Increasing transformational

leadership through enhancing

self-efcacy
Susan Fitzgerald and Nicola S. Schutte
University of New England, Armidale, Australia
Abstract
Purpose The present study aims to examine whether an intervention designed to increase
self-efcacy for transformational leadership results in more transformational leadership self-efcacy
and a higher level of transformational leadership. In previous research higher levels of emotional
intelligence have been found to be associated with more transformational leadership; thus the present
study also seeks to examine whether higher emotional intelligence makes individuals more receptive
to self-efcacy-based leadership training.
Design/methodology/approach The study used an experimental design. Participants were
randomly assigned to either a self-efcacy expressive writing condition or a control writing condition.
Participants were 118 managers who completed measures of self-efcacy, transformational leadership
and emotional intelligence at the start of the study and again completed measures of self-efcacy, and
transformational leadership after the intervention.
Findings Managers in the intervention condition showed signicantly greater transformational
leadership self-efcacy and higher transformational leadership scores than the control group
managers at post-test. Further, those higher in emotional intelligence were more responsive to the
intervention.
Practical implications The intervention holds promise as a low cost and easy to implement
method of facilitating development of transformational leadership.
Originality/value The nding that an intervention aimed at increasing self-efcacy can increase
transformational leadership extends previous research on both self-efcacy and transformational
leadership. This result suggests that leadership self-efcacy may be an important component of
transformational leadership. The nding that individuals higher in emotional intelligence beneted most
from the intervention extends previous ndings regarding the importance of emotional intelligence in
organisational settings. Emotional intelligence may facilitate individuals openness to change.
Keywords Transformational leadership, Creative writing, Emotional intelligence
Paper type Research paper
Transformational leadership, a motivational leadership style which involves
presenting a clear organisational vision and inspiring employees to work towards
this vision through establishing connections with employees, understanding
employees needs, and helping employees reach their potential, contributes to good
outcomes for an organisation. Adaptive emotional functioning, dened as emotional
intelligence, may be a foundation for the development of transformational leadership,
making individuals more receptive to development of this leadership style.
Self-efcacy is the belief that one can successfully show a set of behaviours in order
to bring about a good outcome. Self-efcacy for showing transformational leadership
characteristics may be a vehicle for increasing transformational leadership and may
interact with emotional intelligence in bringing about positive outcomes.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0262-1711.htm
Transformational
leadership
495
Received 10 May 2009
Revised 25 November 2009
Accepted 25 November 2009
Journal of Management Development
Vol. 29 No. 5, 2010
pp. 495-505
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
0262-1711
DOI 10.1108/02621711011039240
Transformational leadership
Transformational leadership motivates and inspires employees by raising their
awareness of the value of the tasks they perform and the importance of organisational
goals, and by drawing on employees intrinsic needs (Bass, 1998). Transformational
leadership is based on the connections between leaders and other employees; an
effective transformational leader understands the needs and motivations of others and
tries to help them reach their full potential (Bass and Avolio, 1994). Podsakoff et al.
(1990) identied the following six key transformational leadership characteristics:
(1) Identifying and articulating a vision.
(2) Providing an appropriate model.
(3) Fostering the acceptance of group goals.
(4) Communicating high performance expectations.
(5) Providing individualised support.
(6) High levels of charisma.
Research indicates that transformational leadership is an asset to organisations (Bass
and Riggio, 2005). Organisations with transformational leadership cultures tend to be
more effective, for example by being better able to adapt to change (Bass and Riggio,
2005). Transformational leadership is related to employees perceptions of
effectiveness of a leader and satisfaction with a leader (Bass and Riggio, 2005),
enhanced motivation (Yukl, 1998), greater effort, better job performance and greater
job satisfaction (Bryman, 1992; Howell and Frost, 1989; Lowe et al., 1996), greater
innovative work behaviour (Reuvers et al., 2008) and greater involvement with a work
team (Savic and Pagon, 2008).
Emotional intelligence
Mandell and Pherwani (2003) found that more adaptive emotional functioning,
operationalised as emotional intelligence, predicted a higher level of transformational
leadership. It may be that emotional intelligence provides a foundation on which
transformational leadership behaviours can build.
