Cha pte r 1

1.1

Introduction

Overview
Numerical simulators have come to play an increasingly important role in the
oil industry. Knowledge of their use, strengths and limitations as tools for the
evaluation and prediction of reservoir performance is valuable for
understanding and m1anaging petroleum reservoirs.
Prior to simulation, hand calculation methods were the basis for reservoir
management. Essentially, this required that elements of the overall problem
were de-coupled. Zero dimensional material balances, one and twodimensional flow analyses in single and two-phase flow, well performance and
lift were studied as separate independent problems. Success in applying the
highly idealized models depended on the engineer's skill in recognizing the
degree and the effects of interdependence and integrated concept of the whole
operation.
The advent of computer simulation, enabling full coupling of all elements of
the system, with increasingly detailed characterization of the reservoir, has
changed the situation dramatically. Now many difficult development scenarios
can be applied to several different geological interpretations so that key
uncertainties can be identified and data acquisition programs defined.
The situation has changed from one where much of the available data was used
only intuitively (through a highly personal 'expert system') to one where the
modern system can accommodate explicitly more data than is generally
available. This has the additional advantage that feed back is now possible, the
outcome or implications of particular interpretations can be fed back to
individual specialists for revision or confirmation. The continued
developments in mathematical methods of manipulating equations (Finite

1.
Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

1-1

Introduction

Difference, Finite Element, Boundary Integral, etc.) has been paralleled by

developments in characterization with local grid refinement, corner point
geometry, non-neighbor connections, etc.
Effective simulation still depends on the individual skills of the contributing
specialists. Without these skills model construction and history matching can
become arbitrary number generating exercises. The real objective, of
understanding how a reservoir will behave under an improved production
scenario, can be lost.
The degree of realism in the simulation predictions depends heavily upon the
quality of the reservoir description used. Reservoir description is an art of
combining data from different sources and scales (See Figure 1-1) and to find a
realization which is acceptable at a given time for the subsequent performance
studies. Reservoir characterization is a very complex task, details of which will
be presented in the related section of this manual. Some information will
become available only when a reservoir is in production, and inferences about
communication become possible, emphasizing the importance of the early
what if" scenarios. It is therefore a continuing exercise, identifying infill
drilling locations, potential pilot scheme areas, etc.
Reservoir simulation plays the central role in a reservoir management process.
It helps to assess the feasibility of any stage of the reservoir operations,
including prospect analysis, exploration and appraisal, development planning,
production operations and abandonment. Figures 1-2 and 1-3 demonstrate the
role of simulation at various stages of reservoir management activities. From
these Figures, it is clear that even at discovery stage, simulation plays a crucial
role in assessing the feasibility of the project and deciding to go ahead with the
appraisal stage. The reservoir description at this stage usually relies on data
obtained by one well, 2-D seismic calibrated by this well, and analog
information. Due to huge uncertainties, what if scenarios play a major role in
the decision mechanism. Many alternative scenarios provide the management a
broad view about the project robustness, the points of strength and weaknesses.
At the exploration stage, after every well is drilled, a review of the project
feasibility with the help of simulation has become a routine practice. The role
of simulation in development planning is of foremost importance especially in
offshore operations because of very high front end loading prior to a single
droplet of oil recovery (for a typical 1 billion bbls of STOIIP, the cost of the
installation is about the same in dollars). At later stages of field development
and exploitation, simulation allows continuous monitoring and assessment of
the feasibility of the project.

1-2

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

Figure 1-1:
S e is m ic

O u tc r o p

P o r e S c a le

C ore
o

o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o

o
o

o o
oo

o
o

o
o
o

o
o
o

W e ll te s t

W e ll L o g s

D a t a U p s c a li n g /D o w n s c a li n g
In t e g r a t io n

F in i t e E le m e n t M e s h

P (r

, t)
P (r

, t)

i+ 1

F in i t e D if f e r e n c e
f o r M a c r o - F lo w

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

M e sh

1-3

Introduction

Figure 1-2:

The Role of Simulation at Different Stages of Field Development

Discovery
Phase

2D
Seismic

Standard
Well Log

Core
Pressure
PVT
Measurements Measurements Analysis

Well
Tests

Upscaling

 

 



 

Reservoir
Simulation

O.K?

No!
Production
Planning

Yes!

