Chapter 1.

Ray Optics
Postulates of Ray Optics
c
n
v

A
B
ds
Reflection and Refraction
Reflection and Refraction
Fermats Principle: Law of Reflection
Fermats Principle: Law of Reflection
Fermats principle:
Light rays will travel from point A to point B in a medium
along a path that minimizes the time of propagation.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 3 3 2
1 1 3 3
2 1 3 2
2 2 2 2
2
1 2 1 3 3 2
2 1 3 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 3 3 2
, , ,
1 1
2 2 1
2 2
0
0
0 sin sin
sin sin
AB
AB
i r
i r
OPL n x y y n x y y
Fix x y x y
n y y n y y
dOPL
dy
x y y x y y
n y y n y y
x y y x y y
n n

= + + +

= = +
+ +

=
+ +
=
=
x
y
(x
1
, y
1
)
(0, y
2
)
(x
3
, y
3
)

i
A
B
i r
=
: Law of reflection
Fermats Principle: Law of Refraction
Fermats Principle: Law of Refraction
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 1 1 3 2 3
1 1 3 3
2 1 3 2
2 2 2 2
2
2 1 1 3 2 3
2 1 3 2
2 2 2 2
2 1 1 3 2 3
, , ,
1 1
2 2 1
2 2
0
0
0 sin sin
sin sin
AB i t
i t
AB
i t
i i t t
i i t t
OPL n x x y n x x y
Fix x y x y
n x x n x x
d OPL
dy
x x y x x y
n x x n x x
x x y x x y
n n
n n


= + + +

= = +
+ +

=
+ +
=
=
Law of refraction:
x
y
(x
1
, y
1
)
(x
2
, 0)
(x
3
, y
3
)

i
A
n
i
n
t
i i t t
n n =
: Law of refraction
in paraxial approx.
Refraction Snells Law :
???? n n
t i
0 <
t t i i
n n sin sin =
Negative index of refraction : n < 0
RHM N > 1
LHM
N = -1
Principle of reversibility
Principle of reversibility
Reflection in plane mirrors
Reflection in plane mirrors
Plane surface Image formation
Plane surface Image formation
Total internal Reflection (TIR)
Total internal Reflection (TIR)
Imaging by an Optical System
Imaging by an Optical System
Cartesian Surfaces
Cartesian Surfaces
A Cartesian surface those which form perfect
images of a point object
E.g. ellipsoid and hyperboloid
O I
Imaging by Cartesian reflecting surfaces
Imaging by Cartesian reflecting surfaces
Imaging by Cartesian refracting Surfaces
Imaging by Cartesian refracting Surfaces
Approximation by Spherical Surfaces
Approximation by Spherical Surfaces
Reflection at a Spherical Surface
Reflection at a Spherical Surface
Reflection at Spherical Surfaces I
Reflection at Spherical Surfaces I
Use paraxial or small-angle approximation
for analysis of optical systems:
3 5
2 4
sin
3! 5!
cos 1 1
2! 4!

= +
= +
L
L
Reflection from a spherical
convex surface gives rise to
a virtual image.
Rays appear to emanate
from point I behind the
spherical reflector.
Reflection at Spherical Surfaces II
Reflection at Spherical Surfaces II
Considering Triangle OPC and
then Triangle OPI we obtain:
2

= + = +
Combining these relations we obtain:
2

=
Again using the small angle approximation:
tan tan tan
h h h
s s R

Reflection at Spherical Surfaces III

Reflection at Spherical Surfaces III
Image distance s' in terms of the object distance s and mirror radius R:
1 1 2
2
h h h
s s R s s R
= =

At this point the sign convention in the book is changed !
1 1 2
s s R
+ =

The following sign convention must be followed in using this equation:

1. Assume that light propagates from left to right.
Object distance s is positive when point O is to the left of point V.
2. Image distance s' is positive when I is to the left of V (real image)
and negative when to the right of V (virtual image).
3. Mirror radius of curvature R is positive for C to the right of V (convex),
negative for C to left of V (concave).
Reflection at Spherical Surfaces IV
Reflection at Spherical Surfaces IV
The focal length f of the spherical mirror surface is defined as R/2, where R is
the radius of curvature of the mirror. In accordance with the sign convention of
the previous page, f > 0 for a concave mirror and f < 0 for a convex mirror.
The imaging equation for the spherical mirror can be rewritten as
1 1 1
s s f
+ =