The four-branch model of emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 2004) proposes that
emotional intelligence consists of the interrelated functions of:
(1) perception of emotion in the self and others;
(2) using emotion to facilitate decision making;
(3) understanding emotion in the self and others; and
(4) managing emotion in the self and others.
Other models of emotional intelligence, such as the one developed by Bar-On (2000),
propose a broader conceptualisation that includes basic emotional functions as well as
characteristics, such as good interpersonal relationships and stress tolerance, that may
arise from effective emotional functioning. The components identied as comprising
emotional intelligence within the major models have tended to group together, such
that individuals who score high on one component also score high on the other
components (Mayer et al., 2004; Schutte et al., 1998), suggesting that emotional
intelligence consists of integrated functions. Emotional intelligence has been dened
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and measured both an ability (Mayer et al., 2004), similar to cognitive intelligence, and
as a trait (Neubauer and Freudenthaler, 2005; Petrides and Furnham, 2003).
Claims that emotional intelligence may be the most important predictor of career
success (Goleman, 1997) have captured the attention of the corporate sector. While
some of these claims may be exaggerated (Mayer et al., 2000), ndings that emotional
intelligence can predict aspects of work performance have inuenced the business
world (Cherniss and Goleman, 2001).
Self-efcacy
Self-efcacy is the cognitive process by which a person evaluates his or her ability to
perform a certain task (Bandura, 1997). Bandura (1994) dened self-efcacy as
individuals beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of
performance that exercise inuence over events that affect their lives. Self-efcacy
beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave (p. 78).
Higher self-efcacy has been found to be associated with good outcomes in a variety of
realms of life (Bandura, 1997), including greater job satisfaction and better work
performance ( Judge and Bono, 2001). Judge and Bonos (2001) meta analysis of 217
associations between level of self-efcacy and work-related performance showed a
large effect size of r 0:37. Of the eight predictors of work-performance, which
included experience and conscientiousness, examined in the Judge and Bono (2001)
meta-analysis, self-efcacy had the second strongest association with performance,
second only to general mental ability. While general mental ability is difcult to alter,
self-efcacy may be changeable.
According to Bandura (1986, 1997) the following four factors determine the level of
an individuals self-efcacy beliefs in a given realm of life:
(1) Personal mastery experiences.
(2) Vicarious mastery experiences.
(3) Verbal persuasion.
(4) Physiological and affective states.
Personal accomplishments lead to the expectation of future good outcomes. Vicarious
mastery experiences involving observation of a similar other who is successful can also
lead to the expectation of future good outcomes for the self. Verbal persuasion or the
assurance by others than one can achieve a good outcome, bolsters self-efcacy.
Because physiological and affective states (such as a very high level of arousal or
negative mood) can inuence perception of efcacy, reduction or re-interpretation of
such states can lead to higher perceived self-efcacy.
Research-based evidence suggests that self-efcacy beliefs are agents of change
determining outcomes in a variety of realms (Bandura, 1997, 2000). The realm most
investigated in this context is mental health. Research in this area has focused on the
relationship between increases in self-efcacy for psychotherapy outcomes during
standard psychotherapy for a problem, such as systematic desensitisation for phobias
(Bandura, 1997). This research has found that clients with greater increases in self-efcacy
have better treatment outcomes for a variety of problems (Bandura, 1997, 2000).
Several studies have evaluated the effects of interventions specically intended to
raise self-efcacy. Some of these studies have included other components such as
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reinforcement (e.g. Luszczynska et al., 2006; Southard, 2006; Weinberg et al., 1984),
which make it difcult to determine the value of the self-efcacy components on their
own. Other self-efcacy intervention studies have drawn on only one or two of the four
self-efcacy sources (e.g. Gist et al., 1989).
Two studies have examined the effect of interventions drawing on all four sources
of self-efcacy to increase self-efcacy and a behaviour related to self-efcacy. Nichols
et al. (2009) found that providing work-book based pre-natal breastfeeding training
which drew on all four sources of self-efcacy resulted in new mothers showing greater
breastfeeding self-efcacy and more exclusive breastfeeding. Allison and Keller (2004)
found that a self-efcacy intervention consisting of all four self-efcacy sources led to
greater improvements in physical-activity performance in older adults.
