Volume I

September 2007

Distance
Education
Association of
Southern
Africa
and
Southern
African
Development
Community -

Centre for
Distance
Education

International Journal
of Open and Distance
Learning
 © DEASA-SADC CDE
International
Journal of Open and
Distance Learning
Distance Education Association of Southern Africa and
Southern African Development Community -

Centre for Distance Education

International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
Volume 1 — September 2007
Editor in- - Chief Mr. Antonio Franque, Botswana College of
Professor Robert Ministry of Education, Open and Distance
Chimedza, Zimbabwe Mozambique Learning
Open University Mr. T. Thutoetsile, Dr. T. Khat,
Southern Africa Dean Faculty of
Editorial Board Development Education, National
The DEASA Research Community Centre for University of Lesotho
and Publications Com
mittee constitutes the
Editorial Board of the
Distance Education

Editorial
Mr. V. Muyatwa,
Director Department
of Distance Education,
I
journal Advisory Board Zambia
Dr. 0. S. Tau, The DEASA Executive
Chairperson DEASA Committee constitutes Dr. M. Delvaline,
Research Committee, the advisory board of Assistant Registrar
University of Botswana the journal. Centre for Open
Learning Namibia
Prof. R. M. Chimedza, Professor D. L.
Zimbabwe Open Mosoma, DEASA Mr. T. Thutoetsile,
University Chairman, Deputy Director SADC CDE—

Dr. D.H. Mohapi, Vice Chancellor and Ms L. Kolosoa,

University of Lesotho Vice Principal, Learner
Support and Students
Dr. Mutangira, Affairs University of
University of Swaziland
—
South Africa
Mrs. E. Nonyongo, Dr. P. Kurasha,
University of South DEASA Deputy
Africa
Chairperson and Vice
Mr. V. Muyatwa, Chancellor, Zimbabwe
Directorate of Open and Open University
Distance Education,
Dr. D. R. Tau,
Zambia. Executive Director,
Lecturer Lesotho
College of Education
Mr. G. Mazibuko,
Principal Emlalatini,
Swaziland
Mr. Amadeu,
Ministry of Education,
Mozambique
Professor L. Molamu,
Registrar University of
—

South Africa
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface Reviewers of Editorial

Professor David Mosoma Current Articles By Professor Robert
DEASA Chairperson Page 2 Chimedza
and Editor-in-Chief
Thulaganyo Thutoetsile Page 3
Director, SADC-CDE
Page 1

Managing Learning Support Lecturing Versus

Inclusion of in a Severely Collaborative
Students with Visual Underdeveloped Learning Methods:
Impairment in Context as an analysis
Open and Distance Experienced by of learning
Education: Distance Learners preferences
challenges for Godson Gateha among mid-level
Page 19
learners management
Auxilia M. Badza and students at the
David D. Chakuchichi University of
Page7
Namibia
Trudie Frindt and
Louise Mostert
Page 30

Inter-Institutional Managing a Facilitating

Collaboration Regional Centre Interaction During
In Distance in an Open and Face-to-Face
Education: Is it Distance Learning Tutorials in Open
worthwhile? Institution Distance Learning:
Dr. Regina K. Masalela Dr. Ndaba J. Ncube Insights from the
Page 44 Page 61
Socratic Method
Stanslaus Modesto
Tichapondwa
Page 74
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Quality Assurance Teaching About the

and Quality Control Management Southern Africa
Strategies in the and Accounting Development
Zimbabwe Open Through Open Community -

University And Distance Centre for Distance

Grace T. Mukeredzi & Learning Materials:
TsitG.Ndamba
Education
g
The case of the (SADC-CDE)
Lesotho College of Thuaganyo ThutoetsHe
Education Page 111
Lineo Clementina Kolosoa
Page 99

DEASA-SADC Contributors
— CDE International Page 118
Journal of Open
and Distance
Learning
Notes to Contributors
Page 117
PREFACE
The publication of this
maiden journal of the
Southern African De
velopment Community
— Centre for Distance
Education (SADC — of Learning (CCL) and
ODE) and the Distance
Education Associa
tion of Southern Africa
(DEASA) is a triumph
for Open and Distance
Learning (CDL) in
SADC member states.
It represents an at
tainment of one of the
milestones that the re
gion set itself in 2005
when the SADC ODE —
was established by
SADC Ministers of Ed
ucation and The Com
monwealth of Learning
(CCL) with a broad
mandate of building
CDL capacity through
the promotion of re
search and publication
in the region.
The publication of this
journal is a tribute to
the collaborative spirit
Professor bavid Mosoma
DEASA Chairperson
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
that prevails in SADC
among CDL institu
tions, Ministries of
Education, DEASA,
The Commonwealth
the SADO Secretariat.
CDL institutions, and
Ministries of Education
in SADC sponsored
their employees to at
tend the Research
and Publication work
shops conducted by
SADC — ODE which
were held in 2006 in
Lusaka and Windhoek.
We therefore wish to
applaud the political
leadership and the
management of min
istries of education
and CDL institutions
for their commitment
to increasing access,
equity and quality of
education in SADC
through the use of
CDL. We also wish to
thank the DEASA Re
search and Publication
Committee members,
Thulag,Tl
i
4 toetsile
Directfr, SADC-CDE
in particular Profes
sor Robert Chimedza
for the arduous task of
editing the articles in
this journal. We further
wish to thank all the
peer reviewers who
dedicated their time to
ensuring that the jour
nal is a professional
publication with stan
dards comparable to
the best in the world.
Lastly we wish to pay
special tribute to the
authors whose works
are published in this
journal. SADO and in
deed Africa needs self
less scholars who can
contribute knowledge
in the globalised world.
We look forward to the
publication of volume II
of this journal featuring
articles from practitio
ners in Southern Afri
can in particular and
the rest of the world.
 REVIEWERS OF CURRENT ARTICLES:

The Editorial Board Dr. 0. Tau, Dr. Maedza,

wishes to acknowl- Univesity of Botswana Zimbabwe Open
edge with gratitude the University
following for reviewing Dr. D. Tau, Botswana
the articles in this vol- College of Open and Dr. Glorify
ume: Distance Learning Mavundukure,
Zimbabwe Open
Professor Rungano Dr Mohapi, University University
Zvobgo, Midlands of Lesotho
State Univesity Dr. Gwarinda,
Dr. S. Chakanyuka, Zimbabwe Open
Professor Robert Zimbabwe Open University
Chimedza, Zimbabwe University
Open University Mr. Thutoetsile,
Dr. M. N. Rukuni, Southern African
Professor Bonifas Zimbabwe Open Development
Chivore, University of University Community Centre of
-

Zimbabwe Distance Education

Dr. Njini, Zimbabwe
Dr. Sukati, University Open University
of Swaziland

2 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

EDITORIAL
by Professor Robert Chimedza
Editor-in-Chief
The DEASA - SADC
- CDE International
Journal on Open and
Distance Learning is
the official journal of
the Distance Education
Association of South
ern Africa and the
Southern African De
velopment Community
- Centre for Distance
Education. In this maid
en issue of the annual
publication we feature
eight articles and the
profile of the SADC
CDE. The journal pub
lishes articles mainly
on distance education
but also on related is
sues from basic to uni
versity education. This
makes the readership
wide and very accom
modating for the varied
member institutions of
DEASA and the inter
national community. It
is a peer reviewed jour
nal that accepts aca
demic papers based
on research, concept
and position papers,
critiques, reports on
best practices of dis
tance education, book
reviews and so on.
In this maiden issue, I
wish to commend and
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
appreciate the work
done by the two or
ganisations to launch
this journal. It demon
strates a smart stra
tegic partnership that
directly benefits dis
tance education at
grassroots level. The
introduction of the
journal is an impor
tant milestone in the
development of Open
and Distance Learning
practices in the region.
Not only will distance
education practitioners
have a platform where
to share ideas and
learn from each other,
but also this becomes
a hub of knowledge on
which future learning
theories on distance
education could be
derived.
I also wish to express
my deep-seated grati
tude and congratula
tions to the writers and
reviewers whose ar
ticles are in this issue.
They are the pioneer
publishers of this jour
nal and together we
begin to write the story
and history of this jour
nal. It is not everyday
that new journals are
launched and therefore
it is something special
to publish in a maid
en issue of a journal
more-so after a rigor
ous anonymous review
process that eliminated
many others.
A colleague of mine
once asked me a bar
rage of questions on
distance education.
He wanted to know
what distance educa
tion was all about, how
different it was from
correspondence edu
cation, the differences
between distance edu
cation, open learning,
distance open learning,
distance education and
open learning and so
on. Articles that feature
in this journal should
provide answers to
such questions not
only in terms of defin
ing and setting param
eters for these areas
but also in providing
theories, ontologies,
praxis, best practices,
research work, reports
and situation analy
ses that answer these
and other unanswered
questions in distance
open learning.
3
 remote areas received learning outcomes
In the current issue delayed support es for UNAM mid-level
Badza and Chakuchi pecially in assignment management students
chi discuss a study feedback. He recom could be enhanced by
they carried out to es mends that learning employing deep learn
tablish the nature and support for remote stu ing approaches to
adequacy of inclusion dents be strengthened teaching and learning.
of students with visual and strategies be put
impairment in the Zim in place to motivate Masalela gives a con
babwe Open University part-time tutors to be cept paper on inter-
(ZOU). Using the case more enterprising in institutional collabora
study design, their their delivery of learner tion. She discusses in
results show that the support. ter-institutional collab
ZOU unsystematically orative activities, types
made ad hoc arrange Frindt and Mostert in of inter-institutional col
ments to accommo their article explore the laboration, the essen
date the instructional concept collaborative tial considerations for
needs of students with learning and the as inter-institutional col
visual impairment. sumption that students laboration and potential
They recommend that in Namibia have a ten benefits and complexi
institutions of distance dency towards surface ties as well as their im
education should es learning as opposed to plications. She argues
sentially have policies deeper understanding that inter-institutional
on learner support for of issues embedded in collaboration provides
service delivery to stu collaborative learning. an environment to en
dents with disabilities. To examine this as liven and enrich the
sumption, they used an learning process not
Gatsha discusses a adapted questionnaire only in distance educa
study he undertook to on the Approaches to tion settings but also
find out how distance Study Skills Inventory in conventional prac
education learners in for Students to exam tices. She observes
the school equivalent ine the motivational that these collaborative
courses in a severely and deep learning partnerships are impor
underdeveloped con impact of a lecturing tant where resources
text experienced the teaching method ver are shrinking, given the
learning support ser sus collaborative learn demand for wider use
vice of the Botswana er activities in a certifi of sophisticated tech
College of Open and cate programme at the nology, limited faculty
Distance Learning (GO University of Namibia (teacher), and limited
CODOL) Kang Region (UNAM). The results of time and instructional
al Centre. The findings their study suggest that resources. She con
of his study showed the students showed cludes that developing
that the regional cen strong beliefs and environments particu
tre was able to pro preference for deep larly in the sub-Saha
vide adequate support learning approaches ran Africa region could
timeously to learners in addition to surface benefit a lot from these
in the community study learning approaches. kinds of partnerships
centres while those in They concluded that She urges institutions
4 DEA5A-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
to relinquish the tradi tion, and heavy invest
tion of competition and ment in technology.
join hands to build a
better global society. Tichapondwa discuss
es an experimental ac
Ncube draws from his tion research that he
experience as a Re carried out with eight
gional Director in an tutors of a communica
CDL institution, as well tion course to examine
as literature on expe the significance of the
riences in other CDL Socratic method dur
institutions to discuss ing learner-tutor inter
how to manage a re action, and to establish
gional centre in an CDL how best questions
setting. The issues that can be used to achieve
he addressed in his pa learning goals. Results
per include locating a showed that tutors
regional centre, student whose awareness had
registration, financial been raised to use the
management, human questioning method,
resource issues, and used interrogatives
provision of library ser more effectively than
vices, among others. their counterparts, the
He also raises chal control group. This led
lenges that are faced to the conclusion that
in managing a regional conscious enhance
center. The challenges ment of knowledge
discussed include lack about the Socratic
of resources, stereo method leads to ef
types towards open fective negotiation of
and distance learning, learning. He then rec
the dilemma of decen ommended that tutors
tralization versus cen in CDL be guided in
tralization in decision- the use of questioning
making, as well as the strategies during tutori
distance of the learners als for better interaction
from the centre. The and effective learning
article concluded with by learners.
a discussion on strate
gies that could be used Mukeredzi and Ndaba
to improve the efficien in their article present
cy in the management a study they carried
of a regional center. out on strategies em
The strategies recom ployed by the Zimba
mended include the bwe Cpen University
supply of resources, to assure and control
training of personnel, quality. The major find
further decentraliza ings they discuss are
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
that, highly qualified,
experienced and com
mitted personnel were
appointed as tutors and
tutorials were of a high
standard, assignments
were regarded by
learners as demanding
and adequate, mark
ing was viewed as
thoroughly and profes
sionally done, while
examination question
items were assessed
as of good quality. The
marking of examina
tions was centralized
to facilitate modera
tion and external as
sessment. They also
discussed areas that
needed addressing
such as the need to in
crease human and ma
terial resources, staff
training and effective
communication.
Kolosoa in her article
discusses a study that
she carried out to in
vestigate the quality
and readability of the
Management and Ac
counting modules at
the Lesotho College of
Education (LCE) from
a learner’s perspective
in terms of the easi
ness, clarity of con
cepts, illustrations and
pictures, and the time
spent studying the ma
terials. The findings re
vealed that the majority
of teacher-learners at
LCE found Manage
ment and Accounting
5
 iearning materials dif and that more time for Thutoetsile gave the
ficult and it took them fact-to-face tutorials be profile of the Southern
longer to complete included. African Development
when compared with Community Centre for
those of other cours It is the intention of this Distance Education.
es. The study recom journal to feature one
mended that the pres or two profiles of the Professor Robert
ent Management and DEASA member in Chimedza
Accounting learning stitutions in each pub Editor-in-Chief
materials be reviewed lication. In this issue

6 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

MANAGING INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT IN OPEN AND DISTANCE
EDUCATION: Challenges for Learners.
Auxillia M. Badza & David D. Chakuchichi
Zimbabwe Open University
Abstract
The study sought to es
tablish the nature and
adequacy of inclusion
of students with visual
impairment in the Zim
babwe Open Universi
ty (ZOU). The impetus
of the study came from
Moore’s Transactional
theory of open and dis
tance learning (ODL)
which states that
preparation of instruc
tional materials, using
the universal design
principles, enhances
access and full inclu
sion of students with
disability. The study
utilised case study, a
qualitative research
design to establish the
adequacy of ZOU’s
service provision to
students with visual im
pairment (VI). In-depth
interviews were carried
out on students with VI
and part time tutors.
Data was subjected
to verbal analysis to
come up with systemic
challenges to service
provision to students
with VI in ODL. pro
grammes. The results
indicated that ZOU
unsystematically made
ad hoc arrangements
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
to accommodate the
instructional, needs of
students with VI. The
study recommends that
ZOU should essentially
evolve a policy to guide
service delivery to stu
dents with disabilities.
Introduction
One of the constitu
tive aspects of Open
and Distance Learn
ing (CDL) is essentially
access to instruction
and learning material
by all students includ
ing those with disabili
ties. Issues of access
and equity in open
and distance educa
tion are critical in jus
tifying the openness
of distance education
and the inclusion of
students with disabili
ties (Sherry, 1996). It
therefore suffices to
say that the hallmark
of distance education
lies in the separation,
in both time and space,
between the learner
and the instructor and
the ‘volitional control
of learning’ by the stu
dent (Jonassen cited in
Sherry 1996). In order
to facilitate learning by
distance education stu
dents, the material to be
learnt should of neces
sity be interactive and
user friendly. Learner
support in this respect
becomes invaluable
as it ensures the inter
activity of instructional
materials with the
cognitive dispositions
of the students. In
structional models and
materials in CDL are
expected to make the
students interact with
the learning material in
order to construct new
knowledge. Horton,
cited in Sherry (1996),
posits that the interac
tive theoretical basis of
CDL comprise of two
basic aspects which
directly impact situ
ated cognition. These
two are the student’s
context (environment,
current situation, other
sensory input) and the
mind (associations,
memory, reasoning,
abstractions). Follow
ing on the theoretical
development of situ
ated cognition in the
design of ODL, instruc
tional materials should
enhance access for
all. However according
 to Burgstahler (2002),
the issues of access
focus on the separa
tion of student and in
structor and rarely in
clude consideration of
needs of students with
disabilities. In order
to establish the chal
lenges for learner sup
port for students with
visual impairment (VI),
it is imperative to inter
rogate the concept of
inclusion, its pedagogi
cal implications for the
learner in the context
of a universal design in
CDL.
Background
Current trends in spe
cial education are mov
ing away from prescrip
tive labels and catego
ries, however, there still
remains a plethora of
specialised terms used
to define aspects of VI
by different profession
als. Visual Impairment
is defined as loss of vi
sion for an individual to
complete tasks without
specialised adaptation,
(Mason, McCall, Arte,
McLindell and Stone,
1997). In otherwords,
the loss of vision im
pedes learning unless
modifications are made
to teaching and learn
ing methods, the envi
ronment and learning
materials. The degree
of impairment varies
from low vision to to
tal loss of sight (blind).
8 DEASA-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
The low vision catego ment needs to be con
ry includes those with sidered to eliminate or
remaining or residual minimise dangers to in
vision. According to dividuals with VI. Such
Webster and Roe, adaptations should ul
(1998) people who fall timately enhance the
into the category of inclusion disposition of
‘blind’ depend on tac the individual with VI.
tile, auditory and other
sensory input other A clear understand
than sight, as means ing of the concept of
of learning and require inclusion is essential
special ised equipment. to enhance the suc
cessful and meaning
In addition to peda ful process of inclu
gogical concerns, is sion of student with VI
sues related to school in CDL. It is important
environment are of to note that there is a
importance to the in continuous evolvement
clusion of individuals on the definitions as re
with VI. There are still flections on practice is
ongoing arguments on advancing taking cog
whether to adapt the nisance of the range of
environment to suit contexts and cultures
the individual with VI in which inclusion is
or to make the person taking place. Inclusion
with disability fit his! therefore reflects the
her environment. The reality in each national
reason behind adapt system and thus can
ing the environment be determined by the
for the individual is to history, culture and
ensure that the educa politics of the sys
tion system prepares tem, (Dyson & Millard,
the individual with VI 2000). Dyson and Mil
for an independent role lard’s position makes it
in the wider society. In difficult to have a con
order to achieve this sensus or unified defi
functional level, limited nition of the concept of
adaptation to the learn inclusion.
ing environment should
be made to enable the Burgstahlers (2002)
individual with VI to asserts that the de
function independently signs of many distance
and safely in the wider education programmes
environment. Despite inadvertently erects
the merits of this argu barriers for students
ment, a careful audit of with disabilities. While
the learning environ- visual impairment im
pacts negatively on
the access and inclu
sion of students with
VI in CDL, planning for
access during course
development stage
instead of creating ad
hoc accommodation
strategies on enrol
ment of students with
impairments is proac
tive. Steps should be
taken to ensure that
a wide range of abili
ties and disabilities are
considered following
the universal design
principles. One of the
universal design prin
ciples is recognition of
the ideal that access
to education is one
of the basic human
rights (Harrison 2001).
Therefore accommo
dation of learners with
special educational
needs is essentially
ensuring that access to
high quality instruction
is provided to all. Uni
versal design princi
ples ensure cognitive,
affective and systemic
learner support in
CDL which reinforces
student’s confidence,
self-esteem and prog
ress, (Tait, 2003). The
preparation of instruc
tional materials, using
universal design prin
ciples in the context
of Moore’s theory on
CDL which states that
the space between
the learner and the
instructors should be
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
mediated by transac
tional materials, would
enhance access and
inclusion of students
with disabilities.
Institutional policies
that are crafted on
principles of universal
design and education
for all (EFA) would
inherently serve the
interests of disadvan
taged groups such as
the people with VI. The
implied national policy
of inclusion embraced
in EFA has seen stu
dents with VI enrolled
in the Zimbabwe Open
University (ZOU). The
researchers are lec
turers at the ZOU and
they encountered some
students with visual
impairment who reg
istered dissatisfaction
with the learner sup
port they were getting
prompting the follow
ing pertinent question;
‘How adequately is
ZOU managing inclu
sion of students with VI
in open and distance
learning?’ Therefore
the research attempts
to ensure that the fol
lowing specific ques
tions are addressed,
• What learner sup
port is ZOU pro
viding to students
with VI and how
adequate is it?
• What are the
experiences and
perceptions of
students with VI
included in ZOU
academic pro
gram mes?
What are the chal
lenges of learner
support for inclu
sion of students
with VI at ZOU?
Purpose
The study sought to
establish the nature
and conditions of inclu
sion of students with vi
sual impairment in the
Zimbabwe Open Uni
versity. The impetus
of the study came from
Moore’s theory that in
CDL “the space be
tween the learner and
the structure of teach
ing must be mediated
by dialogue offering the
learner the opportunity
to be an active partici
pant” (Tait 2003:4).
Methodology
The study used the
case study approach,
a qualitative research
design, to establish
the adequacy of ZOU’s
provision of CDL to
students with VI. The
case study was found
to be more appropri
ate in order to have an
in-depth study of the
challenges of manag
ing students with VI in
CDL. The case study
approach allowed the
researchers to study
9
 how the students view selected for in depth
their situational ac interviews. Six of the
cess to learning ma- eight students were
terials. The design technically blind that is
further enabled the they could not process
researchers to come print information while
to an understanding of the remainder were
the experiences from partially sighted, that is
the perspective of the they could process print
learners. information especially
benefiting from en
The respondents iden larged print. The inter
tified for in depth inter views which were done
views were purpose in five days took one
fully selected in such to two hours per par
away that they would ticipant. All interviews
reflect a diversity of were unstructured but
backgrounds and a guided by an interview
variety of personal di schedule. The direc
mensions. The respon tion of the interview
dents were all ZOU depended on each in
students who were vi dividual student’s ex
sually impaired, that is, periences. Therefore
they were either with as data were collected
low vision or legally the research focus was
blind and a group of refined as new ques
8 part time tutors who tions emerged from
had taught students the interview. Specific
with VI. For the pur questions emerged in
poses of this study age the context of the stu
and gender were not dent’s views.
considered essential.
Triangulation of data
The sample of the was employed
by
study was a total of contrasting students
eight (8) students made information with that
up of five (5) males and of key informants in
three (3) females in the cluding part time tu
Post Graduate Diploma tors, regional directors,
in Education, Bachelor programme co-ordina
of Arts in English and tors and librarians as
Communication Stud well as that collected
ies, Masters of Busi from focused groups
ness Administration in order to enhance
and Bachelor of Sci validity of data. All in
ence in Special Edu terviewees were audio
cation programmes taped to supplement
and a group of 8 tutors the written interview
10 DEA5A-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
notes. The audio taped
information was used
to clarify and enhance
the written notes during
data analysis. In addi
tion, document content
analysis of the ZOU
student handbook and
tutors handbook was
carried out to establish
the impact of policy on
service delivery to peo
ple with VI.
Analysis
In qualitative research
design, data collection
and analysis are close
ly related such that
data analysis was in
this case, inductive and
ongoing throughout the
study (Bogdan & Biklen
1984; Taylor and Bog-
dan, 1984 and Guba &
Lincoln, 1985). Audio
taped interviews were
examined, transcribed
and compared with the
field notes to identify
insights, themes and
concepts. Although the
analysis was an on
going process during
the study, there was
a final stage intensive
analysis that involved
sorting data into cat
egories and sub-cat
egories to refine and
identify frequently oc
curring themes. Verifi
cation of interpretative
accuracy of analysis of
data was done through
presentation of prelimi
nary findings to peers
who have worked and
interacted with some of edge of CDL as a with VI to do their
the subjects. This pro practice of learning studies with ZOU.
cess gave new insights for all or learning from
and strengthened the home with flexible ar However others had a
position of some of the rangements and time different view as indi
findings. management. Other cated in the following
students appreciate it statement;
Findings and as it affords students Not everyone is
Discussion an opportunity to learn blessed like myself..
while continuing with may be I could have
The findings of the
their vocation. The par been told I can’t be
study were very elabo
ticipants’ perception of enrolled.
rate as most of the par
CDL was that it was
ticipants in this catego
a good practice that Such perceptions as
ry articulated their ex
gave people with VI an indicated in the state
periences and expec
opportunity to learn. ments above are incon
tations very effectively.
Others said that CDL sistent with the spirit of
The documents’ con
was, inclusion that is based
tent analysis revealed
A bit limiting, help on rights and provision
that ZOU did not have
does not come there of equal opportunities
a coherent institutional
and then. in an education for all
policy for service de
And others said that; (EFA) perspective.
livery and or learner
not much Inclusive education,
support to people with
difficulties but a in the context of the
VI and other disadvan
few problems with Salamanca Statement
tages. The results as
areas chosen e.g. and Framework of Ac
shown in some of the
calculations where tion (1994), should
participant’s excerpts
one may need help. therefore meet the
indicated some salient
educational needs of
exclusionary practices
These perceptions of all learners within com
that do not enhance
CDL indicate that most mon yet fluid contexts
inclusion and or uni
of the students with VI and activities. Inclusion
versal design in ODL.
found it quite accept should not be seen as
The findings were laid
able and helpful to them just an ideal state but
down under the fol
despite some problems rather an unending set
lowing three themes,
relating to the need for of dynamic processes
knowledge and per
specific help at par to adequately accom
ception of CDL, stu
ticular times. However modate every learner’s
dent experiences and
some students with VI needs (Booth, 1996:
pedagogical concerns,
seem to suggest that it Sapon —Shevin, 1992
and attitudinal chal
is not their right to be in Engelbrecht, Green,
lenges.
enrolled but a charity Naicker and Engelbre
that ZOU is extending cht, 2004).
Knowledge and
to them as indicated by
perceptions of
the statements below. Students
ODL
.1 have since experiences
Most students seemed commended ZQU and pedagogical
to have a good knowl for allowing students concerns
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 11
 Participants had a va find a group. It
riety of experiences was difficult to get
ranging from CDL be information.
ing an empowering
and challenging oppor The experiences of
these two participants,
tunity to exclusionary
practices that needed while showing a posi
tive attitude, indicated
corrective measures in
pedagogical aspects. the possibility of ex
clusionary pedagogi
Some students be cal practices in the
lieved that they had CDL as practiced by
positive experiences ZOU. These practices
as they ‘enjoyed new were evident in the
knowledge’ and com nature of learning ma
peted with sighted terials provided. The
students. One student main learning materi
said that; als were a module for
The co-ordinator each course. The mod
felt that I would ules that were in print
not be able to presented the following
impress the enroller challenges;
although there Not always easy
were some who to get someone to
had done BAECS read. Your study
(Bachelor of Arts time has to be
degree in English determthed by
and Communication someone who reads
Studies). As post for you hence my
grad..., they performance might
underrated my have been affected.
potential and It was difficult
thought the VI because I could not
students could access materials in
only manage first print. It meant I was
degrees. always late. Working
with an assistant
Another student when is always very
asked whether his difficult especially
learning needs were at night. Keeping
met by ZOU, he re her awake was
sponded: a challenge
Not exactly! I had Diagrams were
to run around to difficult for the
survive. I had no
assistant to interpret
braille material so for me
Courses
I had to look for like computers and
someone to read, statistics were a
12 DEASA-SADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
challenge though
I passed... it was
difficult. Presentation
is not appropriate
for VI. There is need
for simplification of
some concepts.
Experience of
limited braille
material made me
accustomed to being
read to.
Audio cassettes
would be a palatable
move. / had to attend
tutorials because /
had problems with
print modules.
I wouldn’t mind
braille for reading
but its bulky
tapes are user
friendly.
Tutors observations
were that materi
als such as modules
should be transcribed
into braille or recorded
on audiotapes. Also
tutors pointed out that
materials in compatible
media enhanced par
ticipation of students
with VI.
Judging from the ex
pressions in the ex
cerpts above, the par
ticipants preferred au
dio taped modules as
braille materials were
scarce and bulky and
print modules always
required an assistant
who would determine
the pace and time of
study. Furthermore,
 indications are that no
adaptations or modifi
cations were made to
the curriculum to suit
the needs of visually
impaired in courses
such as statistics and
computers that are
known to pose great
challenges to such in
dividuals. Thus, Lomo
fosky & Mvambi (2004)
assert an inclusive
curriculum has to be
adapted to meet the
needs of learner rather
than have learners fit
the curriculum. The
study observed that
ZOU’s service delivery
to students with dis
ability was inadequate
because the instruc
tional materials in the
form of print modules
were not user friendly
to most learners with
visual impairment. This
assertion was echoed
by tutors who empha
sized that service to
students with VI was
inadequate and that
there was no special
treatment for them.
Also the document
analysis revealed the
same, that apart from
a few clauses speci
fying some examina
tion arrangements for
students with disabil
ity, there was nothing
specific and deliberate
about ZOU’s service
to students with VI and
other disadvantages.
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
Participants had mixed
experiences during
tutorials presented by
subject experts. Oth
ers had positive experi
ences as they had their
presence felt while oth
ers found tutors oblivi
ous of their presence
and thus were not ac
commodated. Some
of the participants ex
pressed the following
negative aspects;
Tutors didn’t
accommodate
the VI students
because they
continued to write
on chalkboards and
use the overheads
(projector) without
making reference to
the presence of VI
students.
Tutors did not realise
needs...also need
auditory and group
methods
Tutors... not aware
of my presence
and were not
accommodating.
Tutors observed that
students with VI require
contact teaching, that
is, a one to one instruc
tional basis. However,
the tutors confirmed
that the students with
VI were treated as
other students during
tutorials sessions. The
participants’ concern
was that the tutors did
not have adequate
knowledge on how to
communicate, service
and accommodate
students with visual
impairment. Lomof
sky & Mvambi (2004)
pinpoint that teachers
are central to success
ful inclusion. Teachers
need to be sensitive
to individual needs
and characteristics of
all learners in order to
effectively support in
clusion. In this regard
instruction inherently
requires differential
teaching based on the
characteristics and
needs of the learning
population.
The main point of con
tention was access to
learning material in a
media that was com
patible with the learning
needs of learners with
VI. Asked to comment
about how the par
ticipants utilised library
facilities the students
experiences were as
narrated below;
Going to the
library.... There
were no materials
it was difficult
using the assistant
who is not well
versed in getting
information.
she also is not
knowledgeable
about my area
of study.
There was no
distinction between
13
 me and other
students.
I could not get
anything to borrow
from the library due
to media. Books
(print) are not an
appropriate media
The library does
not have suitable
material for those
with low vision
and blind. There is
need for a policy to
specify our needs.
The experiences of
participants in access
ing library information
indicate some over
sight on the real needs
of students with VI as
no braille nor large
print materials were
available. In addition
the library staff were
not inducted nor sen
sitised in serving learn
ers with VI. This situ
ation is not consistent
with Harrison (2006:2)
who says “Accommo
dation of learners with
special needs is part of
the process of ensuring
high quality educational
experiences are availa
ble to every individual.”
The participants sug
gested that students
with visual impairment
require audiocassettes
and braille material to
access instructional
materials.
Yet another area of
concern for the par-
14 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
ticipants was the assis that students with vi
tance given to students sual impairment re
with VI during the ex quire special exami
amination process. nations arrangements
Some participants to accommodate their
reported limited sup needs. ZOU unsystem
port in the provision of atically made ad-hoc
Braille machines and arrangements to ac
for others there were commodate the needs
no examinations in of students with visual
enlarged print. Other impairment during ex
participants expressed aminations. However
concern that there the ZOU’s student
was no distinction be handbook had a sec
tween them and other tion describing service
learners implying that that should be afforded
no special arrange students with various
ments were made for disabilities during ex
them, as some re aminations. Despite the
quired enlarged print information contained
of font size 16. Some in the student hand
participants expected book about special
special arrangements examination arrange
where there would be ments for students with
given a room to use a disability no definitive
braille machine with policy was in place for
out making noise for a comprehensive regu
other students. Quite a lation on mandatory
number of participants services for students
suggested that they re with disabilities.
quired 25% extra time
in completing examina Communication prob
tions as expressed in lems were probed
these statements; to establish how ef
I request for more fective the university
time especially with was interacting with
calculations 15 students with VI. The
minutes per hour... participants with low
such extra time. vision indicated that
lnvigilators may not communication by the
even be aware of university through let
use of technology ters and newspapers
or Braille when you was adequate while
need help. Students those who are blind re
with VI.. we are ported that it was a big
usually forgotten. challenge as notices in
newspapers and notice
The study observed boards were not ac
cessible to them. Blind
students preferred
brailled communica
tion and or telephone
messages. One par
ticipant reported the
following as depicting
communication with
the university:
It was like chasing
a wild cat... .grossly
inadequate!
Interaction between
student and the re
spective tutors showed
some students ap
preciating the use of
telephones while oth
ers reported that tu
tors were not ready for
them such that they
wrote on the chalk
board without pro
nouncing what they
were writing. Also the
participants showed
differences in the ex
periences of interac
tion with sighted stu
dents within their tuto
rial groups. While oth
ers believed that they
were accepted others
had this to say;
Students with
experience in
special education
are aware
don’t have problems
of stigma but
others at first don’t
understand. Some
even ask why you
are among them.
Usually they get
annoyed with the
noise of the Braille
machine.
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
The assumption is packages and media,
that they accepted there would be no
me but sometimes problem for students
patronised me with VI to do any cal
to the extent of culations.
offering to write
notes for me. At Another challenge was
first they would excessive expenses
kind of look down since the student with
upon you but once VI had to pay for the
they realised your audio recording of
potential they even the module or pay
can pick us (by the reader/assistant.
car) the problem It was therefore obvi
is of awareness ous that the student
with VI bore extra ex
From these narratives,
penses than other stu
it is clear that partici
dents. For these stu
pants express some
dents it would appear
degree of exclusionary
as if they are being
practices such as pa
penalised for having
tronisation and keep
the disability.
ing of a distance by
sighted students. It is
The participants were
also important to note
allowed to say what
that the participants
they believed were
acknowledge that
challenges for ZOU
other sighted students
in serving learners
lack awareness.
with VI. The following
two challenges were
Participants were
reported, that ZOU
given the opportunity
should provide appro
to site any other chal
priate learning materi
lenges they encoun
al and that the materi
tered in the course of
al should be simplified
their studies with ZOU.
in some concepts as
A few of them indicat
indicated in the follow
ed having challenges
ing statement;
subjects involving sta
When programmes
tistics as some of the
were designed in
formulae were difficult
ZQU, they did not
to manage. The chal
have VI students in
lenge was not with
mind to the extent
the level of difficulty
that examinations
but with manageability
were not even
of the formula signs
in Braille no
and signals. In other
structure for braille.
words, given the ap
propriate computer
15
 The experiences of by both the tutors as
participants show a well as learners with
disparity between their VI. Tutors not trained
expectations and the in special education
service they received. found it difficult to cope
The service was inad with the instructional
equate and to a large needs of learners with
extent inappropriate. VI. This position was
The participants did not evidenced by the fol
feel a sense of belong lowing comment from
ingness to ZOU pro one of the tutors,
grammes rather they My tutorials were
view themselves as an moving smoothly
appendage to the rest until she (female
of the student popula student with VI)
tion. Some students did came.
not feel that it was their
right to enrol in ZOU
The statement could
programmes. These imply that negative
students remained
attitudes from tutors
grateful for ZOU’s ‘be emanate from lack of
nevolence’ in admit
knowledge and aware
ting them. Students in ness of the needs of
this frame of thinking
students with VI. In ad
cannot be expected to dition tutors observed
demand adequate and
that administrative
equitable service com
staff would close their
mensurate with their
offices at the sight of a
needs and characteris student with VI to avoid
tics. It is important that
the lengthy verbal in
the concept of inclu teractions associated
sion is discussed and
with such students.
implemented even in Such a situation is not
tertiary education. On
at all conducive to the
the whole, students needs of learners with
experiences brought
VI hence it requires ur
out some exclusionary gent redress in order to
practices in the way
give such learners the
ZOU assisted learners support they deserve.
with VI.
Tutors suggest that
both the administrative
Attitudinal staff with negative be
Challenges haviours as well as the
Observations by tutors students with VI should
indicated that there ex be availed counselling
to enhance accommo
isted problems relating
to negative attitudes dation and genuine ac
ceptance.
16 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
Recommendations
According to the in
formation given by re
gional administrators
in the interviews, ZOU
did not have an institu
tional policy, to assist
people with visual im
pairment and or other
disadvantages. It is
therefore recommend
ed that ZOU should
formulate a policy
which will include pa
rameters for ensuring
adequate learner sup
port for students with
VI and for those with
other challenges.
As established in the
study, some tutors ex
hibited a lack of knowl
edge in facilitating
the instructional and
welfare needs of stu
dents with VI. There is
therefore need to equip
staff who interface with
these students with
skills to adequately
provide equitable ser
vice and support for the
meaningful inclusion of
the learners.
Also, as the students
with VI suggested, it
is recommended that
ZOU should have a de
partment to service with
disabilities in an CDL
context. The depart
ment would ensure the
provision of adequate
learner support in terms
of material and other
pedagogical concerns.
Conclusion acteristics and needs. be staffed with quali
The effect of accom fied staff and equipped
Issues of access and
modating learner char with relevant resources
equity are fundamental
acteristics and needs to assist with transcrip
to ODL in its service of
in instructional materi tion from braille to
students with disability.
als production impacts print and use of voice
As indicated by Sherry
positively situated cog synthesisers for use
(1996), instructional
nition within the con by learners with VI in
designers and curricu
structivist paradigm in order to embrace and
lum developers seem
which the learner inter enhance inclusion in
to give precedence to
acts with materials and the institution through
technological advance
constructs new knowl appropriate and ad
ment in instructional
edge thereof. The new equate service delivery
materials development
department of learner modalities.
at the expense of focus
support for people with
ing on the underlying
disadvantages could
issues of learner char-

