, ]66, J67
Arl :\ou\'eau 315, Jlj
Conlemporary style-l20
ceramic.<; -136, 4]6, 437
furniture -132
gla..s 439
metal\\'ork
textiles 444
Gusta\'ian st\'le 152
\Iodemism 380
cer,lmics 398, ]99
fumiture 386
glass -106, 406
industrial design -l16
sih'er -110, 411
Neoclassicism 170, 170
Postmodt'rnism
hlrniture -192, ';'92
glass -196
Rococo 91
Space Age -1&1
Swid PowellUd -l9-l, 494
Switzerland 29
S\I\'ius, Balthasar 25
Symbolism 277, 198, 300, 305, 313. 318, 322,
323,325,J35
Sympson, Joscph 120
T
tables
Aesthetic 256-8, 261
Art Deco 35-1, 355
Art :\ou\'eau 303-4, 306, 312, 313
Arts and Crafts 278. 279, 280, 281, 28., 285
Baroque 4-1, ..;, 45, -16, 47, ';9, 50, 51-], 56,
5
8
,59
C<1rd 99, 280
china 99
cansole 85. SS, 91, 92. ljO. 1]6. 149
Early ni. 338, 339
exhibition furniture 223
gale-leg
Golhic re\jyal.HS
:\Iodemism 358, 359. 382, 38.;-;. 392-5
i'\'eociassicism 130, 131, 13-4, 136,
140,142, 1.J..l, 148-31, 151, 153. 15-+. lj
pcmbroke 97. I.j.1, 159
pier -l7. 9-1-. 136. 1]8. 139. J.to
Postmodemism 486-9 ..IB8, .J91, 493
Renaissance 1-4, lj. 16, 18, 19
Rococo 8-1. 85-6. 88, 90-.2, % 96, 97. 99
sofil. l.fl, 1-44
Space Age -i59
lea 99
\\"ork S
\\Titing 86, Si. 131, ql. j5.;:
lablcwi'lrC'. plastics +16
Taglione, Filippo In
Tni/or aJld el/lf!!r 4iO
Tail, Jessie .{joto 435
Takasuno, .. hto j03
Talberl. Bruce James ).15. 252, ::'5.2, 1;3,15-1,
160 '60 'lO '-0 ,-,
_) ... ,_ ._ ._, --'-'-I.J
T.1IOOI, Suzannc 35,
lapeslTy .p, 328, p.S
T<1pio\aar.l, IImari ..jj. -+59
T.lsscl House, Brussels 298, 299
T.lssie 191
Tale, jessie 463
Tatham, Charles Heathcote 139, 1-12, 191, 191
Talton Park, 220
Ta,-eira, Tomas 491
Tadar & Sons 223
tea eaddies 145, 190
tea serces 31.1-, 346, 3;0, 410, 4Il, 494, -l98,
499
Teaglle, \\'alter Dorwin 359, 376, ;//' 390, -l08,
409, -l16, 416
Teco 315, 31/
telephones .p;, 4;8, :;0-1
telesion 41;, -l-l8, +lS, 449, 480-1, 503, 505
tl'lIIl1lokll 28;
Templelon, j" & j.5" & Co" 270
Teniers, Da,-id 100.101
Teodoro, Franeo 454, -158
Td.ud Frcres 410
te,tiJes
Aesthetic \Io\"ement 270, 2;(l--J
Art Deco 372---1, ;;2-5
Art :-':ollH'all 326--S, )-2b--q
Arts and Cr.lfts 29-1-6, 294-6
Baroque 50, 76-8, ,6 S
CantemporilTY stylc W, 444-5
Early \Iodcrnism 332, 348, 348-e;
historie red'als 2+1-6, 244-7
i\[odernism 412-14, 412-15
, 1 "" '0'-8 "eoc i1SSlCISm _ _ ,202-(}
Postmodernism 500, 500-1
Renaissance 38-(}, 39
Romeo 9-l-6, 122---1, 122-j
Space .-\ge -168-73, 468 .7]
TIlalcher, SUl' 4/2
Theselius, \ lats -192, 491
Thieme hOllse, \llInich J.l8, 349
Thirty Years \V.u (1618-18) 53
Thiry, Lonard 33
Thomae, Denjamin 6-1
Thomire, Pierre--Philippe 136, 13,,198
Thonel, Gebrder 334, 382
Thonet, \Iichael 213, 215, 776, 383
Thorman, Caroline 48S
Thom Prikker, johan 307
Thun, \l;lUCO 495, 498, 499, 504
Thuringia 108, 111, q6
Tidcw.lter, Virginia 55
Tiepolo, Giambatlista 83
Tiepolo, Giandomenico fU
Louis Comfort 260, 267, 301, 320, 321,
,..
Tiffany & Co" 252, 260, 268, 26q, 325
Tiffanv st\-le 298
Tigerman --l98
Tijou, Jean 75
tiles 106, 228, 228, 163, 26-1, 265
Tilli<lrd, Jaeques jean Baptisle 1.'13
{/I' Time;; 381
Timney & Fowler )01
tin-glazed poltery 20-2, 10-1, 2--l, 1.J, 62, 62
Titian 16
Toft, Thomas 63
Toikka, Oi\"a 46), 49,
toiit' dI! jOIlY 203
Tok\"O 360
tle \\"<ue- 200
Toledo of Art--l64
Tooth, Henry 262
loothbrushes 503
lorcheres ,1
Torelli 232, 233
tortoiseshell -16, 56, 56
Toshiba 503, 505
Toso Vetri d'Arte--l%
Tostrup, jacob 320, 369, 371
IOYs 502
tr"de cards ,6
tnmsfer prinling, ceramies 105
transport .J')
lrellis patlerns, textile::. and \\'allpaper 204, 10)
trl!lI1ido eaning 53
Trianon de Porcclain 61, 61
tralllllt' l'u['iI78, 100, 202, 205
Trondhcim 301
Troubadour style 212, 216
Troy Sunshade Companr 389
rschimhaus, Ehrenfried \\',111er mil (H
Tllcker, \\lli.lm ElIis 233, 133
Tueker and Hemphilll/._
Tuffin, Sally --l6S
Tula 152, 200, 201
-13, 62, 63" 1;5
Tunbridge ware 22--l.
Tuppcr, Earl-l-46-S, +l6
Turin 92, 129, 151, 192
TlIrin \\'orld Faie (1902) 301
Turku n' 505
TlIseany, Gr.lnd Duke of 71
TlISqllCIS B1anc<l, Osear -l98, .J99
Tut.lnkhamun, Pharaoh 351, 364
Typl'lllJ/iibt'1338
typcI\fitl'rs .JiS, --lSO
Tyssen, Kcith -+66
U
Ungaro, Emma.nue1.J'l
Union Porcelain \\'orks 233, 133, 26-1
LJniled Slates of America
Aeslhetic \IO\ement
cera.mic::> 2M, 5
fu
"tu r7 7'" 1 760 6 rm re _:J_, _ ,2 0-1
glass 267
sih-cr and melal,,"ork 268
\\"allpaper 272,1;-2
, "'-7
.... rt ,-",,--o J:>_
ceramics 360, 361
furniture 359, 359
glass 366, 366, 36,
mas::>-prodllced wares 376, _.,0-;
and melalwork 368, 368-,0, 371
\e,lilc;; 3,2-3, 373--1
Art ;\Oll\"eall
ceramics 315, 31,
fllrniture 311. 313
glass 320, 321
sih'er and metal\\"ork 31..;, 325
..... r1s and Crafts 277
ceramics 186, 287
furniture 281, 28.-)
(c,till'::> 296
BaroquL' furniture 5--l, 54-)
COn!L'mpor<uy strle --l20, --l22
eL'r.lmics .f3.J
fUl'Iliturc --l26-8, .J26-e;
!c'lik:-. .J.J.J
F,lrh \[ocicrni.;m 333, 337, 337
rL'li\',l!s 253
cL'r,llllic:-. 233. 23]
furniture 2[-l, 216, 218, !l8, 220
137
inh.rnatlon,ll e,hibitions 213
mL'!.II\\".1rL' 1-11, 1.;3
\ IOlil'rni.. rn ;8(l, .181
'ramic,. -lOO, .JOD-l
furniturL' ,I\S---ql
-ln...., 4"S-Q
indu.. tri,ll --1 16. lb
41<1
.. ih l'r ,md ml'l,ll\\"ork.J J(l
il',tik.. -11--1, .JI
'L'(lCl.l..
ccr.lrnic.. 17"t I'.J-;;
furniltITl' I;"-fl. 1-'.J .;-
gl".... IR6, IS6-,
!'oih'L'r ami nwt;I\\"ork I'JI, I'J./-;, 11.1"
2"4
1I'.,llp;pl'r 10), 20j, 107
PO:-'!llllltil'rni"1l1 4H2, --IH'i, -IS6
-19-1
...'J7
gr;phic 'lOO
furnilur,-' 9:;, 'JS-9
Spael' .-\gl' 4<)-1
ccr.11l1ic.. 462
Slil.... -164
Cnilro for Art in Handicraft 308
uphol .. tlry 00-1,61,136, I.J;, 1-1-1, 158, 1.,41,
210, 246,
"'-',"al"" It',llll...