Expressive writing
The expressive writing paradigm (e.g. King, 2001; Pennebaker and Beall, 1986; Lepore
and Smyth, 2002) involves individuals disclosing in writing their thoughts and feelings
relating to an important aspect of their life for 15 to 20 minutes at a time on three or
four consecutive days. Studies using expressive writing interventions have shown that
individuals who write about meaningful experiences, ranging from traumatic events
(Lepore and Smyth, 2002), to life goals (King, 2001), to romantic relationships (Slatcher
and Pennebaker, 2006), to intensely positive experiences (Burton and King, 2004), show
improved outcomes ranging from better mood to improved mental and physical health.
Frattaroli (2006) conducted an extensive meta-analysis of the effects of such disclosure
and reported that expressive writing brings about signicant positive outcomes.
Reecting on and writing about events may encourage cognitive processing and
restructuring and provide a greater sense of mastery over events (King, 2001, 2002;
Pennebaker, 2002; Pennebaker et al., 2003).
As changes in self-efcacy for a realm are based on cognitive processes involving
attention to and interpretation of sources of self-efcacy, the expressive writing
paradigm may hold promise for facilitating changes in self-efcacy. Changes in
self-efcacy for multi-faceted and largely cognitively based competencies, such as
those associated with transformational leadership, may be especially affected through
expressive writing.
Aims of the study
An aim of the present research was to determine whether an expressive writing-based
intervention drawing on the four sources of self-efcacy in relation to transformational
leadership results in higher transformational leadership self-efcacy and more
transformational leadership behaviour. Given the good outcomes associated with
higher levels of transformational leadership, identifying causes of transformational
leadership and methods for increasing transformational leadership are important:
H1. An intervention drawing on theoretically grounded sources of self-efcacy to
increase transformational leadership self-efcacy will result in higher
transformational leadership self-efcacy.
H2. An intervention drawing on theoretically grounded sources of self-efcacy to
increase transformational leadership self-efcacy will result in more
transformational leadership.
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Another aim of the study was to examine whether those high in emotional intelligence
would benet more from such a self-efcacy intervention. Because higher levels of
emotional intelligence have been found to be associated with more transformational
leadership (Mandell and Pherwani, 2003), higher levels of emotional intelligence may
facilitate acquisition of transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational
leadership behaviour:
H3. Higher emotional intelligence will result in individuals in a transformational
leadership intervention increasing more in transformational leadership
self-efcacy and transformational leadership behaviour.
Research design and methodology
Research design
An experimental design, with random assignment to either an intervention and control
condition, examined the effect of a program designed to enhance transformational
leadership self-efcacy. Outcomes measured were transformational leadership
self-efcacy and transformational leadership. Assessment of the relationship
between emotional intelligence assessed at pre-test with change in transformational
leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership allowed examination of
whether those higher in emotional intelligence before the intervention would show
greater increases in transformational leadership.
Methodology
Participants. Participants in the study were 118 managers of Australian retail travel
businesses who were recruited during monthly manager meetings. They participated
voluntarily and were free to withdraw from the study at any time. The participants
included 41 males and 77 females with a mean age of 27.93 (SD 3:63). The 118
participants were recruited from among 149 managers originally approached.
The 61 participants who were randomly assigned to the self-efcacy expressive
writing intervention condition had a mean age of 28.03 (SD 3:72) and included 18
men and 43 women. The 57 participants who were randomly assigned to the control
writing group had a mean age of 27.82 (SD 3:57) and included 23 men and 34
women.
Measures
Transformational leadership. The Global Transformational Leadership (GTL) Scale
(Carless et al., 2000) has evidence of convergent and discriminant validity and in
previous research had internal reliability, as assessed by Cronbachs alpha, of 0.93
(Carless et al., 2000). Participants rated to what extent they performed the behaviours
described by the scale items during the past three weeks. Higher scores indicate more
transformational leadership behaviour. A sample item is created motivating business
plans and ensured ownership by all team members. In the present study Cronbachs
Alpha was 0.94.
