Sedimentary rock

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Middle riassic marginal marine se!uence of siltstones ("elo#) and limestones (a"ove), $irgin
Formation, south#estern %tah, %S&
Sedimentary rock is a type of rock that is formed "y sedimentation of material at the 'arth(s
surface and #ithin "odies of #ater) Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause
mineral and*or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from
a solution) +articles that form a sedimentary rock "y accumulating are called sediment) ,efore
"eing deposited, sediment #as formed "y #eathering and erosion in a source area, and then
transported to the place of deposition "y #ater, #ind, mass movement or glaciers #hich are
called agents of denudation)
he sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the 'arth(s crust is e-tensive, "ut the total
contri"ution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to "e only ./ of the total volume of the crust)
012

Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and
metamorphic rocks)
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called "edding) he study
of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information a"out the su"surface that is useful for
civil engineering, for e-ample in the construction of roads, houses, tunnels, canals or other
constructions) Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal, fossil
fuels, drinking #ater or ores)
he study of the se!uence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for scientific kno#ledge
a"out the 'arth(s history, including palaeogeography, paleoclimatology and the history of life)
he scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called
sedimentology) Sedimentology is "oth part of geology and physical geography and overlaps
partly #ith other disciplines in the 'arth sciences, such as pedology, geomorphology,
geochemistry or structural geology)
Contents
1 3enetic classification schemes
o 1)1 4lastic sedimentary rocks
1)1)1 4onglomerates and
"reccias
1)1)5 Sandstones
1)1)6 Mudrocks
o 1)5 ,iochemical sedimentary rocks
o 1)6 4hemical sedimentary rocks
o 1)7 89ther8 sedimentary rocks
5 4ompositional classification schemes
6 4reation of sedimentary rocks
o 6)1 Sediment transport and deposition
o 6)5 :iagenesis
7 +roperties
o 7)1 4olor
o 7)5 e-ture
o 7)6 Mineralogy
o 7)7 Fossils
o 7); +rimary sedimentary structures
o 7)< Secondary sedimentary structures
; Sedimentary environments
o ;)1 Sedimentary facies
< Sedimentary "asins
o <)1 =nfluence of astronomical cycles
> Sedimentation rates
. Stratigraphy
? See also
1@ References
o 1@)1 ,i"liography
11 '-ternal links
[edit] Genetic classification schemes
,ased on the processes responsi"le for their formation, sedimentary rocks can "e su"divided into
four groups: clastic sedimentary rocks, "iochemical (or "iogenic) sedimentary rocks, chemical
sedimentary rocks and a fourth category for 8other8 sedimentary rocks formed "y impacts,
volcanism, and other minor processes)
[edit] Clastic sedimentary rocks
Main article: Clastic rock
4laystone deposited in 3lacial Aake Missoula, Montana, %nited States) Bote the very fine and
flat "edding, common for distal lacustrine deposition)
4lastic sedimentary rocks are composed of silicate minerals and rock fragments that #ere
transported "y moving fluids (as "ed load, suspended load, or "y sediment gravity flo#s) and
#ere deposited #hen these fluids came to rest) 4lastic rocks are composed largely of !uartC,
feldspar, rock (lithic) fragments, clay minerals, and micaD numerous other minerals may "e
present as accessories and may "e important locally)
4lastic sediment, and thus clastic sedimentary rocks, are su"divided according to the dominant
particle siCe (diameter)) Most geologists use the %ddenEWent#orth grain siCe scale and divide
unconsolidated sediment into three fractions: gravel (F5 mm diameter), sand (1*1< to 5 mm
diameter), and mud (clay is G1*5;< mm and silt is "et#een 1*1< and 1*5;< mm)) he
classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this schemeD conglomerates and "reccias are
made mostly of gravel, sandstones are made mostly of sand, and mudrocks are made mostly of
mud) his tripartite su"division is mirrored "y the "road categories of rudites, arenites, and
lutites, respectively, in older literature)
Su"division of these three "road categories is "ased on differences in clast shape (conglomerates
and "reccias), composition (sandstones), grain siCe and*or te-ture (mudrocks))
[edit] Conglomerates and breccias
4onglomerates are dominantly composed of rounded gravel and "reccias are composed of
dominantly angular gravel)
[edit] Sandstones
Sandstone classification schemes vary #idely, "ut most geologists have adopted the :ott
scheme,
052
#hich uses the relative a"undance of !uartC, feldspar, and lithic frame#ork grains and
the a"undance of muddy matri- "et#een these larger grains)
Composition of framework grains
he relative a"undance of sandEsiCed frame#ork grains determines the first #ord in a
sandstone name) For naming purposes, the a"undance of frame#ork grains is normaliCed
to !uartC, feldspar, and lithic fragments formed from other rocks) hese are the three
most a"undant components of sandstonesD all other minerals are considered accessories
and not used in the naming of the rock, regardless of a"undance)
HuartC sandstones have F?@/ !uartC grains
Feldspathic sandstones have G?@/ !uartC grains and more feldspar grains than lithic
grains
Aithic sandstones have G?@/ !uartC grains and more lithic grains than feldspar grains
Abundance of muddy matrix between sand grains
When sandEsiCed particles are deposited, the space "et#een the sand grains either
remains open or is filled #ith mud (silt and*or clay siCed particle))
84lean8 sandstones #ith open pore space (that may later "e filled #ith cement) are
called arenites
Muddy sandstones #ith a"undant (F1@/) muddy matri- are called #ackes)
Si- sandstone names are possi"le using descriptors for grain composition
(!uartCE, feldspathicE, and lithicE) and amount of matri- (#acke or arenite)) For
e-ample, a !uartC arenite #ould "e composed of mostly (F?@/) !uartC grains
and have little*no clayey matri- "et#een the grains, a lithic #acke #ould have
a"undant lithic grains (G?@/ !uartC, remainder #ould have more lithics than
feldspar) and a"undant muddy matri-, etc)
&lthough the :ott classification scheme
052
is #idely used "y sedimentologists,
common names like grey#acke, arkose, and !uartC sandstone are still #idely
used "y nonspecialists and in popular literature)
[edit] Mudrocks
Ao#er &ntelope 4anyon #as carved out of the surrounding sandstone "y "oth
mechanical #eathering and chemical #eathering) Wind, sand, and #ater from
flash flooding are the primary #eathering agents)
Mudrocks are sedimentary rocks composed of at least ;@/ siltE and clayEsiCed
particles) hese relatively fineEgrained particles are commonly transported as
suspended particles "y tur"ulent flo# in #ater or air, and deposited as the flo#
calms and the particles settle out of suspension)
Most authors presently use the term 8mudrock8 to refer to all rocks composed
dominantly of mud)
0620720;20<2
Mudrocks can "e divided into siltstones (composed
dominantly of siltEsiCed particles), mudstones (su"e!ual mi-ture of siltE and clayE
siCed particles), and claystones (composed mostly of clayEsiCed particles))
062072