Iterate?
Yes!

Appraisal
No?
Abandon
Field
Appraisal
Stage

3D
Seismic

Production

Logging

Interference
Testing

Outcrop
Surveys

Tracer
Testing

Upscaling

 

 



 

Update
Reservoir
Simulation

O.K?

No!
Revised
Production
Strategy

Iterate?

Yes!

Yes!
Appraisal
No?
Abandon
Field

1-4

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

Figure 1-3:
Additional Data
Development
Phase

4D
Seismic?

Well
Logging(Sor)

Tracer
Predrilled
Testing(Sor) Production
Prediction?

Predrilled
Production Prediction

Update

 

 







 

Upscaling

Reservoir
Simulation

O.K?

No!
Revised
Production
Strategy

Iterate?
Yes!
No?
What is
the next step?

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Yes!

Continue
with
Installing
Platform &
Implement
Production
Strategy

1-5

Introduction

1.2

Aim of the Book

The book consists of a series of lectures, supported by carefully designed
tutorials. These will give participants the opportunity to vary key parameters in
the models and establish the impact on field performance.
This course intends to:
develop, a reasonable understanding of the mechanics of reservoir

1-6

simulation, which is one of the preconditions for the effective use of the
simulators by the engineers and geoscientists. Lack of this knowledge
and understanding means inputting information and getting results without any appreciation of the relationship between them,
explain the limitations and the structural aspects of the models. If
these are not clearly understood, the users of the models will not be able
to prepare appropriate input data.
discuss with and develop amongst participants a sufficient background
on engineering and geologic data acquisition techniques, data structures, and data processing techniques,
review data scales and their interrelationships, soft data generation, and
in that respect, explain state of the art reservoir characterization and
reservoir model generation techniques. Normally, reservoir models
are fine grid realizations of the reservoirs, and may comprise tens of
millions of grid blocks with currently available resources,
develop a sufficient background on generating reservoir models for
simulation. Due to restrictions in computational resources, the simulation grid blocks are usually orders of magnitude greater than those used
in constructing fine grid reservoir models. This, therefore, requires
upscaling from a fine grid to a reservoir simulation grid. In depth discussion on the techniques used in single and multiphase case will be carried out both under static and dynamic conditions. The accuracy of the
simulation model, therefore, depends strongly on the reservoir characterization. As a consequence, incorrectly compiled data in building a
reservoir model, and improper use of upscaling procedures will yield
unacceptable results.
develop skills in conducting a simulation study, and framework for
checking the results, their quality and integrity.
discuss the current modeling practices, the models available with
their unique features, and the degree of consistency among them.
form the necessary background on history matching using simulators.

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

1.3

Definitions and Descriptions

The dictionary meaning of the word 'simulate' is to give an appearance of ',' to
make so as to resemble the real or genuine thing' or in other words 'to imitate
or create the conditions of'. The word Simulation refers to 'utilization of a
model to obtain some insight into the behavior of a real system'. To simulate
any physical process is, therefore, a means to investigate behavior through a
system necessary which is called a model. Models can be of two types,
namely:
1.

Physical Model: It is essentially a scaled down reproduction of the original.

2.

Mathematical Model: It is a system of equations describing the physical

behavior of the process of concern.
The core of the reservoir simulator is the mathematical model and in this
context a reservoir simulator can be defined as:
'The process of inferring the behavior of a hydrocarbon reservoir from the
performance of a mathematical model of that reservoir'
The mathematical model of a reservoir simulator is a set of partial differential equations with appropriate boundary conditions sufficient to represent
the physical processes that may occur in a reservoir. These partial differential equations are always non-linear meaning that the primary unknowns of
the system such as saturation, pressure and concentration exhibit non-linear
A typical flow equation is given below:


-
S
----------- + ----------- + ---------- = ----------
x x y x z z
t

(1)

where is formation volume factor, t is time, S is saturation, x, y and z are

cartesian co-ordinate directions, is porosity, flow potential. If there are
three phases in a given medium (oil + water + gas), then, there are three
similar partial differential equations. In the above equation, permeabilities,
porosities, flow potentials, formation volume factors, viscosities are to be
calculated simultaneously.
Except in a few simple cases like Buckley-Leverett type displacement
problems, an analytical solution to the partial differential equations cannot
be found due to these non-linearities. This has tempted mathematicians to