DEA5A-sADc ODE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 17

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Bikien, S.G. (1984) (2004) The inclusive
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Burgstahler, S. (2002)
Real Connections: Mason, H., McCall, S.,
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L. Naicker, S. and Swartz, L. M. (2004)
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Y. S. (1985) Fourth ISSN: 1492-383 1.
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Centre. University of
Tait, A. (2003) Re
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18 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

LEARNING SUPPORT IN A SEVERELY
UNDERDEVELOPED CONTEXT AS EXPERIENCED
BY DISTANCE LEARNERS
Godson Gatsha
Botswana Cofege of Open and Distance Learning
Abstract
The study was under
taken to find out how
distance learners who
pursued school equiv
alent courses in a se
verely underdeveloped
context and were ex
amination candidates
in 2005, experienced
the learning support
services provided by
Botswana College of
Open and Distance
Learning (BOCODOL)
Kang Regional Office.
Data was collected us
ing direct administra
tion of a questionnaire
to 109 participants and
through semi-struc
tured interviews with
five participants. Nar
ratives with personal
voice and individual
thick quotes were
used for analysis. The
findings of the study
indicated that effec
tive learning support
was rendered by the
regional office in all
the seven-community
study centres. How
ever remote learners
experienced delayed
assignment feedback.
Learning support strat
egies for remote learn
ers should be strength-
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
ened and part-time
tutors should be moti
vated to be more en
terprising in their deliv
ery of learning support
in community study
centres in order to en
hance throughput.
Introduction
Learning support is
considered important
in enhancing through
put in open and dis
tance learning, and yet,
it seems to be complex
and least understood
in many open and dis
tance learning practic
es. For instance most
Open and Distance
Learning institutions in
Southern African have
in place learning sup
port facilities but these
differ from institution to
institution probably be
cause of how learning
support is conceptu
alised. In this article, lit
erature on conceptions
of learning support
and experiences of
distance learners has
been reviewed in or
der to have an in-depth
understanding of how
distance learners in a
severely underdevel
oped context perceive
and experience learn
ing support provided
by one Southern Afri
can distance learning
provider, the Botswana
College of Open and
Distance Learning
(BOCODOL).
The study aimed at un
derstanding how dis
tance learners pursu
ing school equivalent
courses in a severely
underdeveloped con
text experienced learn
ing support provided
by BOCODOL through
the Kang Regional Of
fice. It was guided by
the question: How have
distance learners from
a severely underde
veloped context study
ing school equivalent
courses experienced
learning support? The
focus of the study was
on distance learners’
conceptualization of
learning support and
three key areas of
learning support the
region delivers to its
learners namely, study
materials, face-to-face
tutorials and assign
ment feedback. The
study also focused on
reasons for dropping
19
 out since it was as
sumed at the begin-
fling of the study that
learners might be drop
ping out as result of the
inadequate learning
support that the region
provided.
Kang region is gener
ally underdeveloped
and economically dis
advantaged. Services
such as electricity,
roads, telecommuni
cation systems, radio
and television services
are not yet developed
and the settlements or
villages have no pub
lic libraries, no public
transport and postal
services are far away,
slow or unavailable in
some settlements. The
learners pursued their
studies in a context
where unemployment
is very high, rainfall is
low and unreliable, and
so are underground
water sources and this
has affected their farm
ing activities. Tradition
ally inhabitants of this
region are nomadic
and these tendencies
are still there in some
of them. They relied on
hunting as their main
economy but new wild
life management laws
do not allow for this.
Hence the participants
studied in a severely
underdeveloped and
economically disad
vantaged context.
20 DEA5A-SADC CDE international Journal of Open and Distance Learning
Review of
literature
The literature on learn
ing support has a few
success stories and is
full of discourses
that tell stories of isola
tion, alienation, frustra
tion, delayed feedback
and fear of technology
(LaPadula, 2003; Dza
kiria, 2005). The role
of culture in learning
also appears in the
literature as a chal
lenge (Venter, 2003).
Despite these chal
lenges, the literature
that defines and ex
plains the role of learn
ing support is available
(Dzakiria, 2005; Tait,
1995; Gibson, 1998;
Tait, 2000; McLough
lin, 2002; Moore, 2003;
Yorke, 2004; Scheer
and Lockee, 2003;
Thorpe, 2002; Chute et
al, 1999).
One success story on
learning support is the
online survey research
carried out by LaPadu
Ia. The study involved
sixty-three women and
twenty-nine men and
was meant to deter
mine how satisfied the
students were with the
online student services
and also to find out
what types of services
they wanted in the fu
ture. The results were
that a majority of the
online students were
satisfied with the on-
line student services
they were received
(LaPadula, 2003). An
other study by Wheeler
(2002) carried out with
a sample of thirty re
spondents explored
the nature of psycho
logical distance in dis
tance learning. It iden
tified some important
students issues that
revealed that distance
learners who studied
with the aim of merely
reproducing knowl
edge through surface
approaches required
a greater need for di
rection, whereas those
who practice a deeper
meaning centred ap
proach required less
direction support from
their tutors. The results
also showed that re
mote students expect
ed a great deal more
social an practical sup
port from their instruc
tors than their local
peers probably due to
the psychological dis
tance they perceived,
however they expected
less in terms of aca
demic support which
indicated that they per
ceived less need due
to their independent
learner status.
Research findings by
Venter (2003) shed
light on the role of cul
ture and coping with
isolation in Europe
and Asia. Venter stud-
ies appear to indicate
that the extent to which
learning is student-cen
tred or teacher-centred
is subject to cultural
variation. He argues
that particular cultures
exhibit learning prefer
ences more suited to
distance learning than
other cultures. In the
Asia Pacific sample
his findings were that,
structure, timetabling
and reassurance for
individuals to assess
their own progress
seemed to be signifi
cant whilst in the Eu
ropean sample, the
emphasis appeared
to be on knowing that
they are cared for, that
people are there to
support their particular
needs and knowing
that others are in the
same boat and can be
contacted for informal
support. Both groups
of learners wanted aca
demic guidance, feed
back and reassurance
that they were on the
right track. Few would
dispute that this is a
crucial part of any suc
cessful learning experi
ence. It would be ben
eficial for educators to
take into consideration
the cultural values and
past experience of the
learners in the design
and implementation of
learning support (Ven
ter 2003).
DEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
The Malaysian expe
rience in open and
distance learning by
Dzakiria (2005) is one
empirical study that
reflects a discourse
of isolation, frustra
tion and alienation as
demonstrated by the
students’ voices. The
study focused on the
role of learning support
in distance learning
at the Universiti Utara
Malaysia. The strength
of this study lies in its
qualitative approach
that effectively used
the interview as a pri
mary instrument sup
plemented by students’
journals and photo
graphs. The Malaysian
context was made up
of a complex mix of
cultures, languages
and rural factors and
as such has similarities
with the context of this
study. The findings of
that study suggest that
the infrequent face-to-
face meetings between
distance teachers and
distance learners, and
learners’ dependen
cy on their teachers,
caused frustrations and
sometimes impeded
the learning process.
Some distance learn
ers were found to be
unable to cope with
distance learning ex
pectations and found
new ways of learning
and the sets of expec
tations that go with it
too great and in such
circumstances, some
distance learners ex
pected distance teach
ers to play an important
role in helping them
come to terms with
the new ways of learn
ing. The voices in the
study are desperate for
attention and need a
human face to provide
immediate response to
their problems and to
guide their learning.
The main challenge
for Open and Distance
Learning providers is
to ensure that a robust
learner support system
exists to help them
make a paradigm shift
from traditional learn
ing to distance learning
so as to avoid learn
ers expecting teacher-
centred delivery mode
in distance education.
Another striking find
ing revealed in Dza
kiria (2005) is how a
cultural orientation
may inhibit learning.
Malaysian learners are
reported to be more re
served and sometimes
passive participants
in classroom discus
sions and as such they
sometimes felt at a loss
when clear instructions
were not given for work
or assignments and
experiments, hence
were tempted to blame
their distance teachers
for a lack of knowledge
21
 or commitment as re learning programme of of learning support that
vealed in some of the the course and contin of producing distance
students’ discourse. ues until the results are learners who are able
The findings and con published. While no to progress through
clusions by Dzakiria exhaustive, universal their programmes of
(2005) lead one to ask model exists for which learning successfully
questions: Is there a student support servic and are able to be in
convergence of expec es should be available dependent learners
tations and interpreta to distance learners, who have good learn
tion of learning sup several authors (e.g., ing skills and strategies
port between distance Yorke, 2004; Scheer and are able to interact
learners and distance and Lockee, 2003; effectively with tutors,
educators? How can Moore, 2003; Thorpe, learning materials and
learning support strive 2002; McLoughlin, other distance learners
towards a better dis 2002; Tait, 1995; Chute at any time. The three
tance learning experi et. al, 1999) concur on functions of learning
ence? These questions the most important support Tait proposed
are closely related to components of learner focus on the cognitive,
how learning support is support services that affective and systemic
conceptualised. can be offered to dis aspects of learning. In
tance learners. These this case, cognitive re
Sherry (1996) made include, for example, fers to supporting and
a review of aspects of orientation of students developing learning
learning support and to distance learning, through the mediation
observed that the dis course registration, lan of the standard and uni
tance education sys guage support, access form elements of course
tem involved a high de to library resources, materials and learning
gree of interactivity be academic advising, tu resources for individual
tween teacher and stu toring individually and learners, whilst affec
dent, even in rural and in groups, feedback on tive refers to providing
isolated communities assessment and prog an environment that
separated by perhaps ress, counseling and supports learners, cre
thousands of miles. careers guidance. ates commitment, and
On the other hand enhances self-esteem.
various authors (Tait, Given the above com Systemic on the other
1995; Gibson, 1998; mon explanation and hand refers to estab
Tait, 2000; McLough components of learn lishing administrative
lin, 2002; Moore, 2003) ing support, this study processes and informa
advance a common chose to use three func tion management sys
explanation of learn tions of learning sup tems that are effective,
ing support that it is, a port proposed by Tait transparent and overall
support system aimed (2004) as its conceptual friendly (Tait, 2004).
at enhancing and im framework. In using the
proving learning and three functions to give Research design and
covers a wide range meaning to the findings methodology
of skills that transpire of this study, reference
from the initial enrol is made to Dzakiria’s There are different re
ment, the teaching and (2005) view of the role search orientations that
22 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
focus on how knowl
edge is developed. The
two common forms of
educational research
orientations are the
positivist paradigm and
the interpretivist para
digm. The positivist
research emphasizes
objectivity and the in
terpretivist research fo
cuses on subjectivity or
multiple realities.
Given my research
question that was con
cerned with the par
ticipants’ experiences
of learning support,
this study could not be
situated in the positiv
ist paradigm but within
the interpretive para
digm. The interpretive
research is concerned
with in-depth under
standing as experi
enced by research par
ticipants in their natural
setting.
A case study methodol
ogy has been adopted
in this study. I chose a
case study because of
my interest in obtain
ing an in-depth under
standing of learning
support as experienced
by distance learners
in a severely under
developed context in
order to inform prac
tice. A case study is
an accepted research
strategy particularly
as I was motivated by
wanting to give a voice
DEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
to my research partici
pants. It is an empiri
cal inquiry that investi
gates a contemporary
phenomenon within a
real life context using
multiple sources.
Data was collected
through a qualitative
survey tool (question
naire) and a semi-struc
tured interview. Due to
time constraints only
five participants were
selected purposively
for interviews. These
participants were se
lected on the basis of
their location in order
to strike a balance as
the contexts of the re
gion vary with one be
ing semi-arid and the
other being a desert.
They were also select
ed on the fact that they
had been active learn
ers for more than two
years in distance learn
ing. Two came from re
mote settlements in the
desert where a satellite
learning centre has
been operating for five
years and three came
from a village in a semi
arid area where a com
munity study centre
has been operating for
more than six years.
Both the questionnaire
and the semi-struc
tured interview tools
solicited participants to
respond to items that
required their concep
tualization of learning
support, experience in
using the study mate
rial, face to face tutori
als, assignment feed
back, regional office
support and why some
learners were still drop
ping out despite the
provision of learning
support. For each of
the above, participants
were asked to share
their experiences, per
ceptions and to sug
gest improvements.
The questionnaire was
administered in Octo
ber/November 2005
to all the 109 students
who were examina
tion candidates in
the school equivalent
courses in Kang Re
gion of BOCODOL.
The limitations of
this study include
the use of only two
tools of which one
was administered to
only five participants.
However, the detailed
responses given by
participants do offer an
in-depth understanding
of their learning experi
ences in their context,
hence the study does
not seek any general
izations but compara
bility to similar contexts
may be made.
All the 109 partici
pants, 71 females and
38 males, volunteered
freely to complete the
23
 questionnaires. The Conceptualization of
had all been enrolled learning support
for the school equiva
lent courses for at Participants’ descrip
least a year and had tion of learning sup
just completed writ port included encour
ing their English final agement that learners
examination. Their get from their tutors
ages ranged from 17 or distance education
to 40 years. Seventy- advisors and informa
six of the participants tion needed in order to
had a distance learn succeed. They indicat
ing experience of one ed that they received
learning support in
year with BOCODOL
and 33 had three the form of motivation,
years experience of tutorials, solutions to
distance learning with social problems, meet
BOCODOL. Twenty- ings and encourage
eight of the participants ment. For example one
were Junior Certificate said,
(JC) candidates whilst “Learning support
81 were Botswana means being given
General Certificate of the much needed
Secondary Education in formation to
(BGCSE) candidates. succeed in
learning. I am happy
Findings with the support
because normally
The findings of the after our meeting I
study indicated that get motivated and
what was perceived also happy which is
and experienced by good for a learner
both JC and BGCSE as someone cannot
distance learners on excel in their studies
the learning support if not happy and
provided by the region motivated.”
al office were similar.
There were equally no Study materials
differences in terms of
experiences between Study materials were
males and females but considered by most
responses differed on participants (99%) to
the basis of location be user friendly. They
and distance from the described the materials
community study cen as: good, okay, easy,
tres. The findings are simple, understand
presented below ac able, fine, very good,
cording to the themes reliable, impressing,
that guided this study. and perfect. However
24 DEAsA.sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
participants indicated
that they needed more
assignments for each
unit and suggested
that at least two as
signments rather than
one should be included
for learners to do. They
also observed that
there were a number
of errors in some study
materials and pointed
out that corrections
should be made on
study materials with
errors speedily and
the corrected version
given to learners well
on time before final ex
amination commences.
BGCSE Maths unit 3
was given as an ex
ample of study material
with errors.
Face-to-face tutorials
Participants described
the tutorials as; active,
good, okay, well con
ducted, very informa
tive, excellent, and very
helpful. Some of the
notable quotes are the
following:
“Tutorials are good
because tutors
encourage us and
they even give us
extra work”
“They were
generally good even
though the tutors
sometimes absented
themselves from the
lessons”
“The tutorials are
 very helpful indeed,
what matters is
time. I think one
hour 30 minutes
per lesson is fair
enough”
“Tutors are active
and conduct
tutorials in a good
way”
However, there were
other participants
whose experiences
were not as good and
made the following re
sponses:
“Some of them
(tutors) are too lazy
and do not turn up
for lessons every
time”
“No good, tutors
are not responsible
enough, others
teach low grade
stuff for Junior
School”
The above comments
were from partici
pants who came from
the same community
study center and could
be specific to that
centre. Other aspects
noted by participants
were that during tu
torials, tutors asked
questions, taught dif
ficult topics, spent
time helping learners
in some difficult areas.
However they also in
dicated that, time for
tutorials was rather
short, some tutors
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
spent tutorial time dis
cussing and marking
assignments, in some
instances if there are
no questions they
were asked to read
BOCODOL materials,
some tutors came 15
minutes late for tuto
rials, some learners
came for tutorials just
to play because they
come unprepared,
some learners laughed
at others and said an
noying words/remarks
during tutorials. Some
of the quotes by par
ticipants were:
“Some come late
especially English”
“Only my HSB tutor
has a very poor
delivery and did not
turn up for some
lessons.”
Assignment
feedback
The majority of partici
pants (90%) claimed
to have submitted
almost all the assign
ments in the courses
they were enrolled
in. They were happy
about the marked as
signments particularly
tutor comments and
the turn around time
particularly those from
the Community Study
Centres (CSCs). The
following comments
by two respondents
sum up most partici
pants experiences;
“My tutor writes all
the comments so
I learn from it. The
comments are fine
because she writes
what I should do or
should not do, she
gives me advice”.
“Finished all the
assignments on
time i.e. before
coming to sit for
examination. My
tutors were fair and
commented on
where to improve.”
However there were a
very few remarks on
delayed assignment
feedback in CSCs.
Delayed assignment
feedback was regis
tered by respondents
mainly from satellite
learning centres that
are in remote settle-
ments.
Regional Office
support
The responses indi
cated that a majority
(99%) of participants
were satisfied with the
support they got from
the Regional Office.
They had this to say;
“The way everything
is handled and how
it motivated me
especially on trying
to gain my goal.”
“Truly, they
encourage us and
give us workshops
25
 that help us and Learners dropping
they continuously out of the courses
check centres.”
The responses from
“I am satisfied the participants indi
because they cated varied reasons
provide study for dropping out of the
materials that are courses. The following
good and there are were the reasons for
tutors for help. They dropping out pointed
provide enough out by participants;
materials for one to “Because of lack of
study on her own.” teacher’
“They are not
“Information is serious or interested
provided and in their studies”.
they gave respect “Because they are
and cooperation, not forced and they
satisfied because of are aIone’
the confident staff ‘They are poor
that encourages.” at learning and
others have social
However a few re problems”
sponses from par ‘They say they want
ticipants without study to be taught just
centres indicated that like at a secondary
they were not satisfied school”
with the Regional Of “Lack of funds to pay
fice support because their examination
they were never vis fee”
ted. This is what one “Lack of commitment
participant said, “They to their work”.
never visit, they don’t “Boredom, they
know where we study. engage in other
They should visit learn social activities”.
ers to see problem for “They are lazy,
not handing assign they should be told
ment.” Another issue that this school is
that emerged in most learner-centred
responses was that the and not teacher-
Regional Office should centred.”
provide food during ex
aminations as learners In order to minimize
come from far away learners dropping out,
and stay for more than participants suggested
ten days or so at the that the Regional Of
examination centre. fice staff should be
proactive in identifying
risky learners and mo
26 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
tivating them. This is
what some participants
said:
“Motivate them, talk
to them, and give
them support they
lack’
“Teach them
how to have self-
motivation”.
“Give them food
when writing
examinations’
“Provide hostels at
the study centres’
“Advise them on
the importance of
education because it
is their future’
“Call them for
workshops where
they can be
encouraged’
Discussion
The conceptualization
of learning support in
distance education
as expressed by par
ticipants is within the
framework proposed
by Taft, (2004). Par
ticipants’s experience
and view of learning
support is that it aims
at enhancing and rn
proving their learning
in order to succeed
and this is in line with
what most authors
have said about the
role of learning support
in distance education
(Dzakiria, 2005; Tait,
1995; Gibson, 1998;
Tait, 2000; McLough
in, 2002; Moore, 2003;
Yorke, 2004; Scheer
and Lockee, 2003;
Thorpe, 2002).
The issue of errors in
the study materials
as identified by par
ticipants is a cause
of concern. Distance
education material
can be very frustrating
if it has errors. Fail
ure to correct errors
timeously or to allow
learners to proceed to
write the final exams
without errors having
been corrected might
be very damaging to
the distance education
provider besides being
unfair to learners.
The experiences
shared by participants
who attended the
weekly face-to-face tu
torials conducted at the
seven strategic Com
munity Study Centres
and that shared by
remote learners who
attend face-to-face
weekend tutorials oc
casionally, demon
strates best practice
and is in line with uni
versal learner support
services that exist
(Yorke, 2004, Scheer
and Lockee, 2003,
Moore, 2003, Thorpe,
2002, McLoughlin,
2002). The need for
more face-to-face tu
torials expressed by
remote learners is
typical and resembles
that of other remote
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
learners as in Wheeler
(2002) studies, where
remote learners ex
pected a great deal
more from their tutors
than non-remote learn
ers, because of the
psychological distance
they experienced. Par
ticipants’ experiences
of the tutorial sessions
demonstrate that the
tutorials are the most
sought after support.
Participants recog
nized commendable
efforts by the majority
of tutors. Positive tuto
rial delivery enhances
learner confidence,
retention, persistence
and high completion
rates. The few bad ap
ples of tutors identified
by participants need to
be talked to, re-skilled
and if no changes occur
their services should
be terminated as their
continued presence
could contribute to at
trition and dropping out
of learners.
The responses on as
signment submission
indicate claims by most
participants that they
had submitted their as
signments but the indi
vidual progress charts
for 2005 candidates in
dicate otherwise. There
could be a possibility
that some assignment
scores were not cap
tured or the manual re
trieval process was not
user friendly as such
some scores were not
retrieved. Another pos
sibility could be that
some learners could
have claimed to have
submitted when they
had not. Neverthe
less, more vigilance in
retrieving scores is ex
pected of any distance
education provider if
guidance and coun
seling are to be done
effectively. However
it would appear that
most learners were
happy with the assign
ment feedback. The
comments provided by
their tutors were en
couraging, gave guid
ance and reassurance
that they were on the
right track. This experi
ence was similar to one
experienced by learn
ers in Venter’s (2003)
studies of coping with
isolation in distance
learning in Europe and
Asia.
Regional Office remote
learner support ser
vices appear to be in
adequate as indicated
by responses from the
participants. It would
seem that not all re
mote learners were
reached physically or
constantly contacted
through tutorial letters.
The need for maintain
ing a high degree of
interactivity between
the distance education
27
 provider and the re
mote learner has been
emphasized by Sherry, Given the participants’
(1996). However the sentiments on their ex
attempts of reaching periences;
learners through week
end tutorials in rural
and isolated communi
ties are commendable.
The issue of drop
ping out calls for the
Regional Office to
identify vulnerable in
dividuals as early as
at time of enrolment
and through guidance
and counseling estab
lish rapport that will
enable each learner to
seek help whenever
necessary. Any learn
er who drops out of a • Learning support
course or programme
has cost implication.
The dropping out is
sue also challenges
the Regional Office’s
pre-enrolment coun
selling effectiveness,
hence a reflection
• Part-time tutors
during operational
planning for the next
academic period
needs to be done and
strategies for effective
pre-enrolment counsel
ling adopted to avoid
a situation like that
experienced by Malay
sian learners whose • Increased involve
voices were desperate
for attention, for the
human face to provide
guidance for their learn
ing (Dzakiria, 2005).
sary infrastructure
that can promote
effective distance
education in the
area
• The readability and
content quality of Further research
B000DOL study into the experi
material should be ences of dropouts
maintained and and their reasons
enhanced where for dropping out
necessary by en should be carried
suring that errors out.
are eliminated.
Conclusions
• The Regional Of
fice should con Learner Support Ser
stantly support vices at BOCODOL
tutors by visits, Kang Region satisfy
letters and meet most learners. The ma
ings focusing on jority of learners have
learning support access to face-to-face
issues. tutorials and tutors.
Assignment feedback
strategies for re as part of learning sup
mote learners in port is a critical tool
satellite centres in distance education
and informal study and learners gain a
centres should be lot from positive com
strengthened by ments made by the tu
the regional office. tors. Turn around time
of assignments is be
ing adhered to at BO
should be moti
CODOL Kang region’s
vated by regional
Community Study Cen
staff so that they
tres, however in satel
are more enterpris
lite centres delayed
ing in their delivery
feedback has been
of learning support
experienced by learn
in community study
ers. However, general
centres,
support of learners is
commendable. Work
ment of political shops and visits by
stakeholders to regional staff seem to
engage relevant sustain the confidence
authorities to es of learners.
tablish the neces

