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ALGAE

Algae are photosynthetic eukaryotes with a wide variety of shapes that occur in most habitats,
ranging from marine and freshwater to desert sands and from hot boiling springs to snow and ice
belonging to Kingdom Protista.

Algae vary from small, single-celled forms (filamentous) to most complex multicellular forms. They are
not plants, they are more plantlike than protozoa. Algae lack true roots, stems and leaves. They
important role in balancing the environment.

They reproduce sexually and asexually. They are photoautotrophic, as photosynthesizer, algae need
light and air for food production and growth, but do not generally require organic compounds
from the environment. As a result of photosynthesis, algae produce oxygen and carbohydrates
which are utilized by other organisms. Depending on the type of photosynthetic pigments they
possess, they are classified as green, golden, brown or red.

Algae are important as primary producers of organic matter at the base of the food chain. They also
provide oxygen for other aquatic life. Algae may contribute to mass mortality of other organisms, in cases
of algal blooms, but they also contribute to economic well- being in the form of food, medicine and other
products. In tropical regions, coralline algae can be as important as corals in the formation of reefs.

Seaweeds are larger algae that live in the marine (salt or brackish water) environment. Kelps are large
brown seaweeds in the genera Pelagophycus, Laminaria, Macrocystis, etc. In the Pacific, individual kelp
plants may reach 65 meters in length.




CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGAE
Algae are simple eukaryotic photoautotrophs. Most are found in the ocean. Algae can be unicellular or
multicellular.

1. Vegetative structuresthe body of a multicellular alga is called a thallus. This would include such
algae as seaweed. The thalli consist of branched holdfasts to anchor the algae in place, stemlike stipes
and leaflike blades. The cells covering the thallus carry out photosynthesis, and algae also can absorb
nutrients from the water. Some algae are buoyed by a floating, gas-filled bladder called a pneumatocyst.

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2. Life Cycleall algae can reproduce asexually. Multicellular algae can fragment. Unicellular algae
divide by mitosis and cytokinesis. Some algae also reproduce sexually. In some of these asexual
reproduction is most common and sexual reproduction only occurs under special conditions. Other
species alternate, reproducing asexually and then sexually in alternating generations.

3. Nutritionalmost all algae are photoautotrophs and are found in the photic (light) zone in bodies of
water. Chlorophyll and sometimes other pigments are responsible for the colors of algae and their ability
to carry out photosynthesis.

DIFFERENT PHYLA OF ALGAE
Algae are classified according to their rRNA, structures, pigments, and other qualities.

1. Phaeophyta or Brown algae - also known as kelp, are macroscopic and may reach lengths of 50
meters. Most are found in coastal waters and grow very rapidly. Algin, a thickener used in foods such as
ice cream, is extracted from the cell walls. This product is also used in hand lotion.


2. Rhodophyta or Red algae - these live deeper in the ocean than other algae. Agar is extracted from
them. Another product, carageenan, comes from a species of red algae known as Irish moss and is used
as a thickening agent in evaporated milk, ice cream and drugs. Some of these produce a lethal toxin.
Used in extracts of carageenan and agar, Gracilaria spp.- as a food source



3. Chlorophyta or Green algae Most green algae are microscopic, and may be either unicellular or
multicellular. Most green algae have firm cell walls composed of cellulose along with other
polysaccharides and proteins; store starch. Green algae may have given rise to terrestrial plants. Some
form grass-green scum in ponds.
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Most chlorophytes are aquatic, but some green algae can live on the surface of snow, on tree
trunks, in soils, or symbiotically with protozoans, hydras or lichen-forming fungi. The typical color of plants
in the Chlorophyta, resulting from the dominant chlorophyll pigments, is some shade of apple or grass
green, although certain species may appear yellow-green or blackish-green due to the presence of
carotenoid pigments or high concentrations of chlorophyll. Chlorophytes appear more than a billion years
ago in the fossil record.


These includes Desmids, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Euglena which are found in pond
water
a. Desmids unicellular algae, resemble microscopic banana


Desmids

b. Spirogyra filamentous algae, producing long green strands


Spirogyra



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c. Chlamydomonas unicellular, biflagellated alga, containing one chloroplast and a stigma.

Flagellated Chlamydomonas

d. Volvox multicellular alga, also known as colonial alga, biflagellated cells arranged to form a
hollow sphere.

Volvox

e. Euglena feature possess both alga and protozoa. It contains chloroplasts, photosynthetic and
stores energy in the form of starch
- possesses stigma (photosensing organelle), single flagellum (for motility), pellicle
(protection)
- protozoan features include the presence of cytostome (primitive mouth) and
absence of cell wall.