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

1-7

Introduction

explore approximate solution techniques to the full mathematical model

with complete reservoir description. These solutions are numerical in their
nature. Most frequently, there are two classes of numerical solutions used;
namely, finite element and finite difference methods. It follows from this
that a mathematical model should be translated into an approximate numerical model. The reservoir simulator is then an implementation of numerical
algorithms on a computer in the form of software to find an approximate
solution to the mathematical model.
The approximate solutions to the flow equations are based on gridded realizations of the petroleum reservoirs. This is a final outcome of the efforts
summarized by Figure 1-1. For each node in the grid system, a value for
the following parameters is required:
Permeability
Porosity
Thickness
Elevation
Grid dimensions
Initial saturation for each phase
Initial pressure
Rock compressibility

Fluid characteristics are assigned by the following relationships:

Oil formation volume factor versus pressure
Water formation volume factor versus pressure
Gas formation volume factor versus pressure
Oil viscosity versus pressure
Water viscosity versus pressure
Gas viscosity versus pressure
Solution gas-oil ratio versus pressure
Solution gas-water ratio versus pressure
Liquid to gas ratio versus pressure
Oil density
Gas density
Water density

The interactions of forces between rock and fluids are given by the following saturation dependent functions:

1-8

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

Relative permeability for each phase

Capillary pressure between oil and water
Capillary pressure between gas and oil

Additional data may come from wells and include:

Producing interval.
Oil production rate versus time
Water production rate versus time
Gas production rate versus time
Observed pressure versus time

1.4

Major Steps in a Simulation Study

These are:
1.

Reservoir Description: Starting with a meaningful subdivision of a given

reservoir into hydraulic units; further discretization of hydraulic units into
grid blocks, and arriving at estimates of the parameters in the governing
flow equations describes the process as a function of spatial position. The
parameter estimates have the meaning of average or pseudo values at the
scale of grid block in the discretized version of a continuous reservoir. The
deliverable will be a reservoir model. The resolution of the reservoir model
may go up to hundreds of millions of mesh points.

2.

Recovery Mechanism Identification: The decision has to be made concerning the method of recovery like water injection, gravity drainage, natural
depletion, gas injection, etc.

3.

Mathematical Model: Selection of mathematical model is required here

which may be black oil formulation, compositional formulation, single
phase model, multi-phase model, single dimension, multi-dimension, etc.

4.

Engineering Model: This is also called simulation model. The objective is

to generate an acceptable representation of the reservoir based on the reservoir model generated. Due to computational resource limitations, the grid
to be used for the engineering model can be much coarser than the reservoir model (on the order of tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands). To
this end, some upscaling efforts are carried out.

5.

Numerical Model: There are several different numerical models available

including: Finite Element Model, Finite Difference Model, Boundary Integral Model, and Streamlines Model. Among these, the Finite Difference

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

1-9

Introduction

approach is the most commonly used approach, almost to the exclusion of

others.
6.

Computer Model: (ECLIPSE, etc.)

7.

Validate Model: Prior to a History Match, the model needs to be validated.

This may be done by comparing STOIIP estimate using, for example, the
Monte-Carlo Approach or Deterministic Approach. Fine-tuning may be
necessary around the control points (say wells) by matching well test pressures, production rates and the expected disturbances in the vicinity of the
wellbore during the tests. The gridded reservoir realization must also conform with the reservoir description.

8.

History Match: The model is compared with the available history and finetuning of the model is made when necessary. The quality of the history
match depends heavily upon the quality and the degree of realism in the
reservoir description efforts.

9.

Performance Predictions: Once a satisfactory history match is obtained,

performance predictions can be carried out.

10.

Update: The whole process may be updated starting from the reservoir description.