2
s
R
f
=
=
R < 0
f > 0
R > 0
f < 0
Reflection at Spherical Surfaces VII
Reflection at Spherical Surfaces VII
1 1 1
0
0
s f
s f s
s
m
s
> = >

= <
1 1 1
0
0
s f
s f s
s
m
s
< = <

= >
Real, Inverted Image Virtual Image, Not Inverted
Refraction
Refraction
Prisms
Prisms
Beamsplitters
Beamsplitters
Spherical boundaries and lenses
Spherical boundaries and lenses
n
2
> n
1
At point P we apply the law of
refraction to obtain
1 1 2 2
sin sin n n =
Using the small angle
approximation we obtain
1 1 2 2
n n =
Substituting for the angles
1
and

2
we obtain
( ) ( )
1 2
n n

=
Neglecting the distance QV and
writing tangents for the angles gives
1 2
h h h h
n n
s R s R


=





Refraction by Spherical Surfaces
Refraction by Spherical Surfaces
n
2
> n
1
Rearranging the equation we obtain
Using the same sign convention as
for mirrors we obtain
1 2 1 2
n n n n
s s R

1 2 2 1
n n n n
P
s s R

+ = =

P : power of the refracting surface

Example : Concept of imaging by a lens
Example : Concept of imaging by a lens
Thin (refractive) lenses
Thin (refractive) lenses
The Thin Lens Equation I
The Thin Lens Equation I
O
O'
t
C
2
C
1
n
1
n
1
n
2
s
1
s'
1
1 2 2 1
1 1 1
n n n n
s s R

+ =

V
1
V
2
For surface 1:
The Thin Lens Equation II
The Thin Lens Equation II
1 2 2 1
1 1 1
n n n n
s s R

+ =

For surface 1:
2 1 1 2
2 2 2
n n n n
s s R

+ =

For surface 2:
2 1
s t s

=
Object for surface 2 is virtual, with s
2
given by:
2 1 2 1
, t s s s s

=
For a thin lens:
1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2
1 2
1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
n n n n n n n n n n
P P
s s s s s s R R

+ + = + = + = +

Substituting this expression we obtain:
The Thin Lens Equation III
The Thin Lens Equation III
( )
2 1
1 2 1 1 2
1 1 1 1
n n
s s n R R

+ =

Simplifying this expression we obtain:
( )
2
2
2
1
1
1 1
1 1 1 1
s
n n
s
s
s
s
n
s
R R

= =

+ =

For the thin lens:

( )
2 1
1 1 2
1 1 1 1
n n
f n R R
s
s
= =

=


The focal length for the thin lens is found by setting s = :
The Thin Lens Equation IV
The Thin Lens Equation IV
In terms of the focal length f the thin lens equation becomes:
1 1 1
s s f
+ =

The focal length of a thin lens is

positive for a convex lens,
negative for a concave lens.
Image Formation by Thin Lenses
Image Formation by Thin Lenses
Convex
Lens
Concave
Lens
s
m
s

=
Image Formation by Convex Lens
Image Formation by Convex Lens
1 1 1
5 9 f cm s cm s
s f s
m s s

= = + = + =

= =
Convex Lens, focal length = 5 cm:
F
F
h
o
h
i
RI
Image Formation by Concave Lens
Image Formation by Concave Lens
Concave Lens, focal length = -5 cm:
1 1 1
5 9 f cm s cm s
s f s
m s s

= = = + =

= =
F
F
h
o
h
i
VI
Image Formation: Two-Lens System I
Image Formation: Two-Lens System I
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2
1 1 1
15 25
1 1 1
15
s f
f cm s cm s
s f s s f
f cm s s
s f s
m m m

= = = + = + =

= = = =

= =
60 cm
Image Formation: Two-Lens System II
Image Formation: Two-Lens System II
1 1 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2
1 1 1
3.5 5.2
1 1 1
1.8
f cm s cm s
s f s
f cm s s
s f s
m m m
= = + = + =

= = + = =

= =
7 cm
Image Formation Summary Table
Image Formation Summary Table
Image Formation Summary Figure
Image Formation Summary Figure
Vergence and refractive power : Diopter
Vergence and refractive power : Diopter
1 1 1
s s f
+ =