28 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

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DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 29

LECTURING VERSUS COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
METHODS: An Analysis of Learning Preferences
Among Mid-Level Management Students at
the University of Namibia
Dr Trudie Frindt & Dr Louise Mostert — University of Namibia
Abstract on the Approaches to Background
Study Skills Inventory
The concept of collab This study had its ori
for Students was used
orative learning (CL), gin in 2005, when the
to examine the motiva
the grouping and pair University of Namibia
tional and deep learn
ing of students for the took in students for a
ing impact of a lectur
purpose of achieving certificate course in
ing teaching method
an academic goal has mid-level management
versus collaborative
become a well-es who did not have the
learner activities in a
tablished educational necessary admission
certificate programme
method and research requirements to enter
at the University of Na
ers such as Johnson into higher education.
mibia (UNAM). There
& Johnson (1990) and A group of students,
were limitations in
Astin (1993) strongly most of whom were
the procedures of the
favour it as one of the supervisors, were en
study and difficulties in
most effective meth rolled for a six-month
interpreting the results.
ods to be employed by certificate course in
However, the results
educators. Proponents mid-level management.
suggest that the stu
of collaborative learn Students attended a
dents showed strong
ing claim that the ac 35-hours week-block of
beliefs and preference
tive exchange of ideas face-to-face instruction
for deep learning ap
within small groups per module. This study
proaches in addition
not only elicits partici focused on the teach
to surface learning ap
pation from possible ing methods employed
proaches. It was con
shy students but also during the first and
cluded that learning
enhances a deeper second module of the
outcomes for UNAM
understanding as op certificate programme.
mid-level management
posed to memorising The lecturer of the first
students could be en
of transmitted knowl module applied collab
hanced by employ
edge. There has been orative learning meth
ing deep learning ap
an assumption that, ods, while the second
proaches to teaching
due to rote learning module was mainly
and learning.
and authorative teach presented via the lec
ing style in schools, turing method sup
Key words
students in Namibia ported by power point
have a tendency to Collaborative learning, presentations.
wards surface learning rote learning, surface
in schools and higher learning approach, During the first intake
education. To exam deep learning ap the researchers no
ine this assumption, an proach, interactivity. ticed that the percep
adapted questionnaire tion was that students’
30 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
behaviour changed
when taught by differ
ent lecturers. For ex
ample, students were
very excited and enthu
siastic when they were
taught by lecturer A,
who preferred to teach
them through collabor
ative learning methods
in comparison with lec
turer B, who preferred
a teacher centred
approach. However,
when the researchers
compared the test re
sults of the two mod
ules, it was clear that
the students performed
better in lecturer B’s
classes, which seemed
paradoxical since the
researchers expected
that students would
perform better under
conditions where they
had enjoyed the class
es and participated
more actively.
The present study was
prompted by assump
tions that mid-level
management certifi
cate students’ prior
experiences in educa
tion predispose them
towards surface learn
ing approaches, which
might result in UNAM
certificate students
having preferences for
teaching that are con
sistent with a surface
learning approach.
This assumption was
examined in this study.
A questionnaire was
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
used to elicit responses
from students. In addi
tion to this, test results
were used to compare
the result of the first
two modules of the cer
tificate course. It was
expected that students
prefer a teaching style
that is consistent with a
surface approach. The
research was based on
a conviction that teach
ing and learning should
begin with the individu
al student, including an
understanding of their
beliefs and preferenc
es about teaching and
learning. It also drew
on the notion that stu
dents’ understanding
of how they perceive
learning would have
a significant influence
on their approaches to
learning.
In order to provide a
background to the par
ticular research ques
tions and the methodol
ogy used, the first sec
tion of the conceptual
framework contains a
brief review of research
and theory about sur
face and deep learning
approaches.
Conceptual
framework
Surface and deep
approaches to
learning
Research into student
learning has roots in
several areas of psy
chology, including
cognitive psychology,
behaviourism, and hu
manism. Traditional
behavioural learning
theories are teacher
centred and focus on
eliciting a desired re
sponse from the stu
dent. These theories
also stress the need
to specify goals and
set behavioural learn
ing outcomes (Biggs,
1996; Tennant, 1997;
Biggs, 1999; Rams-
den, 1987; Ramsden,
1992; Entwistle, 1998;
Gordon & Debus,
2002). Research sug
gests that learning out
comes for students are
linked to a specific type
of learning approach
(Marion & Säljö,
1997; Biggs, 1999). A
prominent example of
these uses a distinc
tion between surface
and deep learning ap
proaches. The origin of
this distinction can be
found in the early work
of Marion and Säljä
in Sweden (Marion
& Sâljö, 1976; Säljö,
1979). They gave stu
dents a text to read,
and told them they
would be asked ques
tions afterwards. Stu
dents responded in two
different ways. The first
group learned in an
ticipation of the ques
tions, concentrating on
the facts and details
31
that might be asked. derstanding it, listing students (Bligh, 1972;
They ‘skated along the points instead of ad Johnson & Johnson,
surface of the text’, as dressing an argument, 1990). Students’ criti
Marion and Säljö put quoting secondary cal thinking skills in
it, using a surface ap references as if they crease and their reten
proach to learning. The were primary ones. tion of information and
second group, on the These elements are interest in the subject
other hand, set out to reasonably consistent matter improves (Kulik
understand the mean with what has been & Kulik, 1979). When
ing of what the author described as the tradi students work in pairs
was trying to say. They tional view of effective one is listening while
went below the surface learning, namely that the other is discuss
of the text to interpret it involves “the passive ing the question un
that meaning, using a transfer of objective der investigation. Both
deep approach. They knowledge from teach are developing valu
saw the big picture and er to student with the able problem solving
how the facts and de teacher firmly in control skills by formulating
tails made the author’s of the students’ learn their ideas, discussing
case (Biggs 1999:12). ing and assessment them, receiving im
testing the student’s mediate feedback and
The conceptual mod retention of knowl responding to ques
el distinguishing the edge” (Boyle, Duffy & tions and comments by
surface versus deep Dunleavy, 2003:268). their partner, which will
learning approaches Gibbs (1994) states result in a deeper ap
has been developed that to encourage a proach to learning.
and clarified in re surface approach to
cent years (Ramsden, learning, all we need to The deep approach
1992; Entwisstle, 1997; do is provide: arises from a felt need
Biggs, 1999; McLean, • a heavy workload; to engage the task ap
2001; Gordon & De • high class contact propriately and mean
bus, 2002; Warbur hours; ingfully, so that the
ton, 2003). From this student tries to use the
literature, a surface • excessive amounts
most appropriate cog
approach arises from of course material;
nitive activities for han
an intention to get the • lack of opportunity dling it. Biggs (1 999:16)
task out of the way with for in-depth study; is of the opinion that
minimum trouble, while • lack of choice over when students feel
appearing to meet re subject and study this “need-to-know,
quirements. Low cog methods; they try to focus on un
nitive level activities • a threatening and derlying meaning: on
are used, when high anxiety-provoking main ideas, themes,
er—level activities are assessment sys principles or success
required to do the task tem. ful applications”. This
properly. As applied requires a sound foun
to academic learn dation of relevant prior
ing, examples include Collaborative learn
knowledge so students
rote learning selected ing, on the other hand
who wish to know more
content instead of un fosters a higher level
will naturally try to learn
of performance by
32 DEASA-SADC CDE international Journal of Open and Distance Learning
the details, as well as is that theory and re important factors in the
making sure they un search suggests that beliefs and expecta
derstand what they learning outcomes for tions they bring to the
have learnt. The deep students are linked to class (Ramsden, 1992;
approach is based higher quality learn Biggs, 1999; Entwistle,
on the use of analytic ing outcomes, such McCune & Hounsell,
skills such as cross- as better conceptual 2002;). Therefore, it is
referencing, imagina knowledge, develop important to consider
tive reconstruction and ment of problem-solv the prior experiences
independent thinking ing skills, and greater of UNAM mid-level
(Warburton, 2003). mastery of content. management students.
When using the deep Biggs (1994) states The Namibian Govern
approach in handling that to encourage deep ment has categorically
tasks students develop learning, students stated that the country
positive feelings and need to recognise the should move towards a
learning therefore be need to know and that knowledge-based so
comes a pleasure. This teaching requires ac ciety and has thus also
description suggests tive involvement of the expressed the need for
that to achieve deep student in the learning the Educational Sys
learning the student is process. Most students tem to put measures
active in the process, in Higher Education are in place to ensure the
that the learning is however rarely asked development of critical
largely self-regulated to focus on the pro thinking, problem-solv
and that it is consistent cess of learning (Gibbs ing and life-long learn
with constructivist prin 1994). Students focus ing (Government of the
ciples (Duffy & Jonas on the outcomes of Republic of Namibia:
sen, 1992). Only when their learning, which is Office of the President,
students formulate their reinforced by the pre 2004). This clearly
own constructs and so dominance of end of reflects the need for
lutions are they truly module assessment, deep learning. How
thinking critically. Col and the increasing im ever, recent analyses
laborative techniques portance of transpar have characterised Na
create a constructivist ency in quality, stan mibia’s education and
approach when stu dards, and reporting of training system as a
dents become actively outcome measures in very weak tool for sup
involved in defining Higher Education. porting the realisation
questions in their own of these goals (Ministry
language and working Students’ of Education, 2006).
out answers together experience Commentators of the
instead of reproducing of teaching Namibian education
material presented by conducive to processes have also
the teacher or the text surface learning. noted that throughout
book. the school system there
Since learning takes
is an emphasis on rote
place through existing
One reason there has learning, memorising,
knowledge and experi
been attention to the and examinations that
ences, students’ prior
surface versus deep require the retention of
learning experiences
learning distinction answers to fixed ques
are presumed to be
DEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 33
 tions. (Harlech-Jones, Finally, deep and sur of the ASSIST ques
2007; Clegg, 2007). face approaches to tionnaire have sepa
This captures some learning describe the rate items pertaining
of the main prior edu way students relate to a surface learning
cational experience of to a teaching/learning approach and a deep
students who attend environment. They are learning approach. For
UNAM. These types of not fixed characteris the purposes of this
education processes tics of students. Some study, a triangulation of
have been identified people speak of stu quantitative and quali
as those most likely to dents’ approaches to tative methods was
contribute to surface learning as if they were employed. Results of
learning approaches learning styles that ap the design are outlined
(Ramsden, 1992). An ply whatever the task or as indicated below:
other factor that reflects the teaching (Schmeck
on the UNAM mid-level 1988). At the other Data collection:
management students’ extreme, Marton and
possible orientation • Participant as ob
Sãljö (1976) speak of
to surface learning server:
approaches as entirely
is Ramsden’s (1997) determined by context, • The role we ad
argument that if previ as if students walk into opted in this study
ous knowledge is lim a learning situation was that of partici
ited, then students are without any preference pant-as-observer,
more likely to adopt a for their way of going since the Depart
surface approach. This about learning. Stu ment of Continuing
comment could apply dents have preferences Education was
to the UNAM mid-level for certain approaches, responsible for the
management students but their preferences co-ordination of
because the instruc are often not met. the course. This
tion is in their second situation provided
language. They find Purpose of the several advan
it difficult to verbalise study tages in terms of
their understanding the researchers’
of the prescribed text The present research understanding and
and therefore they re had two main goals. interpretation of the
sort to memorising the The first was to exam research results.
work. ine the students’ per
Furthermore, • Personal inter
if students have had ception about learning,
views with the
previous success with and the second was to
lecturers who were
examine the students’
a surface approach, responsible for the
and this appears to be teaching preferences.
first two modules of
the case for this group Both of these goals
the course.
of students (because were pursued using
subscales from the Ap • Questionnaires
they were successful were given to stu
in a school system that proaches and Study
Skills Inventory for Stu dents at the end of
emphasised the sur the second mod
face approach), they dents (ASSIST) ques
tionnaire (Entwistle, ule. The purpose of
are more likely to fol the questionnaire
low it. 1997; Tait & Entwistle,
1996). The subscales was to examine
34 DEASA-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
 the students’ per
ception of learning
and the students’
teaching prefer
ences.
Data Processing:
The research design
followed a qualitative
approach where de
scriptive statistics were
applied
The sample
The sample consid
ered in this study con
sisted of 20 students
who enrolled for the
certificate in Mid-level
management at the
University of Namibia.
The group was divided
equally among men
and women, with an
age distribution of 20
years of age for the
youngest and the old
est person at 45 years
of age. The language
of instruction was Eng
lish and this was a sec
ond language for all
students.
The instrument
The study was done
by means of personal
interviews with the two
lecturers responsible
forthefirsttwo modules
of the course as well as
through questionnaires
that were administered
at the end of the sec
ond module. The ques
tionnaire consisted of
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
5 sections. Section A
set out to establish the
profile of the students
and biographic details
including age and gen
der. Section B looked
at students’ academic
profile including high
est admission points
and highest grades
obtained in English for
admittance to the cer
tificate course. Section
C asked students to
indicate their job pro
file. A four—point scale
from “very close to my
beliefs” to “very differ
ent to my beliefs” was
used for section D on
Beliefs about how stu
dents perceived learn
ing. For section E, on
Teaching Preferences
a four-point scale from
“I definitely like” to “I
definitely dislike” was
used. The original
scale included a mid
point rating when the
student was “unsure”.
In order to encourage
the present students to
indicate a preference,
the category of unsure
was not used.
As mentioned earlier,
two subscales from
the ASSIST question
naire formed part of the
questionnaire to exam
ine UNAM’s mid-level
management students’
beliefs and preferenc
es. The first subscale
was section E “What is
learning?” and the sec
ond subscale was sec
tion D “Preferences for
different types of teach
ing”. The items in these
two subscales were
discussed with several
academic staff mem
bers with extensive
experience of UNAM
students in order to as
sess the meaning and
relevance of the items.
As a result of the dis
cussions a number
of changes and addi
tions were made to the
questionnaire. An item
was added to section E
that read, “being able
to explain information
to someone else in a
meaningful way”. Since
the focus of this study
was on collaborative
versus lecturing meth
od, it was felt that sec
tion D “Preferences for
different types of teach
ing” should include a
broader spectrum of
items to choose from.
(All items marked with
an asterisk (*) were
added to the question
naire: see Table 1 and
Table 2).
Procedure
The questionnaires
were introduced to stu
dents in class. The pur
pose of the question
naires was explained in
terms of the research
ers’ wish to learn more
about the beliefs and
preferences of stu
dents as a step to un
35
 derstanding students
and improving their
earning. No mention
was made of the ques
tionnaires covering
surface or deep learn
ing. Students were
informed that there
were no right or wrong
answers and that their
responses were not
part of any course as
sessment. They were
told that while they
were encouraged to
complete the question
naires, it was a volun
tary activity. All 20 of
the students complet
ed the questionnaires.
Students were also
given an explanation of
each of the items and
how to use the rating
scales. This included
a discussion of key
words, such as assign
ments, readings, ideas,
course material and
facts. Furthermore,
both lecturers were
informed about the re
search while detailed
discussions took place
regarding their teach
ing styles.
The lecturer respon
sible for collaborative
Table 1. Percentage responses to each item in the Beliefs about learning.
(Students were asked to rate how close each of the items is to their beliefs)
Surface learning beliefs
Learning means
1. making sure you remember
things well.
36 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
learning informed the
students what he ex
pected from them and
what their academic
task and assignments
were for the course
of the week. Next, the
collaborative learning
structure was explained
and students were told
to form five groups
with four students per
group. An instruction
sheet that pointed out
the key elements of the
collaborative process
was distributed. As
part of the instructions,
students were encour
aged to discuss “why”
they thought as they
did regarding solutions
to the problems. They
were also instructed to
listen carefully to com
ments of each member
of the group and be
willing to reconsider
their own judgments
and opinions. As expe
rience reveals, group
decision-making can
easily be dominated by
the loudest voice or by
the student who talks
the longest. Therefore,
it was insisted that
every group member
must be given an op
Not so Rather
close close
1 = 5% 6 = 30%
portunity to contribute
his or her ideas. After
that the group would
arrive at a solution that
would then be shared
with the entire class for
their input.
The second lecturer
made use of the lec
turing method by us
ing power point pre
sentations as well as
occasional flipchart il
lustrations. At the end
of each day he would
give a summary of the
important aspects that
were covered during
the lecture. He would
also extend an invita
tion to students to con
tact him at any time
should they have prob
lems with their assign
ments.
Data analysis
The “Beliefs about
learning” section in
the questionnaire con
tained three items con
sistent with a surface
learning approach and
four items consistent
with a deep learning
approach. These two
sets of items are set
out in Table 1.
Very Different
close to belief
7 = 35% 6 = 30%
 2. building up knowledge by obtain- 1 = 5% 17 = 85% 2 = 10%
ing facts and information.

3. being able to use the information 6 = 30% 14 = 70%

you have obtained

Deep learning beliefs

Learning means

4. developing as a person 1 = 50/s 2 = 1 0% 8 = 40% 9 = 45%

5. understanding new ideas and 2 = 1 0% 6 =30% 10 = 50%

information for yourself

6. seeing things in a different and 2 = 10% 6 = 30% 12 = 60%

more meaningful way.

7 *
being able to explain informa- 1 = 5% 9 = 45% 10 = 50%
tion to someone else in a mean
ingful way.

Section E, the “Teaching Preferences” section contained seven items indicat

ing a preference for teaching that encourages surface learning and ten items
indicating a preference for teaching that encourages deep learning. These
two sets are given in Table 2. In the actual questionnaires completed by stu
dents, no mention was made of surface or deep learning.

Table 2: Percentage responses to each item in the Teaching Preferences

section. (Students were asked to rate how much they liked or disliked each type of
teaching)

Surface learning preferences Definitely Like to Dislike Definitely

liked some to some dislike
. extent extent

1. Lecturers who tell us exactly 8 = 40% 9 = 45% 3 = 15%

what to write down in our notes.

2. *
Lecturers who provide me with 17 = 85% 3 = 15%
a proper guideline on how to
prepare for tests or exams.

3. Courses in which it is made very 9 = 450/s 10 50% 1 = 5%

clear just what I have to read and
study.

4. Lecturers who provide me with 12 = 60% 8 = 40%

examples of previous exam
questions.

5. Readings, which give me definite 20 =

facts and information that can 100%
easily be learned.

DEAsA-sADc ODE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 37

 Surface learning preferences Definitely Like to Dislike Definitely
liked some
extent to some dislike
extent
6 *
Tests and examination papers 9 = 45% 11 = 55%
which do not need any analytical
skills.

7. *
Lecturers who make use of 9 = 45% 9 = 45% 2 = 10%
power point presentations to
support their lecturing.

Deep learning preferences

*
8. Lecturers who ask questions in 18 = 90% 2 = 10%
class.
*
9 Lecturers who make you think 14 = 70% 4 = 20% 1 = 5% 1 = 5%
even if you do not score the
highest in their subject.
*
Lecturers who make you work 18 = 90°/o 2 = 10%
in small groups, and then ask
someone in the group to report
back to the whole class.
*
Lecturers who encourage you 17 = 85% 2 = 1 O°/ 1 = 5%
to participate in debates in the
class.

12. *Lecturers who encourage group 16 = 80% 3 = 15% 1=5%

work.

13. Lecturers who encourage us to 17 = 85% 2 = 10% 1 = 5%

think for ourselves and show us
how they think.

14. *Lecturers who explain to us 16 = 80% 4 = 20%

why they want us to learn a spe
cific topic or item.

15. Assignments or exams, which 2 = 10% 6 = 30% 12 = 60%

allow me to show that I have
thought about the course mate
rial myself.

16. Courses in which we are expect- 10 = 50% 2 = 20% 8 = 40%

ed to find new reading and ideas
for ourselves.

17. Reading, which challenge me 10 = 50% 5 = 25% 4 = 20% 1 = 5%

and provide explanations that go
beyond the class.

38 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal ot Open and Distance Learning

Results
The questionnaire re
suits are given in terms
of the percentages of
student’s responses to
each item. The results
for “Beiiefs about Learn
ing” are given in Tabie
1 and the resuits for
“Teaching Preferences”
are given in Tabie 2
Because of the small
sample size, the resuits
are treated descriptively
and are used to indicate
possibie trends rather
than statistically signifi
cant findings.
From Table 1 it can be
seen that the students
generally supported
each of the items as
being consistent with
learning. This could
suggest that they saw
learning consisting of
a number of separate
elements. When fo
cusing on the highest
rating, that the item
is “very close” to their
beliefs, it can be seen
that most support was
for the item on learning
being about obtaining
facts and information.
This is in the surface-
learning group. At the
same time, the item
that received the low
est support for being
“very close” to their be
liefs, ‘making sure you
remember things well”,
was also in the group
pertaining to surface
learning. It can be seen
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
that almost all students
rated the three items
about surface learning
as either “very close”
or “quite close” to their
beliefs.
From Table 2 it can be
seen that the respons
es suggest some varia
tion among the items in
the strength of student
preferences. If the high
est rating of “definitely
like” is the focus, it can
be seen students had a
particularly strong pref
erence for readings that
provided clear facts and
information that can be
easily learned. They
also seemed to have
a strong preference for
lecturers who encour
age them to think for
themselves, as well as
teaching styles where
there is a tendency
towards collaborative
learning that encour
ages them to find new
ideas for themselves.
These latter two items
were in the group sup
porting deep learning
while the former one
(the strongest prefer
ence) was in the group
supporting surface
learning.
When attention is di
rected in Table 2 to
items where there was
an apparently lower rat
ing of “definitely like”, it
can be seen that only
2 (10%) students defi
nitely like exams or
assignments that in
cludes analytical skills.
In fact, there were 12
(60%) of the students
who rated this item as
being disliked to some
degree. 8 (40%) of the
students also indicated
that they dislike cours
es in which they are
expected to find new
ideas. It is evident from
the results that a small
number of students
showed a dislike for
each of the items found
under deep learning
approaches.
Finally, there was no
strong overall evidence
that students preferred
teaching that encour
aged surface learn
ing more than they
preferred teaching
that encourages deep
learning. The average
percentage rating of
“definitely like” for the
four items in the sur
face learning group
was 67,5%, with the
average percentage
rating of “definitely like”
for the ten items in the
deep learning category
group being 69,0%.
The fact that the high
est preference was for
one item in the surface
category and lowest
preference was for an
item in the deep cate
gory is probably impor
tant here.
39
 This set of results sug fore be argued that
gests that a large pro collaborative learning,
portion of this sample where students are ex
of UNAM mid-level pected to converse with
management students peers, is a more desir
held beliefs and pref able teaching method
erences that included for these students who
support for deep learn typically come from dif
ing. When the results ferent academic and
were summarised and socio-economic back
discussed in class, grounds.
there was strong ac
knowledgement from The questionnaire re
many students of the sults for both beliefs
importance of deep and preferences re
learning. The question vealed that while there
naire results and sub was evidence of a ten
sequent class discus dency towards surface
sion provided support learning among the
for teaching and learn students, the evidence
ing strategies that pro was just as sound
mote deep learning. for an orientation to
deep learning. Overall,
Discussion and therefore, the question
conclusion naire results showed a
complex view of learn
The present research
ing and a set of prefer
was undertaken with
ences that included a
the assumption ex
strong component of
plained above that
deep learning for most,
students who enrolled
but not all, students.
for the mid-level man
The results suggest
agement certificate
that these students, of
course at UNAM would
whom most are em
have preconceptions
ployed as supervisors,
of learning that em
viewed learning as con
phasised surface ele
taining both knowledge
ments, and they would
acquisition (surface)
have preferences for
and as a meaningful
teaching strategies that
change at a personal
used surface learning.
level (deep). To draw
The pressures and
further conclusions
difficulties of learning
from the questionnaire
in a second language
findings, it is helpful to
were also expected to
consider some of the
be a factor orienting
results in detail.
students mainly to a
surface learning ap
The results on Be-
proach. It could there-
40 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
liefs about learning
showed that there was
reasonable support
for each of the seven
items and therefore
that students’ overall
beliefs about learning
included both surface
and deep elements.
In a well-researched
literature review on
student learning, Rus
sell (2004) compared
his research results on
beliefs about learning
with those from inter
national literature. Rus
sell found that much of
the research on stu
dent views about learn
ing used interviews,
where students had to
articulate and explain
their view of learning.
Much of Russell’s re
search suggests that
when interviewed, few
students articulate a
personal view of learn
ing that could be de
scribed as deep. The
research of Marton et
al. (1 993:299) is an ex
ample. Their research
was on Open Univer
sity students in Britain
doing a course on So
cial Science Founda
tions, which required
students to question
aspects of themselves
and society. This
should prompt higher-
level conceptions of
learning; nevertheless,
the researchers report
ed that deep learning
views were not typical
of the students. In fact
they concluded, “it is
an important result to
show that such a con
ception can actually
be found”. The results
of McLean (2001) on
South African medical
students also showed
that deep learning
views were limited. In
this case they occurred
mainly for students who
were performing above
average (Russell,
2004). The students
in the present study
appeared to compre
hend and complete the
questionnaire with little
difficulty. The class dis
cussion showed that
the concepts of sur
face and deep learning
were meaningful to the
students. This supports
arguments that there
are common elements
to conceptions of learn
ing across cultures.
There is conflicting evi
dence about the use
of surface and deep
approaches by tertiary
students. Some of this
evidence suggests
greater use of deep
than surface approach
es (e.g., Zeegers,
2001; Diseth & Mar
tinsen, 2002; Gordon
& Debus, 2002). How
ever, often this greater
use is linked to par
ticular conditions. For
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
example, the students
might have been ex
posed to constructivist
kinds of teaching (Gor
don & Debus, 2002),
or be students who are
older and more ma
ture (Zeegers, 2001).
Science students are
more likely to use a
surface approach than
Arts students (Biggs,
1987). There are other
findings suggesting
that a deep approach
develops over the
course of the degree
(Ramsden, 1992; Gor
don & Debus, 2002).
The present data can
only be treated as
tentative and explor
atory. This was a small
sample of students and
the validity of the ques
tionnaire has not been
established for UNAM
students. Therefore, it
is difficult to have full
confidence in interpre
tations of the student
responses. Further
research is needed to
validate this and other
instruments on student
beliefs about learning
and their teaching pref
erences.
The first goal of the
present research was
to examine student be
liefs about learning. A
major implication from
this study would be to
determine the actual
approach to learning
that students use. The
beliefs and prefer
ences responses of
the present students
showed clear evidence
for use of the deep
approach by UNAM
mid-level management
students. It needs to be
recognized, however,
that whether students
use this approach and
obtain these kinds of
outcomes, it is linked
not only to student’
preconceptions and
expectations, it is also
very closely linked to
the teaching and learn
ing environment pro
vided by the course
and the lecturer. As
noted earlier, some
kinds of teaching and
learning environments
encourage a surface
approach and other
environments encour
age a deep approach.
Through participant
observation, it became
clear that the UNAM
mid-level management
student population
appears to hold pre
conceptions of learn
ing that are consistent
with a deep approach.
Whether students
actually use this ap
proach will depend
largely on the course
material as well as the
lecturer’s input.
41
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cognitive style, and teaching-learning en
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43
 INTER-INSTITUTIONAL COLLABORATION IN
DISTANCE EDUCATION: IS IT WORTHWHILE?
Dr. Regina K. Masalela
University of Botswana