Euglena

4. Bacillariophyta or Diatomsunicellular or filamentous algae with complex cell walls that consist of
pectin and silica that are important components of phytoplankton as primary sources of food for
zooplankton in both marine and freshwater habitats. Most diatoms are planktonic, but some are bottom
dwellers or grow on other algae or plants. Some produce a toxin called domoic acid, which can affect
people, marine mammals, and birds that eat mussels that have fed on diatoms. Deposits are used to
make diatomaceous earth, used in filtration systems, insulation and abrasives.
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Marine Diatoms Diatoms


5. Dinophyta (Dinoflagellates) microscopic, unicellular, flagellated and photosynthetic algae called
plankton. Dinoflagellates produce much oxygen in our atmosphere and important links in food chain. They
produce light sometimes referred as fire algae. They have cellulose embedded in the plasma
membrane. Some produce neurotoxins which may affect fish, marine mammals, and humans who eat
mollusks such as mussels and clams. Large concentrations of one toxic genus, Alexandrium, give the
ocean a red color and are called red tides. The neurotoxin involved causes paralytic shellfish poisoning. A
disease called ciguatera occurs when the toxin of the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus is
concentrated in fish.

Figure 1.2.10: Flagellates, Dinophysis Figure 1.2.11: Dinoflagellate Red tide
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6. Oomycota (water molds)once classified as fungi, they are now grouped with the algae. They are
different because they do or carry on photosynthesis and are plant parasites. In Ireland in the mid-1800's,
about 1 million people died as a result of a famine caused by Phytophora (potato blight). Other species of
this genus affect trees.
7. Charophyta (Stoneworts) are freshwater plants and generally grow anchored to the substratum by
rhizoids with a shoot extending upward. The shoot then divides and forms nodes from which a whorl of
side filaments projects. Charophyta reproductive structures develop at these nodes and are, along with
the biflagellate sperm produced in the male gametangium, quite similar to those of mosses. These
similarities have led some scientists to identify the charophytes as ancestors of the mosses. Their green
color comes from chlorophylls a and b.



8. Chrysophyta (Golden algae)- are photosynthetic, unicellular organisms that are abundant in
freshwater and marine environments. Chrysophytes contain chlorophylls a and c, which are masked by
the accessory pigment fucoxanthin, a carotenoid. In many ways, golden algae are, biochemically and
structurally similar to brown algae. Both golden algae and brown algae store food outside of the
chloroplast in the form of polysaccharide laminarin, or chrysolaminarin. In both groups, motile cells have
unequal flagella of similar structure.




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Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae)- Even though the Cyanobacteria are classified as
bacteria (lacking a membrane-bounded nucleus) they are photosynthetic and are included
among our algal collections. Cyanobacteria played a decisive role in elevating the level of
free oxygen in the atmosphere of the early Earth. Cyanobacteria can change remarkably in
appearance, depending on the environmental conditions. Blue-green algae are common in
soil, in both salt and fresh water, and can grow over a wide range of temperatures. They
have been found to form mats in Antarctic lakes under several meters of ice and are
responsible for the beautiful colors of the hot springs at Yellowstone and elsewhere.

Cyanobacteria can also occur as symbionts of protozoans, diatoms and lichen-forming fungi,
and vascular plants. Some blue-greens can fix nitrogen as well as photosynthesize, allowing
them to grow with only light, water, a few minerals, and the nitrogen and carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.

Cyanobacteria are different in many important ways from other photosynthetic prokaryotes.
Instead of the bacteriochlorophylls found in purple and green bacteria, blue-greens contain
chlorophyll a, as in eucaryotic phototrophs, and, produce free oxygen as a byproduct of
photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria, however, lack the organized chloroplasts of eukaryotes and
have their photosynthetic apparatus distributed peripherally in the cytoplasm.

The variety of striking colors exhibited by Cyanobacteria are a result of their major light-
gathering pigments, the phycobilins, that are bound to protein granules, (phycobilisomes),
that are attached to the photosynthetic membranes.

Large blooms of freshwater Cyanobacteria may produce toxins that can kill livestock. Other
forms (Spirulina) are grown commercially and marketed as a high-protein dietary
supplement.



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ROLES OF ALGAE IN NATURE
1. Algae are important in the food chain.
2. In carrying out oxygenic photosynthesis, it is estimated that algae produce up to 80% of earths
oxygen.
3. Much of the worlds petroleum was formed from diatoms and other plankton.
4. Many unicellular algae live in symbiosis with animals.
5. Algal blooms occur and are responsible for red tides and the associated toxins. When the large
amounts of algae die, their decomposition depletes the water of oxygen.

ECONOMIC USES OF ALGAE

Marine algae, as primary producers, are ecologically important, and economically have been used as
food and medicines for centuries. Today, various species of marine algae provide not only food but also
produce extracts such as agar, carrageenans, and alginates. These extracts are used in numerous food,
pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and industrial applications.