' V V P + =
reciprocals
Vergence (V) : curvature of wavefront at the lens
Refracting power (P)
Diopter (D) : unit of vergence (reciprocal length in meter)
D > 0
D < 0
1m
0.5m
2 diopter
1 diopter
1 m
-1 diopter
1 2 3
P P P P = + + +L
Two more useful equations
Two more useful equations
2-12. Cylindrical lenses
2-12. Cylindrical lenses
Cylindrical lenses
Cylindrical lenses
Top view
Side view
D. Light guides
D. Light guides
1-3. Graded-index (GRIN) optics
1-3. Graded-index (GRIN) optics
Rays in heterogeneous media
Rays in heterogeneous media
The optical path length between two points x 1 and x 2 through which a ray passes is
Written in terms of parameter s ,
Because the optical path length integral is an extremum (Fermat principle),
the integrand L satisfies the Euler equations.
For an arbitrary coordinate system , with coordinates q1 , q2 , q3,
GRIN
GRIN
In Cartesian Coordinates with Parameter = s .
In Cartesian coordinates so the x equation is
Similar equations hold for y and z .
Ray equation
Paraxial Ray Equation ds ~ dz
GRIN slab : n = n(y)
GRIN slab : n = n(y)
Derivation of the Paraxial Ray Equation in a Graded-Index Slab Using Snells Law
The two angles are related by Snells law,
Ex. 1.3-1 GRIN slab with
Ex. 1.3-1 GRIN slab with
Assuming an initial position y(0) = y
o
, dy/dz =
o
at z = 0,
GRIN fibers
GRIN fibers
1.4 Matrix optics : Ray transfer matrix
1.4 Matrix optics : Ray transfer matrix
In the par-axial approximation,
What is the ray-transfer matrix
What is the ray-transfer matrix
How to use the ray-transfer matrices
How to use the ray-transfer matrices
How to use the ray-transfer matrices
How to use the ray-transfer matrices
Translation Matrix
Translation Matrix
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1
tan
1
0 1
1 1
0 1 0 1
y y L y L
y y L
y
y y y L x x

= = + +
= +
= +

= =


( y
o
,
o
)
( y
1
,
1
)
L
Refraction Matrix
Refraction Matrix
' :
1
1
y
R
y
R
y
R
Paraxial Snell s Law n n
y n y n y y n n
y
R n R n R R R n n






= =
= =
= +

=


= = = + = +



( ) ( )
1 0
1 0
: 0
1
1 : 0
y y
y y Concave surface R
n n
Convex surface R
R n n

= +

<


=



>




y=y
Reflection Matrix
Reflection Matrix
( ) ( )
( )
:
2
1 0
2
1
1 0
2
1
y y y
R R R
Law of Reflection
y y
y
R R R
y y
y
R
y y
R

= = = + = + = +

=
= + = + = +
= +

= +

=




y=y
Thick Lens Matrix I
Thick Lens Matrix I
0 0 1
1
0 0 1
1
1 0
:
L
L L
y y y
Refraction at first surface M n n n
n R n




= =





2 1 1
2
2 1 1
1
1 2 :
0 1
y y y t
Translation from st surface to nd surface M


= =


3 2 2
3
3 2 2
2
1 0
:
L L
y y y
Refraction at second surface M n n n
n R n




= =






Thick Lens Matrix II
Thick Lens Matrix II
( )
( )
( )
1
2
1
1
2 1 1 2
:
1 1 0
1
1 1
L
L L
L L
L
L L
L
L L
L
L L L
L L
Assuming n n
t n n
t n
n R n
M n n n
n n n
n R n
n R n
t n n
t n
n R n
t n n
n n n n n n
t
n R n R n R n R
=

+




=

+


=



+ + +




2 1
1 0 1 0
1
0 1
L L L
L L
t
M n n n n n n
n R n n R n



=






3 2 1
: Thick lens matrix M M M M =
Thin Lens Matrix
Thin Lens Matrix
2 1
1 2
:
1 0
1 1
1
1 1 1
1 0
1
1
L
L
Thin lens matrix
M
n n
n R R
n n
but
f n R R
M
f


=

=




=

The thin lens matrix is found by setting t = 0:
n
L
Summary of Matrix Methods
Summary of Matrix Methods
Summary of Matrix Methods
Summary of Matrix Methods
System Ray-Transfer Matrix
System Ray-Transfer Matrix
Introduction to
Matrix Methods
in Optics, A.
Gerrard and J .
M. Burch
1
1
y