Abstract benefits and complexi skills (Thuch & Mur

ties of inter-institutional phy, 1994). Bringing
A variety of forces such
collaboration are dis different organizational
as economic, social,
cussed and implica cultures, styles and
technological, econom
tions drawn from the a plethora of schol
ical and educational
discussion. ars together requires
have impelled distance
good mechanisms for
education universi
Introduction communication, nego
ties and institutions to
tiation of relationships
engage in a degree of In this rapidly changing
and decision making
interdependence that educational environ
to serve the project
earlier might have been ment, colleges and uni
purpose well (Chute &
considered neither de versities try to expand
Gulliver, 1996).
sirable nor possible. their markets, find new
These have been well students or consumers
In recent years large
documented and vari for their products and
and medium-sized
ously interpreted. The develop new products
companies, institutions
demands from govern geared to the needs
ments, students and and organizations have
of those new consum
been at the forefront of
institutional organiza ers. Partnerships are
forming partnerships,
tion administrations to emerging as an efficient
co-operations and col
improve access to ed and effective means to
laborative ventures.
ucational opportunities achieve those objec
Berquist & Meuel
and provide more com tives (Chute & Gulliver,
(1995) observe that:
prehensive services to 1996). However, re
Confronted with
students have prompt search in the area of
growing pressure to
ed distance education collaboration suggests
institutions to venture do more with less,
that there is a variety
responding to the
into collaboration. This of risks associated with
quickening pace of
paper explores various these types of activities
change, and taking
examples of types of (Karis, 1989; Moran,
advantage of new
inter-institutional col 1990; Smith, 2000).
opportunities in
laboration found within The concept of col
foreign markets,
the distance education laboration in distance
business people
context. The paper de education brings with it
have looked
scribes the four differ implications for change
at their often
ent dimensions of col in institutions. These
tired, lumbering
laborative activities; it include revisions in
hierarchies with
also discusses the es structure, policy, ac
fresh, critical
sential considerations creditation standards,
eyes..And they
for collaboration. The communications and
44 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
 have adopted...or ventures have been
invented.., a plethora initiated in response to
of new partnership incentives from govern
based. structures:
. . ments. Collaborative
cross-licensing efforts are short-term
agreements, by design, involving
strategic alliances, specifically identified
hollow partnerships, tasks to be completed
virtual partnerships, in a set timeframe and
vertical integrated within tight budgetary
partnerships, and limits (Smith, 2000).
consortia (p. 5-6). Some are long-term
agreements involving
This partnership phe the creation of new
nomenon encompass organizational entities,
es a myriad of forms. major changes in exist
However, they seem to ing operational agree
follow similar patterns ments, independent fi
in how they come to nancial status, and the
gether, define their re expectations that major
lationships, and man gains will be achieved
age their transitions. under the entity’s
management. These
Defining long-term agreements
collaboration involve mutually ben
eficial and well-defined
The term collaboration
relationships, jointly
is used in many ways
developed structures,
and has a variety of
commitment to mutu
meanings to different
ally agreed goals and
people. For the pur
the notion of shared
pose of this paper, the
responsibility.
author adopted Neil’s
(1981) definition. Neil
It is important to note
as cited by Moran and
that the types and func
Mugridge (1 993,1) de
tions of the collabora
fines collaboration as
tion links are context
“an active working part
bound. This implies
nership by some kind
that collaborative re
of institutional commit
lationships differ for
ment.” The definition
each unique situation
is fairly broad and is
depending on the con
indicative of coopera
text, policies and or
tion in a wide range of
ganizational structures
activities. Collaboration
of each organization
is often undertaken
involved, It is increas
voluntarily, though in
ingly recognized that
recent times a number
in this rapidly changing
of new collaborative
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
information society, no
single institution can by
itself, in isolation, cater
for the changing educa
tional, training and pro
fessional needs of its
target student popula
tion. Collaboration and
networking to provide
education is becoming
imperative if distance
educators want to cut
costs in education,
enhance the outreach
of the institution, and
make available a vari
ety of courses without
constraints of time and
space.
Inter-institutional ar
rangements are vari
ous and widespread
across all sectors of so
ciety. These joint ven
tures include marketing
agreements, research
and development
partnerships and sup
ply-chain agreements
that are increasing in
both the private and
public sectors, spurred
on by globalization of
marketplaces. This
has fostered alliances,
joint ventures and part
nerships’ between lo
cal organizations and
those in other coun
tries around the world.
Public and community
sector collaboration is
also increasing with
major organizations
responsible for the
provision of education,
health and community
45
development services laboratory and tele is when two institutions
(Huxham, 1996). communications agree to teach/offer the
networks courses of the other in
Inter-institutional • Creation of new their own institutions or
collaborative management struc when two institutions
activities tures, both within pool in their academic
and among institu resources for program
Sen (http://www.india.
tions. design and develop
edu/ignouconf/papers/
ment. Multilateral col
paeOOl .htm) summariz • Aseconddimen
laborative projects are
es four dimensions that sion can be de
high-risk ventures,
define collaborative ac fined in terms of
though those have high
tivities. He writes that, the number of in
potential of benefiting
one of the dimensions stitutions involved
the various institutions
is to outline the areas and the mutual
involved. The success
in distance education ity of interaction
of bilateral and mul
that can benefit from among them (Ibid).
tilateral collaborative
collaboration. Thus, At the low risk end
projects will depend
inter-institutional co of collaborative
on the extent to which
operative activity may activities are unilat
the various issues aris
embrace the following eral arrangements,
ing out of interweaving
areas: such as consultan
of institutional cultures
• Design and de cy projects wherein
have been resolved.
velopment of new there is, by and
materials and pro large, a straight
The third dimension
grams and sharing forward transfer
of collaborative activ
of the existing ones of knowledge,
ity seeks to place it on
• Creation of diversi skills or materials
the global—local con
fied delivery mech from individuals in
tinuum. The purpose
anisms (student one institution to
is to globally resource
services) so as to those in another.
knowledge and ex
widen access to in Projects in staff
pertise and to apply it
dividual learner as training and devel
locally for rapid socio
well as to reach out opment would, for
economic development
to more learners example, fall in this
of the country. In this
category. There is
• Establishment of situation, collaborative
hardly any inter
credit transfer ar networking is viewed
weaving of institu
rangements and as a continuum where
tional cultures in
mutual recognition at one end an institu
this arrangement.
of credit tion creates global and
• Evaluation of stu international networks
Bilateral arrangements and on the other sets
dents’ learning
are among the more up local and area spe
• Staff training and complex and involve a cific networks.
development mutual give and take
• Research between the partner in The fourth dimension
• Utilization of physi stitutions. An example of collaboration is in
cal resources as of such arrangement the context of the na
46 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
ture of the participating other types of relation examines and
institutions. Thus col ships that, while often makes awards,
laborative activity may termed “collaboration” while the other pro
involve are actually, no more vides students and
• Distance education than formal (or in some support mecha
institutions and the case informal) at nisms.
conventional uni tempts at cooperation • Marketplace types:
versities systems; between organizations, in which one insti
• Distance education or the coordination of tution purchases
institutions and the resources where du course materials
non-governmental plication of services from the other,
organizations (who already exists (Smith, adapts and de
can actually and 2000). livers them and
effectively take the examines learn
programs to the Types of Inter- ers and awards
masses) and edu institutional credits.
cational institutions Collaboration
• Collaborative
• Distance education Cooperative activities types: in which
institutions and the across national bound several institutions
industries. While aries take a number of jointly design and
the industry is a different forms. Many develop courses
major beneficiary of these, such as the that they use in
of the education school-based email their respective
sector (in that its projects do not in institutions inde
survival depends volve actual courses, pendently of each
on the continuous and various other re other.
supply of educated search level interac • Technology-based
personnel from tions amongst peer type: in which stu
the educational groups. At a glance, dents from other
institutions), it does these collaborations countries access
not contribute to may be by groups of the host institu
the generation of primary or secondary tions via electronic
an educated force schools; school/univer communication
(Ibid). sity partnerships; col (possibly enhanced
laborations in distance by print materials,
Organizations world education program occasional video-
wide are collaborating development; partner conferences or
in order to address ships between univer even face-to-face
their specific corporate, sities and industry and meetings).
economic and educa others. Mason (1994)
tional objectives and to roughly categorized
Though there are
tackle situations where these course-based
some clear distinctions
working independently inter-institutional activi
between these types,
is not sufficient to meet ties into the following
in practice there are
desired outcomes. types:
many overlaps. Col
These characteristics Franchise types: in
laboration does not
distinguish them from which one partner
guarantee equality be-
designs, develops,
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 47
 tween the partners and
their cultures, and can
involve the dominance
of one or two partners.
The benefits and dif
ficulties of these kinds
of collaborations will
be discussed later on
in this paper.
Franchise Type
This is an off-campus
model that represents
an institution that teach
es only at a distance
and does not maintain
a traditional campus
site. These institutions
have their own policies
and they award their
own degrees (Reddy,
1988). The establish
ment of each institution
is fundamentally based
on the peculiar condi
tions of its own coun
try. In other words,
each institution has its
own national charac
teristics (Reddy, 1988).
Among institutions of
this group, the United
Kingdom Open Univer
sity (UKOU) in Eastern
Europe is the leader. It
offers a number of its
Open Business School
(OBS) courses to stu
dents in various East
ern European coun
tries. Distance teaching
of the sort pioneered
by the Open University
was considered to be
an appropriate means
for reaching large
numbers of students
in Eastern Europe and
48 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
Russia (Fames and
Woodley, 1993). As the
main purpose of the
program is that Eastern
Europeans have ac
cess to western man
agement procedures,
the situation is inevita
bly one of a dominant
culture transferring its
view of the world to a
culture that seeks to
emulate, at least its
economic advantages.
Many other countries
around the world (e.g.
Canada, China, Costa
Rica, Germany, India,
Indonesia, Israel, Ja
pan, Pakistan, Spain,
Sri Lanka, Thailand,
The Netherlands, and
Venezuela) have fol
lowed the UKOU ap
proach by adapting it to
their own situations.
Marketplace Type
The Open Learn
ing Institute of Hong
Kong has developed
the ‘marketplace type’
buying course materi
als from all over the
world to meet some
of its curricular needs.
Due to great value
placed on educational
qualifications in Hong
Kong, for employment,
promotion and possible
emigration, Hong Kong
boasts a great number
of overseas educa
tional programs (Ngok
and Lam, 1993). The
producer of the ma
terials is no more that
of a supplier, while the
Open Learning Institute
(OLI) takes complete
responsibility for cur
riculum, delivery and
assessment. However,
Dhanarajan and Tim
mers (1992) have ana
lyzed a whole range
of difficulties faced by
institutions purchasing
materials on the open
market. They argue
that:
• Courses need a
detailed listing of
aims, major topics
and headings, ad
ditional readings or
other media.
• Poorly structured
courses are much
more costly to
adapt.
• Digitized versions
of the original
material are much
more desirable for
purchasing in the
“market type.”
Open Learning Insti
tute also experiences
the difficulty of Eng
lish since it is the sec
ond language in Hong
Kong. Therefore spe
cial attention must be
paid to the readability
of adapted courseware
and to the reading skills
of their expected stu
dents (Ibid). Dixon and
Blin (1992) support the
above observation by
sharing their own ex
periences and argue
that, in preparing the
software for non-na
tive English speakers,
they needed to trans
late English into as
simple prose as pos
sible. They used very
short sentences and
avoided complicated
constructions as well
as using small words
rather than big words.
They also tried to strip
the material from all
slang and explained
abbreviations, provided
online glossary to give
simple explanations of
key terms. Their expe
rience confirmed that
the process was quite
complex in that they
had to be careful not
to lose the sense of the
material (lbid).
One thing Dixon and
Bling learned from
their experiences was
that humor is difficult
to handle in cross-cul
tural courses although
they allege that it pro
vides interest and mo
tivation for learners.
On the contrary, they
warn that non-native
speakers could easily
misunderstand humor.
Adapting courses that
contain significant non-
print material depends
largely on the avail
ability of equipment
such as computers and
video recorders among
the student population.
While distance educa
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
tars are quite keen to
develop multi-media
course materials, they
are often not saleable
abroad. Although the
“marketplace type”
situation has many dif
ficulties, especially cul
tural ones, the benefits
for both producers and
purchasers are real;
financial savings on
course development is
great, and the sense
of sharing resources
rather than continually
recreating the same
material is substantial.
The Collaborative
Type
A consortium of agri
cultural universities!
faculties consisting of
the Universiti Putra,
Malaysia; Kaesartsa
University, Thailand;
the University of the
Phillipines at Loa Ba
nos, with University
of British Columbia
(UBC) and the Univer
sity of Queensland,
Australia, as associate
partners, was estab
lished, to promote joint
course development
and collaboration and
exchange of students
and faculties (Bates,
1997). The UBC and
Universiti Putra Malay
sia (U PM) have entered
into an agreement for
the development and
delivery of a distance
education program,
whereby UPM provides
programs on tropical
agriculture and UBC
programs on temperate
agriculture. Students at
UPM take UBC pro
grams either face-to-
face or in distance, and
UPM programs at a dis
tance. In some cases,
an individual course is
jointly developed; in
others, one institution
takes responsibility for
a course delivered into
the other. Through this
arrangement set up,
UBC assists UPM to
strengthen its distance
education unit’s capac
ity in the use of technol
ogy for course delivery
(Ibid).
In October 1992, a se
ries of interactive tele
vision broadcasts for
language learning in
Europe was launched.
These broadcasts were
part of the Multime
dia Teleschool Project
(MTS), funded by the
European Community
DELTA Research pro
gram. The MTS project
addresses the current
market for realistic dis
tance learning system,
focused on an optima
mix of telecommunica
tions-based learning
and tutoring (Mason,
1994). The project has
sixteen partners from
five European coun
tries and has the sup
port of major European
enterprises. The prime
49
 contractor is Berlitz In International University been primarily aimed
ternational, the largest Consortium (IUC) that at improving the qual
private language train began in 1980 as a ity for student learning,
ing institution world consortium of colleges providing improved ac
wide. It developed a and universities to pro cess to broader ranges
range of foreign lan duce media-assisted of resources or under
guage distance learn courses at the upper taking research and
ing courses. A comput division level (McGill & development activities
erconferencing system Johnstone, 1994). IUC (Smith, 2000).
links the participants in has about 40 members
their European branch in the United States, Generalizations may
es with each other and Canada, Europe, and be drawn from dif
with the experts in the the Pacific Rim and ferent studies about
television studio. All coordinate among its conditions necessary
participants receive members the produc for effective inter-insti
their study letters and tion of video, print, and tutional collaboration
assignments from Ber audio courses (Ibid). (Moran, 1990; Maehl,
litz Distance Learning 2000; Donaldson &
Center in Eschborn, Essential Kosoll, 1999; Gatliff &
Germany via the com Considerations for Wendel, 1998). Essen
puter conferencing. Collaboration tial considerations for
The system enables the collaboration are inde
participants to commu Critical conditions for pendent of each other.
nicate with their fellow effective collabora They overlap; therefore
students through out tion are contextual, the author will discuss
Europe, allowing them although some gener them interchangeably.
to work in groups to alizations are possible. The most pervasive
complete study-based There are essential and critical element is
tasks (Mason, 1994). considerations for col trust among partners.
This project is collabor laboration advocated Trust implies building
ative on a large scale, for by literature. The and sustaining strong
as the group includes literature raises some relationships amongst
the course providers, of the issues relating to the staff of the col
software developers, collaboration in a con laborating organiza
television program de text of organizations tions and establishing
signers and broadcast being primarily profit- partnerships by getting
ers, as well as the com motivated and wishing to know each other,
panies seeking training to gain more power or spending time together
for their employees. an improved competi and working on events
tive advantage in the or the project together.
The Technology market place by enter Moran & Mugridge
Type ing such agreements. (1993) stated that:
This context is however Sustained rela
Many examples of col not transferable to cas
laboration exist where tionships based
es of educational col on personal trust
technology is the prima laboration where (until and shared values
ry objective for the col recently) the impera
laborating institutions. cannot be overes
tive to collaborate has timated as factors
One example is the
50 DEASA-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
 in successful col
laboration. The pres
ence of one or more
champions in each
institution, willing to
listen to and trust
their counterparts, is
a near-universal fea
ture of collaborative
ventures in distance
maintained by emerge. Conflict there
recognizing that fore should be seen
people seeking as a normal outcome
assistance should of cooperation, which
fully share power not only is a means to
and make vital test but also helps the
contributions to parties to forge even
community problems stronger bonds. Karis
solving and; (1989) argues that:
characterized by collaborators
• . .

education (p. 154- shared responsibility should be assured

155).
This trust has to oper
ate at several levels-
among faculty devel
oping and teaching
the courses, among
administrators servic
ing the students and
courses, and senior of
ficers representing the
university in broader
political and education
al forums. It also has
to operate effectively
between these levels
and within each univer
sity as well as between
partners. Himmelman
(1996) observes that:
such values and
practices include
those pro viding for
mutual recognition
and for the
establishment of
respect, trust and
power which is
defined and shared
by all those joined
in common efforts.
Such values and
practices are often
the basis for a
shared vision among
those revitalizing
communities;
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
for common goals,
a willingness to be
held accountable,
and commitments to
democratic practices
(p. 20).
This interpersonal in
gredient is central to
all stages of success
ful partnership. Peo
ple and organizations
forming a partnership
confront a difficult
problem: they need
to work with someone
they trust. Trust is so
critical because part
nerships are more inti
mate than virtually any
form of organization.
Partners must rely on
each other completely
(Berquist, Betwee &
Muel, 1995). Achieve
ment and maintenance
of confidence among
all these groups, and in
the collaborative pro
cess itself, are critical.
It is very important
for those involved to
note that a collabora
tive effort is a cultural
transformation and
hence, conflict will
that conflict
over ideas, over
substantive matters,
can be a positive
development in
the collaborative
process. They
must recall that
the sometimes
messy working
out of various and
opposing viewpoints
is part and parcel
of the collaborative
process (p. 121).
He further suggests
that “by relying exclu
sively on cooperation!
consensus, collab
orative groups restrict
their invention process
when what might be
better employed is
fuller debate” (p. 121).
The task of maintaining
open, forthright com
munication is a critical
one because, as more
than one program di
rector noted, partner
ship between higher
education and the cor
porate world involves
nothing less than the
interaction between
two very different,
51
 sometimes conflicting deliver programs and around the funding and
cultures. These cultur services to a number what it buys. Corpo
al differences manifest of locations simulta rate training personnel,
themselves in different neously, gives them a conditioned by long ex
ways within different real advantage over perience of purchasing
program structures, conventional educa programs and services
institutions, and or tion in the competition from “vendors” bring
ganization, but some for external partners. to higher education a
common elements “Partnerships provide broad and sometimes
are apparent (Chute flexibility. Their struc demanding interpreta
& Gulliver, 1996). One tures and agreements tion of what they can
cultural difference can readily be changed expect in return for
that is evident in most to meet shifting needs paying the full cost of
partnerships concerns and conditions” (Ber a program. If expecta
time, the expectation quist, Betwee & Muel, tions of training con
of how long it takes to 1995; p. 18). tent are laid out clearly
plan and implement a in advance, agreement
new venture. Higher Distance education on the “customized”
education, with a com programs that build curriculum can gener
plex academic deci their course develop ally be reached. The
sion-making structure ment capacities in a level and extent of stu
and history of little or manner that makes ad dent support services
no pressure to com aptation of existing el can sometimes be less
pete until recent years, ements to new educa clearly understood,
often moves with what tion and training needs but expectations can
industry considers gla possible in a short time be brought into align
cial slowness. Industry frame are the most ment with careful as
and organized labor, attractive to employ sessment of employee
on the other hand, ap ers and organizations. needs and orientation
pear to educators to Conversely, higher of students and cor
expect not only instant education entities that porate management
program development, have difficulty mov to the nature and de
but instant program ing quickly, such as mands of distance
result as well (Chute & some large university learning.
Gulliver, 1996). There systems, may find that More difficult to antici
fore, it is crucial for col the window of oppor pate and clarify are is
laborating institutions tunity for participation sues such as confiden
to be able to accom in distance education tiality of student records
modate different insti ventures with industry versus the expectation
tutional culture (Moran closes before they are of the employer or
& Mugridge, 1993). ready to act. union of access to re
cords of their students’
The relative flexibility The cultural differ academic status. Even
of many distance edu ences between higher the schedule on which
cation units to respond education and the cor tuition is paid can be
to employer needs porate/labor commu an issue, notes Penn
and meet organization nity can also be seen State’s McGrath as cit
deadline quickly and to in the expectations ed by Chute & Gulliver
52 DEASASADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
(1996). He notes that
universities are accus
tomed to requiring tu
ition payments before
a student can register,
while companies are
accustomed to paying
for services after the
fact.
Benefits and
complexities of
inter-institutional
collaboration
Benefits of inter-insti
tutional collaboration
in distance education
includes but are not
limited to cost shar
ing, team teaching,
overcoming bureau
cratic obstacles dupli
cation of efforts and
more efficient use of
resources, increased
access to information,
sharing information,
accepting each others’
credits and sharing the
cost of technology and
response to turbulent
conditions when orga
nizations acting inde
pendently in diverse di
rections, create unan
ticipated consequenc
es for themselves and
others (Gray, 1996).
Fundamental changes
and patterns of knowl
edge creation and dis
semination, curricu
lum development and
delivery methods are
challenging distance
education institutions
to support and enrich
the scholarly pursuits
DEASA-SADC COE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
by forming collabora
tion efforts. Radical
changes in information
and communication are
having profound effects
on the way ordinary
people learn about and
interact with the world.
Advances in free ex
change of ideas serve
as a positive force for
democratic change.
Knowledge increases
so fast and becomes
outdated so quickly
that the instructor can
no longer be the ex
pert on everything. In
creasingly, faculty and
institutions are viewing
collaboration as a real
istic means of continu
ing to provide service
to growing numbers of
students, who make
the greater and more
varied demands of the
institutions they attend
(Moran & Mugridge,
1993).
The need for inter-in
stitutional collaboration
in distance education
is further strengthened
by international efforts
to promote a literate
society. It is therefore
imperative to recognize
and underscore the
importance of setting
objectives higher than
individual gain in order
to provide for societal
gains (Cole, Fortes &
Klinger, 1996). Evi
dently, the integrative
nature of technology
and its use in distance
education is pulling
people around the
globe into unexpected
forms of collaboration.
Collaborative ventures
are proving to be cost
effective in their use
of human and material
resources, both within
institutions and across
regional, national, or
international systems.
As a result, institutions
are forming coopera
tion to offer programs,
sharing information
and to accept each
other’s credit. A good
example is the case of
Australia Inter- Univer
sity Women’s Studies
Major, a joint venture
between Deakin, Mur
doch and Queensland
University. The Univer
sity of Botswana (UB),
through the Distance
Education Department
has collaboration with
the University of South
Africa. The UB buys
modules from UNISA
for the Bachelor of
Business program of
fered through distance
mode.
The benefits of col
laboration in distance
education can be con
siderable to learners,
faculty and to institu
tions. Partnerships,
merges, consortiums,
of one kind or another,
may have to be consid
53
 ered for many reasons, for highly mobile of Nairobi-Kenya as the
but more notably, for populations, could be African Virtual Univer
educational, econom achieved by groups of stiy Headquarters, the
ic, social, and political institutions working to director of World Bank
advantages. Haughey gether (Maehl, 2000; Human Development,
and Fenwick (1996) Donaldson & Kozoll, Ramphele Maphele,
claim that “of the vari 1999; Moran, 1990). noted that African
ous possible models Gatlif and Wendel countries lack a strong
of collaboration, con (1998) echo the same and reliable telecom
sortia appear to be the sentiments that: munication network.
preferred form of inter- Institutional She stated that one
institutional partners administration and of the weaknesses of
chosen to implement regulatory boards the African continent
distance education” have espoused is that she does not
(p. 58). Deriving forces the benefits of have continent-wide
associated to consor inter-institutional network, adding that
tia preference include collaboration the African Virtual Uni
mutual support when in response to versity (AUV) technol
advocating for funds, the concerns of ogy is supposed to
information sharing reducing duplication, offer African countries
among teachers, joint maximizing the use opportunities to share
purchasing power, of limited human and knowledge (Panafrican
content development financial resources, News Agency, 18 July
and professional de and increasing 2000).
velopment. enrollments in
under-enrolled Cooperative course
Bureaucratic obstacles courses (p.27). development can help
for learners moving build a critical mass
from one educational Technology as an in of scholars otherwise
institution to another tegral part of distance geographically scat
can be smoothed out education and some tered in relatively small
by agreements to share distance education in institutions. Team
information, jointly offer structional materials members benefit from
programs, and accept could be so expensive the experience of
one another’s credit. for different institu working with peers, as
Duplication of efforts tions especially in the instruction is improved
and more efficient use developing countries, capitalizing on the re
of resources especially particularly Africa that spective strengths of
in public systems can inter-institutional col each member and by
be achieved by deci laboration serves as developing new knowl
sions to cooperate an alternative to make edge and skills (Gatliff
in offering programs. them affordable. Avail & Wendel, 1998). By
Where it would be im ability and compatibility combining efforts, fac
possible for a single of delivery systems be ulty from different in
institution, large-scale tween institutions could stitutions can expand
efforts extending over be very expensive thus; course offerings and
broader geographi cost sharing is identi provide those courses
cal areas, sometimes fied as an inauguration to a greater number of
54 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
students, thus becom
ing less dependent
upon the limitations of
on-campus registra
tions. The students
also enjoy the benefits
as seen in expanding
course offerings and
the expertise of team
teachers.
In Botswana, inter-in
stitutional collaboration
is evident at a small
scale between differ
ent educational insti
tutions. The Distance
Education Program
(DEP) was designed
in collaboration with
Ministry of Health and
Institutes of Health Sci
ences (HIS) to improve
primary health services
through upgrading En
rolled Nurses to Reg
istered Nurses (Bility &
Odharo, 1995). Other
institutions and agen
cies involved in this
project were Ministry
of Education (MoE);
University of Botswana
(Center for Continuing
Education) and De
partment of Nursing;
and Kellog Founda
tion, United States of
America. The Ministry
of Health (M0H) was
the principal agency
responsible for overall
financing, administra
tion and management
of all program activities.
The University of Bo
tswana was to accredit
the distance education
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
programs. The Center
for Continuing Educa
tion of the University
of Botswana provided
technical and profes
sional assistance for
training and production
of educational mate
rials. The Ministry of
Education (MoE) pro
vided technical support
for program develop
ment, and evaluation.
The Distance Educa
tion Resource Center
(DERC), located at the
Institute of Health Sci
ences was equipped
with video, models,
maps, overhead pro
jectors, audiovisual
materials and many
more. Another exam
ple is the collaboration
between the Ministry
of Education and the
University of Botswana
through Distance Edu
cation Unit to upgrade
primary school teach
ers with certificate to
a diploma level. Some
examples include the
collaboration of Nurs
ing Department of the
University of Botswa
na; the National Health
Institute (NHI) formal
education collaborates
with the University of
Botswana to offer ex
tension education. Six
colleges are affiliated
to the University for
the authenticity of their
certificates. The newly
opened Botswana
College of Open and
Distance Learning
(BOCODOL) collabo
rates with the Ministry
of Education to offer
high school educa
tion through distance
mode. Botswana Open
and Distance Learning
Association (BODOLA)
was formed to promote
collaboration among
institutions in the coun
try. The National Asso
ciation of Distance Ed
ucation of South Africa
(NADUSA) is also pro
moting collaborative ef
forts among institutions
in South Africa.
Potential
problems of
collaboration
In their effort to em
bark on collaborative
projects, adult educa
tors and administrators
should consider collab
oration as a turbulent
experience that could
be chaotic if partners do
not respect individuals,
groups or institutional
integrity. Collabora
tive efforts face many
risks. These include fi
nancial risks, credibility
risks and political risks.
There are also relation
ship risks that come in
a form of threats to fair
dealing that includes
issues of equity, trust,
lack of communication
and reciprocity. On the
other hand, Hillman &
Colker (1987) as cited
by Gatliff & Wendel
55
(1998) stated that,
member institutions
should review cam
pus policy and regula
tions as they relate to
such basic issues as
full-time equivalent re
quirements, semester
and class schedules,
budget and tuition.
Literature constantly
reinforces the view
that, collaboration in
the true sense is diffi
cult—it is difficult to se
lect appropriate stake
holders who share the
same vision; to balance
the power relationship
between stake holders
which often becomes
the focus of attention;
negotiate the organiza
tional and operational
structures and proce
dures to be adopted by
the new entity; and es
tablish lines of commu
nication and build trust
between staff from dif
ferent organizations
(Smith, 2000). Moran
& Mugridge (1993)
concur with Smith that,
inter-institutional col
laboration is extremely
difficult and usually
very complicated to
undertake.
While collaboration in
team teaching provides
benefits to institution,
faculty may view par
ticipation differently.
The increase of per
sonal teaching load of
56 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
faculty members pre building effective com
paring distance educa munication networks,
tion courses may de identifying and build
motivate them. If team ing community and
teaching is added, the establishing leadership
amount of time spent (National Network for
working with one or Collaboration 1995 as
more instructors add cited by Gatliff & Wen
significantly to prepa del, 1998) all of which
ration time. Learning enhance professional
to work with technol growth. Planning plays
ogy and selecting an a significant role and it
appropriate delivery is critical when contem
system to produce a plating collaboration.
seamless interface
increases the time Avarietyof issues come
commitment (Austin & into play that need se
Baldwin, 1992). Where rious attention before
there is no established collaboration can take
policy taskforce to de place to deal with dif
fine the applicability of ferences. Donaldson
distance teaching to & Kozoll (1999) stated
wards promotion and that, by virtues of col
tenure, then the idea laborators coming from
of team teaching would several organizations,
be far-fetched. In a differences abound in
nutshell, team teach collaboration. These
ing in inter-institutional are manifested in the
collaboration in dis variety of values, phi
tance education could losophies, working
be a dream that may norms, and interests
never come true if the which representatives
faculty members are and their organizations
not supported to deter bring to collaborative
mine their willingness efforts. Some inhibitors
to be involved (Olcott, to inter-institutional
1992). collaboration that Mo
ran (1990) noted in
Although inter-insti cluded the tradition of
tutional teaming has institutional autonomy
appealing factors that particularly in certifi
afford faculty with di cation and standards
verse backgrounds that result in a lack of
and environments to trust for teaching and
come together and be standards elsewhere.
creative, it is a dynamic The initial incompat
process that involves ibility of organizational
a lot of negotiation, structures and admin
istrative processes is
another. Other com
plexities include geo
political isolation of uni
versities, and failures
of implementation due
to insufficient funds,
lack of clear vision,
real commitment and
ineffective handling of
technical and human
problems. Copyright
and royalty restrictions
can also hamper effec
tive collaboration (The
Commonwealth Secre
tariat, 1985 as cited by
Moran, 1990).
Implications
The advancement of
new communication
technologies calls for
new reforms in higher
education. New skills
and resources to de
liver education are
needed. Institutions
of higher education
can no longer afford
to stand alone. Inter-
institutional collabora
tion relationships are
crucial for colleges and
universities to be able
to extend their markets,
find new students and
develop new products
geared to the needs
of these consumers.
Inter-institutional col
laborations have a lot
of benefits and they
add value for the stu
dents, faculty and for
the institutions which
form them. However,
institutions involved in
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
these collaborations
should be aware of
their complexities as
well. Creating or en
abling such inter-insti
tutional relationships
is very challenging.
Collaboration entails
adapting principles to
specific contexts and
situations. Having to
think differently and
work with individuals
outside of our organi
zations pose a number
of risks that we seldom
experience in our own
organizations. These
may include changes
to new policy, struc
ture, communication
and skills.
Traditional modes of
institutional operation,
especially competi
tion and institutional
autonomy must be
abandoned to allow
collaboration to oc
cur (Thach & Murphy,
1994). Those who are
engaged in distance
education need to ap
preciate each other’s
knowledge and skills
and exercise some
flexibility without as
suming that either
side is superior in any
ways. Inter-institutional
collaboration requires
those concerned to
reflect on their actions
and learn from their
experiences. The case
of inter-institutional
collaboration between
Glasgow Caledonian
University (GCAL)
and Queen Margaret
University College in
the United Kingdom
serves as an example
of this reflection. Reilly
& Gulliver, 1992 (as cit
ed by Thach & Murphy,
1994) suggest that,
policies dealing with
credit transfer, resi
dency requirements,
credit equivalency, and
other issues often must
be written.
A combination of per
sistence among the
players and strong
positive leadership is
required to sustain the
collaborative project.
Bringing different or
ganizational cultures,
styles and diverse
scholars together re
quires good mecha
nisms for communi
cation, negotiation of
relationships and de
cision making to serve
the project purpose
well. It is evident from
some case studies that
by creating a one-stop
center for students and
instructors, or different
countries that central
ized distance educa
tion structures eventu
ally can move into the
world virtual structures,
where even a physical
location is no longer
necessary, for instance
African Virtual Univer
sity. Inter-institutional
57
collaboration requires
working together in the
spirit of collegiality, by
respecting diversity of
opinions and capital
izing on each other’s
strengths and diverse
cultural geographic
backgrounds.
Conclusion
This paper discussed
inter-institutional col
laborative activities,
types of inter-institu
tional collaboration,
the essential consid
erations for inter-insti
tutional collaboration
and potential benefits
and complexities as
well as their implica
tions. Inter-institutional
collaboration provides
an environment to en
liven and enrich the
learning process not
only in distance educa
tion settings but also in
conventional practices.
These collaborative
partnerships are impor
tant where: resources
are shrinking, given
the demand for wider
use of sophisticated
technology, limited fac
ulty (teacher), time and
instructional resources. It is a challenge to all of
Developing environ those who work in the
ments particularly in field of distance edu
the Sub-Saharan Afri cation to broaden their
ca region could benefit perspectives and strive
a lot from these kinds for the implementation
of partnerships Institu of best practices. Col
tions have to relinquish laboration is not just an
the tradition of compe economic strategy (this
tition and join hands to is not really about mon
build a better global so ey). The most impor
ciety. In his speech at tant and enduring rea
the Learning Together: sons for a collaborative
Collaboration in Open approach are the many
Learning Conference, positive benefits, which
the President and will be experienced by
Chief Operating Officer those involved: the
of The Commonwealth faculty, students and
of Learning, Professor staff of the university.
Gajaraj Dhanarajan Inter-institutional col
(1998) said: laboration and faculty
It is unlikely that in teaming hold positive
a learner-centered, consequences for both
flexible, technology- teaching and learning.
driven system of The search for solu
education where tions to the challenges
the student can facing collaboration
be located on the requires input from
globe, institutions many fields of knowl
can operate on their edge and professional
own and be immune groups. A structure is
to pressures and required where coop
influences from their eration among collabo
governments and, rating partners would
more importantly, produce tangible ben
clients. (htty://www. efits to both faculty and
col. org/speeches/ students.
curtin98.html).