L"prcr f\<'hl,h'rl'
L"rbiln, JO>,l.ph :-:n, :U,
Lrbino 11, 22, 1., 14
Llilih furnituTC' 392
LlfL>cht .Jo, ;-.J
L/annl'. Oet.l\L' 300
V
\"CUlllll dl'''lll'r.. -l16, .Jl', j02, 50-1
V.lg,l, PL'rino dell1, 1-1
\,,,1 SI [,llnbl2rl G1,ls::'!lollse 182,318
V"Ibr,-',;, Vitlorio 311
Val.ldil2r, Giu..eppl.' 129, 151,191,19;
V.lld!,l
V.ll1icn, 13crlil 4M
\'IJin, [ugl:'ne 302, 303
\-,111 Bnggll2, Artu::' 315, 31;
\.ln dl'r Cm:;.l.' (Lacroh), Roger 130, 132
\.m DllrL'n, H.uold 376, 3,;
\'n Hllffl.'1. ..\Ibert 373, 3,5
\'.10 \Vi ..:;.clingh & Co. 307
V.lntine 3;6
V.lm"itelli, Llligl 83
\'ardy, \\'illiam 121
V.unish, E" & Ca" NO
,lrSllt'll(l 16
Va"'1TeI\', \'jctor 462
\'as.Mi, Giorgio 12, 1)
\'aseg.l.1Td, Gerlrud 436
\".,::>os, john .J16
\'.lszar\', Janos 328, 318
Vatiean 12 539
540
Vaticall Logge. Rome 22
Vechte, Antaine 2.I2, 2';;
Vclde, Henry \"<ln de 27+, 182, !oS], 293, 29-!-6,
, 6 '0- 31' 377
JO ,J 1, -t, __,J_ .]27,JJ'),.).) ,339
Velden 332
wket ]8---9, 39, 60, 76, 78, lB, 79, 2'f
\'eneers 36, 56, 57, 224, 225
n/50 marquelry 158, 1_,8
Ven ice 20
ar'lbcsque deCoTiltions 1-l
Baroque furniture -l-l
brass 3-1
glilss 26-8, 26-7, 66, 69, 109, 2]6, 2-l0, 188
morcsquc motifs 10
Rococo furniture 92, 92
textiles 78
Venice & !'.lurano Glass 237
Venice Biennale -l06
Venini -lOb, -t07
\'enini, I'aolo 366, .J-39, -1-10
Venturi, Robert -lS2----l, -lBS, -/87, --l9-l, .f9-f, 503
Vcnturini, Guido j05
Vcnuti, Domcnico 171
('<'1"11;5 lI/arfi 131
I/er Sl1rrum 301, 330
Verbiest, 1'vlicheJ 51
Vereinigte \VerkstiiUen fr Kunsl im
Handwcrk 282, 30S, 333, 338, 338, 339
Verheul, Jan 323, 323
Vernon Kilns 360, 360
pare eglol!li;; 57. 137
Verreries Pochl't Du COlln',ll ,/97
Verrocchio, Andrea del 30
Versailles 50, 56, 61, 80, 8.J, 209
Versen, Kurt .J19
Verzelini, Giacomo 28, 28
Vespa 422
,'elfO pc:::.:a/o .JJ9
Vianen, Adarn \'al1 70, 70, 118
Vianen, Christian I'an 70, 70
Vianen, Pillll \'an .Jo, 70, 70, 72
Vico, Enea 32, 36
Victoria, Queen of England :n8
Victoria & Albert J\lllsellm, london 266
Vien, Joseph-J\ larie 126, 192
Vienna 18-1
Arl i'\ouleau 300
ccramics 6-1, 16-1, 16., 170, 2]2, 3-10, 3'1
glass 3-12, 3.P
JlIgendstil 308, 309
Rocoeo architectllre 83
Vienllil ACildelllV 330
Vienna Secession 308, 330, 350
Vienna \\'orkshops 51'(' Wiener \\'erkstiitte
Viertha!er, Ludwig 323
Vigeland, Tone -198, .J-99
Vignelli A5sociates .J-B7
Vignola, Giacomo da 1-1
Vikings 313, 320
ViJla Giu!ia, Rome J.l-
Vi11efO\' & Boch 31-1
Vincennes 102, 102, 103, 298
\'ine motifs 39, 76, 78
Viners -+-12, -166
Viollet-Ie-Duc. Eugene 21--1, 23-1, 311, 322
\'irginals 336
Vitl, \\'olfgang 28
Vitra .;.87, -188
Vitrolite 339
Vitrm'ius 10
Vodder, :\Ieils .j.33
lIogllc -152, -168, -170
Volpone, Gio\'anni l3attista 150
VOlllpt 376
Voneche 182
Voronikhin, Andrei NikiforO\'ich 132, 153
Vouet, Simon -16
VOlllkos, Peter -162, .6;
Voysey, c.f...\. 27-1, 27.j., 276, 277, 279, 279, 281,
283,28-1,290,290 ,292,29-1,296,297
Vries, Ilans Vredeman de 16, 17, 3.j., 37, 50, 52
W
\\'aa15, Peter 279, 281
\Vade ,t35
\\'agenfeld, Wilhehn 353, 398, -10-1, -J04, -110,
'1O, -118, .pS
\\'agner, atto 308, 330, 33-1,;;'
Wailly, Charles de 131
Wakelin, Ed\\'ard lS8
\\'akelin & Tador ISO
\\'akel\ & \Vheeler 371
Va/dg/a:> (forest glass) 29, 29
\ Vales 200, 201
\Valker, Emery 276, 216
\\'alker & Rvland ISO
\\'a11, Or lO'=;
\\'allander, Alf 315, ;15
\\'aJlp<lpcr 212
Aesthetic J\IO\'ement 272, 212-3
rirt NOll\'eau 326, 328
Arts and Crafts 29,1, 296, 296-1
Baroque 76. ;6, 77, 78, 79
Early :vlodernism 332
historic re\'i\'als 2-18, 2-+8---9
i':eoc1assicism 202-8, 202-9
Rocoeo 122, 12,1, 12' j
walnut furniture 1-1,-18
Willpalc, Hor<lce 9,1, 21-1, 21'
W<llter, Atll<llric 318
Walters, Daniel & Sans 271
\Valton, Allan -11-1
\Valtan, George 219, 282, 2S9, 295
Ward, James W, & C. 270
Wardle, Thomas 294
lI'ardrobes 51, 52, 33, 55, -/87
Warff, Goran and Ann 46-1
\Varhol, ,\ndv .j.52, -178
Waring & Cillow 392,392
\\'arlamis, I-Ieide .j.9'
Warmbnmn 110
\Varndorfer, Fritz 330, 3-l--I
\Varndorfer, lilly 3-l--I
\\'Muer & Ramm 270, 271
W<lrner & Sons 375
\Varner, SilJetl & Ramm 253, 271
\Varren, Fuller & Co, 272
\\'ashing machines '1-J
W.lshington, George 2,E;
\\'atch cases 74,120
\\'atches 50,1, 504
\Vaterford 178, 179
\Vatt, William 258, 258, 259
\Vatteau, Antoine 80, 82,100,101,248
Wattisfield Hall, Surv St Edmunds 77
\Vatt:;, \lan' Scton 277
\Vaugh, Sidney Biehler 366, ;66
Wear F1int 180
Webb, Philip 23-1, 266, 270, 274, 279, 288, 28S,
28
9
\Vebb, Slephen 219, 257
n'ebb, Thomas & Sons 234, 235, 266
\ Veber, Kem 38g---<]1, -J16
Wedgll'ood 107, 1]1, 132, 166, 166-;, 170,222,
228,262,286,287,396,397,398
\Veeb, Thomas 1.15
n'egner, H<lns -132, -+33, ';'59
Weigel, Christoph 67
Weil, Daniel 502, '=;03
\Veimar Republic 378
\\'eisll'eiler, Adam 132, 131, 137, 199
n'e!ch, Roberl -+-12, '';'2, -166, -J66
\Vellington, Ouke of 193
\\'est Indies 56, 158
n'estem'ald 25, 62, 63
\\'estman, CarJ 313
Westwood, Vi\-ienne -185, 300
Weyhe, Bernhard Heinrich 116, 118
whatnot 225
\\'heel engradng. glass 67, 6" 69, 69, 239
Wheeler, Candace 272, 272, 273
Whistler, Jame:; ;-"1c:\'eiIl256, 258, 258, 268,
,-O
-'
White, Wil1iam 25-1, 25.J
Whitcfri<lrs Glassworks 288, -l02, '02
\Vhitehead, Da\'id H5
\Vhitehead, Ralph R. 28-1
Whitwell & Co. 2'.j.