Probably the best known application of numerical reservoir modeling is that of

matching historical performance and then predicting future reservoir behavior.
In matching, one uses the best data available to estimate all of the parameters
listed in the previous paragraph. Then the wells are allowed to produce at the
observed rate for one of the phases. Next, pressure behavior for all wells and
the production rate of the remaining phases are calculated. Calculated
pressures and rates are then compared with observed pressures and rates. The
comparison between these two sets of values will indicate how accurate an
initial estimate was made for the input data. Next, it may be necessary to
modify some of the input data until all observed and calculated data compare
favorably. No hard and fast rules exist to indicate when a match is obtained.
The number of runs made prior to obtaining a satisfactory match depends on
the complexity of the reservoir and the length of history. When a match is
achieved in this manner, a rather sophisticated reservoir representation has
been obtained, and it can be used to predict the future behavior of the field.
During prediction, one may set the desired production rates for all wells or for
the entire field. Another option is to set a production rate to be maintained until
the reservoir pressure falls to a certain point. The various criteria imposed on
prediction runs are usually meant to reflect alternative development/ depletion
scenarios. Each prediction run will represent a specific physical development

1 - 10

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

plan or reservoir management scheme to be evaluated. Then, with these

hypothetical rate schedules, the economic performance of the field is studied.
In this manner, various exploitation schemes may be evaluated, economics
may be applied to the results, and the "optimum" exploitation scheme may be
selected.
A word of caution appears warranted. The reservoir representation was
calibrated with a certain kind of history; for example, depletion at moderate
rates. One should not expect any degree of accuracy if suddenly the
mechanism is changed to that of water injection without any history to predict
the behavior of that water injection scheme. Similarly, if suddenly the field is
produced at very high rates causing pressure to drop below the bubble point,
the predicted results should be viewed with caution. A general rule of thumb
may be that one should not predict more than twice the period used for
matching under similar modes of operation. Particular care is necessary when
using a model to predict behavior when no history is available for calibrating
the model.
Although reservoir modeling was originally used to study overall field
performance and to predict that performance following matching, it has many
other applications. Considerable use can be made of these models to study
sections of fields, which are considered to be typical. Then, by assigning the
best known values to that section, one may study the field's producing
mechanisms. One may then change some of the parameters to see what effect
they have on the overall mechanism. In turn, one may find what parameter(s)
need additional study in the laboratory or the field in order to better understand
the performance observed in the field.
Numerical reservoir modeling is, however, a tool and is best used in
conjunction with the other types of tools. Ideally, the results of the different
types of analysis will tend to reinforce the conclusions of each, leading to a
higher degree of confidence in the answer.
Over the past two decades, reservoir simulators have gained wide acceptance
and have become a standard tool for reservoir engineers. The tremendous
increase in computing speed and capacity (by a factor of approximately 1000)
has helped to drive this acceptance. This reduction in unit cost; development of
new and efficient algorithms, and the ability of the simulators to handle most
general features of hydrocarbon reservoirs makes simulation a useful
engineering tool.

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

1 - 11

Introduction

1.5

Classification of Simulators
1.5.1

Classification Based on Linearization

Due to strong non-linearity of Equation (1), it is necessary to
linearize it to obtain unknown parameters. Hence, the first
classification of the simulators is based on the linearization technique
used. There are two generic techniques, namely:
IMPES: Implicit Pressure and Explicit Saturation. In this application,
flow equations of water, oil and gas are coupled and solved first for
pressure and then saturation. This technology assumes that the
change in capillary pressure over a time step should be negligible. In
addition, the pressures are calculated by the old time level saturation
and pressure dependent parameters. They are updated after pressures
and saturations are updated.
Fully Implicit: In this application, all of the unknowns are solved
simultaneously. The flow equations are linearized by using
Newtonian approach.

1.5.2

Classification Based on Fluid Characteristics

Simulators are classified based on fluid characterization as Black Oil
Simulators or Compositional Simulators.

1 - 12

1.

Black Oil Simulators: This type of simulator treats hydrocarbons

as two components; gas and oil. They are applicable to dissolved
gas, medium gravity oil-bearing reservoirs under moderate reservoir pressures and temperatures. They can be applied to almost all
conventional water flooding simulation studies. If the oil formation volume factor is less than two, they can safely be applied to
solution-gas drive, gas cap expansion or gas injection studies.
Black oil simulators can also be used for some cases where the
formation volume factor is greater than 2. That is possible if oil
and gas formation volume factors, gas in solution, and oil and gas
viscosities, are plotted as a function of pressure and can be determined accurately by calculation or experiment.

2.