58 DEA5A-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

istrative processes is
another. Other com
plexities include geo
political isolation of uni
versities, and failures
of implementation due
to insufficient funds,
lack of clear vision,
real commitment and
ineffective handling of
technical and human
problems. Copyright
and royalty restrictions
can also hamper effec
tive collaboration (The
Commonwealth Secre
tariat, 1985 as cited by
Moran, 1990).
Implications
The advancement of
new communication
technologies calls for
new reforms in higher
education. New skills
and resources to de
liver education are
needed. Institutions
of higher education
can no longer afford
to stand alone. Inter-
institutional collabora
tion relationships are
crucial for colleges and
universities to be able
to extend their markets,
find new students and
develop new products
geared to the needs
of these consumers.
Inter-institutional col
laborations have a lot
of benefits and they
add value for the stu
dents, faculty and for
the institutions which
form them. However,
institutions involved in
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
these collaborations
should be aware of
their complexities as
well. Creating or en
abling such inter-insti
tutional relationships
is very challenging.
Collaboration entails
adapting principles to
specific contexts and
situations. Having to
think differently and
work with individuals
outside of our organi
zations pose a number
of risks that we seldom
experience in our own
organizations. These
may include changes
to new policy, struc
ture, communication
and skills.
Traditional modes of
institutional operation,
especially competi
tion and institutional
autonomy must be
abandoned to allow
collaboration to oc
cur (Thach & Murphy,
1994). Those who are
engaged in distance
education need to ap
preciate each other’s
knowledge and skills
and exercise some
flexibility without as
suming that either
side is superior in any
ways. Inter-institutional
collaboration requires
those concerned to
reflect on their actions
and learn from their
experiences. The case
of inter-institutional
collaboration between
Glasgow Caledonian
University (GCAL)
and Queen Margaret
University College in
the United Kingdom
serves as an example
of this reflection. Reilly
& Gulliver, 1992 (as cit
ed by Thach & Murphy,
1994) suggest that,
policies dealing with
credit transfer, resi
dency requirements,
credit equivalency, and
other issues often must
be written.
A combination of per
sistence among the
players and strong
positive leadership is
required to sustain the
collaborative project.
Bringing different or
ganizational cultures,
styles and diverse
scholars together re
quires good mecha
nisms for communi
cation, negotiation of
relationships and de
cision making to serve
the project purpose
well. It is evident from
some case studies that
by creating a one-stop
center for students and
instructors, or different
countries that central
ized distance educa
tion structures eventu
ally can move into the
world virtual structures,
where even a physical
location is no longer
necessary, for instance
African Virtual Univer
sity. Inter-institutional
57
collaboration requires
working together in the
spirit of collegiality, by
respecting diversity of
opinions and capital
izing on each other’s
strengths and diverse
cultural geographic
backgrounds.
Conclusion
This paper discussed
inter-institutional col
laborative activities,
types of inter-institu
tional collaboration,
the essential consid
erations for inter-insti
tutional collaboration
and potential benefits
and complexities as
well as their implica
tions. Inter-institutional
collaboration provides
an environment to en
liven and enrich the
learning process not
only in distance educa
tion settings but also in
conventional practices.
These collaborative
partnerships are impor
tant where: resources
are shrinking, given
the demand for wider
use of sophisticated
technology, limited fac
ulty (teacher), time and
instructional resources. It is a challenge to all of
Developing environ those who work in the
ments particularly in field of distance edu
the Sub-Saharan Afri cation to broaden their
ca region could benefit perspectives and strive
a lot from these kinds for the implementation
of partnerships Institu of best practices. Col
tions have to relinquish laboration is not just an
the tradition of compe economic strategy (this
tition and join hands to is not really about mon
build a better global so ey). The most impor
ciety. In his speech at tant and enduring rea
the Learning Together: sons for a collaborative
Collaboration in Open approach are the many
Learning Conference, positive benefits, which
the President and will be experienced by
Chief Operating Officer those involved: the
of The Commonwealth faculty, students and
of Learning, Professor staff of the university.
Gajaraj Dhanarajan Inter-institutional col
(1998) said: laboration and faculty
It is unlikely that in teaming hold positive
a learner-centered, consequences for both
flexible, technology- teaching and learning.
driven system of The search for solu
education where tions to the challenges
the student can facing collaboration
be located on the requires input from
globe, institutions many fields of knowl
can operate on their edge and professional
own and be immune groups. A structure is
to pressures and required where coop
influences from their eration among collabo
governments and, rating partners would
more importantly, produce tangible ben
clients. (htty://www. efits to both faculty and
col. org/speeches/ students.
curtin98.html).

58 DEA5A-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

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MANAGING A REGIONAL CENTRE IN AN
OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING INSTITUTION
Dr. NdabaJ. Ncube
Zimbabwe Open University
Abstract
Open and distance
learning (CDL) is a
relatively new mode of
availing educational op
portunities to a wider
population, and it has
ushered in the need to
manage institutions in
a decentralised format.
This development calls
for focus on the centres
that give direct service
to the learners, hence
this article is an explo
ration of the role of a
regional centre in man
aging key services in an
CDL institution. In keep
ing with the ideals and
principles of accessibil
ity, cost-effectiveness
and convenience to
learners it is imperative
that CDL institutions set
up and manage prop
erly decentralized cen
tres, which become the
call-face for learners
since the institutions
serve learners who are
spread through out the
country and even be
yond national boundar
ies. The article draws
from the experience of
the author as a Region
al Director in an CDL in
stitution, as well as liter
ature on experiences in
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
other CDL institutions, in particular, and others
and education manage involved in the delivery
ment. The issues that of education will en
are addressed include hance efficiency and
locating a regional cen effectiveness in educa
tre; student registration; tional provision and pro
financial management, voke further dialogue
human resource is on implementation of
sues, and provision of CDL programmes.
library services, among
others. Challenges Introduction
faced in managing a
The emergence of
regional centre are also
open and distance
explored. The chal
learning institutions
lenges include lack of
has been a result of
resources, stereotypes
governments’ desire
towards open and dis
to increase access to
tance learning, the di
university and tertiary
lemma of decentraliza
education by the com
tion and centralization
munities (Mmari 1999;
in decision-making, as
ZOU Act 1999). This
well as the distance
deliberate act to excite
of the learners from
entry into university
the centre. The article
programmes by people
winds off with a discus
who would normally be
sion of strategies that
preoccupied with work
can be adopted to im
commitments, or have
prove the effectiveness
no access to university
of the management of a
education results in
regional centre. Among
very large enrolments
the strategies to deal
in ODL universities.
with the challenges are
For instance in 1977,
supply of resources,
124 000 distance edu
training of personnel,
cation learners were
further decentraliza
enrolled at UNISA;
tion, and heavy invest
81 000 at Technikon
ment in technology. It
South Africa; and in
is hoped that sharing
2006 over 21 000 were
these experiences with
enrolled at the Zimba
other CDL practitioners,
bwe Open University
61
(Dodds; Nyongolo & cilities (Bangkok: 1990: that the regional centre
Glennie 1999; Kurasha 7-20). Harry, John and offers include student
2006). In essence then Keegan (1993: 67) registration; library ser
the CDL universities say, “...these are uni vices; communication;
become mega universi versities of a nation or tutorial services; as
ties, which are charac a state, not of a city signment administration
terized by centralized like Oxford or Bolo and examinations man
senior management gna. Frequently they agement. The regional
structures reminiscent are universities on tens centre also serves as
of conventional univer or hundreds of sites a marketing unit for the
sities. However CDL spread throughout the university.
universities have their nation.” The regional
learners dispersed. To centres are the deliv The objectives of this
enhance student sup ery points of services article are:
port, and in keeping that learners require. • To explore the role
with the principles and of a regional centre
ideals of making CDL The regional centre in the provision of
education accessible, carries out specific services in an CDL
cost- effective and functions that ought to institution
convenient to learn satisfy customer needs • To explore how ac
ers, CDL universities and ensure studies are tivities in a regional
usually set up regional carried out efficiently. centre can be man
centers as the call- The quality of service aged to ensure that
face for the students. and education availed service delivery to
The management of to learners in an CDL learners is of high
these centres deter institution, depend on quality
mines significantly the how well a regional
• To highlight chal
success or failure of centre is managed,
lenges in manag
CDL programmes. The since in terms of op
ing a regional
number of regional erationalisation of pro
centre in an CDL
centres depends on grammes the regional
institution
the student population centre represents the
and availability of re institution. • To recommend
sources. For instance some strategies
the Open University of Various issues are that can be ad
Tanzania had twenty- involved in the man opted to improve
one regions in 1999, agement of a regional the efficiency and
and ZCU has ten re centre, starting with its effectiveness of a
gions in 2006 (Mmari location. It has to be regional centre in
1999; ZCU 2001). The within easy access to an CDL institution.
Open University, UK, the learners. The region
has for instance a net requires specific human The role of a
work of 260 regional and financial resources regional centre
study centres staffed to drive the processes, Locating a
with tutors, counsel and these must be regional centre
ors, administrators and managed in a way that
containing a wide va ensures quality service The primary consid
riety of educational fa delivery. Other services eration in locating a

62 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

regional centre is that
the majority of learners
have relatively easy ac
cess to it. Access is not
only measured in terms
of distance, but also
in terms of road net
works, transport con
nectivity, accessibility
of buildings, availabil
ity of ancillary services
such as photocopy
ing and telephone fa
cilities in the vicinity
and, Harry, John and
Keegan (1999) argue
that a regional study
centre must provide
easy access to full time
workers, the disabled,
imprisoned, and hos
pitalized, together with
those tied to the home.
For the regional centre
to effectively service
this diverse population,
its location must be
properly planned. The
planner needs to take
full audit of the profile
of the potential and cur
rent learners and do an
informed mapping. The
choice of the location
of a regional centre is a
conscious, rigorous and
data-driven process,
which also involves the
ability to accurately ex
trapolate future growth
in student numbers and
services to be offered,
for the centre must re
main accessible now,
and in future. Citing
a regional centre can
borrow concepts from
school mapping (IIEP
DEASA-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
1989). An improperly
located regional cen
tre is likely to lead to
frustration of learners
and workers, and this
may result in failure to
realize the goals of the
institution.
Student
registration
Regional centres regis
ter learners, as it is not
possible for learners to
converge at headquar
ters for registration. For
new learners this pro
cess begins with the
processing of applica
tions. Learners obtain
application forms from
the regional centre
where initial selection
is done, and ratified at
the headquarters. Once
learners have been ac
cepted they register
at the regional centre
where they are handed
their tutorial packages,
and given orientation
into the institution.
Learners can only be
registered upon pay
ment of the requisite
fees. Thus the regional
centre also manages
institutional finances.
The registration pro
cess yields learner sta
tistics that are relayed
to headquarters and
aggregated with other
regional centres to
come up with a nation
al enrolment. If admis
sions, fees-collection
and registration are
faulty in the regional
centres, the institution
as a whole will have in
accurate data. This in
turn will lead to faulty
planning of resources,
which compromises
the quality of service
to the learners. Data
in an institution helps
in the use of statisti
cal process control in
the management of
resources, human and
physical (Greenwood &
Grant 1994: 107). The
same view is shared
by Beagley (1999: 7)
who says inconsistent
enrolments can pres
ent difficulties in the
management of learn
ing activities.
The registration pro
cess is the first contact
between the institution
and the learner and the
experience the learner
is subjected to may de
termine whether or not
the learner will main
tain a sustained rela
tionship with the insti
tution. A positive expe
rience will most proba
bly lead to a continued
relationship whereas
a negative experience
will most likely lead
the learner to drop out.
Thus to ensure student
retention the regional
centre must adopt a
strategy to understand,
anticipate, manage
and personalize the
needs of the learners
63
 (Miller 2005: 1). A re
gional centre that fails
to retain the learners
it registers defeats the
goals of enhancing ac
cess to education, and
wastes resources.
Human resources
The most important
resource in a regional
centre are
human
resources.
Person
nel, which fall under
the management of
a Director, comprise
cleaners, clerks, library
assistants, administra
tion officers, full- time
academics as well as
part—time
academ
ics, Of these, in most
cases, the single-larg
est group are part-time
tutors. Gatiss (1996)
argues that quality is
about people and not
things. So to ensure
that learners are ex
posed to the highest
level of quality service,
efforts must be made
to engage in human re
source planning “...to
ensure the right num
bers of the right kinds
of people are available
at the right time and
in the right places to
translate organization
al plans into reality,”
Smith (1997: 6). Thus
the regional centre is
involved in the recruit
ment, induction and
welfare of staff at vari
ous levels, and also
ensures continuous
64 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
professional develop
ment of all academic
staff through research,
conferences, staff de
velopment and further
ance of academic and
professional qualifica
tions to meet new chal
lenges. Induction for all
levels of staff is critical,
a view supported by
Doidge; Hardwick and
Wilkinson (1998:10)
when they say induc
tion, “. ..is no more or
less than a function of
good management and
should be seen as an
integral and important
duty of all those who
have staff reporting
to them.” To enhance
the quality of service
delivery the staff must
be continually trained
as posited by Creech
(1 994:90-91) that
training of people ex
tensively and at every
level plays a vital role
in transforming an or
ganization.
Financial
management
The regional centre
has a responsibility of
managing budgets and
resources
allocated
to it by the institution.
The guiding principle
is that all expenditure
should be in support
of learning. The way
money is spent ought
to convince the learner
and the public that ex
penditure is guided by
a desire to add value to
the learners. McCallion
(1998:91) argues that
for an educational in
stitution to function ef
fectively systems and
procedures for manag
ing finances must be
put in place. It is imper
ative, therefore, that
financial transactions
and deployment of re
sources in the regional
centre are based on
prescribed, accept
able and transparent
practices. The regional
centre is a cost centre
of the institution, and
its function is to moni
tor and control costs
(McCallion, 1998:93).
There is need there
fore to have financial
expertise in the region
al centre.
The regional centre
relies on a number of
service providers for
its livelihood such as
suppliers, owners of
rented buildings, and
part-time academics.
It is imperative that
these parties are paid
timeously if they are
to continue rendering
good service, and the
onus to ensure this
rests with the regional
centre. Apart from
paying suppliers the
regional centre is also
responsible for receiv
ing amounts payable
to the institution in the
locality. These may
include student fees,
fines, donations and
payment for services.
The guiding principle is
that all money should
be accounted for and
remitted accordingly.
Library services
A very important re
source in any learning
situation is the library.
With the assistance of
headquarters, the re
gional centre sets up,
maintains and man
ages a library. The first
step is to secure appro
priate space. In spite
of the proliferation of
electronic data sourc
es many learners still
cannot access them,
so the physical library
still plays a very impor
tant role in the support
of open and distance
learners. Mills and Tait
(1999: 74) cite studies
carried out in Austra
lia, North America and
the United Kingdom
which showed a heavy
weighting towards open
and distance learn
ers using libraries by
making personal visits
to the library. The re
gional centre receives
stock from headquar
ters and processes it,
then loans out to learn
ers. Good care should
be taken of the stock so
that it has a longer life
span and utility. There
must be equitable and
efficient distribution of
DEA5A-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
reading materials, as
well as maintenance of
accurate records of the
resources.
Communication
The regional centre
also acts as a com
munication centre
between the institu
tion and the learners.
Through the regional
centre issues are com
municated to learners
from headquarters,
and to headquarters
from learners. This
helps to avoid informa
tion-crowding at the
headquarters as some
of the issues can be
dealt with at the region
al centre level. Alluding
to the role the regional
centre plays in com
munication at the Open
University of Tanzania,
Mmari (1999:117) ob
serves that:
Every quarter, the
directors of regional
centers meet at
the Head Office to
compare notes and
thrash out student
problems of a
policy or practical
nature. Problems
con fronting them
and students include
the delivery of study
materials, return
of marked scripts,
receipts of fees paid
into bank accounts,
and postponement
of studies. Every
effort has been
made to tackle
these problems and
improve services.
Mmari (1 999:118)
further says through
regional and study
centres decisions
of council, senate
and faculty boards
reach even the
lowest levels of
the institution.
This provides an
opportunity for
timeous solution of
problems. Hence
the regional centre
plays a key role in
facilitating effective
communication
within the institution.
Such communication
is important as
alluded to by Sallis
(1996: 46) who says
communication is
important in quality
management in
education.
Tutorial services
The regional centre is
also responsible for
distributing instruc
tional materials and
organizing tutorial
services for learners.
This involves securing
venues, timetabling
tutorials and supervis
ing tutorials to ensure
quality service delivery.
According to Mills and
Tait (1999:73) tutorials
are one area of conver
gence between open
and distance education
65
 and conventional edu and distance learn can motivate learners,
cation and: ing setup is learner- advise them on how to
One of the instructor interaction, approach their studies
longest-standing and this can be f a and diagnose learning
elite traditions in cilitated through orga problems.
UK education at nized tutorials. Thus,
university level the regional centre Calder and McCollum
has been the plans for, and ensures (1998: 70) say face-
small-group and that the tutorials are to-face tutorial support
individual tutorial executed to the best is one of the most ef
work developed benefit of the learner. fective ways of learner
over many centuries Race (2005) acknowl support. They quote an
at the universities edges the value of tu open learner saying of
of Oxford and torials when he posits tutors, “The tutors are
Cambridge. The that open learners can very important, after
‘Oxbridge’ system be supported through, a certain level you get
of lectures and tutoring, training open stuck, the tutors are
practical work learning tutors, mentor there for you when you
provided by the ing learners and giving get stuck, you could
university combined tutor feedback to learn not manage without
with tutorial support ers. Race (2005:120) the tutors.” Given that
or supervisions proceeds to say: the core business of a
arranged by the while it is university is teaching,
individual colleges possible to package it can be argued that
is a well-tried and information and provision of tutorial
tested approach knowledge in a wide services is probably
which ensures that variety of media, the most important role
individual students and to design into of a regional centre.
are supported, open learning all the
their strengths and processes whereby Assignment
weaknesses noted learning should administration
and appropriate be successful, in
action taken. practice it is now For both continuous
assessment and as a
well recognized
The notion of small- that human teaching strategy, learn
group student support beings remain an ers write tutor-marked
and teaching is the indispensable factor assignments. The as
aspect that casts a dif for guaranteeing signments are prepared
ference between cor the success of open at headquarters and
respondence and open learning. sent to the regional cen
and distance learning, tre from where they are
and a regional centre Therefore apart from distributed to individual
facilitates this competi scheduling tutorials the learners. The regional
tive edge of the deliv regional centre must centre collects and re
ery mode. Harry, John continually train tutors cords all assignments
and Keegan (1999) and supervise them to from learners, passes
posit that one form of effect maximum bene them on to markers,
fit from the tutorial ses and keeps records of
interaction in an open
sions. Trained tutors what has been distrib
66 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
uted. Within an agreed
time frame (14 days
for ZOU) the markers
return the assignments
to the regional centre.
Before assignments are
collected back by the
learners, Programme
Coordinators sample
and moderate them to
ensure that marking
is thorough, educative
and communicative.
This aspect is very
important as the qual
ity of learning of open
and distance learners
is partly influenced by
the quality of feedback
on written assignments.
Race (2005: 120) says,
“The most critical side
of supporting open
learners is giving feed
back on their marked
work.” The same view,
is held by Mills and Tait
(1999: 73 74) when
—
tre plays a key role in
ensuring that learners
benefit from marked
assignments.
Examinations
management
Learner studies cul
minate in formal ex
aminations which when
passed, lead to certifi
cation, and examina
tions are managed by
the regional centre. This
involves safe custody
of examination papers,
before and after writ
ing, procuring exami
nation stationary/mate
rials; securing venues
and hiring invigilators
and ensuring that the
letter and spirit of the
examination rules are
at play. If the university
is to claim quality ser
vice to its customers,
the examinations must
ket the institution. I he
regional centre pro
vides for the physical
presence and visibility
of the institution in the
local community. The
regional centre sells
the institution in the lo
cality by means of open
days, taking part in ex
hibitions, spearheading
research and hosting
conferences. The re
gional centre also initi
ates linkages with the
corporate world, politi
cians, as well as civic
leaders. In all this, the
thrust is to identify the
academic needs of the
community and steer
the institution towards
continually satisfying
these needs and es
tablishing a permanent
productive relationship
with the community.
In its marketing role

they say: the regional centre

be managed properly.
Teaching by thus seeks to create
CoIlby (2003:3) and customers; keep cus
commenting
Natarajan (1993:11) ar tomers, and make the
constructively on
gue that one quality in customers profitable
students’ scripts
dicator of an education
became a key skill in for the organization
system is the credibility (Murombedzi, Mug
the distance tutor’s
of its examination and wagwa & Chivandikwa
repertoire. Much
certification processes. 2001 :8).
staff-development
For a regional centre
activity in QDL
to execute this task
currently revolves Challenges in
efficiently it has to be managing a
around the skills
empowered in terms of regional centre
and pedagogy
requisite skills, values,
of teaching by Several challenges ex
and attitudes among
commenting in ist in the management
the staff.
writing on a student’s of a regional centre.
work and entering Some of the problems
Marketing
into a dialogue using emanate from within
this medium. Another role of the re the institution, while
gional centre is to mar-
Thus, the regional cen others have their on-
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 67
 yiii, uussue isie Insti
tution. Issues like hy
perinflation, and high
unemployment levels
manifest themselves
through a number of
observable indicators
at the regional centre
level. There are also
issues linked to the
management of the
institution and avail
ability of resources to
be considered.
Resources
In a developing coun
try, a regional centre
is inevitably faced with
shortage of various
resources. First, finan
cial resources allocat
ed to the regional cen
tre often fall far below
expectations, a fact
alluded to by Bolton
(2000) when he says
these units are often
expected to deliver un
der scarce resources
and meagre budgets.
In some cases region
al centres have en
rolments higher than
conventional universi
ties, yet what they get
in terms of a budget
may be equivalent to
a departmental budget
in a conventional uni
versity. The issue of
inadequate resources,
is aptly summed by
Meacham (1999: 11)
when he argues:
In a period of rapid so
cial and technological
change coupled with
68 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
government Induced The human resources
destabilization of uni also present a chal
versities, many issues lenge in managing a
are emerging relat regional centre, es
ing to the future role pecially academics.
of distance education The use of part-time
and its efficient opera academics means that
tion in a client focused the regional centre’s
market, where needs academic life depends
may have to be met on borrowed manpow
with diminishing re er. These academ
sources. ics can only be avail
able for the regional
Modern technology centre’s activities if
that would enhance their full-time employ
the quality of education ers release them, or
delivery in a regional if no other part-time
centre is usually out of employer offers them
reach in terms of cost a better package at
for most institutions, or the same time. It not
may not even be avail properly managed this
able on the market. In could result in some
such cases, distance part time tutors often
learning is supported missing scheduled
through traditional and tutorials. Most of the
often not-so-effective part-time academics
means. This also ham come from convention
pers the undertaking of al universities where
meaningful research. they enjoy “academic
In the libraries there freedom” in terms of
could be problems of what to teach, how to
limited loan periods, mark and even know
lack of stock, etc. (Mills ing what will come in
& Tait 1999). Even the examination. In
where technology is an open and distance
available the challenge institution such ac
of how to foster the ef tivities are designed
fective use of electronic centrally and the tutor
media for teaching and must implement what
learning is prevalent in is designed, almost in
developing countries, a straightjacket fash
and Calvert (1999:2) ion, and this leads to
argues that, “Many conflict which may
staff and students are derail the teaching
new to the educational programme. Also be
use of e-mail, bulletin cause these lecturers
boards, and computer are on short-term con
conferencing.” tract, should anything
go wrong it is not easy
to hold them account
able for their failures.
Most academics run-
fling CDL programmes
are products of con
ventional universities
both as students and
lecturers and the ten
dency is to employ
conventional delivery
strategies in an CDL
set up and controlling
for this is not easy.
Menon (1999:36) ex
plains this dilemma
when he says, “. while
it has been reasonably
possible to maintain
quality in instructional
inputs, it is difficult to
ensure that quality is
maintained in contact
sessions and practical
classes”.
Stereotypes
In a location where a
regional centre neigh
bours a conventional
university, feelings that
the conventional univer
sity offers better qual
ity education abound.
These feelings, mainly
emanating from the
fact that CDL is a rela
tively new and little un
derstood phenomenon
(Mmari 1999), may
drive away potential
learners and staff. Even
part-time academ
ics from conventional
universities may bring
these attitudes into the
learners, which may af
fect their zeal to learn.
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
The centralization/
decentralization
dilemma
A regional centre is a
decentralized unit of
headquarters, and it is
debatable if the former
enjoys any meaningful
autonomy and flexibil
ity to address learner
needs in peculiar cir
cumstances. Because
of the need to often re
fer to headquarters, so
lution of problems may
take time, and this may
frustrate the learners.
Where headquarters
deliver less than what
has been promised,
learners may exert a lot
of pressure on the re
gional centre. Academ
ic staff has to live with
a dual reporting struc
ture and this can create
confusion and conflict.
Some officers at head
quarters may want to
control the regional
centre even if they are
not conversant with
what goes on there.
This view is supported
by Bolton (2000:2) who
says, “In a rational de
sire for control and or
derliness, central offi
cers have wished .the. . ify at regional level the
units to be either orga
nizationally weak, so
that they depend upon
central services..
Student audit
Because learners do
not report to the re
gional centre regularly
it is difficult to keep
up to date learner au
dits. Learner attrition
only becomes visible
when assignments are
not submitted or when
learners fail to turn up
for examinations. At
times, at this juncture,
the learner may have
long dropped out and it
will be too late to bring
him/her back. Failure to
keep accurate student
statistics may lead to
under-planning for re
sources and services.
The challenge to be
tackled is how to ensure
that there is maximum
enrolment and minimal
dropouts, as dropouts
constitute a waste of
resources (Mntangi
1999:72; Moyo & Mum
bengegwi 1995: 68).
Fees payment
Some learners may
default on their fees
payment, thus suffo
cating financial inflows
into the institution. Be
cause student state
ments are generated at
headquarters it may be
difficult at times to ver
fees payment status
of a learner. Failure to
collect fees due causes
a strain on available re
sources, as these will
be stretched to cater
even for students who
have not paid.
69
 space
Due to financial con
straints, a regional
centre may operate
from rented premises,
and move on when
the lease lapses. This
gives the centre a no
madic character, with
learners “chasing” it
from site to site. Even
if the regional centre
does not move, learner
and staff numbers may
soon outgrow the rent
ed premises forcing the
institution to look for ad
ditional premises hence
“scattering the region”
around town. Even in
the few cases where
property was acquired
when CDL universities
were introduced learn
er and staff growth
has far outstripped the
capacity to expand the
premises. Thus the re
gional centre finds itself
crowded in inadequate
premises or “scattered
around,” or both. This
leads to loss of identity
of the institution.
Distance
Even though the thrust
of a regional centre is
to reduce the distance
between the institu
tion and the learner in
some cases, especially
in rural areas, distance
between the learners
is a serious barrier to
effective CDL. This is
worsened by lack of reli
70 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
able transport and other to increase learner en
communication net rolment so as to reduce
works, and tends to cut unit costs and realize
off the learner from the economies of scale of
regional centre. The re offering programmes.
sult is that learners miss Cost effectiveness
key deadlines, miss analysis should be the
tutorials, miss exami guiding principle in ex
nations and ultimately penditure options (Huls
may dropout of the sys mann 1999). Fixed and
tem resulting in a waste variable costs should
of scarce resources. be clearly isolated with
In some cases some the express intention of
learners take longer suppressing the later.
than planned to com
plete their study pro Extensive training of
grammes, thus increas full-time and part-time
ing the wastage ratio academics in CDL de
(Moyo & Mubengegwi livery modes will im
1995: 690). Studies by prove the delivery of
Gatawa (1998: 21) and service. An improved
Dorsey, etal(1991: 23) service delivery reduc
confirm that distance es learner complaints.
travelled by learners to The institution itself can
educational institutions mount CDL instruction
disrupts learning ac programmes and en
tivities. The same view, sure that all regional
is held by Anderson, academics are prop
Marcus and Thomas erly qualified for the
(1 999:28) who say, job they do, rather than
“Supporting learners in rely on the assump
remote areas of Guyana tion that any academic
presents a significant can deliver in an CDL
challenge to IDCE’s setup. Anderson, Mar
education system.” cus Thomas (199:28)
argue that, “Oversee
The way forward ing the tutorial system
and generally providing
If CDL is to continue
learner support servic
to have the desired im
es are activities depen
pact CDL institutions
dent on the deployment
need to empower their
of competent and high
regional centres. Some
ly motivated staff, as
options are highlighted
well as good commu
below.
nication.” Reasonable
staff retention schemes
To boost the resource
should be put in place
base for the regional
to motivate staff, and
centre, it is necessary
curb staff-turnover,
which disrupts the in
structional programme
and leads to costs of
recruiting and inducting
new staff. In the wake
of dwindling govern
ment funding the insti
tution needs to engage
in income generation,
and plough back some
of the proceeds to staff
retention.
According to Mmari
(1999) cooperation
with existing education
al institutions, industry,
private and public li
braries makes it pos
sible to offer uncom
promised service even
with scarce resources
and limited budgets.
The regional centres
can share into the use
of existing cooperators’
facilities at reduced
costs, or even at no
cost at all, depending
on the negotiating apti
tude of staff managing
the regional centre.
Massive investment
in modern technol
ogy such as internet
and teleconferencing
facilities may improve
access to tutorial ser
vices, and reduce the
inefficiencies and in
adequacies associated
with the use of a large
number of ill-trained tu
tors. This may initially
call for an enormous
capital outlay, but in
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
the long run a lot of
money that would go
into wages would be
saved, and some ef
ficiency realized.
Chacon (1999) argues
that investment in ap
propriate technologies
is the way to go and
yields good returns
in the long run, while
Chandiram (1999:32)
explains how Indira
Gandhi Open Univer
sity has successfully
used multimedia ap
proach to reach out to
its learner population.
To deal with the issue
of distances between
learners and regional
centres, the CDL in
stitutions may further
decentralize to district
and study centres.
However in so doing,
care must be taken to
restructure the insti
tutions’ hierarchy to
avoid ending up with
too tall structures that
delay and distort com
munication. In addition
mobile teams can be
used to provide tuto
rial support for learn
ers (Anderson, Marcus
& Thomas 2001:28).
Learners can also be
issued with a guide
book at registration that
helps to induct them
to open and distance
learning, so that they
can tackle some of the
challenges they meet
on their own, a strategy
that has worked for the
Open University of Sri
Lanka (Weerasinghe
1999: 57). This would
help bring the univer
sity service to learners’
doorsteps (ZOU:1 999).
Learners in distant lo
cations can be trained
in setting up and sus
taining study groups
(Lippiart 2001: 81).
The regional centre
must provide support
for the study groups to
keep them focused.
In conclusion, it must
be acknowledged that
open and distance
learning, holds hope
for economic and so
cial development for
many nations. Ding
(1999:179) says, “Due
to its features of open
ness, economy of scale
and flexibility, open and
distance learning has
made a special and
significant contribu
tion to Chinese higher
education, and more
broadly to socio-eco
nomic development.”
This can be true of any
country, but only if the
regional centre, which
is the point of deliv
ery for the institution’s
programmes is appro
priately empowered to
deliver in quality style.
71
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73
 FACILITATING INTERACTION DURING
FACE-TO-FACE TUTORIALS IN OPEN DISTANCE
LEARNING: Insights from the Socratic Method
Stanslaus Modesto Tichapondwa
Botswana College of Open and Distance Learning (B000DOL)