The \Vho -152
\vichman, Friedrich 147
\viedmann, Karl 367
\Viener Keramik 332, 3-10
\ Viener Sezession 308, 330, 350
\Viener Werkstatte 330-3, 330-1
ceramics 3-10, 3.J0, 3.j.l, 361, 362
furniture 281, 308, 33-1, 337
-::66
'" '''''' ) .. _, ) ..),
sih'er and mctal\\'ork 292, 325, 3-1-1--6,
3H-7, -J99
textiles 3-18, 3.;.8-g
\Vieselthier, Vall\- 3-12. 361, 362
\Vileo;>.., Harriet L 315
\Vilde, Oscar 298
Wilhelm Hahe, Kassel 1-17
\Vilkinson, \V. and C. 221
\Vilkinson Sword -t7
\Vil1ard, Samue1 15.J-
Wil1ems, Joseph 103
\\'illiam 111, King of England .J9, 50, 3-1, 56, 62,
62, ,l. 73
Williilm IV, King of England 228
Willi<lm IV, Prince of the :\ethcrJands 69
Willi.lm & 1I1ary style 5-1, 55
Willi<lms, jahn 290
Willms, Albert 271
Wilson, Harold ,130
Wilson, HellrY 277, 291, 292
Wiltshaw & Robinson 360, ;61
Wimmer, Eduard josef 330-2, 3.j.-t
Winekelmann, Johann Joachim 126
\ Cd::.tle 21)
Winfie1d's of Birmingham 221
\\Iinter, Friedrich 67, 61
\\Iinter, J\lartin 67
\Virkk<Jla, Tapio .J-22, ,1n, 138, +-lO, -16-1, -+6.;.,
'6- , ,
\Vittalin, JohaIUles 56
\VJ\IF J2', 323, 367,';'10
\\Iolfe, Tom -18-1
Wolfers, Philippe 318, 323, 323
Wolff, Oa\-id 110
\\Iood, Robert 126
Woaif, Virginia 336
\\'ool\<ltnS, \Villiam 2';'9
woolwork 2-15, 2.j.5, 29,1
Worcester 103, 105, 168, 168,228
\Vorld's Fair, New York (1939--10) 350, 37"
-lOS, .j.09
\Vornurn, R.N. 221
\Vorshipful of Golclsmiths +H,
-166, -/66
\Vren, Sir Christopher 258
\ Vrcnaiss,'fncc 238
Wright. Frank L10yd 28-+. 285, 333, 337, 337,
353,360,361, 3S-!,388, 390,391
\\'right, Jolm .J-5;
\Vrighl, Russei-lOO, -J0l, '09, -110, '11, -135,
-+36,4';'7, +-l8
\Vright & l'vlansfield 222, 222
writing cabinets 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 333
writing t<1bles 35-J
\\"rought ron 75
\\'rzburg 56, 83, 8;
\\'vatt, James 129, 196
\\\'alt, lewis 220
X
X-frame chairs bO, 61
y
Yillllashita -l98
Yardlcy, Helen jOl
Yenn, john 189
Yixing ,,"are 62
YOlli, jean-Baptisle-Cilb 1;;, 151
\-outh
fa<:hion -i68-1O
industrial
YJhilanti Reed Furniture Co_ .389
'hISOPO\', Prinee 1,1
Z
Zach, Franz Pau[ 236, 236
Zan, Bernard 36, Ji
Zallini, /l.larco -196
Zanllso, .\Iarco -liS, .;.80. -t8J
Zanuso, .\larco Sr. +31
Zanussi -198, 502
Zccchin, \ '"orio -106, +0;
Zeiscl, hil -.lOO. -+01, .fj..-B5
len, Cario JJO. 311
Zenith Plastics +l6
Zero,,"att +:9
Zinkeisen, Anna-in
Zipeliu52-/-9
Zoppino 39
Zsolnay Factory 315,]16
Zubcr 2-1-9
Zndt. .\Iatthias 36
Zi.irich 332
ZiI'iSCfll'llgofdglll;; lOS, l(J(), 18-1
Picture Acknowledgments
i\litchell Beazley would likc to ilcknowledge and thank lhe follo\\'ing fOf
pro\-iding imtlges fUf publici'ltion in Ihis book
Kcy: b 00"001, e centre, left, r righl. I lap
Ajeto: -1%be; AJoony instituteof History ,md Art::H belo\\" 1. 157 bl; App[c
.\Iacintosh: 503 t; Air.;,tream Ine ill; AKG-Im,'ges, London: 15 b, 35 tr,-l5
tI, 65 cr, 67 ti, 166 bt 3"" tr, n7 bl, pholOS S Domngie 26 bl, S Domingie--
\ 1Rabalti 30 I belo\\", Ldo HL'Sse 165 br, Erieh Lessing 10 bt 32 ti, 52 Ir, 83,
SS tI, 100 tr, 103 br. 16-1 te, U,Joscph \Iarlin 321 ti, Visioars59 ti; ALa Vieille
Russie, :-\ew York: 170 br, 171 tr, e, & b; Ales!'i: -l98 I & bl, -l99 t, 505 e; AIscot
P<lTk: 224 ti; Arnsterdams llistoriseh i\luseum: 69 be; Antih'arisk
Tografiska Arc!n'et, Stockholrn: 77 e beluw; Antique Collectors Club:
Spodc .\lllscum, Stokc on Trent 168 el; Antique Trader: 395 tr; AP
Skyscrapcr, .'Y: -l6O el; Apter-Frooerieks, London: 183 bl; Arabia .\ luseum,
Helsinki; H, br; Arad A""oci.lte5: r, cr; Arc.lid: photo Richard
Bry.lOt 2S5l'1r; Arehi\'io Fotogr.lfico del Comune di Geno\'a: -l5 br; Arfle'
IntCTTkltion.ll SpA: Hl tr; :\rt.-\rchi\-e: photo Dagli Orti 119 te,:e ADAGP;
P.lri... and O:\CS, London ::?003 -11 11,.\ des Arts OCcor,ltifs, Paris 350,
355 Ir, ( :\OACP, PMis and OACS, London 2003 363 el, J6.I IT, 365 el,
.\ lu::...:c du Ch,'ltl'olll dl' \'er-..1ilk'5, pholo Dagli Orti 131 bl, .\ lusi'c :-\ational
dL' Cr,lmiqtlt"". S>\"TL'S, photo D'lgli Orti 31-1 bl, di Palaao
\'l'l1C/i,l, [{onll' 22 tI, i\hISL'O \'clria110 dc 1\lurano, photo O,lgli Orti 236 b;
Arl [{C:-;lUrec: 17-1 br; Arlek: 386 ti, tr, el, bJ. & br, 387 te, 387 Ir; Ashmoleiln
\!lI'>Clll1l, O,ford: 71 Ir, 72 bl, 73 el; Asprey & G(lrr<lrd: 176 br, 183 er;
A....;xiation \\'illy .\lilywald, D ADAGP, Paris and OACS Landan 2003
-l21; A......txi.viollc 8ane.lfiil Italiana, Palazza A1Heri, Romc: 150 br; Aure1ia
1'1{: +13 l'Il; rl\."'i,i Baier: -lSS 1; 6<ldisches Landesmuseum, Karbruhe: 3+1 bl;
el' & J B.lkt:'r: 203 bJ; B.mdai CK Ud: 301 ti; Gall'ria .\Iana B.uo\-ieT:-I07
b; B.blin & En,ml, Brus-"Is: t D.-\CS 2003 323 ti, 323 te, e DACS 2003 299;
B..lllh.1U,,-Archh-. Berln: 382 tl, 398 bl & br, 399 le, DAeS 2003 -lIS r.
photos Firmil \"ln Delden -l15 tI. B.1rlsch 398 br, Gunlcr
Lepo\\'ski 399 le, -118 e; Patricia Bayer: 376 ti, er & br, 377 el, er, bl & br;
13,1ycrischcs Niltionalmuseum, :\ lunieh: 308 el, photo \ larianne Franke 28
11; 13ilyerisehc Vcnl-alhlllg der Staatliehen Schkisser, Gi'irten lllld Seen,
:\lunieh: Photo Bse 89 bl, Residenz, Wrzburg 90 bl, Rcsidell7111useum,
.\lunich: 31 br, 35 bl, 7-i br, 88 b; Beaut Prestige lnternanonal: 497 br;
Bca\'erbrook Art Gallery, Brunswick: 68 e; Bernard Quaritch Ud: 18-l
te; Bimlingham Cily Boullon 190br, 1% bl; Birmingham
\Iuscums & Art 201 Ir, 28S tl; H Blairman & Sans, London: 250,
":>--lIT, Ei' Ir, el, & bl, 269 cr, bl, & br; Bolton \Iuseum and A,rl Gallen-: 205
br; Bonh.lms, london: 6-1 tI. 101 le, 161 be. 161 br, 163 tr, 168 be & br, 169 e,
2SO tr, 290 tI, 293 bl, 376 tr, 3SS 11, 3S9 1, 393 Ir. bl & l'Ir, -UM br. -ID8 b, -lO9 br,
-l 11 eb!, -l25 el, -l26 ter & Ir, -l28 r & bl, -i29 tr, -l39 el, --l--ID 11 & b, oH7 bl, br, el.
er & br; -i57 bl, -160 bl, -179 be, -l87 tI, -i89 ti, er & bl. -l91 te; Botleherstrasse
GmbH, Bremcn: 380 tr; Buughlon House, The Lh"ng Landscape Trust, by
kind pemlission oi his Grilce the Duke oi Buceleueh and QUL>ensberrv, KT:
-l7 br, -l9 b, 59 cr; Bradbury 6.:: Sheffield Assay Offiee Librilry: 180 1; Sraull
GmbH: -l-l8 tr. e, & br; Christine Bridge: 17i r, 178 Ir, 179 d, 182 el;
Bridgeman Art london: American \luseum, Bath 233 Ir, 236 tI,
.,175 b, Ashmolean .\Iuseum, Oxford, eK 31 bl, Badisches Landesmuscum,
Karlsruhc 398 tI, Bethn<ll Creen.\ luseum, Landon. 231 br. :c ADACP, Paris
and DACS, London 322 be. 3-B ba, Binningham \Iuseums and Art
198 c. Bonhams, London 319tr, Giraudon/Bibliolheque :'\anonale
de Franee, Paris -16 1, Brinsh \ lusewll, London 26 tI. Ca' Renonico,.\ luseo
del Setlecenlo, \'enicc -i5 bl, Chatean de \'ersaillcs, Franee 132 b,
Chellenh.11ll Art & .\Iu:seums, Gloueestershire, 278 e, bl, & br, 279

Corning i\luseum oi glilss, Nc\\" York, USA 237 t, Oesign Library, :\le\\'
York 326 tr, Detroit lnstitule af Arts 193 br, Dre,,-ealt Neatc Finc Art