Transformational leadership self-efcacy. A transformational leadership scale was
created using Banduras (2001) manual for creating realm-specic self-efcacy
measures. The 15 items comprising the scale were based on transformational
leadership theory and research (Bass, 1998; Bass and Avolio, 1994; Bass and Riggio,
2005; Podsakoff et al., 1990). Participants rated how condent they were about their
ability to show the behaviours described by the items. Higher scores indicated greater
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499
self-efcacy. Sample items included condence in giving encouragement and
recognition to all team members and condence in delegating responsibility to team
members to facilitate their development. In the present study internal reliability, as
assessed by Cronbachs Alpha, was 0.95.
Emotional intelligence. The assessing emotions scale (Schutte et al., 1998)
assesses characteristic emotional intelligence and is based on Salovey and Mayers
(1990) original model of emotional intelligence. Previous research has found
evidence of validity for the scale and internal reliability, as assessed by Cronbachs
Alpha, of 0.87 to 0.92 (Schutte et al., 2009). In the present study Cronbachs Alpha
was 0.91.
Intervention and control condition writing instructions. Participants randomly
received either self-efcacy writing instructions or control writing instructions. Both
sets of instructions asked participants to write for at least 20 minutes a day for three
days during their work week. The self-efcacy writing instructions asked participants
to reect in writing on their deepest thoughts and feelings relating to transformational
leadership by drawing on experiences during the past workday or a recent workday in
the past. The instructions prompted participants to reect on experiences that related
to their own leadership success, observing examples of leadership behaviour,
encouragement by others of their leadership behaviours, and physical feelings and
emotions related to their leadership behaviour. The instructions gave examples of
leadership behaviour based on Bass (1998) theory of transformational leadership. The
full writing instructions are available upon request fromthe corresponding author. The
control group instructions asked participants to reect in writing on non-work
activities of the past day.
Participants in both groups were asked to record how many minutes they spent
writing per day. As part of the post-assessment, participants in both groups were
asked on how many days they had written and on how many of the days they had
written for at least 20 minutes.
Procedure. Participants completed pre-measures at the manager meeting at
which they were recruited. Pre-measures were the measures of transformational
leadership behaviour, transformational leadership self-efcacy, and emotional
intelligence. Participants placed a code name they would remember, but that could
not be used to identify them, on the pre-questionnaires. Separate from return of
the completed pre measures, participants provided an e-mail contact address so
that they could be reminded when the three-week post measure completion time
approached.
After sealing their completed pre-measures in an envelope and returning this,
participants received a package with writing instructions, with packages randomised
for self-efcacy writing instructions and control writing instructions. This package
also contained, separately from the writing instructions, the two post measures and a
stamped envelope for return of the post measures. Participants were asked to write
according to the instructions at the end of three consecutive work days and to complete
the post measures three weeks later. The post measures assessed transformational
leadership behaviour and transformational leadership self-efcacy. Participants placed
their code name on the post questionnaires so that pre and post information for each
participant could be matched.
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Findings
Between groups t-tests showed that there were no signicant differences between groups
at pre-intervention in transformational leadership self-efcacy, transformational
leadership scores, or emotional intelligence. All 61 of the intervention group
participants and all 57 of the control group participants reported writing on at least
three days. In the intervention group, 11 participants reported not writing for at least 20
minutes on at least one day. In the control group, ten participants reported not writing for
at least 20 minutes on at least one day. In line with a conservative analysis approach,
those who did not write for the full 20 minutes each day were included in the statistical
analyses.
The impact of the writing intervention on transformational leadership self-efcacy
and behaviour was assessed using two one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVAs)
with treatment group as the independent variable. In the rst ANCOVA pre leadership
self-efcacy was the covariate and post self-efcacy was the dependent measure. In the
second ANCOVA pre leadership was the covariate and post leadership was the
dependent measure. Table I shows the means for the intervention and control groups
on the pre and post-intervention measures of self-efcacy and leadership. Participants
in the self-efcacy expressive-writing intervention group showed signicantly greater
transformational leadership self-efcacy at post-test than those in the control group,
F1; 115 176:93, p 0:001, partial h
2
0:61. Participants in the self-efcacy
expressive-writing intervention group also showed signicantly more
transformational leadership at post-test than those in the control group,
F1; 115 19:36, p 0:001, partial h
2
0:14.