Abstract method leads to ef cation has introduced

fective negotiation of face-to-face tutorials
The article focuses on
learning. One of the to complement written
classroom interaction
recommendations was modules, which are
with emphasis on the
that tutors should be the primary medium of
questioning method.
guided in the use of communication. The
The purpose is to ex
questioning strategies use of questions is not
amine the significance
for better interaction. at all new, however,
of the method during
learner-tutor interac the effectiveness with
Introduction which it is used has not
tion, and to establish
how best questions been established for
Questioning is an ac
can be used to achieve a fact. It was against
knowledged didactic
learning goals. Find this background that
method at the disposal
ings, based on a com the present investiga
of the tutor. Many dif
munication course, are tion was carried out as
ferent acts during tu
discussed. Eight tu torials are realised by a revisit to the Socratic
tors were identified to method if only to es
questions, and Sinclair
conduct tutorials, and tablish ways in which
and Brazil (1982:60)
each one worked with questions are used to
suggest that questions
25 learners. After a promote learning.
are the chief means
general induction, four of eliciting learner re
tutors What has remained
(experimental sponses. Elkind and
group) were briefed on questionable is the ef
Sweet (2004) regard
fectiveness of ques
questioning strategies, questioning as a so
and the remainder tions in terms of achiev
cialisation process that
served as the control ing learning goals.
leads to the negotiation
group. Interaction for Effectiveness refers to
of mutual expectations.
both groups was tape- the influence a ques
The syntactic structure
tion has in achieving
recorded before and of questions is interrog
after the briefing. Re learning goals. Basi
ative, aimed at stimu
sults showed that tu cally, in the context of
lating purposeful inter
tors whose awareness tutorials, questions are
action to achieve ped
had been raised, used a pre-condition for oral
agogic goals. Socrates
interaction. They are
interrogatives more was well known for his
effectively than their used for a whole range
use of questions to
counterparts. This led of purposes including
educate. That is why
to the conclusion that the questioning strat the tutor’s need to es
conscious tablish whether learn
enhance egy has come to be
ment of knowledge ers completed their
known as the Socratic
about the Socratic assignments, and to
method. Distance edu
74 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
find out why they come
late for tutorials. Tutors
tend to use questions
mainly for administra
tive purposes. What
did not come out clear
ly from my observation
was the use of the So
cratic method to nego
tiate learning.
Without exception, this
tendency was noticed
in tutorials for the CDL
courses offered by the
Zimbabwe Open Univer
sity (ZOU) and the Bo
tswana College of Open
and Distance Learning
(BOCODOL). Premised
on that, the stimulus for
research was a strongly-
felt pedagogic intuition
arising from experience
generally, but made
concrete in the course
of field trips to commu
nity study centres.
The research
context
BOCODOL originated
a course for police of
ficers known as Eng
lish for Professional
Purposes (EPP). The
six-month programme
was aimed at develop
ing work related com
munication skills and
competencies in core
policing areas such as
statement writing. Tu
tors holding a degree
qualification in English
were identified to han
dle tutorials during the
pilot stage.
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
In the context for in
vestigation I narrowed
down the areas for ne
gotiation to negotiation
of meaning and negoti
ation of form, which are
central to a communi
cation course. Learner
output, as conceptu
alised in this study,
refers to the extent to
which learners, stimu
lated to participate by
the tutor, contribute
meaningfully to the
communicative events
in a given tutorial using
extended discourse.
By extended discourse
I mean learner re
sponses that go be
yond single words or
phrases, but involve
the generation of sen
tences in language that
is original but relevant
to the topic. To guide
my investigation, three
research questions
were formulated thus:
1. What type of
questions do tu
tors currently ask,
that is after induc
tion, to negotiate
learning?
2. What interaction
changes occur in
the oral exchang
es between tutors
and learners after
tutor awareness
of the significance
of questions (in
the negotiation
of learning) is
raised?
3. Do learners un
der tutors, whose
awareness has
been raised, ne
gotiate learning
better?
Questions and
the negotiation of
learning
In line with the EPP
course objectives,
Tichapondwa and
Trennepohl (2001:48)
observe that tutors
should ask the right
kind of questions to en
able learners to answer
appropriately. Inter
rogatives are normally
categorised according
to their levels of diffi
culty, or the complexity
of verbal responses ex
pected from learners.
In a typical communi
cation course such as
EPP, negotiation of form
and meaning are in
separable. In the words
of Prabhu (1988:1) lan
guage is seen as “con
sisting primarily of an
ability to conform auto
matically to grammatical
noms, and communica
tion as a matter of un
derstanding, arriving at,
or conveying meaning”.
Thus in the present
article, focus is on the
way questions are
used to promote inter
action through compe
tent use of grammati
cal features to share
mutual understanding
75
 in the course of mean ing with pupils in their tion, exchange, move,
ing-focused activity. first year of secondary and act. Each consti
Tutor awareness was school in Zimbabwe, tutes the elements of
raised by exposing Tichapndwa (2000) the rank above, ac
them to theories about dwells on the contextu cording to rank-specific
the Socratic method. al significance of ques structural rules. In their
tions. approach, a transac
Researchers on class tion is essentially an
room interaction (e.g. Questions, like other episode of talk on a
Barnes et al, 1971; linguistic features, can particular theme, and
Lyster and Ranta, be quantified and in it usually consists of a
1997) were influenced terpreted. That is why number of exchanges.
by the evolution of in the approach, ana A common example of
descriptive linguistics lysts are concerned an exchange is a ques
concerned with pro with interactional con tion followed by an an
cedures followed to ventions, features of swer, followed by an
stimulate classroom discourse, and the acknowledgement of
dialogue. Working with educational functions that answer.
British elementary Li of discourse when the
classrooms, Sinclair teacher stands in front Tutors and learners
and Coulthard (1975), of a class. take part in exchanges
Coulthard (1977), and for much of the time
Sinclair and Brazil Applied Linguists, Mal they will be talking. An
(1982), have evolved amah-Thomas (1987) exchange often con
an approach that, and Van Lier (1988) sists of three moves:
among other issues, shed more light on the Initiation (1) - Re
examines the role of educational value of sponse (R) Feedback
-

questions in promot questions and argue (F):

ing learning and class
room interaction. Their
sociolinguistic slant
is partly the result of
influence from ethno
graphic investigations
into the structure of in
teraction (e.g. Hymes.
1972). Ethnographers
are concerned with the
qualitative, process-
oriented investigation
of interaction, and their
question is: What are
the functions of ques
tions and other dis
course features in the
classroom where it is
claimed that learning
takes place? Work-
76 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
that teaching styles
and learning strategies,
as linguistic preoc
cupations, depend on
metalinguistic aware
ness. Value judgement
about the significance
of questions in nego
tiation of learning (Van
den Branden, 1997),
and in the guided con
struction of knowledge
(Mercer, 1995) will
therefore be made.
Sinclair and Coulthard
(1975) proposed that a
lesson can be analysed
as having a number of
ranks: lesson, transac
[1] T Takesure,
what is a
plot? (I)
L: The events in
a novel (A)
T Good. (F)
In what follows I exam
ine questions as tutor
input and the respons
es to such questions
as learner output.
Question
Categories
When the tutor inter
venes, by giving input,
what does the student
do with her slot in
terms of a fitting contri
bution relative to form
and meaning? Van
Lier (1988:105) says,
“because of the turn-
taking rules, partici
pants are restricted in
their power and initia
tive to change and in
fluence the discourse.”
This means, it is the
way turns are allocated
which constrains or lib
erates initiative. Hence,
there are ways of ask
ing questions which ac
count for more effective
discourse at both the
input and output levels.
By contrasting the two
examples given below,
it is evident that the
second interrogative is
less constraining than
the first.
[2] a. Water
evaporates
when it is
heated, isn’t
it?
b. Why does
water
evaporate?
Van Lier (1988) exam
ines how and when ini
tiative is possible, and
how it can be identified.
Initiative is the willing
ness, by an individual,
to originate language
that is more personal
and influential on sub
sequent interaction for
a given topic. Initiative
can be explained by
identifying moves used
in the process of turn
taking. In a given inter-
DEA5A-SADC ODE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
action, we are able to
describe and evaluate
the effect of linguistic
units evident in the ex
pression of initiative.
The learner initiates
discourse when he/she
originates information
through language re
lated to the topic under
discussion, and often
in answer to a ques
tion. For purposes of
description, Van Lier
(1988:109) introduces
the concepts of ‘pro
spective’ and ‘retro
spective’ classification
of speech acts. In:
[3] T: Why does
water
evaporate?
S: because of
the heat from
the sun,
The teacher’s move
is said to be prospec
tive because it looks
forward to, limits the
next speakership and
influences the content.
On the other hand, the
student’s response is
said to be retrospective
because it is linked to
the preceding turn, and
could exhibit varying
degrees of influence
from preceding turns.
In addition, Van Lier
introduces the idea of
topic control and man
agement as a manifes
tation of initiative. This
is reflected in features
such as student’s use
of discourse to: con-
tribute new information,
maintain interaction,
and disputing a propo
sition of a prior turn,
what we call counter-
informs.
To interpret data from
lesson transcripts, ana
lytical categories were
used. These were ac
cording to the way tu
tors asked questions
and how learners an
swered. Some catego
ries account for more
effective discourse
than others. We start
with categories attrib
uted to teachers.
The first question cat
egory suggested by
Sinclair and Coulthard
(1975) is the polar in
terrogative or the yes!
no question, which
elicits a response that
is either positive or
negative, using a sin
gle word.
The second category
is the ‘question tag’,
which is linguistically
structured to signal
that agreement would
be the more congruent
response as in this ex
ample.
[4] T: The adjective
formed from
circle is
circular, isn’t
it?
The tutor makes an
assertion, and then
questions it. Thus, the
77
learner is invited to Here, the learner is re [7] T: Which
give the proposition ur quired to communicate countries
gent support. in his own language. border
Informative content re Malawi?
The third question fers to information nec S: Mozambique,
category is the dis essary for discussing a Zambia,
play question (Love, topic. In this question, Tanzania.
1991:203). It is posed the tutor cannot pre
with an answer in mind dict the precise nature The learner fulfils the
and it is also known as of the information and tutor’s predicting move,
a test question. A clear the discourse used to a display question in
example is: convey it. this case, by produc
[5J T: Which are ing a reply in which
the math Love (1991:102) adds discourse is used to
causes of soil that a referential ques regurgitate rather than
erosion? tion is “reinforced by negotiate content.
longer pauses than
Here, although an op
any other type of ques The second one is the
portunity is created for
tion”. A pause, though minimal response in
the learner to respond
non-verbal, is observ which pupils give single
in more words than
able and its pedagogic words or use vocalisa
was the case in the two
function is to allow stu tions (e.g. uhu,ormhh).
previous categories,
dents to reflect on al The third one involves
the potential answer
ternative language out use of a wide range of
is limited to the regur
put fit to express con constructions, which
gitation of discourse
ceptualisation of ideas. are neither predictable
initiated by the tutor
This means a pause, nor constrained in re
earlier. The foregoing
following a referential sponse to referential
three categories are
question, encourages questions.
considered to be less
students to plan their
effective.
discourse output. b. Clarifications
Some learner dis
The fourth category Clarification refers to
course will be more
is termed ‘referential extended discourse
communicative while
question’, and its ob produced by the learn
others will be less
jective, according to er in response to the
so, and communica
Sinclair and Coulthard tutor’s questions re
tive discourse implies
(1975), is the elicitation quiring the learner to
initiative as one of its
of informative content, supply further informa
characteristic features
for example: tion thereby clarifying
as illustrated below.
[6] T: Why do you content. Cullen (1998)
think there regards clarifications
a. Intormatives
are more as discourse that is
accidents in Three types, accord experiential. Thus, the
your town at ing to Sinclair and learner who is encour
Christmas, Coulthard (1975: 45), aged to clarify content
than any are identifiable. The first is likely to produce
other month one involves an answer more effective dis
in the year? to a display question. course in terms of both
78 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
quality and quantity
based on personal ex
perience.
The discourse exem
plifies two principles
put forward by Tarone
(1980) and Cohen
(1997), namely, the
student’s application of
learning strategies us
ing teacher input to de
velop linguistic knowl
edge, and the student’s
attempt to use lan
guage more efficiently
(production strategies).
Van den Branden’s
(1997) view on clari
fications is that when
the interlocutor gives
non-comprehension
signals, students may
come to question their
language output and
consciously choose
more communicative
discourse. Thus, clari
fications stand as evi
dence of more effective
use of language in the
negotiation of learning.
c. Counter-informs
Counter-informs are
retrospective moves
originated by the learn
er to express a different
position. For example,
when one interactant
initiates a move he or
she expects a response
(prospective move).
In reply (retrospective
move), the addressee
gives an answer that is
contradictory. Burbules
DEASA-SADC CDE international Journal of Open and Distance Learning
(1993) has referred to
such moves as diver
gent views expressed
in discourse that is
neither predictable nor
constrained. When a
student initiates a par
ticular contribution,
requesting further infor
mation, or disputing a
proposition, this shows
active participation and
initiative, and occurs
when the tutor or peer
asks questions.
Method
The study used a pre
test post-test experi
mental research design
with a control group.
The Pilot Stage for
the EPP course com
prised 8 tutors, each
handling 25 learners
in four regions in Bo
tswana. The part-time
tutors were qualified
teachers of English
serving in colleges of
education. They held
a degree in English as
the minimum academic
qualification. Learn
ers were drawn from
the Botswana Police
Service, and their mini
mum academic qualifi
cation was two years of
secondary schooling.
All the 8 tutors under
went induction in prep
aration for tutoring, and
were, in addition, given
a tutor’s guide to help
them teach three mod
ules over a period of
six months.
Four tutors participat
ed in the study as the
group that received
special intervention (the
experimental group)
while the other four
were the control group.
Each tutor was audio
taped four times (twice
before and twice af
ter intervention for the
experimental group
and at the same time
for the control group
without any interven
tion). Those four (the
experimental group),
who were randomly
sampled received ad
ditional intervention on
the issue of question
ing techniques. Three
one-hour sessions
were spent sharing
principles of question
ing, and raising exam
ples from experience
for application during
subsequent tutorials. A
whole range of question
types was discussed
with specific distinc
tion made of the more
from the less effective
ones. This awareness
raising was linked to
the impact such teach
ers would make on
police officers under
their tutorship. Tape-
recording tutorials af
ter intervention would
establish whether any
intervention changes
occurred. Similarly,
learner responses un
der teachers in the con
trol and experimental
79
groups were analysed
and results compared,
to establish how effec
tively they negotiated
learning. That way, the
second and third re
search questions were
addressed.
The study took six
months. Data collected
from sixteen tutorials
were transcribed and
interpreted in accor
dance with analytical
categories determined
for the purpose as dis
cussed above. Pre-test
and post-test results
were then compared.
Results
The first two extracts
capture interaction
before intervention.
For ease of reference,
the following notation
is used. T= tutor; L=
learner silence
by learners; in
structional pause.
Extract 1
This extract is from a
tutorial by one of the
tutors who were going
to receive guidance on
best ways to use ques
tions.
T: Name the
different types of
report you have
read about from
the module...
Anybody? Yes...
Sir
L: Occasional
80 DEASA-SADC CDE lnternationa Journa’ of Open and Dstance Learning
Report and prepare for
T: Is that all? List the assignment.
some more...
Ls: The first elicit is the
T: Have you recall type requesting
forgotten? Heh...? display of knowledge.
Routine Report is The learner responds
one of them...and accordingly through a
Investigative short informative. The
Report. Isn’t it? request to list more
Right. Now... examples, also a recall
which are the elicit, results in silence
three main parts as learners avoid giv
of a report? ing answers. The tutor
Ls: goes on to ask the off
T: I will give you a task question: “Have
clue. The first one you forgotten?” to
begins with the which no response is
letter ‘I’. Yes... forthcoming. To save
L: Introduction face, he answers his
T: Correct. and the
. . own question show
next one? Yes... ing there is little topic
L:Body development. This is
T:Body...yes and followed by yet another
the last one is... display question about
L: Conclusion report types. Realising
T:Good. What about there is no response,
the document he gives a clue, and
you write and hesitantly one learner
circulate within responds minimally
the organisation. by giving one word.
What is it called? Guessing the answers
Anyone... expected by the tutor,
L:Letter learners simply give
T: What kind of one -word answers
letter? It has a (minimal responses).
special name... Talk is monopolised
starts with letter by the tutor, and there
is little negotiation of
L: Memo learning.
T: Yes.. memo or
memorandum in Extract 2
full. Now read the
This extract is from a tu
section in your
torial by a tutor who did
modules that
not receive guidance
deals with Reports
on the principles about
and other means
the Socratic method
of communication,
(control group).
 T: What name is you don’t read interviewer.
given to the person in preparation What do
who gives you for tutorials. I you call a
information when said what is the person who is
you are investigating word? interviewed?
a crime? Does Ls: L: Applicant
anyone know? Yes... T: The word T: Applicant? No...
L: Witness is ‘reliable’ of course. The
T: There is a special witness. When person is called
word for it. What is a person is an interviewee.
it?... Informant. reliable that Together say
Isn’t it? means you can interviewee...
Ls: (in chorus) Ye trust him. Ls: (in chorus)
e-es interviewee-e-e
T: Then an informant The extract has all the T. Right. There are
who comes on features identified in different types
her own to give Extract 1, except the of interview
information is called focus on word mean What name
a...what?A what? ings: “There is a special is given to an
Ls: word for it. What is it?” interview where
T: Easy. She Again this reflects pre a person wants
is called a conceived responses employment?
voluntary elicited through display L: Work interview
informant. questions. The lack of T: No. It’s called
Together say initiative by learners a job interview.
voluntary is shown in a number Now... there
informant. of ways, including si are two more.
Ls: (in chorus) lences. When the tutor An intervention
Voluntary answers her own ques interview and
informant tions, she requests an informative
T: At times you choral answers, a less interview. Which
find it difficult effective way of topic of these two
to trust an development. is aimed at
informant. persuading the
However, there Extract 3 and Extract interviewee
are informants 4 reflect use of the to see things
you can trust. Socratic method in tu the way the
What term do torials recorded during interviewer sees
we use for such post intervention. them?
informants? The Ls:
word has to do Extract 3 T: Think... Think...
with trust. Can’t you
T. Let’s see what
L: Trustworthy just choose?
you know about
T: Not exactly. OK... the
interviews. A
There is that correct answer
person who
special word. is intervention
interviews
What is it? Your interview In
somebody
problem is that your module...
is called an
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 81
 ______

there are tions are asked and people so that

four types of how learners respond. the discussion
questions asked Some difference was, becomes
in an interview however, noted in Ex meaningful.
Which are tract 4 from the tutor L4: Also can you
these? who taught Extract 1. make resolutions
L: Short questions when there are
T: Short Extract 4 few participants?
questions? / don’t think so.
T: / asked you to
I don’t know L5: Resolutions are
read the section
that. Leading arguments...
on Meetings.
questions... right?
How many of
specific T: There is a
you have read?
questions... question. What
Ls: (raise their
What else? are, What are
hands)
Ls:. resolutions?
T: Good. Who are
L6: I think they are
the key players
This is from a tutorial agreements.
in a meeting?
by the same tutor for T: Agreements?
Yes...
Extract 2 (belonging Any different
Li: You need a
to the control group). view? Yes...
chairperson.. a
Clearly, her pre-oc .

Li: Decisions made

secretary...
cupation with what when people
ummm
learners know places finish talking
L2: Don’t forget
her subsequent inter about something.
participants...
rogatives in the display T: Fine. They are
otherwise
category, and she pro decisions which
there is no
vides answers to most the secretary
meeting without
of her questions. When will minute.
participants.
learners volunteer their L7: I don’t think
T: What do you
limited informatives, only resolutions
mean? Can
they get discouraging are minuted.
you explain?
remarks for incorrect Suggestions
L2: If there are no
answers. This results and views by
people who will
in silence as an indica participants can
attend?... The
tion of unwillingness to also be minuted.
chairman and
participate. Comparing
the secretary...
the two extracts by the The conversation be
only two of
same tutor, the way gins with an admin
them?
she performs in the istrative question to
L3: That’s why you
post intervention phase verify prior reading,
need a quorum.
is similar to the way and moves on with a
T: A quorum...
she asks questions be display question that
That’s a new
fore intervention takes requires information
word. What
place. Clearly, there about key players in a
does it mean?
fore, there is no signifi meeting. Li gives two
cant change that takes predictable answers,
L2: There should
place in the way ques then L2 self selects and
be enough
82 DEASA-5ADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
gives as third player:
participants. Through
a referential question,
the tutor asks L2 to
explain. The answer
is not predictable, and
L2’s clarification, given
in extended discourse,
leads to mutual under
standing (negotiation
of meaning). Without
waiting for the tutor to
allow her to speak, L3
takes the initiative by
giving further clarifica
tion, thus facilitating
topic development.
The teacher con
sciously draws atten
tion of learners to the
new register ‘quorum’
and seeks its eluci
dation. 12 provides a
wide ranging informa
tive that brings a clear
meaning of the word,
thus negotiation of form
and meaning are fused
together. After that L4
takes initiative by ask
ing a question, which
introduces the concept
of ‘resolutions’. In ac
tual fact the question is
a counter inform which,
nevertheless, accounts
for discourse progress.
When L5 self selects,
he expresses a prob
lem with the meaning
of the word ‘resolu
tions’. At that point the
tutor redirects the con
versation by request
ing learners to clarify
the term.
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
When L6 volunteers
a response, the tutor
does not rush to ac
cept the answer lest
that closes the smooth
flow of discourse. He
asks for alternative
meaning, which Li is
able to furnish. The
tutor’s rejoinder serves
to acknowledge that
the contributions made
are compatible with
the topic. Unexpect
edly, L7 introduces
a new position about
the substance of min
utes. In this counter in
form, more meaning is
added to the dialogue,
showing learner auton
omy in the negotiation
of form and meaning in
extended discourse.
Discussion
A number of conclu
sions can be drawn
from the two pre-in
tervention extracts. A
clear pattern of asking
questions emerges
characterised by tutors
asking display ques
tions (most of the time)
constraining
whose
effect can be noted in
the minimal responses,
and lack of initiative by
learners (Love, 1991).
The key finding is that
there is a lack of initia
tive by learners in pre
intervention exchang
es. This is a direct re
sult of the type of ques
tions asked, and these
are mainly display, tag
and polar questions,
which lead to very limit
ed negotiation of learn
ing (Coulthard, 1977).
This finding addresses
the question to do with
the types of questions
asked by tutors before
guidance about prin
ciples of the Socratic
method is given.
Results from Extract 4
compared to Extract 3
lead to one major con
clusion, namely, that
tutors who receive the
benefit of principles
about questioning strat
egies assist learners
to negotiate learning
more consciously and
more effectively com
pared to those tutors
who are not exposed to
principles of question
ing strategies. Distribu
tion of speakership is
more conscious as evi
denced in the prospec
tive and retrospective
discourse. The second
conclusion is that in
the hands of some
body aware of the sig
nificance of questions,
display questions can
be used as a basis for
negotiation of learning,
notwithstanding their
limited effectiveness,
a view subscribed to
by Van Lier (1988).
Thirdly, where open
ended questions e.g.
“What do you mean?”
are asked, learner re
sponses are unpredict
83
 able, and learners use of improved ability to conduct face-to-face
language that is origi negotiate learning, an tutorials.
nal. Fourthly, the use attribute that is absent
of instructional pauses from those under tu My key recommenda
allows learners to think torship in the control tion is that distance ed
and retrieve the appro group. ucation organisations
priate language to for with face-to-face tu
mulate a response. Fi Recommendations ition as a component of
nally, we conclude that course delivery should
referential questions To begin with, the
actively promote meth
liberate learners to research population
and the scope of the odologies that empha
take the initiative to ad sise more purposeful.
vance their own views study are quite lim
ited. Further, EPP, talk. The conclusion
without waiting for the from pre-intervention
tutor to allocate turns. the course studied by
learners and on which interaction, showing
Evidence of initiative is that tutors ask less ef
shown through self-se the investigation was
conducted is new in fective questions, sug
lection; providing infor gests that something
mation in more person Botswana. Also, much
as the findings can be ought to be done. This
alised and extended is because learners
discourse; readiness to considered to be inter
nally valid, that is, they under such influence
clarify points; and pro do not show any ini
viding different percep are a function of the in
tervention, one is hesi tiative. It is, therefore,
tions to the topic under recommended that
discussion. tant to make generali
tutors of different sub
sations. What I should
make clear though is jects be given system
On account of these atic induction about the
findings, therefore, it that the research was
not designed as an pedagogic benefits as
could be said that after sociated with question
exposure to ways of us experiment to prove
the Socratic Method ing strategies.
ing the Socratic meth
od, tutors from the ex empirically, but was
rather a classroom The second recom
perimental group show mendation is that
a significant change in action research for
developing that meth courses in teacher
the manner they ask education should in
questions. The change odology and gaining
some insight of it. I am dude components
is attributable to the about ways of making
intervention more than therefore, comfortable
with the assumption classroom talk more
to any other influence productive. Among
since counterparts in that any innovation has
relevance beyond the such components
the control group do should be the Socratic
not show evidence of specific situation it is
associated with, hence method. The common
any change. Similarly, practice by distance
learners under tutors my recommendations
learning providers is to
from the experimental presuppose the find
ings would apply in the hire qualified teachers,
group respond to ques serving in conventional
tions in a creative fash real distance education
schools, as part-time
ion, and show evidence circumstances where
tutors. The assump
questions are used to
84 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
tion is that somebody
who is already quali
fied to teach will have
a sound command of
teaching methodolo
gies. However, as the
study proved, qualified
teachers (part-time
tutors) showed a defi
ciency in the way they
ask questions.
Finally, it is recom
mended that education
authorities including
the Ministry of Educa
tion in Botswana or
ganise workshops and
seminars to sensitise
already serving teach
ers about teacher-
learner interaction as
an applied linguistic
phenomenon that can
be enhanced through
appropriate use of
the Socratic method.
There was ample
evidence from the in
vestigation that more
effective questions
stimulate more effec
tive discourse that is of
pedagogic value. Thus
it is logical to revisit
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
the didactic methodol
ogy under discussion
to enhance cognitive
development even in
conventional schools.
Synthesis
In sociocultural terms,
people talk for a va
riety of reasons, and
these include sharing
of knowledge and ex
perience. In pedagogic
contexts, where tutor
and tutees constitute a
speech community, the
sharing of knowledge
takes a systematic
slant during which one
interlocutor is vested
with the responsibility
of directing speaker-
ship towards attain
ment of cognitive goals.
The chief means of do
ing that is the Socratic
method that leads to
interaction and nego
tiation of learning.
Tutors who are suc
cessful in their respon
sibilities distinguish the
less from the more ef
fective ways of asking
questions. As dem
onstrated, the more
effective ones have a
positive influence on
the discourse output of
learners. Similarly, tu
tors can inhibit learning
by using interrogatives
that have a constraining
effect. The language
of learning is both
persuasive and deci
sive in all tutoring and
learning. In that case,
in distance education
face-to-face tutorials,
the case for revisiting
the Socratic method
cannot be overem
phasised. Therefore,
questions that foster
negotiation of learn
ing, based on linguistic
awareness, bring rela
tions between thinking
and languaging into fo
cus. In their wake, we
get learner discourse
that is expressive of
imagination, creativ
ity, and argumentation
as topics are pursued,
developed and person
alised.
85
 References competence”. In J.B. Sinclair, J.M. and
and J. Holmes (eds.). Coulthard, R.M. 1975.
Barnes, D., Britton,
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86 DEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL
STRATEGIES IN THE ZIMBABWE OPEN
UNIVERSITY
Grace T. Mukeredzi Zimbabwe Open University
—