Auenonecrs e AOAGp, Paris and DACS, London 2003 J6.l tel, Edinons
Graphiqucs. london 317 el, Filzwilliam \Iuseum, Lni,-ersily of
Cambridge. LK 20 te, 63 tI. 107 ti, 168 t, Galleria dell' Aecademia, Veniee
11, Glasgo\\' Lnin'rsity Art Gal1ery 325 br, Corporanon
of Londan 211, Henry Francis Dupanl \ \'interthur .\Iuscum. Delaw<lTe 15-1
tr, Harold Samuel Collecnon, Corpor<ltion oi london 51 bl. The Fine Art
Sociely, Landon 335 be, -i1O 1, Ha\\"orlh Arl Gallcry, Aecringlon,
lancashire 321 Ir, Hennitagc, Sl,Petersburg 91 IT, 160 Ir, 2-l7 bl, Hotel
Soh"ay, Brussels OACS 2003 306 tI, KedJestOIl Hall 198 r, Kunstgc\\"crbe
.\Illscum, Zurich 327 t. Leeds Cily Art Gillleries 191 br, Leeds 1\luseum
.lnd Art Galleries, Temple Newsam Iousc 60 b, 189 be, 199 te, 2-l3 br,
.\Iuse Cond, Chantilly 130 br, 153 tr, .\ lusi'c d'Orsay, Paris 303 tI, .\Iuse
de la R"olulion rran<;aise, \'zille 13--l ti, :-\ational London 1301,
:'\ationalmuscum. Stockholm 283 br, :-\ew York Historieal Soc:iely 212 b,
321 er, Oakland .\luseum, California 337 br, Chiitcau de Font<linebleau,
Seine-et-.\lame. photo Pctcr \\"illi 13, Prado. .\ladrid 26 br, 28 bl, Priyale
Collection 102 L 103 1, 189 br, 197 ti, 2-l0 r, 2-l5 Ir, 300 r, 380 ti, 39-i 11, -ln 1, 541
542
-.153 r, -.157 be, Royal Pa\-ilioll, l.ibraries & luseums. Brighton & Ho\'e 358
b, 392 t, Saatchi Collection, Landan E The Andy \rarhol roundation for
the Visual .-\r15, lnc./DACS, London 1003. Trarlcmarks licenscd by
Campbell Saup Company. AH Righl5 -.152 bl, Schloss
Charlottenburg, Berlin 59 bL The Slapleton CollecHan 296 1, Ste\"ens and
\\'illlams LId, Brierley Hill 235 tr, 5trawbcrry HiU, :-'liddlesex 214 tI, Tilbley
House Collection, Uniwrsity of 2-15 ti, Torre Abbey .\ luseum,
Oe\'on 239 ti, Victoriil & Albert l\lusel.lm, London 189 bef, 216 te, 2..13 le,
2.f8 tr, 397 be, -112 tr, Villa Famesin,l, Romc 1"' J. \Vallace Collection, Lonrlon
199 cer, \ \rutney of Americ.lll Arl, :\"c\\" York, t:: Estale of Robert Ameson
I VAGA, :\:ew York/DACS. London 2003 -.163 bl, \\'orshipful Company of
C10ckmakers Collection tr; British Archite<hiral RIBA, London:
-U b, 297 t; Brilish \Iuseum, London: 12 br, 20 tI, tr & bl.:n bl, 21 bl &
br, tr, E br, 26 ter, 28 te, J..I tI & e, 63 el & br, 76 br, 167 el, 202 te;
Broadfield House Glass \luscum: 23-l ti & br, 233 ti, 239 el, be & r, ti,
367 br; Brohan ..lllscum, Berlin: photo .... Iartin Adam :o OACS 2003 308 tr,
309 tr, 322 bl; The Brooklyn ;vlusellm, New York: Gift of Carll and
Franklin in memory of their mother Pastor" Forest Smith Chaee,
daughter of Thomas Carll Smith, the founder of thc Cnion Poreelain
Works HE 233 ti, Gift of \Irs Frankhn Ch,lse 233 be, Gift of \liss \Iary
Le\'er and :\Ir Randolph Len?r be, Gut of \Irs \\"illiam Greig
Walkcr by subscription -ID.""6.2.1-b. 137 bl, Gift of the Estafe of \Iay S
Kellcy, by exchange 81.179.1. tI, Gift of Edgar O Smith 83.217 2SI br,
Purchased with gi\cn by The \\'"lter Foundation 85.9 311 tI,
Designated Purehase Fund 85.159_2 388 b, 86.18 389 e, Gift o( i"alhan
George Hondtt 85.135 390 1, Gift of Paul F. \Valtcr S-U78.11 .100 tI,
83.108.+l..jOl t 85.158.1a-b .101 eb!, 1992.98.9il-b -IDl ebr, .108 tr,Gift
of Delia Petriek Rothermcl in memory of john Petrick Rothermcl
199-1,61.13 -IDI etl, et, -IDI ctr, Gift of Dianne
Hauserman Pilgrim 1991.%"OS ti, \Iarie BBitzer Fund 409 le,
83.108.12.1-b 409 fr, 85.109.1.1-<1 ter, H. Randolph Len'r Fund. SUSO
391 bl, 85.16-U -l19 bel, \Iodemism 8enefit Fund 87,123,1-2 390r, 391bl,
87.121 -l19 br; Bianea Bro\\"n/Gregory Estle: 352 b; Bil! Bro\\"n: 183 tr;
1'\cilJ I3ruee: er; Burton Agnes Hall: 19 bl; Camcgic .\Juseum of Art,
Pittsburgh: 187 br, Deeorath'e Arls PlIrehase Fund -l2-l te, \lllseum
purehase: Gift of Riehard King FOlllldation 99 er; Cilssilla SpA:
photos \ lario Carricri f) FLC ADAGP, Paris ,lnd DACS, London 2003 383
ti, OACS 2003 3S-l tr, Oli\iero Venturi RC ADAGP, Paris .md OACS,
London 2003 3 tr, e FLC ADAGP, PriS and DACS, London 2003 383 br,
OACS 2003 3&l ti, .-\ndrea bni bl; Cecil Higgins Art G.lllery,
Bedford: 279 br; Centraal :\Iuseum, L"trccht: 323 br; The Charleston Trust,
Firle: 336 el; Christehurch Pieh,ITC Gallery: 32 te; Cheltenhm A.rt Gallery
and \luseum: 286 te, 277 r, photo \liehel Focard 286 tr; Christie's Inlilges,
London: 21 er & br, 22 be, 55 tr, 56 el, 62 r & e, 63 te, 65 tI, le, tr & el, 8.: tr,
85 tI & tr, 86 br, 87 tr, el, er, bl & br, 90 br, 93 br, 98 bl, 99 br, 100 te, bl, 103 e
& er, IQ.l ti, e & bl, 105 ti & bl, 107 br, 130 tr, 131 el, cr & br, 132 tr, 133 t, 137
br, l-ll er, l-U t. 1-l5 tr, H9 el, 150 bl, 157 ti, 160 ti & b!. 161 te, tr, bl & br, 162
ti & bl, 163 il & bL 1--t- tr, bl & br, 105 ti, Ir, e &. bl, Ib7 te 6: e, 1tJb er & bl,
169 tI, tr,bl &br, 1701, 171 tI,d&er, 172br, 173 tr,eI, bl&br, lBS tI, 192tr,
bl & r, 193 el, er & bl, 19-1 ti, tr, bl, be & br, 195 ti, Ir, el & bl, 200 br, 201 er,
215 b, 218 tr,219e1 & br, n6br, "'29cr& br, 231 el, 235 bl, 2HtI & bl,E6
Ir, 266 ti & te, 270 tl, 211 1, 278 ti, 280 ti, bl & br, 281 ti, 283 ti, :E:DACS 2003
283 er, 287 tI, 289 bl, 291 tr, 292 tI, 293 br, 305 be, 306 el, DACS 2003 306
e, 310 ti, 3181, 33-l tr, 10 ARS, NI' ilnd DACS, London 2003 337 ti, OACS
2003338 tl & tr, 3-l6 te, 3--l7 tI, 356 br, AOAGP, Paris and DACS, London
1003357 tr, AOAGP. Paris and DACS, London 2003 357 bl, 357 be, 361
bl, 't; ARS, \,.1' and DACS, London 2003 361 br, 362 ti, 362 bl, 362 br,
ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003 J6.l be!. ADAGP, Paris .md
DACS, London 2003 36-i ber, 365 tr, 36S ti, :[; ADAGP. Paris and DACS,
London 369 tr, !)AOAGP, P<lris and DACS, London 369 br, 370 b, 371 tI,;S;
ADAGP, Paris and OACS, London 2003 371 te, 377 tr, DACS 2003 382 br,
OACS 2003 JS.l bL 385 385 tr, el, 387 tI, 389 bl, 393 e, 39-l er, ti, 420,
ti & br, -l28 ti & e, ..129 tI & bl, -Bl bl & be, -l35 t, Sueeession Pieilsso
DACS 2003 --137 br, H8 1, 439 te, tr & ee, +t9 ti & tr, -155 er, -l57 e, -l59 be &
er, -l61 te & br, bl, -l62 t & bl, -163 el & er, .uH ti & b, -l65 ti, Sah-ador
DaLi, Gala-Sakador Dali Foundation, DACS, London 2003465 bl, -M7 br,

50-:1 tl; Christophcr Farr: OACS 1003 -lB b; Christopher Wood
London: 252 t; Cincinnati Art \lusewn: 261 cr, Gift of \lary Louise
\IcLaughlin 269 tr, Gift of ..liss Bertha Pfirrmann in memor:' of \Iiss
Ernmil lIoeller 317 er, the Folgcrs Coffee SilYer Collcetion, Gft of the
Proctcr & Gamble Company 121 br; ClassiCom GmBH: 385 b, -l90 br; The
Cleyeland l"'luseum of Art: Lconard C Hann,jr Fund 115 bl;joe Colombo
Studio: bl; Coloniill \\'illiamsburg Fouodation: 55 ee, 196 ti, 2+t ti;
CoMer Rosenkram:, 1'\ew York: 369 le; Cooper Hewitt, Design
:\lusewn, Smithsonian lnstitution/ Art Resouree, :\Y: tr, -l95 er, photo
Da\e King bl, -l% t, -l99 bl, Bequest of \lay Sarton, 1996-9--1 pholo