Compositional Simulators: Compositional simulators are those

which use cubic Equations of State forms like Peng Robinson,
Soave-Redlich-Kwong, Redlich-Kwong, Schmidt Wenzel and Patel-Teja. Instead of tracking the phases, as in Black Oil Simulators, track constituent components of hydrocarbons like Methane,
Ethane, Butane, Propane, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, etc. Because

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

of this multicomponent treatment of reservoir fluids, the simulation is capable of handling:

Enhance Oil Recovery by carbon-Dioxide or enriched gas
injection, Multiple Contact Miscibility studies
Natural depletion and Injection of Gases such as Nitrogen or
residue gas into gas condensate reservoirs.
Natural Depletion or Gas Injection into Volatile Oil Reservoirs.
Re-evaporation of residual oil by injecting residual gas

Despite the excellent capability of simulating the compositional

phenomena in gas condensate reservoirs, compositional simulators
can be as much as 100 times more expensive than black oil
simulators. The main source of this additional computation cost is the
Equation of State (EOS) calculations (which may be up to 80% of the
total cost).
1.5.3

Classification Based on Temperature Dependence

Isothermal: Simulators that consider the temperature of the reservoir constant
Thermal: In this case the following equations are involved:
1. Energy equation.

1.5.4

2.

Oxygen for in-situ conditions

3.

Gas for in-situ conditions

4.

Hydrocarbon components: light, medium and heavy components may be necessary

5.

Phase: gas, liquid and solid phases (4 phase: oil + water + gas
+ solid)

Classification Based on Grid Dimensions and Types

(See Figures 1-4 to 1-8):
1-Dimensional: These models cannot be used for fieldwide
simulation applications because they cannot handle either areal
sweep or the gravity effects. They can be used for sensitivity towards
some selected reservoir parameters prior to full-scale simulation. The
effect of viscous forces and mobility ratios on the recovery can be
tested. They are especially used for testing the accuracy of the
simulators against known analytic solutions like that of BuckleyLeverett. Also, most of the finite difference techniques can be tested

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

1 - 13

Introduction

first with one-dimensional case and then their use can be extended to
multi-dimensions. They are also useful in assessing the heterogeneity
in the direction of flow.
1-Dimensional Cartesian - Horizontal.
1-Dimensional Cartesian -Vertical: These are usually used for
vertical equilibrium.
1-Dimensional Radial: In addition to general objectives as stated,
they are also used for assessing the productivity impairment in gas
condensate reservoirs as well as volatile oil reservoirs. They can also
simulate well testing (i.e. radial flow).

Figure 1-4: Grid Dimensions

X

(a) 1-D Linear

r
(b) 1-D Radial

(c) 1-D VE

1 - 14

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

2-Dimensional: These include areal cartesian, areal radial and cross-sectional

cartesian, and cross-sectional radial models.
2-Dimensional Cartesian Areal: Although petroleum reservoirs are three
dimensional, in some cases, especially for thin reservoirs where gravitational effects are negligible, Z-direction may not be important. Under the
circumstances, these type of models are used when areal flow patterns
dominate the reservoir performance; and if the areal heterogeneities are important. Most areal models use pseudo functions to account for flow in vertical direction. However, they are not necessary if the reservoir is thin and
stratification is not important. Under the circumstances, normal reservoir
engineering studies can be carried out with these models including well position optimization; distribution of injection and withdrawal rates; timing
for installation of artificial lift and modification of surface facilities.
2-Dimensional Radial Areal: This model investigates the effect of well
performance as in the case of 1-Dimensional radial models, with the addition of areal heterogeneities.
2-Dimensional Cross-sectional Cartesian: In this case, instead of neglecting flow in the vertical direction, one of the horizontal directions can
be discounted. This type of model can be used in cases where vertical flow
is dominant. A highly stratified reservoir is a typical case study for this
type of model. The effect of segregation and the effect of stratification are
the main focus areas in this type of modeling. They are also used in developing well functions, pseudo functions and coning functions; simulating
peripheral gas injection. Crestal gas injection, or other processes in which
frontal velocities toward producers are largely uniform help to justify simplification in modeling of entire fields or field segments. Studying miscible
processes to assess the gravity and heterogeneities on displacement efficiency and the sweep efficiency are also candidates.
2-Dimensional Cross-Sectional Radial: This model is also applied to reservoirs where gravity forces and stratification dominate the flow, and areal
property distribution of the reservoir is relatively homogeneous. This approach is used particularly to investigate the coning problem. They can also
be used to develop coning functions and well functions.