& Tsitsi G. Ndamba Great Zimbabwe University

—

Abstract efficient moderation. and effect their own

Regional workshops, quality agendas be
The paper is based on seminars and meetings fore others set them.
a research conducted were crucial for prepar It is clear that quality
to determine quality ing and updating staff assurance and quality
assurance and qual on efficient service control are important
ity control strategies delivery. Student tu and central tools for ef
in the Zimbabwe Open tor evaluation through fective management.
University (ZOU). The comprehensive instru
focus was on tutoring, ments emerged as an External quality control
assignments, exami effective way of en mechanisms are not
nations, staff devel hancing tutor perfor effective for internal im
opment, external as mance. The research provement purposes. It
sessment, resources recommended that is therefore crucial that
and student tutor ZOU increases the educational institutions
evaluation. Qualitative existing human, mate build their own quality
research design and rial and infrastructure assurance and quality
analysis was used. resources and mount control strategies fo
Questionnaires extract more workshops for cused on own on-going
ed data from forty-eight academic staff at Na development and guid
(48) students, thirty- tional, Regional, Fac ed by own values and
four (34) lecturers and ulty and Departmental judgement as well as
eight (8) regional di levels to promote and professional account
rectors. Results show ensure quality at all ability (Nixon 1995).
that great strides were levels.
being made to assure In 2006 the Zimbabwe
quality despite chal Introduction Open University had
lenges in the provision an approximate total
of human, material, Quality assurance and enrolment of twenty-
physical and financial quality control are vi one thousand (21 000)
resources. In tutoring, tal for effective man students. Ten Regional
highly qualified, expe agement. Most quality Centres have been es
rienced and committed management strate tablished in an effort to
personnel were ap gies combine both decentralize operations
pointed and tutorials elements to ensure as a quality assurance
were effective. Item continued improve and quality control
writing of examination ment. Freeman (1994) measure (UNESCO,
questions involved tu observes that if institu 1990). The Regional
tors nationwide and ex tions wish to maximise Centres offer infor
amination marking was control of their opera mation and advice to
centralized to facilitate tions, they have to set
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 87
the public, mainly ap vis-à-vis set objec for clients with con
plicants and students tives; ventional universities
by telephone, written • continuous evalu that are coming up with
correspondence and ation of all ZOU continuing education
face-to-face meetings. programmes; programmes that are
Staff at the Regional taught using distance
Centres provide ad • evaluating services
education modes. It is
vice on courses and provided by ZOU;
critical therefore, for
also coordinate and and
ZOU to put in place
manage programmes. • maintaining high quality assurance and
The model of open and quality standards quality control strate
distance education in the delivery of all gies in order to main
followed by the Zim programmes. tain existing clients and
babwe Open Univer attract new ones.
sity, where there is the The strategies outlined
central administrative above are evidence of Literature review
office and a number of commitment by ZOU
regional offices, is ad in its attempt to pro Quality refers to the
opted from the Open vide quality services. degree of excellence
University, UK, (ZOU Against this back or conformity of servic
Strategic Plan 2000 ground, the objective es or products with the
—2003). of the study was to de requirements or char
termine the strategies acteristics of set stan
Addressing the issue of employed by ZOU in dards. Hoyle (1995)
quality assurance, the assuring and control views quality as a con
Zimbabwe Open Uni ling quality in its ser formity to specifications
versity, in its Strategic vices. Guided by this regardless of whether
Plan (2000 — 2003:5) objective, the research or not the specifica
states that: sought to answer the tions satisfy clients.
question, What quality Stoner, Freeman and
There is need to de assurance and qual Gilbert (2003) refer to
velop quality assur ity control strategies quality as focusing on
ance mechanisms that have been put in place the production of in
will ensure consistent by ZOU to assure and creasingly better prod
delivery of products control quality in open ucts and services.
and services to staff, and distance learn
students and industry ing?’ Quality control refers
such as: to the operational tech
• continuous evalu Statement of the niques and activities
ation; problem employed to fulfill re
quirements for quality
• administrative The Zimbabwe Open (Hoyle 1995). In other
procedures that University is the only words, any activities
are followed and open and distance employed to improve,
continuously evalu learning dedicated in control, manage or
ated; stitution in the coun assure quality may be
• self evaluation, try. However, in recent some form of quality
peer evaluation, years, the institution control activity. Quality
student evaluation has had to compete control is therefore a
88 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
process of maintaining
standards and not cre
ating them. According
to Hoyle, these stan
dards are maintained
through processes of
selection, measure
ment and correction of
activities so that all the
products and services
which emerge meet the
standards. Quality con
trol is often regarded
as a post event activity,
a means of determin
ing whether quality has
been achieved and tak
ing corrective action. In
the Zimbabwe Open
University, quality con
trol would be referring
to those processes,
activities or procedures
put in place to deter
mine whether accept
able services are being
delivered to clients with
a view to taking correc
tive action.
Preedy, Glatter and
Levacic (1997) note
that quality control is
concerned with check
ing outcomes after
processes have oc
curred in order to
identify problems and
weaknesses. Doherty
(1994) views qual
ity control as based on
‘feedback’, which is a
way of assessing infor
mation from staff, stu
dents and employers
so that errors can be
corrected. In learning
institutions like ZOU
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
for instance, moni university will fulfill re
toring and review of quirements for qual
learning materials, pro ity. Quality assurance
grammes and courses, measures are critical
external assessment, for any institution be
assignments and ex cause managers and
aminations and annual clients cannot oversee
reviews are some qual all the operations for
ity control activities that themselves.
the institution would
use (Lusunzi, 1998 and Research design
Ambedkar, 1991).
A qualitative research
design was used to col
Quality assurance,
lect and analyse data.
on the other hand, is
Descriptives were used
concerned with ‘feed
to present the findings.
foward’ as opposed to
Information was sought
feedback, namely with
from students in twelve
the design process
different programmes
and systems so that
at undergraduate and
potential problems are
postgraduate levels in
anticipated and pre
two regions of the Zim
vented from happen
babwe Open Universi
ing (Doherty, 1994).
ty (Masvingo and Mid
This entails planning
lands), namely, Post
a programme, which
Graduate Diploma in
includes its objec
Education (PGDE),
tives, content, staffing,
Bachelor of Education
resources, teaching
(B. Ed), Master of Edu
methods and expected
cation (M Ed), Bach
outcomes to ensure
elor of Arts in English
that students achieve
and Communication
course objectives
(BA ECS), BSc Agri
(Dhanarajan, 1997).
cultural Management,
Stoner, Freeman and
BSc Nursing Science,
Gilbert (2003) go on to
BSc Geography, Mas
say quality assurance
ter of Business Ad
implies doing things
ministration (MBA),
right during the first
Bachelor of Com
attempt instead of cor
merce (Bcom), BSc
recting any errors later.
Psychology (BScPSY),
In ZOU, quality assur
BSc Special Educa
ance would therefore
tion (SPED) and BSc
refer to those planned
Counseling. Informa
and systematic activi
tion was also obtained
ties critical to provide
from tutors engaged in
clients with adequate
different programmes.
confidence that the
All the ten Regional Di-
89
rectors were targeted namely: external as and at least three (3)
as respondents in this sessment, decentral years experience in all
study. ization, regional direc its programmes, except
tors’ expectations of in critical areas where
Data collection the university, quality people with good hon
assurance measures ours degrees are ap
The sample was drawn
taken before launching pointed as teaching
through stratified and
new programmes and assistants. Tutors were
purposive procedures.
lessons learnt from for found to be committed
The questionnaires
mer programmes. to their work and al
were distributed to tu
ways availing them
tors and students dur
Findings and selves and adequately
ing weekend tutorials
discussion prepared for those face
on 2 and 3 as well as
to face sessions.
9 and 10 November Most of the answers
2001. The question given by Regional Di
A very high standard of
naires were admin rectors, tutors and stu
istered to forty-eight tutoring was confirmed
dents were similar and
students, four from by students. Tutoring
as a result they were
was also viewed as
each of the twelve discussed together.
timeously done, fo
programmes attend
ing weekend schools cused and conducted
Tutoring
over the two weekends in a positive and en
When asked to give couraging manner.
as stated above and
also to thirty-eight tu their assessment of Face-to-face contact
tors of the same pro the quality of tutoring time was seen as ade
in ZOU, both students quate by both staff and
grammes. Ten other
and tutors felt that the students. According
questionnaires were
university employs to Dhanarajan (1997),
mailed one each to the
highly qualified and teacher learner contact
ten Regional Directors
experienced person is crucial for good edu
in the institution and of
nel. This could be at cational practice. Such
these, eight were re
tributed to a rigorous occasions are good
turned.
selection exercise un for motivating learn
dertaken by the institu ers and overcoming
All questionnaires had
tion before appointing learner problems. They
open-ended ques
part-time and full-time also enable learners
tions which addressed
teaching staff. The to measure their own
quality assurance and
Open University (OU) value systems about
control of the follow
(UK) (2000) points out their studies and their
ing aspects: tutoring,
that university teach future. Students ben
assignments, exami
ing staff are required efit more through ac
nations, staff devel
to have a degree or its tive learning as ap
opment, student tutor
equivalent qualifica posed to memorizing
evaluation, resources,
tion and experience. and reproducing facts
weaknesses and pos
The ZOU goes further and answers. Talking,
sible solutions. The
to appoint staff with a listening, observing,
questionnaire for Re
minimum qualification discussing, writing and
gional Directors had
of a Masters Degree relating own experienc
five additional aspects
90 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
es and applying them
in the context of their
lessons are all part
of the active learning
process. Face-to-face
tutorials facilitate peer
interaction which as
sists thinking and un
derstanding. Learning
can improve through
team effort than solo
performances.
Respondents felt that
tutorials were regularly
scheduled and time
tables and semester
diaries were carefully
developed. Paced
learning is crucial for
students. What this
implies in teaching is
a clear understanding
of appropriate pacing
and learning through
tutorials. Tutors in this
study applauded stan
dardization meetings
which were taken to be
informative and meant
to iron out and stan
dardize operations as
these meetings were
held before the start of
each semester. Team
teaching was viewed
as an effective strategy
of ensuring quality. Tu
torial groups were seen
as appropriately sized
and close supervision
of tutorials was viewed
as critical for quality.
Assignments
Asked about their views
on the nature and qual
ity of the assignments,
DEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
respondents were of
the opinion that involv
ing tutors nationwide
in the setting of as
signment questions to
build a bank of ques
tions was good prac
tice. This is echoed
by Ambedkar (1991)
in Satyanarayana and
Sesharatuan (1992)
who highlights that it
is desirable to have an
assignments question
bank to reduce delays
in the preparation of
assignments every
semester. In the ZOU,
these question banks
are evolved at regional
and/or national cen
ters. Assignments were
viewed as extensive in
breath and intensive in
depth. They were also
regarded as being of
good quality, very de
manding and adequate
in number to cover all
aspects of the course.
In-class assignments
were seen as a very
good development that
ensured authenticity of
results. Regional Co
ordinators noted that
in-class assignments
were vital as they
guarded against copy
ing and plagiarism.
These assignments
were viewed as de
manding application of
experiences.
One respondent said:
Assignments are
not calling for
regurgitation of
facts, they call on
students to draw on
their school/teaching
experiences. That
makes students
produce work that
is original and
reflecting their lived
experiences.
Students also con
firmed that assignment
questions were given
in advance and spac
ing of assignments was
adequate to enable
thorough research.
This is supported by
Lusunzi (1998) who
says that as far as
possible, assignment
questions should be
sent to students along
with the first batch of
course materials.
Respondents were
happy with the prac
tice of giving uniform
assignments for each
course nationwide.
Preparation of de
tailed marking guides
at national level were
viewed as ensuring
control of expected
answers throughout
the country. This is
confirmed by Ambed
kar (1991) who points
out that assignments
intended for marking
should be accompa
nied by tutor guides
or notes to assist the
tutors in assessing the
assignments. Marking
91
was regarded as pro adequate feedback shaw (1991) in Lusunzi
fessionally, objectively and return marked as (1998) give one of the
and thoroughly done as signments within the attributes of quality in
evidenced by tutoring stipulated time. Pro distance education as
comments which made gramme coordinators an assessment and
students feel that they should insist on tutor examination system
were being assisted markers to observe which measures ac
(Open University UK, time schedules for re curately the extent to
2000). Comments on turning evaluated as which knowledge has
scripts are expected to signments. Students been acquired by the
be constructive, rigor in this study observed students.
ous, clear and carefully that in some isolated
fashioned to empower cases, however, some Revision sessions with
learners to improve tutors returned marked tutors were regarded
their performance. assignments late. as very beneficial as
they enhanced prepa
Tutors said they were Examinations ration through past ex
given adequate mark amination and speci
ing time and modera Internal examiners from
men papers for new
tion of marked assign regional centres are
programmes. The CU
ments was effected nominated by Regional
UK (2000) emphasizes
where possible. They Directors through pro
the need for specimen
also noted that strict as gramme coordinators
papers, which enable
signment records were and appointed by the
students to be familiar
maintained. Ambedkar university. It emerged
with the appearance
(1991) points out that from both staff and
and structure of the ex
programme coordina Regional Directors
amination papers.
tors should be deeply that writing examina
involved in ensuring tion items involved
Adequate security
proper assessment all programme tutors
measures were always
of assignments. They nationwide through
in place before and af
should take samples development of item
ter examinations were
of marked assign banks. Results further
written. Administration
ments for moderation indicate that examina
and conduct of exami
and providing feed tions questions were of
nations were seen as
back to tutor markers. good quality, balanced
procedural and smooth,
Monitoring assignment and well focused and
and examinations were
marking has two major challenging to test
written in conducive
purposes both critical students’ abilities and
environments with
to aspects of quality knowledge. The ques
close invigilation and
assurance by facilitat tions were said to be
monitoring to guard
ing identification of demanding application
against any form of
variations in the mark of theory and reflection
cheating. As observed
ing practice and staff on one’s experiences at
by Regional Directors,
developing tutor mark the workplace, thereby
all those quality control
ers. Yates (1998) adds making students read
activities are facilitated
that tutors should mark widely, understand and
by decentralization of
assignments, provide prepare for examina
operations which has
tions. Reid and Robert-
92 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
been adopted by the
Zimbabwe Open Uni
versity.
The study found that
nationally centralized
marking was regard
ed as a very effec
tive quality assurance
and control measure
through coordination
and standardization of
marking guides as well
as supervision and
moderation of marked
scripts by team lead
ers. Centralised mark
ing is also supported
by CU UK (2000) who
points out that mark
ing is done by course
tutors centrally under
the supervision of a
marking coordinator.
Centralized marking
is viewed as important
as it offers an oppor
tunity for all markers
to attend and partici
pate in the coordina
tion exercise where
a sample of scripts is
considered and mark
ing standards are set.
The marking scheme
is also discussed and
modified as necessary.
In the Zimbabwe Open
University, markers are
drawn from both the re
gional and the national
centers.
Findings indicated that
marking of examina
tions was done at ap
propriate venues by
tutors selected nation-
DEASA-SADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
ally. Moderation by
external assessors
was also viewed as
another critical quality
assurance and control
measure which ZOU
should consider to do
systematically for all
programmes. Regional
Directors recommend
ed the involvement of
external assessors in
examinations regularly
Iro all programmes as
vital for ensuring and
promoting quality. The
CU UK (2000) goes
further to say external
assessment ensures
maintenance of appro
priate academic stan
dards through scruti
nizing coursework and
examination scripts.
Staff development
Staff development
through regular re
gional and national
workshops and semi
nars was viewed by
both staff and students
as a critical strategy
for quality assurance
and control. However,
tutor respondents felt
that these workshops
and seminars were
not adequate. Free
man, (1994) in Lusunzi
(1998) points out that
tutors need current
information related to
programme adminis
tration, learner charac
teristics and progress,
tutor competence and
feedback from stu
dents’ performance
provided by supervi
sors at workplaces.
Orientation workshops
for new tutors and stu
dents were regarded
as appropriate since
these were held be
fore launching new
programmes to expose
them to university, fac
ulty, departmental and
programme expecta
tions. The practice is
supported by CU UK
(2000) who point out
that although new staff
may have wide expe
rience and expertise
in teaching and adult
learning, they still re
quire orientation to be
able to appreciate open
learning. Regional Di
rectors indicated that
the university makes
available funds for
such workshops for all
regions. Regional staff
meetings held at least
twice a month and de
partmental regional
meetings at the start
and end of the semes
ter were also viewed as
a useful quality assur
ance and control tool.
The Regional Direc
tors also pointed out
that strategic planning
is crucial before the
launch of a programme
to ensure smooth and
effective delivery of op
erations when the pro
gramme is eventually
launched.
93
 Tutor and Regional
Director respondents
indicated that staff de
velopment was also ef
fected through univer
sity-sponsored contact
and observation visits
to other universities
locally, in the region
and at times interna
tionally. Participation in
academic conferences,
meetings and work
shops within and out
side Zimbabwe spon
sored by the university
were regarded as vital
for quality assurance.
It also emerged that
the university was en
couraging and spon
soring staff to improve
themselves academi
cally and profession
ally through postgradu
ate programmes which
it sponsored for most
cases. This is sup
ported by the CU UK
(2000) who indicated
that they encouraged
tutors to attend cours
es, conferences and
seminars hosted by
other institutions. The
study also noted that
members of staff within
ZOU could register for
university courses free
of charge.
Student tutor
evaluation
The study found out
that student tutor eval
uations were done reg
ularly both at regional
and national levels
94 DEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
and this was seen as
a very effective quality
assurance and control
measure. The exercise
was seen as vital for
enabling tutors to get
to know their strengths
and weaknesses there
by facilitating reflec
tion, introspection and
remediation. It was felt
that such evaluation is
conducive to effective
learning and tutoring
and encourages tutors
to come prepared for
tutorials.
Both tutors and students
were involved in course
evaluation as well to en
able them to articulate
their concerns. Fox,
(2001) points out that
evaluation needs to be
built into the everyday
structure in distance
education thinking and
planning of curricu
lum development and
teaching approaches.
Fox goes on to say:
If we are reflective
in our work, then
evaluation will be
an integral part of
our programme
because it enables
us to become
more focused
and informed
practitioners. (P4)
Evaluation instru
ments were seen as
very comprehensive,
Respondents viewed
detailed and objective
the university as hav
to facilitate expression
ing made great strides
of staff and student’s
honest opinions. A
further observation
by Fox (2001) is that
evaluation instruments
should be designed
in such a manner that
they provide diagnostic
feedback useful for im
proving teaching and
measuring teaching ef
fectiveness.
Staff also indicated that
the performance ap
praisal exercise con
ducted on full time staff
quarterly and monthly
progress reports sub
mitted to the national
centre were also criti
cal tools for effective
quality assurance and
control. The practice of
performance appraisal
is also supported by
CU UK (2000) who con
sider it to be an integral
part of career develop
ment as it involves re
views of performance
against set outcomes
for the previous year
and setting out objec
tives for the coming
year. The appraiser
and appraisee together
identify training needs
to determine the most
appropriate means of
development at the
workplace or through
formal training.
Resources
in securing bigger
and better regional of
fice accommodation
in most of the ten re
gional centers to facili
tate the smooth flow of
operations. Delivering
education to students
off the central campus
needs infrastructure
that is supportive of the
teaching and learning
environment. UNESCO
(1990) confirms that
many distance-teach
ing institutions con
sider a comprehensive
system of decentraliza
tion of operations as a
vital component of the
delivery of services.
Appointment of full-
time staff in regions
was regarded as criti
cal for effective and
efficient programme
management and co
ordination of part-time
staff. This is supported
by CU UK (2000) who
emphasise that the
quality of teaching is
dependent upon effec
tive functioning through
management and co
ordination of a range of
tasks.
Libraries at the regional
centers, were criticized
of thin stocks, but were
considered as having
recent and relevant
texts. Respondents felt
that the establishment
of resource centres in
the ZOU regional dis
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
tricts was a welcome materials is achieved
development although through contributions of
these needed to be ad all team members (CU
equately equipped with UK 2000). Throughout
necessary resources development and pro
especially books. With duction, the team mon
reference to CU UK itors, discusses and
Kirk (1979) observed revises draft course
district centres as vital material subjecting it to
for establishing a focus collective criticism and
and presence of the development.
university in rural and
isolated communities Weaknesses
thereby providing a lo
Respondents noted
cal contact for enrolled
that ZOU was grow
students. Although
ing at a fast pace. Re
the model of Open
spondents cited limited
and Distance Learn
resources as a seri
ing followed by ZOU
ous weakness which
is adopted from Open
presented a big mis
University UK, it may
match with the size of
not be easy to match
the enrolment. Lack of
the standards in terms
computer facilities for
of human and material
students, and a limited
resources as Zimba
number of this resource
bwe is still a develop
for staff emerged as a
ing country.
major weakness.
The team approach to
Delays in the process
materials production
ing and releasing of ex
was viewed as excel
amination results and
lent for the production
an inadequate commu
of quality modules and
nication system were
other learning materi
regarded as other ma
als. Both student and
jor weaknesses. Re
tutor respondents
gional Directors also
viewed ZOU modules
pointed out that servic
as of good quality and
es are over-stretched,
most of them were in
with officers in place
place before the launch
overworked and this
of new programmes.
tended to compromise
Team members bring
quality. Strategic plan
with them knowledge
ning and procurement
and expertise gained
of resources are criti
from being involved
cal to quality achieve
in teaching on the
ment of objectives.
ground. The outstand
When major changes
ing quality of course
are put in place and
95
resources reduced,
established quality as
surance processes can
appear to be at risk, or
improvements may be
achieved at a slower
pace than staff and
students would prefer
(CU UK 2000).
Communication be
tween central and re
gional centers with tu
tors and students was
viewed as unsatisfacto
ry yet it is a high priority
to ensure that the most
current information is
passed on. Dhanara
jan (1997) emphasizes
the need for increased
and flexible access to
information to enable
isolated learners usu
ally preoccupied with
other demands of living
to obtain information
on both academic and
administrative matters.
Dhanarajan goes on
to point out that good
quality practice rec
ognizes the need for
students to be well in
formed about courses
available to them.
Conclusions
The objective of the
study was to determine
strategies employed
by ZOU to assure and
control quality. It was
evident that the Zimba
bwe Open University
has put in place mea
sures to assure and
control quality in its
96 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
service delivery. Major
findings were that in
tutoring, highly quali
fied, experienced and
committed personnel
were appointed and
tutorials were of a high
standard. Assignments
were regarded as de
manding and adequate
in number and marking
was thoroughly and
professionally
done.
Item writing for exami
nations was viewed as
of good quality. Mark
ing of examinations
was centralized to fa
cilitate moderation and
external assessment.
Regional workshops,
seminars and meetings
were seen as crucial for
preparing and updating
staff on efficient ser
vice delivery. Howev
er, most respondents
felt that these were not
sufficient. Evaluation
of tutors by students
through comprehen
sive instruments was
cited as an effective
way of enhancing per
formance. Material
resources especially
computers and were
viewed as inadequate
and not matching the
rate at which the uni
versity is growing. Lack
of effective, adequate
and timeous commu
nication with both stu
dents and staff was
also highlighted as a
weakness that needed
attention.
Recommendations
Basing on the findings
and conclusions from
this study, it is recom
mended that:
More manpower
should be recruited
in the examination
section at both re
gional and national
levels for speedy
processing and
publishing of ex
amination results.
• More full-time staff
should be recruited
at regional level to
enhance efficient
and effective ser
vice delivery.
• More funds should
be made available
to the Zimbabwe
Open University
to enable this new
institution to in
crease its limited
resources.
• The establishment
of district centers in
all the ten regions
of the Zimbabwe
Open University
should be expe
dited. These will
need to be ad
equately equipped
with appropriate
resources.
• An appropriate
and effective com
munication system
needs to be put in
place to enhance
accessibility of
information by stu
dents from national
 and regional cen-
ters timeously.
• More workshops
should be mounted
for both part-
time and full time order to promote
academic staff at and ensure quality
national, regional, at all levels.
faculty and depart
mental levels in

oEAsA-sADc CDE International Journal of Open and Diatance Learning 97

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98 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

TEACHING MANAGEMENT AND
ACCOUNTING THROUGH OPEN AND
DISTANCE LEARNING MATERIALS: The case of
the Lesotho College of Education
Lineo Clementina Kolosoa
Abstract
This study was aimed at
investigating the quality
and readability of the
Management and Ac
counting modules at
the Lesotho College
of Education (LCE).
The study explored
the learners’ perspec
tive on the learning
materials’ quality and
readability in terms of
the easiness, clarity of
concepts, illustrations
and pictures, and the
time spent studying the
materials. A compre
hensive sample of 150
fourth year Distance
Teacher Education Pro
gramme (DTEP) learn
ers from the lowlands
districts of Maseru and
Berea were studied.
The data were col
lected through the use
of the questionnaire
and group discussions
with the respondents.
The findings reveal that
the majority of teacher-
learners found Manage
ment and Accounting
learning materials diffi
cult and were identified
as taking longer to com
plete than others. The
study recommends the
review of the present
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
— Lesotho College of Education
learning materials and ing because learners
mechanisms to allow are different and differ
more fact-to-face and in how they learn. For
counseling services to some students read
be built in the learner ing may not be a good
support system. way to learn, as differ
ent learners learn best
Introduction with different media
other than print. Media
In distance learning improves the learner’s
learners and instruc control of learning, dia
tors are separated geo logue, independence,
graphically almost all interactivity, acces
the times. For this rea sibility and individu
son and many others alization. Media can
the process of learn be used to facilitate
ing has to be medi learning in many ways:
ated to facilitate effec whether for creating
tive learning (Sauve, stimulus, attracting at
1994). Course media tention, guiding the
tion is an alternative learning, making an
media through which illustration, providing
the teaching-at- a- dis feedback, and enhanc
tance is presented. A ing retention and trans
wide variety of media fer of learned informa
can be used in learning tion (Sauve, 1994).
such as print materials, Even though print re
lectures, conferences, mains prime medium
tutors, videos, pictures, for distance educa
sound and computers tion, the course may
(Bork and Gunnars be mediated through
dotti, 2001). Course the radio and televi
mediation increases
sion broadcast, audio
the amount and the and video cassettes
level of interaction that are more appropri
between learner and ate for the provision of
learning materials, and greater interactivity in
in some instances pro the teaching and learn
vides more opportunity ing process (Bork and
for human interaction. Gunnarsdotti, 2001).
Media improves learn-
99
 Lesotho College of (HEC 104) with 46%, almost anything that
Education (LCE) intro Science (SCI 109) stores information can
duced a new Distance 43%, and Mathematics be a part of this pack
Teacher Education (MAT 108) 40%. The age. This package can
Programme (DTEP) in study does not capture be a single workbook, a
January 2002 with the why the learners have videotape or audiotape
aim of upgrading the these feelings about with a study guide. It
qualifications of the the study materials. may be a computer disc
unqualified and under However, it appears in or a practical kit togeth
qualified serving pri distance education that er with back-up notes.
mary school teachers. learners have such This package has an
Learning is achieved feelings on study ma important role to play
through guided self- terials if they are more in CDL. What makes
study of the specially challenging and more the CDL materials dif
written course materi difficult to read and un ferent and important
als, and supplemented derstand than others. from the resources that
by face-to-face interac There could be other teachers and trainers
tion with the tutors. In reasons why CMS 106 use in ordinary class
December 2002, 442 seems to be more de room teaching is that
learner-teachers were manding than other the package will have
studied in order to so courses, this study been designed with
licit baseline informa therefore was intended a specific purpose in
tion on the learner at to investigate the qual mind they are aimed
-

titudes and opinions ity and readability of at achieving learners’