\Jatt Flynn 333 r, Gift of Donald I:>c!;key, 1975--11-:;(; photo \ latt Flynn 372
bl, Gift of Eleanor .lnd $ar,lh He\\'itt 1928-2-7:> 206 bl, Gift of Josephine
Ho\\"eIl19i1-U-187 2Q.l el, 1972---U-IS9 tr, 1972-11.-2, -71, 7, -72 209 e,
Gift of James \.1 Osbom, 1%9-97-7-a,b 359 b; Gifl of Donald \'Iaek, 1971-
-l9-} photo \liltl Aynn 310 el; Corbis: el, pholo .-\ngelo Homilk
225 tr, KEA Publishing Senices e OACS 2003 3SO b; Coming \.Iuseum of
Glass: 28 br, 68 be, bl, Gift of Louise Estcrlv 187 t & e, Gift of lerome
Strilllss l'.1ris ilnd DACS, London 2003 365 tI, Gift of 1& L
Lobmeyr DACS 2003 -ID5 bl; Corsham Court Colledion, eourtcsy Jarrold
Publishing: 95 Ir, 1+l b; Country Liie Picture Libr"ry: 216 b, 351; Courtauld
Institutl' G.ll1eries, Somerset Housc, London: 15 ti, 336 ti & er; Cowan
Pottcry \.Iuseum at lhe Rhcr Publie Ohio: photo Larry L
Peltz 361 er; Crafts Council. London: 279 ti, -l73 br, photos Paul Highnam
2761, Jonath,lIl \Iorris -lb'9 br; Curricr Gallery of ,\rt, :\Ianchester, :\H:
\Iuseum by c,ehilnge and \\"ith pro\"ided by Ihe John H
\ lorison Aequisition Fund and Ronald Buurgeal1lt, 2000 155 ti; Dartington
Hall Trust: 393 el; D,,\id Rago lne, LambertYille: 29-l b, 359 ti, 360
b, 373 ti; Delomosnc: 110 br, III te & bl, 112 tr, lo\\'er e, er ,lnd tr, 113 bt 176
el & cr, 177 t & e, 178 tl, 182 bl; Sert IA'nker: 286 el, Greg anu K.lte Johnson
Collection 286 bl; Derby \Iuseum: 167 be; Design Council Slidc Collection
al the \Ianchester \ letropolitan L"ni,crsity: 385 tI, O:-\CS 2003 -lIS 1,
ti, lli b, .ui6 bl, --167 bl, tr & e, -li5 l, bl, -l81 br, eourlesy of The
\\',lmer Arehi\'e 375 el; IA'SignrnllseD, Hdsinki: 313 te, 328 tr, photo Au\o
Lukki -l33 ee, -l59 bl, photo lean l3arbicr er, -I-H ti, -165 tr, -l-67 tr, -l77 bel;
Dcsign COllneil DHRC, uniYersity of Brighton -l67 ti, IBi\1 -l7': 1, e
Olhetti -l78 tr, \'Illfphy -l81 tr, Kodak -l81 bl; Ocsign .... !llSl'llm,
london: photo Clairc Aho 422 bl; Dignor :-\13: 315 tI; Oeutsehes
Porzellanmllseum, Ilohenberg: ti, bl; Deyonshire Collcelion,
Chatsworth. By permission of lhe Duke of De\onshlrc .1I1d the
Chats\\-orth Settlement Trustees: 32 tr, 71 br; DiplomatiCTl."Ccplion Rooms,
L"nited Statcs Department of Statc: 15-41; :\anna Dil7.el: el; Driade:
br, br; Dyson Appliances lid: 502 bl; Eames OffieL': t: 2002 photo
"cuhart -l26 ti; Electrolu, Zanussi: 502 br; Tl1e \lasters and Fellows o(
EmmanueI College, Cilmbridge: 3-l tr, photo Jcrcmy RiehMds 12.1 br;
English Heritage Photo Library: 125 bl, photo lcrcmy Riehilrds 205 el';
Elon Callege l.ibrilry, \Vindsor: i4 Ir; E'-a Zeiscl: bl & be; herson
luseum of Art, Syr,leuse: 317tr, \ 11Iseum Purchase, 317 br, The \ lar:' and
Paul Bran\\'cin Collection, photo HlIgh Tifft 361 el; Courtesy of The Fine
Arl Society PLC, London: 251 r &. bl, 255 ti, te & tr, 257 cr, be & br, 258 tr,
259 el, er, bl & br, 261 ti" & bl, 262 tI, te, tr & bl, 263 cr, 26--ltl, tr & br, 266 fr
& be, 267 I & e, 268 tr & b, 269 tr & be, 270 tr, bl & br, 271 tr & br, 273 ti, 2S6
ti, 29-l 1, photo Tumer Aotiques 260 1; The Fishmonger's Company,
London: 119 te; Fitz\\"illiilm :\luscum, L"ni\'ersity uf Cilmbridge: 23 bl;
Foclls PR: -l22 tr; Fondaionc Thysscn Bornemisa Colkclion, Lugano: 35
bel; Frabel Sludio nd Gallery: -l97 ti; Franeeseil Gilllo\\"ay: 38 tr, rn tel;
Friek \luseum, :\:e\\ York: 15 tr aOO\'e; Fundac;:ao Calouste Gulbenk1;m,
Lisbon: photo Catarina G Ferreire 86 t, fJ AO,-\GP, Paris ilnd DACS,
London 2003 321br; Fundac;:ao RieilTdo do Espirito Santo Sih'a, Lisbon: 53
ti, tr & bl; Galeric bei der Alberlina, \ icnna: 362 be; Gallen-Kallcla .\lu5eQ,
Helsinki: 313 tr; Philippe Gamer: 81, 260 r, 263 br, 265 bl, 306 tr, 318 r, 319
ti, 378, 385 er, -l55 ti & tr, -l56 br, -l5S 1& r, br, -161 11,46--1 tI', ':76 ti, te &
b, b!, tl, el &. r, -l83, 500 br; Gemeenlemuseum, Thc Ililgue: 69 tr,
307 tr &: br; Gemtanisches i\iltionalmuseum, i'\uremberg: 18 b, 52 ti &. br,
12': tI; Gilbert Col\ection, Somerset House, London: 31 el, 32 er, 36 br, 37 tI,
bl & be, 73 br, 7-l ti, 119 tI, tI' & b, 121 el,12-l tl, 189 tr, 191 tr, 193 ti; Gillette:
503 be; Glasgalerie \liehael KO\'aeek, Veona: 67 br, lOS e & r, 111 11, 1&1 bl
& br, 185 tr, e & bl; Glasgo\\' \Iuseums: Burrell Collection br, Art
and :\Iuseum, Keh'ingro\"' 279 bl, 30S bl; Goldfinger Ud: 395 ti; The
Gordon Russcll Trust: 291 bl; Glasgow School of Art Collection: 278 tI', 282
r, 329 br; .\lichael Gra"es:.m6 b, tr, br; \.Iary Greenstcd: 279 tr;
Hadeland Glass'erk: 406 e, photo And\'Ord/Sjom Stokke +-11 te; Halpern
AssociiltCS, London: lO ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003 36--l br, <O
ADAGP, PMis and DACS, London 2003 365 br; Hare\\'ood Iouse, Leeds:
1-l3 bl, Ir; \Vinnic Harmon: -l97 tr; Sta te Hcrmitage St
Petersburg: 35 br; Hida-Takayama \Iuseum of I\rt, Gifu: 302 tr; High
\Iusewn of Art, Atlanta: Virginia Carroll Crawford Collection 2531, 261 br,
265 te, tr & br, 269 td; I-listorieal Design, ine, :\Cl\' York: t; 2002 332 tr, 3-11
ti; Historieal of \\'eslem Pennsyh"ania: e; HK Fumihirc Ud:
-l25 tr; Studio Hollein: photo Jerry wSurwillo -185, -l9O tl; Homer Laughlin
China Collcetor's Club: -lOO bl & br; Angelo Homak: 331, ARS, and
OACS, London 2003 337 tI', 356 tr, 358 er, 360 tI & te, 361 t, 36--l bl, 365 er,
eourlesy of I3roildfeld HOllse Glass lvluseum 23-l bl; The Illldson Ri,er
Musellm, New York: photo Peter Oaly 263 tI'; Hulton Arehhe: .168 1& br,
-169 bl, ':70 r, te, bl & r; Hunterian Art Gallery, Cniwrsity of Glasgo\\':
258 br, 309te; IC:\, Rijskwijk, Amsterdam: photo Tim Koster 307 bl; IKEA:
br; lndex, Rorenee: 316 ebl, photos Orsi Battaglini 30 e, Pizzi ':19 cI,
Tosi 30 r; Institut \Iathildenhohe, Darmstadt: DACS 2003 283 bl, 286 er,
293 a; \Izeum, Budapest: photo Kolozs 313 br, 326
ter, 328 te, bl & br; The Interior Archi\"e: photo Fritz \"on der Schulenburg
151 1, 153 er, bl, & br; Instituto Portugus de \luseus, Disao de
Documental;.io Fotogrireil, Lisbon: .\Iuseu :\"aeional de Arte Antiga,
photo Luis 1'.1\"ao 116 bel, be & br; Lesley Jaekson: ..07 ti; Richard Jess: 291
ti; Kallemo AB: -192 bl & br, -193 ti; Kalmar Konstmuseum: -l-l-I b;
Kanlonsarehaologie Sch.1ffhauscn: 29 11; Kaplan Collection: 112 b & el;
Kartell: -l-l6 br; Dadd King Collection: -n-ll; Klaber & Klaber: 102 r; Knoll
Intern.ltionai: 382 el, OACS 2003 382 cr, -l.27 b; Baltha7ar Korab Ud: 359
tr; Kunsthistorisches i\luseum, Vienna: 31 er, 33 te; Kunstndustrimuseet,
Copenhagen: photos Pemille Klemp 30.,\ tr, 315 tr & be, -l33 bi & br,
DACS 2003 -l36 tI, Ole \Voldbye 1-16 tr, 152 r, 315 bl, 320 tI, 387 el, -l6 ti, -l93
e; Kllnstindustrimuseet, Oslo: 312 br & er, 315 te, 320 br, 369 ti, OACS
2003 399 e; Kllnstsammlungen, Chemnitz: photo i\lay Voigt 399 bl;