2 2
2 2
n
n
y

+
+



System Ray-Transfer Matrix
System Ray-Transfer Matrix
Any paraxial optical system, no matter how complicated, can be
represented by a 2x2 optical matrix. This matrix M is usually denoted
: system matrix
A B
M
C D

=


A useful property of this matrix is that
0
Det
f
n
M AD BC
n
= =
where n
0
and n
f
are the refractive indices of the initial and final media of
the optical system. Usually, the medium will be air on both sides of the
optical system and
0
Det 1
f
n
M AD BC
n
= = =
Significance of system matrix
elements
Significance of system matrix
elements
The matrix elements of the system matrix can be analyzed
to determine the cardinal points and planes of an optical system.
0
0
f
f
y
y A B
C D

=




Lets examine the implications
when any of the four elements of the system matrix is equal to zero.
0 0
0 0
f
f
y Ay B
Cy D

= +
= +
D=0 : input plane = first focal plane
A=0 : output plane = second focal plane
B=0 : input and output planes correspond to conjugate planes
C=0 : telescopic system
D=0
A=0
B=0
C=0
System Matrix with D=0
System Matrix with D=0
Lets see what happens when D = 0.
0
0
0 0
0
0
f
f
f
f
y
y A B
C
y Ay B
Cy

=




= +
=
When D = 0, the input plane for the optical system is the input focal plane.
Ex) Two-Lens System
Ex) Two-Lens System
f
1
= +50 mm f
2
= +30 mm
q = 100 mm
r s
Input
Plane
Output
Plane
F
1
F
2
F
1
F
2
T
1
R
1
R
2
T
3
T
2
0
3 2 2 1 1
0
2 1
1
2 1 1 2
1 0 1 0
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
f
f
y
y s q r
M M T R T R T
f f
q qr
r q
r
f f s q s
M r
f f f f

= = =








+



= =


+



1
1 1
1
1
r
f f




+


1 1
3 2 2 1 1
2 1 1 2 1 1
1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
2 1 1 2 1 1
1
1
0 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1
q qr
r q
f f
s
M T R T R T
q qr r
r q
f f f f f f
q s s q qr r q qr r
r q s
f f f f f f f f
q qr r
r q
f f f f f f

+



= = =




+ +

+ +
+ +

+ +

( )( ) ( )( )
2 1 1
2 1 1
1 2
1
1 0
30 50 100 50
175
100 50 30
q r r
D r q
f f f
f f q f
r
q f f
r mm

= + + =


+
=

+
= =


1 1

2 2
d d
H H H H
F F F F


s s s s
h h
r r
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1 1

f f d
f
f f f f f f f d
= + =
+
2
2
f
f
d
P
P
d h = =
2 1 2 1
2 1 2
f d f f f d
r f h f
f f f d


= = =

+

< check! >
System Matrix with A=0, C=0
System Matrix with A=0, C=0
0
0
0
0 0
0
f
f
f
f
y
y B
C D
y B
Cy D

=




=
= +
When A = 0, the output plane for the optical system is the output focal plane.
When C = 0, collimated light at the input plane is collimated light at the
exit plane but the angle with the optical axis is different. This is a
telescopic arrangement, with a magnification of D =
f
/
0
.
0
0
0 0
0
0
f
f
f
f
y
y A B
D
y Ay B
D

=




= +
=
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
f
f
f
f
f
y
y A
C D
y Ay
Cy D
y
m A
y

=




=
= +
= =
When B = 0, the input and output planes are object and image planes,
respectively, and the transverse magnification of the system m = A.
System Matrix with B=0
System Matrix with B=0
Ex) Two-Lens System with B=0
Ex) Two-Lens System with B=0
f
1
= +50 mm f
2
= +30 mm
q = 100 mm
r s
Object
Plane
Image
Plane
F
1
F
2
F
1
F
2
T
1
R
1 R
2
T
3
T
2
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1 2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
1 2 1
1 0
1
1 1
qr
r q
qr r q qr r f
B r q s s
r q qr r
f f f f f
f f f f
f f r q f qr r f f f q f f q
f r q qr f f f r r f q f f q f f
q s s q
m A
f f f
+
+
= + + = =

+

+
+ +
= =
+ + + +
+
= =