on the programme. the learning materials specific objectives with
The findings revealed with special reference specific competences
that 16% of the learn to Management and for distance learners
ers found study ma Accounting study mod (Sparkes, 1993; Rown
terials easy, 33% of ules at LCE. tree, 1994).
them were undecided
to say whether they Open and distance Melton (2002) places
found materials easy learning materials the effectiveness of the
or difficult, while 51 % CDL study materials
of the learners found A definition of learn
ing materials for Open on the extend to which
the learning materials design strategies have
quite difficult (Jones, and Distance Learning
been incorporated in
2003). (ODL) as merely read
them. To design effec
ing texts is increasingly
becoming inaccurate. tive distance learning
In the same study, materials, it is of para
48% of the learners CDL materials are ma
mount importance to
showed that Manage terials put together in
understand how learn
ment and Accounting 1 such a way that users
can learn from them ing takes place and the
(CMS 106) course took factors that influence
longest of the 13 mod satisfactorily with less
help from a teacher the learning process.
ules to complete and According to Melton,
do the assignments. (Rowntree, 1990). As
strategies to be em
This was followed by Rowntree (1994) has
ployed in the design
Home Economics 1 pointed out, ODL ma
of the study materials
terials are a package;
100 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
are, firstly, they should
be structured in a logi
cal manner. The logical
framework here refers
to the learners’ ability
to recognise the rela
tionships between con
cepts and not feel too
entangled in a maze
of learning concepts at
any point in the learn
ing process. Learners
should be made aware
of the learning goals
and when such goals
should be achieved.
Secondly, the ODL
study materials should
be designed in such
a way that they make
use of a multimedia
approach to facilitate
learning. One appro
priate medium or a
combination of media
should be used with the
intention of enabling
learners to use all their
senses for maximum
teaching and learning.
Thirdly, the study ma
terial should include
enough activities and
projects to encourage
deep rather than sur
face learning in learn
ers (Melton, 2002). Hol
mberg (1960) in Jarvis
(1995) suggests that
ODL materials should
be “conversational and
almost two-way” with
comments that invite
dialogue through the
medium of the learn
er’s assignments and
the tutors’ comments.
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
In support to Melton
(2002), Carr et al.,
(2002) outline the fea
tures of high quality
distance education ma
terials, that the subject
matter must be correct,
inclusive of all elements
and at “the right level of
academic demand.” In
developing ODL ma
terials more attention
should be given to the
pedagogical aspects of
distance learning how-
teaching and learning
takes place in distance
learning.Well-designed
self-instructional ma
terials are developed
differently in style and
structure from other
texts such as lecture
notes and journal ar
ticles in that they must
clearly state aims and
objectives, and include
a wide range of access
devices such as course
guides, advance or
ganizers, self-assess
ment tests, clear and
consistent headings
and sub headings,
summaries, glossaries
and many other strate
gies that make individ
ual learning possible
(Carr et al., (2002). Is-
man et al., (2004) on
the other hand identify
12 general principles
to be incorporated in
the design of distance
education materials as
highlighted in Moore
and Kearsely (1996)
as; 1- good structure,
2- clear objectives, 3-
small units, 4-planned
participation, 5-com
pleteness, 6- repeti
tion, 7- synthesis, 8-
stimulation, 9- variety,
10- open-ended, 11-
feedback, and 12-con
tinuous evaluation.
According to Gough
(1980) in Timmers
(1990), the character
istics of an effective
distance education
system should include,
inter alia, the use of
specialized education
al techniques in devel
oping learning experi
ences, writing self-in
structional materials
and designing suitable
teaching strategies
that make learning ad
equately available to
learners. The system
should produce learn
ing materials published
in pedagogically sound
and attractive format
using various appropri
ate media. The orga
nization must have an
efficient course deliv
ery system in its widest
sense, including the
development of an ef
fective support system
to meet the needs of
learners at a distance
both pre-enrolment
and post-enrolment
(Timmers, 1990).
Research
questions
Specifically the study
101
 addressed the follow theories and prac the Lesotho College of
ing questions: tices in distance Education. The sample
• What are learn learning. consisted of all the
ers perceptions • To recommend 150 fourth year DTEP
of the quality and possible interven learners in the Low
readability of the tion mechanisms lands region of Maseru.
Management and that could be built This region is made of
Accounting study in the design of two districts of Maseru
materials? the Management and Berea, which con
• How useful do and Accounting sist of six clusters. The
the learners find learning materials sample was distributed
words, illustrations to improve on the in these clusters as fol
and activities used learners ability to lows: Maseru Central
in the study materi study the materi (29 learners or 20%),
als to their learning als. Morija and Mantsebo
of the subject? (28 learners or 19%),
Research St Michaels and Ra
Objectives of methodology mabanta (26 learners
the study or 17%), Semonkong
Research design (20 learners or 13%),
The purpose of the In this study both quan Teyateyaneng and
study was to investi titative and qualitative Sefikeng (27 learners
gate the quality and methods were used. or 18%) and Bela-bela
readability of the Man Quantitative research and Mapoteng (20
agement and Account approach was em learners or 13%). Even
ing study materials at ployed to test data ac though Maseru and
the Lesotho College of curately in order to get Berea are termed low
Education. The specific results that assisted to land districts, the sites
objectives of the study explain and predict the of Mapoteng, Sefikeng
were as follows: quality and readability and Ramabanta lie
• To explore learner of Management and in the foothills region
attitudes and opin Accounting study ma while Semonkong is a
ions on the learn terials, whereas quali highland site.
ing materials qual tative research method
ity and readability helped in producing A survey approach
in terms of easi insightful knowledge was employed for this
ness of interaction, on how the Manage study and compre
helpfulness of in ment and Accounting hensive sampling was
formation, practical study materials can be viewed as appropri
activities and gen improved for effective ate in the selection of
eral presentation of learning. the sample. All the 4th
information. year teacher- learners
• To examine the na Population and of the Maseru region
ture of the subject, sample (150) were engaged
especially the ac in the study. The re
counting part of the The population of the spondents seemed
reading materials, study was 1742 DTEP to be knowledgeable
in relation to the teacher-learners at and informative in
102 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
terms of experience,
background and geo
graphic location to give
a broader view of the
problem investigated.
The sampling method
benefited the research
in that the sample was
manageable and yet
diverse enough that
there was variation in
the data collected a
recommended by Mc
Millan and Schumach
er (2001).
Data collection
instruments
Multimethod strategies
were used to collect
data in this study. Dif
ferent data collection
techniques were used
in this study to allow the
researcher to compare
different sources, situ
ations and methods to
see whether the same
pattern keeps on re
curring (McMillan and
Schumacher, 2001).
Out of the 150 subjects
studied 110 filled the
questionnaire. A self-
administered ques
tionnaire was used to
enlist information from
learners. The question
naire consisted of 20
items. A questionnaire
was chosen for this
study because it is the
quickest and relatively
economical means of
collecting factual infor
mation by asking the
same questions to all
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
subjects. The question
naire was also used to
obtain information that
could not be easily ob
served such as when
opinions, beliefs and
perceptions are desired
and to enlist data from
informants that could
not be interviewed
personally because of
distance or time con
straints (Charles, 1995,
Remenyi et at., 1995).
The questionnaire was
field tested using LCE
staff and twenty year
2 and 3 DTEP learners
from Morija and Mant
sebo cluster to ensure
its validity and reliabil
ity. The responses on
the field test assisted
the researcher to clarify
the questions, and re
fine the final question
nai re.
Group discussions
Group discussions
were conducted in all
the six clusters. Group
discussions were used
in this study as an al
ternative to in-depth
interviews that could
not be practical for the
researcher to engage
in. The researcher
became the facilitator
of discussions, rather
than interviewer (Tice
hurst and Veal, 2000).
Module readability
In order to measure
the module readabil
ity, Gunning Fog Index
and Complexity Quo
tient were conducted
on four Management
and Accounting study
materials. Rowntree
(1990 and 1994) de
scribe fog index and
complexity quotient as
measures that judge
the “fogginess” or “the
readability of a piece of
writing”. The readabil
ity tests usually predict
how difficult the learn
ers are likely to find the
study material (Hodg
son, 1993). For the
material to be readable
its fog index should not
exceed 12, while com
plexity quotient should
not exceed 3. Para
graphs were selected
at random from mod
ules 1,2,3 and 4 and
Gunning Fog index
was calculated. Com
plexity Quotient was
calculated from Mod
ule 1, unit 10 page 162;
Module 2, unit 9 page
140; Module 3, unit 10
page 157 and Module
4 unit 10 page 134.
Data analysis
In analyzing data in this
research study, refer
ence was made to the
objectives of the study
and research ques
tions. Data collected
through the calcula
tions of Gunning Fog
Index and Complexity
Quotient on the Man
agement and Account-
103
 ing modules 1 to 4 were
analyzed mathemati
cally through the use
of one-way chi-square
(X2) to test the overall
readability. While qual
itative data from group
discussions were di
vided into themes. The
frequencies of each
theme found were tab
ulated, quantified and
expressed into per
centages.
Findings
The study revealed that
the majority of DTEP
learners were married
(74%), females (76%),
aged between 26 and
45 years (91%) and
had one or two children
(54%). Most of them did
not have any teaching
qualification before they
joined DTEP but were
teaching with Cam
bridge Overseas Cer
tificate (COSC) (75%).
They were employed
on permanent contracts
(72%) with the teach
ing experience rang
ing from 4 to 10 years
(70%). They lived at
least 10 km away from
the study centres. They
studied at home (75%)
and needed more than
2 hours of study per
week (91%). It took
them 1 to 5 hours of
travel to work per week
(72%).
Learners were asked
to indicate the modules
that took them lon
gest to complete and
answer assignments.
The top five modules
that took students
longest to study and
complete assignments
were Management and
Accounting (63%), So
cial and Development
Studies (54%), Mathe
matics (46%), Science
(30%) and Education
(25%) respectively.

Table 1: Learners’ views of the management and accounting study materials

Views Frequencies Percentage
(n=11O)
Modules
Easy 44 40
Difficult 66 60
Difficult words used in modules 81 74
Concepts presented poorly 8 10
Concepts presented clearly 102 90
Illustrations and pictures useful 98 89
Illustrations and pictures not useful 12 11
Assignments

Clear and simple 34 41

Complicated and not clear 76 69
Words used to describe assignments simple 29 26
Time spent studying

104 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

 • Views Frequencies Percentage
(n=11O)

Less time is taken to study the material 11 10

Much time is taken to study the material 99 90

Table 1 above shows that learners found the Management and Accounting
course materials (modules) difficult (60%) even though most learners felt that
concepts were presented clearly (90%). The majority of the learners found
assignments complicated and not clear (69%). They also felt that the words
used to describe activities in the modules were difficult (74%). Learners found
pictures and illustrations used in the study materials useful in understanding
the materials (89%). Even though they found concepts clearly presented in
the modules (90%), it took many of them more time to read the materials and
do activities (90%).

Table 2: Views of learners on how the ability to learn from the management and
accounting modules should be improved
Themes No. %

Simplify modules and indicate glossary 37 34

More examples 27 25
Hire and train more qualified subject tutors 33 30
More time for revision / workshops /tutorials / practi- 68 62
cal activities

Supplement modules with radio! audio taped lessons 22 20

Distribute modules and assignments on time 25 23

Table 2 shows the views of the learners on how the modules could be im
proved. In order to improve on their ability to study the modules, most learn
ers felt that they needed more time for revision, workshops and practical
activities (62%), while others wanted modules simplified (34%) and more
qualified and trained tutors hired (30%).

Table 3: Gunning Fog Index calculated on management and accounting study

materials
Materials Fog Index (0 — E) (0 — 2
E) (0 — 2
E)
Index expect- E
ob- ed
served

CMS 106 25.20 12 13.20 174.24 14.52

CMS 208 20.60 12 8.60 73.96 6.16

DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 105

 CMS 308 12.12 12
[ 0.12 0.01 0.08
CMS 408

Chi squareX
2
12.32
J L0.32 0.10 0.01

20.77
1’ > U.Ub, aT = , UrIU( ai x= IbiD

Table 4: Complexity quotient calculated on management and accounting study

materials
Materials Quotient Quotient (0 — E) (0 — 2
E) (Q.EIT
Observed Expected E
CMS 106 4.8 3 1.8 3.24 1.08
CMS 208 7 3 4 16 5.33
CMS 308 6.17 3 3.17 10.05 3.35
CMS 408 12.32 3 9.32 86.86 28.96
Chi square = 2
X 38.71
P >0.05, df = 2, Critical X
2 = 7.815

Tables 3 and 4 show concluded that the ma asked. Some learn

calculations of one- terials took longest for ers believed that some
way chi-square (X )
2 the learners to study subject tutors did not
goodness-of-fit test and respond to the as seem to know enough
on the Gunning Fog signments because the subject matter to as
index scores and the writers used complicat sist in answering the
Complexity Quotient ed and long words. assignments. The fol
scores respectively as lowing were the views
calculated on study Findings from of the learners on how
materials. The X2 ob group discussions the Management and
served is 20.77 for Accounting modules
Fog index scores and According to the learn
could be improved:
2 observed is 38.71
X ers who participated in
the discussion groups, Modules should
for complexity quotient be distributed dur
scores. Since both X they spent more time
2 ing the on campus
observed
than is usual reading
exceeds session and to
X critical (7.815) for
2 the Management and
Accounting study ma everybody at the
both measures, the same time. No
scores show the con terials in order to be
able to do their assign sites should be
fidence level of 95% given preferential
and strongly support ments. They felt this
was because the study treatment on the
the opinions of the re timing and distribu
spondents interviews materials were not
very clear and some tion of modules.
that Management and Modules were dif
Accounting study ma times posttest activi
ties were not relevant ficult and should be
terials were difficult. simplified.
It could therefore be to the assignments

106 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

 • Audiotapes, radio als at the Lesotho Col
programmes or lege of Education. The
videotapes should study revealed that
supplement mod 74% of the learners
ules so that learn were married females
ers could listen to with the responsibility
them at own times of at least two children.
to clarify what the Before enrolling on the
tutors taught. programme, 75% of the
• Modules should learners had no teach
be checked before ing qualification other
distribution to cor than Cambridge Over
rect grammar and seas School Certificate
spelling, check (COSC). Due to lack of
missing pages, uni infrastructural resourc
formity of ink and es, learners travelled
font on the printing. at least 10km from
home to schools which
• Moderation of
were used as study
tutor-marked as
centres henceu few
signments was
(25%) used them while
important since
many (75%) preferred
there was a lack
to study at home. The
of uniformity from
majority of them (91 %)
different sites and
studied for less than 2
tutors. Uniformity in
hours per week.
the marking of as
signments could be
According to the study,
maintained if there
60% of the learners
were similar mark
found CMS study ma
ing guides for dif
terials difficult and as
ferent sites. Tutors
signments complicated
should discuss the
and not clear (90%).
assignments and
Ninety per cent of the
marking guides
learners took more
together to ensure
time to study the mate
common under
rials and do the assign
standing before
ments. After 4 years in
grading.
the programme, learn
ers still ranked CMS
Discussion
modules, as the mate
As indicated earlier, rials that took longest
the main purpose of to study (Jones, 2003).
this study was to inves The readability tests
tigate the quality and calculated on the ma
the readability of the terials confirmed that
Management and Ac the materials were diffi
counting study materi cult with long and corn-
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
plicated words. On all
pages of the modules
studied, Fog Index ob
served is higher than
the expected index of
12, while the Complex
ity quotient observed
is higher than the ex
pected quotient of 3.
The overall chi-square
(X2) observed 20.77
and 38.71 respectively
(cf. Table 3 and 4). It
could be concluded
therefore that learners
found learning materi
als difficult as a result
they were unable to
recognize the relation
ship between concepts
and practice and as
such their learning
objectives were not
achieved. In order to
meet the quality crite
ria of ODL materials,
they should incorpo
rate multimedia ap
proach, as suggested
by the 20% of the re
spondents (cf. Table
2). Respondents insist
that Management and
Accounting modules
should be simplified
and glossary should be
included.
Inferred in the findings
of this study were the
critical features that are
brought about by the
nature of the subject
and the principles that
determine the teach
ing and learning of ac
counting. According to
Wild (2000) in learning
107
 accounting one studies tion demonstration to
- method be employed
a lot of principles, con illustrate procedures
cepts, procedures and and systems, while
analysis. Wild explains facts and concepts
accounting as a practi can be taught through
cal subject that requires expository methods
many illustrations and such as explanation.
examples to clarify Demonstration com
complex concepts. bined with explanation
Bisschoft et al. (1992) allow learners to see
perceive accounting application of correct
as a “systematic sub procedures and hear
ject, subject to strict the information needed
discipline.” Research to guide their study
indicates that students and application. They
learn accounting better discourage teach
when they are actively ing methods such as
involved in the learning textbook and lecture
through concentrated methods as they do
drill and practice; the not cater for learners’
learning of the subject individual differences
is stimulated when a and do not engage
learner is provided learners actively in
with a variety of ma their learning. The im
terials, media and in plication here is that
structional techniques. DCL materials should
Because accounting is be prepared bearing
a procedural subject, in mind these learning
learning is facilitated principles. They must
through modeling and accommodate the fea
verbalization of the tures of step-by-step
procedures followed by demonstration method
immediate provision of to avoid giving learn
feedback (Bisschoff et ers the knowledge that
al., 1992). is often disconnected
from the features that
Due to the nature of make it understand
the subject, Bisschoff able and meaningful.
et al., (1992) recom If study materials are
mend teaching meth the collection of les
ods that provide more sons, fl planning for
exemplification and a lesson the facilita
practice to stimulate tor should always ask
interest and initiative. the question, for what
They recommend such learning objectives and
teaching methods as a for which learners and
combination of demon under what learning
stration and explana conditions should any
108 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
or which combination
of instructional tech
niques.
In agreement with
Bisschoff et al., (1992)
and Melton (2002) the
respondents (cf.Table
2) recommended that
more examples should
be included in the mod
ules, more revision les
sons, workshops and
tutorials were needed
to provide them with
enough practice to
enhance learning.
They felt that modules
should be supplement
ed with radio and or
audio taped lessons,
which implied that
there should be a con
nection between the
figures in the modules
in terms of what they
see and explanations
of the concepts to allow
real life application and
understandability. In
support Melton (2002)
believes that for DCL
study materials to pro
vide effective learning,
they must be designed
in such a way that they
make use of a multi
media approach. The
step-by-step demon
stration of what actu
ally takes place could
be provided by the in
clusion of the glossary
that 34% of the learn
ers believe could make
the Management and
Accounting modules
easier. Table 1 sup-
ports the importance
of illustrations and pic-
tures in the learning of
the subject as 89% of
the learners found il-
lustrations and pictures
useful in their learning,
Recommendations
Taking into consider-
ations the findings of
the study, it is recom-
mended that LCE:
Engages in con
tinuous review of
the learning mate-
rials so that their
quality and read-
ability can be as-
sured and to make
them easier to
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
study. Specifically
simplify materials
by the inclusion
of glossary, more
examples and illus-
trations. Incorpo-
rate quality control
measures during
the production of
self-instructional • Built in more learn-
materials. The par-
ticular advantage
of self-instructional
materials is that
they enable learn-
ers to choose their
own time and place
of study.
• Integrate other • Increase on the
learning technolo-
gies such as video
cassettes, audio-
cassette tapes and
radio programmes
to provide demon
strations and illus
trations to supple-
ment practically
oriented Manage-
ment and Account-
ing study materials.
er support mecha
nisms that provide
more face-to-face
and counseling
services, more
time for tutorials
and revision ses
sions.
capacity of the
part-time subject
tutors.
109
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ABOUT THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN
DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY Centre for
Distance Education (SADC-CDE)
I Thutoetsile,
Southern African Development Community Centre for Distance Education
The Southern Afri
can Development
Community - Centre
for Distance Educa
tion was created by
the Southern Africa
Development Com
munity (SADC) Minis
ters for Education and
the Commonwealth
of Learning (CCL) in
2005 to undertake
and promote training
and development in
Open Distance Learn
ing (CDL), engage in
and support systemic
research activities in
CDL, provide qual
ity distance education
and increase the provi
sion of quality distance
education in Southern
Africa. The specific ob
jectives of the Centre
are to;
identify and meet
the education and
training needs of
different profes
sional groups with
in Southern Africa
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
-
-
• build and maintain • engage in and col
a resource base laborate with other
on CDL with up- institutions within
to-date information the region and in
regarding training ternationally in staff
materials, pro development, train
grammes, courses ing and systemic
and related ma research activities
terials, research in open and dis
documents, local tance learning;
experts and con • actively seek op
sultants in specific portunities for
areas working in CDL
• develop training projects and con
strategies and sultancies with a
provide training view to generating
for different target revenue for the
groups within min sustainability of
istries of education, the Centre;
institutions and • serve as a centre
agencies in South of expertise in CDL
ern Africa for Southern Africa
• develop plans and
strategies for sys SADC CDE has un
—
temic research and dertaken several activi
disseminate the ties since its establish
relevant informa ment. Find below a
tion and findings table that summarises
through journals, the activities undertak
newsletters and en from 2005 to date;
other available
means
111
 SADC — CDE UNDERTAKEN PROJECTS (Since June 2005 to Date)

PROJECTS TARGET GROUP DATE NO. of IMPACT

UNDERTAKEN PAX
Situational ODL institutions July—De- 27 institu- The Centre is well
Assessment in SADC Member cember tions known. Collabora
States 2005 tion within the coun
March & 8 institu- tries and outside
May 2006 tions has improved.
ODL Associations
—formed e.g. Ma
lawi. Consultative
meeting in Zambia
aimed at forming an
ODL association in
the country
2 Facilitation of ISPU and UNISA UNISA met with
Collaboration ISPU, a Mozambi
on Material can institution, with
Development a view to arrange
(Sharing) for ISPU to offer
UNISA courses to
Mozambicans in
Portuguese.
3 1 SADC SADC CDE Advi-
— December Botswana, The legitimacy of
— CDE Advi- sory Board 2005 COL, the Centre was
sory Board Lesotho, underscored as its
Meeting Zambia recognition started
Swaziland, from the meeting
SADC
Secretariat
4 Policy Devel- 2 participants each January to 6 out of An ODL Policy is
opment On from Lesotho, May 2006 eleven being developed in
line Course Malawi, Tanzania, par- Lesotho and there
Zambia, Zimbabwe ticipants is a draft policy in
& 1 from Botswana Continued Zambia
up to the
end.
5 SADC CDE
— SADC CDE Advi-
— 25 Janu- Botswana, Acceptance of the
Advisory sory Board ary 2006 CCL, Centre as a SADC
Board Emer- Lesotho, organ in March by
gency Meet- Zambia, the SADC Ministers
ing Swaziland, of Higher Education
SADC
Secretariat

112 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

 PROJECTS TARGET GROUP DATE NO. of IMPACT
UNDERTAKEN PAX

6 Copyright BOCODOL, NAM- November 4 par- The four are now

Workshop COL, UNISA, OUT 2005 ticipants trainers in IP and
(Kampala, & DODE (sent to copyright, e.g. they
Uganda) Kampala) resourced in the
Centre’s IP and
Copyright workshop
in Pretoria. They
have also produced
draft copyright poli
cies in the different
institutions.
7 Copyright All member states 27 Febru- 16 (Only The Draft IP report
Workshop in except Angola & ary to Malawi, produced, is being
Pretoria, RSA DRC 3 March Mauritius used by Distance
(UNISA) (Language) 2006 & Swa- Education Asso
ziland ciation of Southern
failed) Africa to inform
its operations e.g.
sharing of Library
materials

8 Research Materials develop- 15 19

— 22 from; From the 2 work-
and Publica- ers, learner sup- May 2006 Botswana, shops, 15 articles
tion Capac- port personnel, Namibia, have been pro
ity Building management and Malawi, duced. These are
Workshop finance officials Zambia being reviewed
#1 in Lusaka, and Zim- and about ten will
Zambia babwe be published in a
journal.

9 Hosting Open All member states 4—5 July 21 The Centre is now a
Schooling —institutions with 2006 coordinating body
Consortium open schooling for the open school
ing consortium
10 Research Materials Devel- Septem- 20 from; As a result of the 2
and Publica- opers, Learner ber 2006 Botswana, workshops The Cen
tion Capac- support personnel, Namibia, tre has been identi
ity Building management and Lesotho, fied as the training
Workshop #2 finance officials Zambia, arm of DEASA
in Windhoek,
Namibia

11 Drafting of n/a October n/a n/a

technical 2006
specification
for the Fi
nance in CDL
course

DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 113

 PROJECTS TARGET GROUP DATE NO. of IMPACT
UNDERTAKEN PAX
12 Invitation for All DEASA member December 12 ODL n/a
bids to design institutions 30th 2006 institu
and develop tions
the Finance in
ODL course

13 Formation Library personnel, January n/a SADC-CDE is host-

of critical ODL practitioners, 2007 ing and coordinating
partnerships researchers, law- the business of
- registration yers, governments, AA2KAT
of AA2KAT a — publishers
pan African
organisation
aimed at pro
moting open
source and
relaxed copy
right laws that
will enable the
growth of the
public domain

14 First Interim Interim Board of 1 March 10 Some draft project

Board Meet- Trustees 2007 proposals have
ing been drawn, e.g. a
conference is cur
rently being planned
for October 2007 by
AA2KAT and SARUA
15 3 SADC-CDE DEASA, Lesotho. 9 March 10 Strategic decisions
Advisory Swaziland, Bo- 2007 have been taken that
Board Meet- tswana, UNESCO, will further advance
ing Zambia, SADC the impact of SADC
Secretariat, COL, CDE
and SADC-CDE
16 Drafting of SADC Secretariat June 2007 - SADC SADC CDE servic
—

an MoO with and member states — CDE ing SADC Secre

—

SADC Secre- Board tariat professional

tariat members, ODL needs
- SADC
—CDE
Seniors
officials,
-SADC
Senior
Officials,
-SADC
Education
Ministers
114 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
 PROJECTS TARGET GROUP DATE NO. of IMPACT
UNDERTAKEN PAJ(

17 Supporting in All stakeholders in 2-3 April 30 Inter institu

country Zam- ODL; Universities, 2007 tional collaboration
bia Initiative colleges of educa- started.
- Consultative tion, elecommuni- working towards a
workshop on cations Authority, wider national con-
the revival or Ministry of Science sultative workshop
formation of and Technology, where a national
the Zambia Ministry of Educa- ODL association
National ODL tion will be formed and
Association its first committee
elected

18 Conducting DOMASI, Malawi 18—22 Participants

ODL materials College of Distance June 2007 acquired materials
development Education, Mzuzu development skills
workshop for university and Mm- which they are using
Malawi istry of Education to develop quality
learning materials
which will in turn
help learners to
study and pass
their examination
in greater numbers.
This has the
potential to decrease
drop out rates and
increase through
put rates of ODL
institutions.

19 Conducting an Ministry of Educa- 25—30 Lesotho is on

ODL Policy tion, Lesotho Dis- June 2007 course towards the
Development tance Teaching development of a
workshop Centre, National policy framework
University of Leso- that will guide ODL
tho and Institute for practice in the
Extra Mural Studies country to improve
access to quality
education which will
improve the liveli
hoods of many who
would otherwise be
left out of the educa
tion system

DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning 115

 PROJECTS TARGET GROUP DATE NO. ot IMPACT
UNDERTAKEN PAX
20 SADC ODE
— Malawi 0DL The cours- 40 people The impact will
secured 40 institution(s), es com- be measured after
Masters Zambian ODL mence in the beneficiaries
degrees institution(s), Leso- January complete the pro-
scholarships tho ODL institution 2008 gramme.
tenable at and BOCODOL in
Indira Ghandi Botswana
Open Univer
sity (IGNOU)
for capacity
building in
SADC ODL
institutions

21 Joint devel- The Government From n/a No impact yet as

opment and of Finland, Hewlett 2006 - no project has been
submission Foundation, Ford 2007 undertaken to date.
of funding Foundation,
proposals Canadian Interna
for the Open tional Development
Schooling Agency (CIDA),
Consortium UBS Optimus
with Mindset Foundation, Aga
Livelihoods Khan Foundation,
Open Society Initia
tive for Southern
Africa (OSISA),
W.K. Kellogg Foun
dation, Gary Player
Foundation, US
Africa Development
Fund, Bill and Me
lida Gates Founda
tion, South African
Development Fund,
The shuttleworth
Foundation

SADC CDE in collaboration with DEASA is working on developing some

—

criteria that would be used to define best practice in various aspects of ODL
in the context of Southern Africa. Such criteria would be circulated widely in
SADC ODL institutions with a view to improve the quality of ODL provision in
SADC member states.

116 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning

DEASA$ADC CDE International Journal of
-
Open and Distance Learning
NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS
The DEASA-SADC CDE
International Journal
of Distance Education
is an annual refereed
journal of DEASA mem
ber institutions. It main
ly publishes articles on
distance education and
also accepts papers in
other related areas as
well as book reviews.
Manuscripts will be
seen anonymously by
two referees.
Manuscript
submission
Manuscripts should
be submitted in elec
tronic form in MS Word
to the Editor-in-Chief
(chimedza @ ecoweb.
co.zw or chimedza@
zou.ac.zw) copied to
the Director SADC CDE
(tthuthoetsile@ bocodol.
ac.bw). Where this is
not possible contribu
tors can send three cop
ies of their hard copy
manuscripts by courier
mail to Professor Rob
ert Chimedza, Zimba
bwe Open University,
1h
7
Floor Stanley House,
Jason Moyo Avenue,
P.O. Box MP 1119, Ha-
rare, Zimbabwe.
DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
Format:
Manuscripts should ide
ally be between 3000
and 7000 words includ
ing the list of references.
The first page should
contain the title and the
details of the author/s
thus name, affiliation,
address, e-mail, phone
number and fax num
ber. The second page
is the abstract page.
It should have the title
of the manuscript at
the top followed by an
abstract of between
100 and 200 words
maximum. This is a sum
mary of the manuscript
and should cover the
objectives, main points,
methodology, findings
and conclusions as ap
propriate to the paper.
The third page, which is
the first page of the man
uscript, should have the
title at the top follow by
the abstract and then
the main contents of the
paper. The title should
be in bold and the man
uscript should be typed
in Times New Roman
in size 12 font and all
pages should be num
bered. Details about the
author/s should not ap
pear on this page.
References:
The journal makes use
of the American Psy
chology Association
(APA) Manual writing
style 5
th
Edition or as
updated.
Proofs:
Authors shall normally
receive edited proofs
before publication to
confirm and approve
the final version of their
manuscript with editori
al input. However, this
step may be omitted in
case of delays in the
processes.
Copyright:
It is a condition of pub
lication in this journal
that authors vest copy
right in the Distance
Education Association
of Southern Africa and
the Southern Africa
Centre for Distance
Education. However
authors are free to
use their material else
where after the publi
cation without seeking
permission from the
journal provided they
acknowledge the copy
right holder as the first
publisher.
117
 CONTRIBUTORS
Auxilia Badza is a of Open and Distance
Senior Lecturer and Learning
Chairperson in the
Department of Special Regina Kegopotswe
Education at the Zim Masalela is an instruc
babwe Open Univer tional designer and
sity. Programmes Coordi
nator in the Department
David Chakuchichi is of Distance Education
Senior Lecturer, Direc - Center for Continuing
tor and Assistant to the Education at the Uni
Pro Vice Chancellor versity of Botswana.
Academic at the Zim She coordinates the
babwe Open design, development
and evaluation of dis
Trudie Frindt is Senior tance learning pro
Lecturer and Head grams in Education
of the Department of
Continuing Education Ndaba J. Ncube is Se
at the University of Na nior Lecturer and Re
mibia. gional Director of the
Bulawayo Region of
Louise Mostert is a the Zimbabwe Open
Lecturer at the Univer University
sity of Namibia
Stanslaus Modesto
Godson Gatsha is the Tichapondwa is Head
Regional Manager of of Department, School
the Kang Region of of Business Studies,
the Botswana College Botswana College of
118 DEASA-SADC CDE International Journal of Open and Distance Learning
Open Learning.
Grace T. Mukeredzi is
Senior Lecturer in the
Department of Educa
tion and Regional Pro
gramme Coordinator of
Education in Masvingo
Region of the Zimba
bwe Open University
Tsitsi G. Ndamba is
Lecturer at Great Zim
babwe University
Lineo Kolosoa is Lec
turer of Management
and Accounting in
the Distance Teacher
Education Programme
at Lesotho College of
Education.
Thulaganyo Thutoet
sue is Director of the
Southern Africa De
velopment Community
Centre for Distance
Education
• • • •

© DEASA-SADC CDE