Kunstsammlungen Zl1 Weimar: photo Atelier Louis Held Itl DACS 2003
-l1O bl; Leeds \luseums and Galleries: Lotherton Hall 215 tI & er, 211 er,
:!25 bl, Temple :\'e\,"sam Ilouse 19 tl, 217 bl, 225 tI, 226 tr, 2-H te; Collection
of Christie .\Iayor Lef1.:.owith & Edwin F Lefko\,ith: phOIO Skot Yobbagy
from TI/,' Art of Pafilllll" 199-1, Thames & Hudson, London i1nd :\"ew York
332 ti; \Iassimo Listri: -13; Li\"rustkarnmarcn, Stockholm: 57 el, LSH
photo Goran Schmidt 61 br; Los Angeles County \luseum of Art:
CostumeCouncil Fund 39 b, 79 t, Gift of \Irs Ramona de Jongh 76 bl; John
\lakepeaee Fumiture Studio: photo \like \Iurless -l89 el; \lA,K-
Osterreiehisches .\Iuscum mr ange\\'andte Kunst \leona: 90 ti, 125 ti, 1-lS
tr & bl, 320 tr, 320 bl, :HO r & e, JB er, bl & ti, 3-H t & br, 3-l6 ti, :E OACS
2oo33-lS ti, J.iS te, te & br, J.l9 tI, tr, di & etr; \tallett and Son (Antiques)
Ud: 111 tr, 112 ti, 1771, 178 bl & br, 179 t, er & bl, 180 br, t81 U, tr, le, er &
bl, 182 te, 183 el & br, 18-1 ti; .\ lanchcsler City Art Galleries: 289 br, 290 te,
292 bl, 293 ti, 293 d, J.l0 1, -l15 bl, -l17 t, -130 b, -l37 ti, From the Colledion of
the \lanehesler \letropolilan Cni\"ersity 176 r; Estudio 501 br;
\Iaryland Historieal Society, Baltimore: 157 br; \Iathsson lntemational
AB: 387 cr & b; Andre,," \lcConnet\: 109 e, 178 te, 18t el; lngo l-.laurer: -l93
bl; \-lemphis srl: -l8-l tr, 486 Ir, -l87 er, -l9-l tl, 500 ti; The i\letropolitan
:vlusellm of Art, N'cw York: H.lrris Brisbane Oick Fund, 1953 121. Gift of
-",Ir .lnd i\lrs James BTrae)', 1966216 bl; Herman :'\-li\ler Ine: -H5 tr, -l60 t;
Minneapolis lnstitute of Arts: Gift of Mr .lnd vlrs Sheldon Sturgis, i\lr and
i\lrs Henry Hyatt, and the Anne and H.ldlai Hall Fund 2S-l tr, The
i\ lodemism CoHection, Gift of Norwest Bank l-.Iinnesota 285 ti, ARS, ?\T)'
and DACS, london 2003 285 er, 290 tr, 325 tr, 332 tI, 3-l1 ter, 3-l7 br, 332 r,
363 bl & br, 3SS r, 389 ti, & br, 391 ti, 399 tr, -lOO tr, Gift of Dena Petriek
Rothermel in memory of John P Rothennel -l0l et, -l10 d & er, -lll bl, bcr
& br, -l16 1, er & br, -117 br & te, DACS 2003 -l19 er, -119 ebr, 426 br;
.\ lobiller :\"ational, Paris: 135 ti, 20-l er, :ms br, 209 ti, bl & br; .\ 10ffal1-Ladd
House, Portsmouth, XH: 202 ti; The \Iontreal \ luseum of Fine .-\.rts:
Liliane and Da\"id \1 Slewart Collection, GHt of Geoffrey :-;:" Bradfield
photo Denis Fariey 455 b, Liliane and Oa\"id Stewart
Collection, photo The \lontreal .\Iuseum of Fine Arts, Giles Ri\'est -199 er;
\imuso: -l91 er; \lounl \emon Lariie;;' \"irginia: 155 br;
:'\Iuse Baeearat: 23S r, photos Jaeques Boulay 2.J-O bl, J \1 Tardy 2-l1 br;
\ fuse Bouilhet-ehristofle, Paris: 371 tr, -H3 br; \Iusc Conde, Chateau de
Chantilly: photo Giraudon 215 te; \luse de la \lode et du Textile, Paris:
photo Lamenl Sully-Jaulmes ti, ADAGP, Paris and OACS, London
2003326 tel, 372 d; \Iuse de l'Ecole de :\"aney: 302 br, 303 er, bl & br, 319
te, photo ClicheStudio Image :;'ADAGp, Paris & OACS, London 2003 319
be, F Brabant 326 br; i\luse de l'Impression sur toffes, Mulhouse: 203 br,
206 br, 209 tr, 2-17 br; i\lus6c des Annes 30, Boulogne: photo Philippe
Fuzeau 336 ti; ;\/!use des Arts Oecoratifs, Paris: 85 br, 215 el, 221 te, 357 etl,
372 ti, photo Lament Sully-Jaulmes 115 br, 212 ti, 30-l er, 305 br, AOAGP,
Paris and DACS, London 2003 333, ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London
2003353 er, 370 etr; :Vluse des Beaux-Arts de Naney: photo G i\langin 319
bl; :'vluse des lissus de Lyon: 76 tr, 77 abO\"e e, 78 r, 121 te & b, 123 tI & br,
2().,\ t, 205 tr, 206 tI, 207 te, bl, bel & br, 20S el, photo Pierre Verrier 79 be;
i\luse du P.lpier Peint, Rixlleim: 249 le & tr; }"Iuses de Steasbourg: 305 ti;
\luses Royaux d'Arl et d'Histoire, Brussels: 323 tr & bl; i\luseo :\"acional
de Artes Decorati\"as, \Iadrid: 17 ti & tr, 289 el, 3-l2 ti, te, tr, bl, be & br, J.l3
tr & br, 366 te & bl, 367 er & be; \h.1SCU ::\"acional dos Coches, Lisbon: -15 te;
.\luseum fr Kunst und Gcwerbc, Hamburg: 52 bl, 89 te, 328 ti; \lusewn
Kunsl Palas!. Dusseldorf, Glasmuseum Hentrieh: 67 bl; :'\Iuseum 01 the
City of :\"ew York: 157 ti, presented to Jenny Lind by the Fire Department
of ::\"e", York Cily 1850, Cift 01 Arthur S Vemay, photo Hclga Photo Studio,
217 Ir; \luseum of Domestie Design & Architecture, \liddlesex
L:niwrsity: 297 er & bl; ;"'Iuseum of Earlr Southem Decoratiw Arts, ld
Salem: 55 el, 99 ti & 99 bl, 174 tI, Courtesy of Old Salem lne, Collection of
the Wachovia Historieal Sacie!)' 186 ti; \Iuseum \"oor Sierkunst &
Vonnge\"ing. Ghent: photo Studio C1aerllout m" 306 bl & r; Forrest W
\lyers: -192 tl & tr; Lillian l'\asSi\u Ud, :'\ew York: 321 el; :'\ational
Archi\'es, London: 2+l c. 273 br; :-lational Galler)', London: 63 bl, 70 br;
:\"ational of :\rt, \ \'a:>hington OC: Samuel H Kress Colll'Ction,
photo Lorene Emerson 127; :\"ational \lonuments Record: reprodueed by
permission of English Herilage, 221 b; '\:ational .\Iuseum of American
His(00", Smithsonian Institution, Washington OC: 17-llr & bl, Electrieity
Colleclions +lB bl; :\"ational \Iuseum of lreland, Oublin: 295 bl; :\"ational
\Iuseums of Scotland: E tr; :'\ational :\luscum of \\'ales: 121 bl; :\"ational
.\Iuscums & Galleries on \Ierseyside: 96 bl, 291 te; :\"ationalmuseum,
Stockholm: 50 t, 61 tI, 82 tI,:l) OACS 2003 H7 tr, -H6 te, photo SK\I 60 tr,
piloto Hans Thorwald 312 bl, 313 tI, 10 OACS 2003 399 er; N'ational Trust,
East i\lidlands: photo \like \\'illiams 199 tr; Natonal Trust l'hotographie
Library, London: 103 el, 220 tI, photos John Bethell H2 bl, Jonathan Gibson
65 b, 167 br, Angelo Homak 95 er, :'\'adia i\laeKenzie 198 1, Andre.1s \'on
Einsiedel-17 tI, -181, 60 te, 61 tr, 96 belo\\' r, 217 ti; Neeehi SpA: -H8 ti; Neue
Galerie, 1'\ew York J!6 tr; Die Neue Sammlung, \'lunieh: DACS 2003 -l06
tr, photos A Brahan 398 bl, 399 ti, Bungartz 327 bl, C Hansmann -l10 br:
:\"ew Jersey State \Iuseum, Trenton: The Brewcr Collection, photo Joscph
Crille)' 233 bl; :'\ewark \luseum: Gilt of the \luseum of the Oty of :\"e\\'
York 193.,1, 220 tr, Gift of \lrs W Clark 1%5, 233 br; :\"obilis
Font.lO: photo )"'es Duronsoy 501 tr; Oelopus Publishing Graup Ud: 68
br, photos lan Booth -l32 tI, .f39 br, lan Booth/Alfie's -139 bl, -H2Ir, +B tr,
-l55 el, -l78 bl, lan Booth/Bonhams -l31 el, H2 Ir, -l33 ti & tr, -161 bl, -l69 ti &
r, lan Booth/Christie's South Kcnsington -l2-l br, Xl' and DACS,
London 2003 426 el, -131 ti, H3 el, -171 tr, Fa)' Lueas -l67 e, Prcmier
Pholography -ID3 cr & te, Tim Ridley 3% ti & cr, Tim Ridley '20th Century
De:.ign 416 er, -l31 cr, lim Ridley/:\"eil Bingham -l2-l ti, Tim Ridley 'Odt.l
of '"enus 477 t, Tim Ridley/F1ying Duek Enterprises -l-l7 t, Tim
Ridlcy ITarget Gallery -157 ti, tr, -177 bcr, Tim Ridley/Twenly TWo.'nty One