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

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Introduction

Figure 1-5: Grid Dimensions

AREAL-CARTESIAN

CROSS-SECTIONAL CARTESIAN

AREAL-RADIAL

2-DIMENSIONAL DOMAN
REALISATIONS
CROSS SECTIONAL RADIAL

1 - 16

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

Figure 1-6: Grid Dimensions

lock Centered Geometry

5800

3000

4000

5000

6000

6200

6600

7000

7400

7800

Block Centered Geometry XZ plane

orner Point Geometry

5800

3000

4000

5000

6000

6200

6600

7000

7400

7800

Corner point Geometry XZ plane

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

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Introduction

3-Dimensional Models: They can be Cartesian, Radial-Cylindrical or

Spherical.
3-Dimensional Cartesian: Reservoir geometry can sometimes be too
complex to be represented by two-dimension. For example, reservoirs having shales or other flow barriers that are continuous over large areas, but
with permeable windows where crossflow occurs, are difficult, if not impossible, with two dimensions. Reservoir mechanics may be so complex
that two-dimensional realizations are difficult to analyze. Reservoirs which
are at a more advanced stage of depletion fall into this category and require
careful and precise modeling to distinguish between performances resulting from alternative depletion plans. The displacement to be studied may
be dominated by vertical flow as, for example, near wells where both cusping and coning may occur. Both areal and vertical details needed can be obtained only in a 3D segment model. Occasionally 2-D studies are more
troublesome and expensive than 3-D modeling. Reservoirs with a complex
facies structure may require an excessive number of pseudoisations to be
represented with two dimensions.
3-Dimensional Cylindrical: This model has the same objectives as 1-D radial, 2-D Radial areal and 2-D radial cross-sectional models. In addition, it
is able to capture the impact of vertical and areal heterogeneities on the
flow.
3-Dimensional Spherical: This approach is used to investigate the partial
penetration effects on well testing results and to model minipermeametry
flow.

1 - 18

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Introduction

Figure 1-7: Grid Dimensions

3-DIMENSIONAL
CARTESIAN
3-DIMENSIONAL
CYLINDRICAL

Figure 1-8: Grid Dimensions

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

1 - 19

Introduction

1.6

Benefits of Reservoir Simulators

The reason for using reservoir simulators is to estimate reservoir performance
under a variety of production schemes. We have only a single opportunity to
produce from an actual reservoir with a considerable expense whereas with
simulation we can test several alternatives and assess them prior to deciding
the actual field operation. The cost of simulation is considerably cheaper and
the time necessary is usually negligible to the actual operation. Some of the
applications and the benefits of the simulation can be summed up as follows:

1 - 20

1.

The performance of a hydrocarbon reservoir under natural depletion, water

injection or cycling can be examined.

2.

Type of water flooding can be judged. For example, it is possible to see the
relative merits of flank water injection and pattern waterflooding.

3.

The effect of well location and spacing can be critically evaluated.

4.

The effect of the production rate on the hydrocarbon recovery can be estimated.

5.

For a given number of wells at certain specified locations, it is possible to

predict total field gas deliverability.

6.

In heterogeneous hydrocarbon reservoirs, it is possible to estimate the leaseline drainage.

7.

To maximize hydrocarbon recovery, best methods of field development

and production schemes can be found.

8.

Best Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) scheme and its implementation can be
determined.

9.

The reasons why the reservoir behavior deviates from the earlier predictions can be explained.

10.

The ultimate economic hydrocarbon recovery can be predicted.

11.

Laboratory and field data requirements and their subsequent effect on the
performance predictions can be assessed.

12.

The best completion schemes for the wells can be established.

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

1.7

13.

The section of reservoir from which the hydrocarbon is produced can be

identified.

14.

Critical parameters to be measured from the field in an application of a recovery scheme can be identified.

15.

It is possible to decide whether it is necessary to do physical model studies

of the reservoir and if so how can the findings can be scaled up for field applications.