Correlations between emotional intelligence and change scores in the intervention
group tested the hypothesis that high levels of emotional intelligence at
pre-intervention would be associated with greater increases in transformational
leadership self-efcacy and greater increases in transformational leadership for
participants in the intervention group. Change scores were computed for pre to post
transformational leadership self-efcacy and for pre to post transformational
leadership. In the intervention group, higher emotional intelligence at pre-measure
was associated with greater increases in transformational leadership self-efcacy,
r60 0:54, p 0:001, and greater increases in transformational leadership scores,
r60 0:58, p 0:001.
Transformational leadership
self-efcacy Transformational leadership
M SD M SD
Self-efcacy group
Pre 45.95 9.74 78.62 15.54
Post 59.03 11.081 84.31 15.31
Control group
Pre 43.95 14.54 83.35 14.57
Post 45.18 13.80 83.91 13.97
Table I.
Means and standard
deviations for
self-efcacy expressive
writing and control
groups on pre and
post-intervention
measures of
transformational
leadership self-efcacy
and transformational
leadership
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Discussion
Managers participating in a transformational leadership self-efcacy expressive
writing intervention showed signicantly greater transformational leadership
self-efcacy and transformational leadership scores after the intervention than
managers in a control writing condition. These results have implications for
self-efcacy theory. The ndings suggest that self-efcacy may be an important
component of transformational leadership. The results also support the utility of the
expressive writing approach and suggest an empowering and low-cost approach to
enhancing transformational leadership.
The results of the study are congruent with the results of other studies (Allison and
Keller, 2004; Nichols et al., 2009) that have examined whether targeting the sources of
self-efcacy proposed by Bandura (1997) induces positive change in other realms. As
well as having implications for transformational leadership development, the ndings
suggest a promising avenue of research exploring self-efcacy based interventions to
enhance other organisational outcomes.
The original expressive writing paradigm studies focused on the effects of writing
on individuals dealing with trauma (e.g. Pennebaker and Beall, 1986). More recent
research has extended the paradigm to individuals writing about positive or formative
experiences in order to increase positive attributes (e.g. King, 2001; Wing et al., 2006).
The nding that an expressive writing intervention focusing on transformational
leadership can enhance leadership extends ndings on the use of the writing paradigm
in the area of personal strength building.
The nding that self-efcacy focused expressive writing may be an effective
approach for enhancing transformational leadership has practical implications for the
design and delivery of leadership training programs. A structured writing task is a
low-cost training method that could be adapted for use, either on its own or in
conjunction with other training methods, across a range of industries.
The nding that those with higher emotional intelligence showed greater increases in
transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership behaviour
scores has both theoretical and practical implications. It may be that insights into their
own and others emotional functioning that are components of emotional intelligence
allowed the managers in the intervention condition to be more open to change and to more
readily process and incorporate self-efcacy information into their belief system. The
nding suggests selecting those with higher levels of emotional intelligence or attempting
to build emotional intelligence along with other skills may optimise the effectiveness of
leadership training programs. Future research could examine these possibilities.
The present study is exploratory and has some limitations. First, participants in the
study were managers in one type of industry in Australia. Future research might
replicate the present ndings in other industries or cultures. Second, the measures used
in the study were self-report measures. Future research might use 360-degree measures
in assessing transformational leadership and might look at possible increases in
organisational performance as indices of effective transformational leadership.
In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that self-efcacy focused expressive
writing can result in an increase in transformational leadership self-efcacy and
transformational leadership scores. Those with higher emotional intelligence were
more responsive to the intervention as evidenced by their greater increases in both
leadership self-efcacy and leadership scores.
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About the authors
Susan Fitzgerald is a Manager and Trainer with Flight Centre in Australia. She holds an honours
degree in psychology.
Nicola S. Schutte is an Associate Professor at the University of New England in Australia.
She is the author of over 60 journal articles and four books. Much of her recent work focuses on
emotional intelligence and self-efcacy. Nicola Schutte is the corresponding author and can be
contacted at: nschutte@une.edu.au
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