-l5.,l t, -l6O br & -l78 br, -l79 br, Tim Ridler/Zambesi -163 1, Ste\'e T.lnner -l03
bl & br. Ste\'e Tanner/::\"igel Benson -139 er, Ste\"e Tanncr/Je.lnncttL'
Hayhurst.J-.J-O Ir, John \\'cbb 2J.I be; Orrefors Glasbruk: -138 r, +11 ti, photo
Per larsson -139 ti; Pateimonio :\"acional, :\Iadrid: 128 tr, 149 tr; P.1I.icio
:\"acional da Ajuda, Lisbon: 1-19 tI; Partridge Fine Arts, london: 37 br, 121
er; Jiri Pelel: -191 b, photo Jar05la\" Prokop -l93 tr; Pentagrilm Dl... ign [ Id:
474 br; Penlhouse J-lighpoint: 395 b; Philadelphia Museum of Art: photo
Gavin Ash\\'orlh 5-l t, Pri\"ate Colleetion 55 br, pUTeha"ed \\'ilh the
Elizabeth S Shippen Fund, photo Gr.lydon \Vood 55 bl, l'ureha:>L'd \\'ilh
funds from the Edmond Foule CoHection, 1930 56 tI, 56 el,
l'llrehased: Art in Industry Fund 12-l br, Gut of Simon Gratz in memory of
Caroline S Gratz 157 el, Gift of \lrs Ale;.; Simpson Jnr and ,\ CilTson
Simpson (by exchange) and funds eontribuled by \"arious donor!> 157 ce,
Purchased: The Baugh-Barber Fund, Ihe Thomas Skelton Harrbon Fund,
the Elizabeth \\andell Smith Fund, and funds gh"en in mem00' ofSophie
EPennebaker, and funds eonlributcd by the Barra Found.ltion, \ Ir:> J-lenry
\\" 8re\"er, \Ir and \lrs \1 Todd Cooke, The Dietrieh Amerie.lll
FoundaHon, \Ir and \ 1rs Anthony :\" BGan'.ID, the Phil,1delphi.1
Fund Socieh" and Andrew \1 Rouse 175 t, Gift of john T \Iom.. 173 e,
Exehanged ;vith the Franklin lnstitute 173 bl, Gift of thl' OrOlllgt.'r Gla""
Company, pholo don \\"00<1 23, br, Gift of G.:,)rgl' \\"ood
FumesS,197-l255 bl, Gift of \Ir and \lrs Benjamin Bloom, 19SJ, ' OACS
2003 -136 b, Gift of Chemex -H1 bl. Gin of Bonnie Ca:>llin, piloto Lynn
Rosenthal -l-l-I te, Gift of Jaequeline and Bruno Dan.1St"' +16 le, Gift of
Tupperware Home Parties -H6 bl; PhOlotheque des de la \'ille de
Paris: photo Daniel lifermann 132 1; POf7ell.ln.\lanufaktur,
ymphenburg: J.ll te; Alan Powers: \VSCAD Collection 414 tr, er & br; PP
:-"lobler ApS: -159 el; Publie \luseum of Grand RapiJ,,: 219 bl; Peler
Reischer: -l9-l br; Runion des Nationaux, l'Mi:>: 16 bl, 133 e, 13.,1 Ir,
135 el, 136 br, 231 tI, Photos Amaudet 16 tr, 82 br, 83 er, 87 ti, 106 bl, 133 bl
& r, lJ.1 bl & br, 137 er, AmaudetSchorma 1361, ivll3eck"Coppola 230 1and
br, 232 ti, 263 bl, 363 er, Gerard Blot 15 br abm"c, 60 el, 129, 135 er, Blot-
Lewandowski 47 bi, Chuze\'illc 116 tr, Gendr.lud 231 cr & bl, Vi\"ien Guy
137 d, ]ean Hutin 306 er, Lagiewski 151 er, Je,ln Lwialle 231 Ir, j-Ien"
Lewandowski 31-1 tl, RG Ojeda 2-1 bl, Popoviteh 137 tr, Re\'ersement OA
57 b, Routhier 230 tr, 232 tr, Jean 41; Rex Features: -169 br;
Rexite SpA:.5(),\ tr; Rhode Island School of Oesign. \Iuseum of Art: Ida
Ballou Lil1lefield and \lan" B Jaekson Funds and additional funds
,
pro\"idcd by \Ir and \Irs George Kaufman and J J Smortehe\"sky, photo
Erik Gould 1>1 belo\\' e, Bequest of B Lisie, by Exehange, photo
Erik Gould 155 bl, Gift of the \\"unsch Amerieana Foundation Ine, photo
Erik Gould 156 te, Gift of \lrs Gutsta\'e Radeke, pholo Erik Gould 175 b,
Gift of Textron, lne, photo Cathy Can"er 370 ehl; Richard Oennis
Publieations: 263 tI,.J-02 t, e & b; Amslerdam: 18 tr, 29 br, 35

d, 153 ti; :\"oel Rile\": 355 br, t>ADAGP, Paris and OACS, London 2003 36-l
tI, t> .\OAGP, and OACS, London 2003 J6.l ter; Roger-Viollet, Paris:
300 1; Rt.ihsska .\Iuseet, Goteborg: copyright Alf Bokgren H6 Ir;
Rotherham \Iuseum, ltJ V&A Images: 228 te; The Rose Family Collection:
368 tr, on loan to the Cle\"eland i\luseum of Art, I'hotograph pro\'ided 543
544
eourtesy of the Cle\eland \Iuseum of Art 36S b; Roscnthal AG: tr;
Rosti Housewares ApS: +l6 ti; The ROy.ll Collt"Ction e 2001, Her \Iajesty
Queen Elizabeth 11: el, 56 b, 37 ti, 58 b, 66 te, 131 te, 2+1 b; The Royal
Collections, Rosenborg Caslle, Copcnhagen: bl, 66 r, 91 CT; The Royal
Comwall \Iuseum, Tmro: 287 br; Pa\ilion Libraries & :'-.luseums,
Brighton & Han:-: 309 br; Royal Scandina\ia Ud: 170 bl; Royal Sociely of
Arts, London: 138 tr; Royeroft Shops lne, East Aurora, ,,': 1995 285 tr;
Tom Saddington: -199 eb; St Bamablls, Hengoed. 266 bl; St Jam('s's Square
Pllblishing lid: -H br; n'e Sainl LOllis Art l\luscum: 261 el; Roberto
Sambonet: b; Sammlungen des Regicrcndcn Prsten Von
Lieehlenstein, Vaduz: 66 be; Seala: 1-l9 b; l'hotoarehi\'e C Raman
Schlcmmer, 1-28824 Oggebbio (VB), ltaly: 379; Schloss Fasanerie, Hessisehe
Hausstiftung, Eichenzcllc: 89 br; Scienee & Society Pi(hlre r,
-116 tr, el & er; $cattlc J\rt l\luseum: Thomils \V i1nd .A..Jm \,1 Banviek,
thl' Virgini<l \Vr Fund, Ann 11 and John H Hauberg, the Marg.lret E Fuller
Purehase Fund and the 19
th
earh 20th Centurv Ameriean Art
- -
l'urehase/Deaecession Fund, photo P.lul l'I.lac<lpia 321 br; Segrctario
Generale della Presidenza della Repllbblica, Palano Quirinale, Rome: 93
ti; Sheffield City Libraries: 190 bl, 197 b; Sheffield City :'-.Iuscum and
Galle,:": 1% e; Simon Ray, London: 38 11 & br, 39 tr, 77 ti, 781, 79 el, b, be!,
& ber, 123 e & bl, 12-1 tr; Borek Sipck: photo Studio Frei, \ "eil am Rhein:-I89
br; Sknner Ine, Auelionccrs and Appraisers of Antiques and Ene Art,
Boston, \IA: 321 bl; Bmec Smith, The Arts & Crafts Press, Olalla, \VA: 285
bl; llll' Tmstccs of the Sir John Soane's \Iuseum, London: 128 b, 139 ti & e,
H-l ti; Sotheby's Picturc London: 15 tr below, 16 ti, 23 tr, -17 tr,-18
te, -19 el, 51 cr, 57 cr, 62 I & tr, 63 cr & be, 6-1 le, Ir, bl, be & br, 89 be, 91 ti &
b, 92 H, tr, bl, & br, 93 tr & bt % ti, 97 bl, 100 ti & br, 101 11, tr, el, er & b, IO-l,
tr&br, 105tr&br, 106tl & be, 108I,l09ll,be&tr, 1101, 111 eI,cr&br, 113
ti, 116 e er, 117 er, 133 be, 135 b, 136 tr, 137 ti, 139 belo\\' el, 1-10 Ir, 1-11 bl, lH
el & e, 1-15 ti, 1-18 ti & te, 150 ti, te, tr & CT, 151 bl, 133 el & e, 160 br, 1621T,
163 tl & br, 167 ti, lnl & t, 173 11. lS2 tI, er & br, 236 er, 2-11 e, 293 tr,330,
33-1 tI, 33-1 bl, 333 11, 333 te, 335 tr, DACS 2003 338 bl, DACS 2003 339
el, 339 er, 3-13 le & tr, OACS 2003 3-15 bl & br, 3-17 tr, DACS 2003 3-19
bel, ADAGI', l'ilris ilnd DACS, London 2003 33-1 b, 357 er, 339 te,
i\DAGI', Paris ill,d OACS, London 2003 36-1 tr, 363 bl, 367 bl, 369 bl,
DACS 2003 370 ell, 371 bl, 37-1 1& e, ADAGP, Paris and OACS, London
200338-1 br, 393 tI, 399 br, -101 b, DACS 2003 -l(}.l. tr, DACS 2003 -10-1 bl,
-111 tl, -119 tr, -150, -I5-l br, t, .J63 br, -ISO t; Sothcby's Nc\\' York: 3-l..J be,
DACS 2003 339 I & bl, 3-15 11, 3-l6 b, 3-17 el, 355 el, 357 tI, 362te,I[) ADAGP,
Paris and DACS, London 2003 363 tl & tr, J66 te, ce ADAGP, Paris and
DACS, london 200336S te,:O Paris and DACS, London 2003 369
el, 375 br, 376 bl; Goorgc So\\'den: 30-1 b, photo Ih'io Gallo -182; Ernesto
Spieeiolato: 305 t; SI"atliehe Kunstsamm1ungen, Kunstge\\'erbemuseum,