1. Algae as the entre
Kombu, nori and wakame (Japan)
Kombu = Laminaria
Nori = Porphyra
Wakame = Undaria stipes and blades
Hai dai - (China)
Laminaria
Limu (Hawaii) - [Miscellaneous algal species]
Limu kohu = Asparagopsis taxiformis
Limu wawaeiole = Codium
Limu huluhuluwaena = Grateloupia filicina
Limu palahalaha = Ulva
Dulse (Scotland); Dillisk - (Ireland); Sol - (Iceland)
Rhodymenia palmata
Irish moss or Carraghean (Europe)
Chondrus crispus
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Nori or Amanori (Japan); Zicai (China)
Porphyra

2. Cookbook references

3. Secondary products of brown algae
Brown algae (Phaeophyta) includes Kelps (Macrocystis, Laminaria) and Ascophyllum, Fucus,
and Sargassum.

Alginic Acid (Alginate) is a colloidal product used for thickening, suspending, stabilizing, emulsifying,
gel-forming, or film-forming, as required.
About half of the alginate produced is used for making ice cream and other dairy products, the rest is
used in other products, including shaving cream, rubber, or paint.
In textiles, alginates are used to thicken fiber-reactive dye pastes, which facilitates sharpness in
printed lines and conserves dyes.
Dentists use alginates to make dental impressions of teeth.

Applications using Alginates
FOOD (Nondairy):Frozen foods, Pastry fillings, Syrups, Bakery icings, Relishes, Cooked/ instant
puddings, Meringues, Chiffons, Dessert gels, Candies, Fruit juices, Jams & Jellies, Sauces and gravies,
Pimiento strips, Salad dressings

FOOD (Dairy):Whipped toppings, Milk shakes, Cheeses, Flans and custards, Instant breakfasts, Ice
Cream

INDUSTRIAL: Paper sizing / coatings, Adhesives, Textile printing / dyeing, Air freshener gels, Explosives,
Boiler compounds, Polishes Antifoaming agents, Ceramics, Welding rods, Cleaners, Castings and
impressions, Enzyme immobilization

MEDICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL: Baulking agents, Capsules and tablets, Lotions and creams, Ulcer
products

4. Secondary products of red algae
Red algae (Rhodophyta) Carrageenan is made from Gigartina stellata, Chondrus
crispus and Eucheuma.

Carrageenan (carrageenin, carragheen) is similar to agar, but requires higher concentrations to form
gels.
Carrageenan is used for stabilizing chocolate, milk, egg nog, ice cream, sherbets, instant puddings,
frostings, creamed soups, etc.

Red algae (Rhodophyta) Agar is made from Gelidium, Gracilaria, Pterocladia and Ahnfeltia.

Agar is another colloidal agent used for thickening, suspending, and stabilizing. However, it is best
noted for its unique ability to form thermally reversible gels at low temperatures.
The greatest use of agar is in association with food preparation and in the pharmaceutical industry
(as a laxative, or as an inert carrier for drug products where slow release of the drug is required).
Agar is used in bacteriology and mycology as a stiffening agent in growth media.
Agar is used as a stabilizer for emulsions, and as a constituent of cosmetic skin preparations,
ointments, and lotions. It is used in photographic film, shoe polish, dental impression molds, shaving
soaps, hand lotions, and in the tanning industry.
In food, agar is used as a substitute for gelatin, as an antidrying agent in breads and pastry, and also
for gelling and thickening purposes. It is used in the manufacture of processed cheese, mayonnaise,
puddings, creams, and jellies and in the manufacture of frozen dairy products.

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Applications using Red Algae

Carrageenan
FOOD (Nondairy): Frozen foods, Dessert gels, Pastry fillings Fruit juices, Syrups, Jams & Jellies, Bakery
icings, Sauces and gravies, Relishes, Pimiento strips, Cooked/ instant puddings, Salad dressings,
Chiffons

FOOD (Dairy): Whipped toppings, Milk shakes, Skim milk, Evaporated milk, Chocolate milk, Cheeses,
Cottage cheese, Infant formulas, Flans and custards, Yogurt, Instant breakfasts, Ice cream

INDUSTRIAL: Air freshener gels, Tertiary oil treatment, Cleaners, Enzyme immobilization, Electrophoretic
media, Chromatographic media

MEDICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL: Laxatives, Baulking agents, Capsules and tablets, Lotions and
creams, Shampoos, Ulcer products, Toothpastes

Agar
FOOD (Nondairy): Frozen foods, Dessert gels, Bakery icings, Candies, Meringues, Fruit juices

FOOD (Dairy): Cheeses,Yogurt

INDUSTRIAL: Paper sizing / coatings, Microtomy media, Adhesives, Electrophoretic media, Textile
printing / dyeing, Chromatographic media, Castings and impressions, Conductivity bridges

MEDICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL: Laxatives, Capsules and tablets, Baulking agents, Suppositories,
Radiology suspending agents, Anticoagulants

5. Industrial and other uses
Fertilizer / soil amendments
Miscellaneous species of Kelps (Brown algae), e.g. Laminaria, Macrocystis
Filters / Rubbing compounds (polish) / Pest control (fleas)
Diatoms in the form of Diatomaceous earth (diatomite)
Sewage treatment to remove inorganic nutrients and toxins
Unicellular freshwater Chlorophyta and other micro- and macroalgae

http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/collpres.htm