ECLIPSE State of the Art Reservoir Simulator

Immense advances in the areas of data acquisition and integration, especially
in the last 10 years, dictate ever increasing complexities in reservoir
description in order to model reservoir behavior. The detail required by
reservoir management and the detail introduced by the integrated
multidisciplinary reservoir characterization efforts, require robust and fast
simulation technologies which are parallelisable and cost effective. These
technologies must be able to cope with all of the complexities of the field
production and operations and must be flexible to absorb new concepts. They
must be user friendly as the ever-growing demand for the simulators
encourages non-specialists to make use of them in their day to day field
management efforts. In this respect, the front-end processors of such
applications must be able to detect the physical inconsistencies in the input
data to a measurable degree. The increasing demand for the simulators also
dictates that simulation software be available for PC's as well as workstations.
The pre and post processing facilities must be extremely powerful so that
engineers and geoscientists can monitor their simulation studies efficiently.
Integration of various different data processing and simulation modules and
data transferability between them is another important aspect required within
the current reservoir management environment. In fact, the advances in data
exchange and integration between different disciplines in the recent years have
begun forming the firm and necessary basis for multi-disciplinary co-operation
and working.
ECLIPSE has been a leading state of the art software in the oil industry
dominating currently 70% of the market. Some of the main reasons for its
dominant role in the oil industry are its stability, robustness, and high degree of
material conservation, mathematical accuracy and flexibility. The available
functions of the ECLIPSE are summarized in the form of need and solution:

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

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Introduction

1 - 22

NEED

SOLUTION

Handling multi-phase flow problems

Eclipse 100, Eclipse 200 and Eclipse 300

Handling Complex Geometries

Block-center geometry, Corner Point Geometry, Unstructured Gridding, Pebby/Voronoi Gridding, Non-Neighbor
Connections and Local Grid Refinement

Unconditional stability and robustness

Fully Implicit

Compromise solution between accuracy and

computational speed

IMPES and Adaptive Implicit

Modeling Structural Geological Features like

faults

Non-Neighbor Connections

Flexibility in Model Size and Representation

Run Time Dimensioning

Modeling Segregated flow in vertical direction

Vertical Equilibrium

Fractured Reservoir Modeling

Dual Porosity and Dual Porosity/permeability options

Relative Permeability and Capillary Pressure

Treatment

Directional Relative Permeabilities, Relative Permeability

and Capillary Pressure hysteresis, Saturation Table Scaling

Gas Field Operations, Gas Lift Optimization

ECLIPSE 200

PVT Data

ECLIPSE 100 and 200 for Black Oil data ECLIPSE 300
for Compositional data, API Tracking

Modeling Flow of Methane in Coalbed

ECLIPSE 200

Collapse of pore channels due to change in the

pore pressure

Rock Compaction Option

Designing and modeling single well and interwell tracer testing

Tracer Tracking

Cold water injection into a reservoir cooling

effects need to be handled, energy conservation
must be maintained

Temperature Model

Modeling First Contact and Multiple Contract

Miscibilities

ECLIPSE 300 compositional formulation ECLIPSE 100/

200 three component model to handle First Contact Miscibility

Managing Field and Well schedules

Individual Well Controls Group and Field Production Controls Multi-Level Grouping Hierarchy Group Injection
Controls Sales Gas Production Control Crossflow and Comingling in Wells Highly Deviated/Slanted and Horizontal
Wells Special Facilities for Gas Wells Surface Networks

Modeling Polymer, Surfactant and Foam

ECLIPSE 200

Accurate Distribution of Initial Fluid in Place

Fine Grid Equilibration

Aquifer Modeling

Non-neighbor Connections Analytic Aquifers (Fetkovitch

and Carter Tracy) Numerical Aquifers

Interpolation of sparse data

FILL Program

Flow in the Wellbore

VFP Module comprising the following options:-Aziz,

Govier and Fogarasi Orkiszewski, Hagedorn and Brown,
Beggs and Brill Mukherjee and Brill, Gray

Pre and Post Processing Facility

GRID, GRAF, and RT View

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

Introduction

NEED

SOLUTION

Well Test Interpretation and Analysis

Well Test 200

Accurate and Efficient Preparation, Evaluation

and Quality Checking of the Well Production
and Completion Data

SCHEDULE

Relative Permeability and Capillary Pressure

Pseudoisations

PSEUDO

Coupling Multiple reservoirs and Parallelization Compatibility

ECLIPSE 200

Between Different Modules

YES

Automatic History Matching

Sim Opt

Applied Reservoir Simulation by Dr. Tayyar Sezgin DALTABAN

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Introduction

References
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Introduction

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