Drcsd.cn: photo Hans-Peter Klut 39 ti, 76 ti, 17 br, 79 Id, 122 tI, photo S
Schmidt, Leipzig 18 ti; Staatliche \Iuseen, Kassel: 58t; Staatliehe
zu Betlin, Bildarehi\' Preussischcr Kulturbesitz: Kunslge\\'l'rbe \luSl'um
50 b, photo Saturi" Linke 78 e, photo Psille 323 e, photo Stcinkopf 33 ber,
Kupierstichkabmett, photo Remhard Saoe\\'skl 1-17 I 6:. r;
Porzellan-\lanufaktur, \ leissen: 232 be; Thc Sociely of Ihe I'reser..ation of
:'\e\\' England Antiquities, Boston: 202 tr, 203 1, 205 d, 207 ti; Stad
Antwerpen: \Iuscum Smidt \'an Gelder, Anlwerp t' Fotoclienst louis De
Peuter 39 br, 60 tI; Stad Brugge: 51 tr, photo Jan Termont, Dirk V.m der
Borght 17 b; Stadtmuscum, :'-.Iunieh: (E OACS 2003 303 d, 3-13 e & 3-19 cbr,
D.lucrlcihgabc des Emst \on Siemens KW1Stfonds 10 OACS 2003 338 br,
photo \ Volfgilng Pulfer 308 ti & br, 3-l1 d, photo \ Volfgang Pulfer DACS,
London 2003 288 tr; Philippe Starck: 503 br; Stead l'I.lcAlpcn, John Lewis
Partnership, Carlisle: 205 br; Stedelijk Muscllm, Amsterdilm: on loan from
2\lederlandse l\laatschappig \'oor Nij\uheid en Hilndel 327 br; Stifhmg
Schlosser, Surgel' llnd Giirten dcs Landes Saehsen-Anhalt, Leitzkau: 146
br; Stiftung Preussisehcr Schlosscr und Giirlcn Berlin-Brandenburg,
Potsdam: photo Roland Handrick er; Suomen Lasinlllsoo, Riihiniki:
-197 el, er, & bl; Surrcy Institute oC Art and Design: tr; TIle Target
Gallc,:, London: bl, tr & cr; Thonet GmbH, Frankenberg: 382 tr,
DACS 2003 382 bl; \Ialteo Thun: -195 br, -199 el; limney & FO\der: 501 bl;
Toledo of Art: and \Irs George Jones, Jr Art Flmd aCC.no
1997.302 322 te, Pun::hased \\'ith funds from the Aorcnee Scott Libbey
Bequest in ofher Falher :'-.Iauriec A Scott 325 be, Gift of\\lliam E
Le\-is, aeeno. 1936.36 366 ti; Toshiba Design C: 50-1 bl, 303 br; Tomas
Ta\eira: -l91Ir, -191 el; Traeks, Lhupool: -l63 be; Treadway Toomey GalIe,:-:
2S-I ti, te & bl; Collt"Ction of Robert Tuggle and Paul Jeromaek: 26-! U, tr, bl
& br, 263 ti & bl; Turku n' Operations Ud: 305 bl; CniHrsity of East
Anglia, :'\orwich: 381, tr, 394 el & br, 395 er; Cni\ersity College oC
\\'ales, Abe':'Sh\-yth: photo Robert Greetham, 1997397 bl, -126 bl, -132 e,.fi6
1; museum \. praze, Pr<lgue: 67 be, 236 el, photos
\lirosla\ ?ebek 339 br, Gabriel L'rbanek 3-11 bc1, 3-13 el,..J05 1, el, br & cr;
Vatiean Saeristy: 30 I abO\e; Victoria & Alberl \Iuscum, London ;t) V&A
mages: 12 tr, 14 r, 15 bl, 19 tr, er & br, 20 br, 21 t & el, 22 tr, 23 el, e, er, be &
br, 2-1 ti & br, 25 ti & bl, 26 tc!, 271, tr & br, 28 tr, 19 tr & bl, 31 tr, 32 el & be,
37 tr, -12 tr, 1, -l6 tr, -l9 11 & er, 53 br, 56 tr, 59 tr, 61 bl, 66 tI. 6S t & bl, 72 t,
el & er, 73 11 & tr, 17 tr & bl, 79 tr, 89 ti & 89 tr, 95 el, 103 bl, 106 te, tr & er,
107 tr & ebr, 11..J r, 117 br, 12U t, br, be & bl, 121 ti & Ir, 123 tr, bl, 1')::; d,
139 b, 1-11 el, 1-12 be, 1-15 b, 148 br, 151 ti, 15S tr, 166 br, 167 tr, 173 er, 1SS tr
&b, 189 t1 & er, 190 e, ti & tr,191 ti & bl, 193 be, 196tr, 197tr&er, 199t1&
br, 200 tI. te, Ir & bl, 201 11, d, bl & br, 202 bl & e, 203 d & r, 206 Ir, 207 tr &
ber, 208 ti, 216 ti, 221 tI,222 r & bl, 225 te & br, ')')6 ti, 227 tI, 228 tl, tr, bl &
br, 229 tl, r & bt 232 br, 23..J Ir, 235 br, 236 tr, 2381, 239 tr, er & bl, bt 242
b, 2-15 b, 2-16 bl, tI, r & e, 2..JS tr & bl, 2-19 bl & br, 233 r,25-1 1& br, 255
br, 236 tl, 257 t1 & e, E8 1. 260 e, 262 br, 263 el, 266 br, 271 ti & bl, 272 1& r,
273 tr, er & bl, 279 te, 281 tr, 288 b, 289 tI, 290 bJ, 291 e, 292 br, [r, 295 lel
& br, 296 b, 297 br, 298, 301 1, tr & br, 302 1, 303 te & tr, 30-l br, 305 bl & tr,
308 ti, OACS 2003 308 be, 309 bl, 313 br, 31-1 tr & br, 315 br, ro DACS 2003
316 t,tc!, er, be & br, 317 ti, 319 bl, 320 be, 321 ti, 323 bl, 326 bl, 10 OACS 2003
327 er, 329 ti, tr, el & bl, 3331, 33-J br, 335 er & br, 336 tr & ber, 3-n b, 3-19 b,
358 ti, tr & el, 360 tr, 362 Ir, 366 br, OACS 2003 367 1, 370 b, 372 br, 373 tr,
bl & br, 37-1 bl, 375 t, er &bl,Cl FLC ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003
383 bJ. 391 tr, :E ARS, :,\Y and DACS, London 2003391 e, 392 bl & br, 39.J
bl, 396tr, el, & b, 397 te, 398 tr, tI & el, -lO6 bl & br, -112 b, d & er, -115
er, -117 be, tr, 426 tc!, -129 br, I & r, rn Ir, H3 bl & r, e & be, -138
e, tr, br & tr, lli tI, e, bl, e & be, -132 t, -I5-l bl,.fi6 tr, -l6O er, -162 br,
-165 e & br, -170 t -171 ti, d & bl, -1731, .J78 ti, -!SO bl & r, tr, -195 tI, 500
tr & bl, 502 el, loan from Anglepoise lid -119 le; "enturi, ScottBrown and
:-hsociatcs loe: bl; \ 19nelli Associates: -187 el; The \ intage \ lagaLinc
Company: -l8-I tI; Vtrginia \Iuseum of Fine Arts, Riehmond: Gifl of \Iiss
\Iary Sue Dew and \Irs Betsy Fauntleroy Foulds, in memoryof Or 5.1.muel
Griffin Jr, and Franees EliLabeth Clavbrookc Fauntlerov
- --
and their f.,mily, of \Iariah'a, King and Quecn County, Virginia, photo
Katherine \ Vetzel 210, Gift of Sydncy and Franees Lewis, pholo Kalherine
\Vet7.el 283 le & tr, 312 tr, 317 bl, bl, 335 el, 337bl, 334 ti & tr, 353 tl,:C
ADAGP, Paris and DACS, london 355 bl, 336 bl, 357 td & br,lti OACS 2003
370 t, 371 br, ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003 372 tr, Gift of the
Sydney and Frailees lelds Foundation, photo Katherine \ Vet7el 332 br, 3-J7
bl, 359 e, l\luseum Purehase, with fllnds prodded ,In anonymolls
donor, photo Katherine \ Vetzel 269 te, n'e Adolph O and \ Vilkins C
Williams Fund, photo Katherine \Ver/el 261 tl, The Sydney and Frilnees
le"'is Arl Nomeau Fund, photo Kalhcrine \ Vctzd, 3O-l tl, 310 tr, 321 te, 3-17
er, Bequest o Florenee H Lnder 323 ti; Vitra lid b; Vitra Design
l\lllsellm, Weil am Rhein 391 br; Vittorio Bonacina: -131 br; \V.,dsworth
Atheneum, Hartford: PurehaSl'CI from the Dadd Harris Cohen Estate
through the J Herbcrl Callisler Fund 372 CT; The WaJ]ilee Colleclion,
London, rcproduced by knd permission of lhe Tmstees: 26 tr, SO, 8-1 b, 86
bl, 126, 131 t, 1-16 1I & el, 138 br; The \\'arner Archhe: 125 er & br, 205 ti;
Trustees of The \\'edg'oHxKl \Iuseum, Barlaston, Staffordshirc: 107 bl, 166
ti & Ir, 167 er & bl; The Wellington \Iuseum, london: .o \'&t\ milges 161
ti; \\'endell Castle, lne -161 tr; The \\'hitworth Art Cn\'crsity of
\Iancnester: 2-10 I & e, 2-19 ti, te, bl & br, -172 ti & tr; \\illiam \Iorris
The lonclon Borough of Waltham Forest: 295 ebl; \\nterthur
\Iuseum, Delaware: 55 ti & er, 98 tI & br, 1>l11, 136 ti, b & r, 186 Ir, 20-l, be,
Partial funds for purchasc Gilt of h\o anonymousdonors 99 Ir, Gift of \Irs
E du Ponl ln:ing 186 le, Gft of \Irs Titus Bupey 186 below 1, Gift of \lr5
H.lTTY W Lungcr 186 below r, Gift of \Irs Charles K Da,is 18, br, 187 bl;
\Vorshiphll Company of Goldsmiths, Landon: 189 d, 2-13 be, -111 tel & tr,
tI, +42 te & b, +13 ti & e, -166 t & br; Helen Yardley: 301 e; York City Mt
Gallery: 397 tl & tr; Zanott" SpA: -187 bl.