Most authors use 8shale8 is a term for a fissile mudrock (regardless of grain
siCe), although some older literature uses the term 8shale8 as a synonym for
mudrock)
[edit] Biochemical sedimentary rocks
9utcrop of 9rdovician oil shale (kukersite), northern 'stonia
,iochemical sedimentary rocks are created #hen organisms use materials
dissolved in air or #ater to "uild their tissue) '-amples include:
Most types of limestone are formed from the calcareous skeletons of
organisms such as corals, mollusks, and foraminifera)
4oal #hich forms as plants remove car"on from the atmosphere and
com"ine #ith other elements to "uild their tissue)
:eposits of chert formed from the accumulation of siliceous skeletons from
microscopic organisms such as radiolaria and diatoms)
[edit] Chemical sedimentary rocks
4hemical sedimentary rock forms #hen mineral constituents in solution "ecome
supersaturated and inorganically precipitate) 4ommon chemical sedimentary
rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite minerals such
as halite (rock salt), sylvite, "arite and gypsum)
[edit] "Other" sedimentary rocks
his fourth miscellaneous category includes rocks formed "y +yroclastic flo#s,
impact "reccias, volcanic "reccias, and other relatively uncommon processes)
[edit] Compositional classification schemes
&lternatively, sedimentary rocks can "e su"divided into compositional groups
"ased on their mineralogy:
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks, as descri"ed a"ove, are dominantly
composed of silicate minerals) he sediment that makes up these rocks #as
transported as "ed load, suspended load, or "y sediment gravity flo#s)
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are su"divided into conglomerates and
"reccias, sandstone, and mudrocks)
Carbonate sedimentary rocks are composed of calcite (rhom"ohedral
4a496), aragonite (orthorhom"ic 4a496), dolomite (4aMg(496)5), and
other car"onate minerals "ased on the 495I
6 ion) 4ommon e-amples include limestone and dolostone)
Eaporite sedimentary rocks are composed of minerals formed from the
evaporation of #ater) he most common evaporite minerals are car"onates
(calcite and others "ased on 495I
6), chlorides (halite and others "uilt on 4l
I
), and sulfates (gypsum and others
"uilt on S95I
7)) 'vaporite rocks commonly include a"undant halite (rock salt), gypsum,
and anhydrite)
Organic!rich sedimentary rocks have significant amounts of organic
material, generally in e-cess of ;/ total organic car"on) 4ommon e-amples
include coal, oil shale, and other sedimentary rocks that act as reservoirs for
li!uid hydrocar"ons and natural gas)
Siliceous sedimentary rocks are almost entirely composed of silica (Si95),
typically as chert, opal, chalcedony or other microcrystalline forms)
"ron!rich sedimentary rocks are composed of F1;/ ironD the most
common forms are "anded iron formations and ironstones
072
#hosphatic sedimentary rocks are composed of phosphate minerals and
contain more than <);/ phosphorusD e-amples include deposits of phosphate
nodules, "one "eds, and phosphatic mudrocks
0;2
[edit] Creation of sedimentary rocks
[edit] Sediment transport and deposition
4rossE"edding and scour in a fine sandstoneD the Aogan Formation
(Mississippian) of Jackson 4ounty, 9hio)
Sedimentary rocks are formed #hen sediment is deposited out of air, ice, #ind,
gravity, or #ater flo#s carrying the particles in suspension) his sediment is
often formed #hen #eathering and erosion "reak do#n a rock into loose material
in a source area) he material is then transported from the source area to the
deposition area) he type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the
hinterland (the source area of the sediment)) Jo#ever, some sedimentary rocks,
like evaporites, are composed of material that formed at the place of deposition)
he nature of a sedimentary rock therefore not only depends on sediment supply,
"ut also on the sedimentary depositional environment in #hich it formed)
[edit] $iagenesis
+ressure solution at #ork in a clastic rock) While material dissolves at places
#here grains are in contact, material crystalliCes from the solution (as cement) in
open pore spaces) his means there is a net flo# of material from areas under
high stress to those under lo# stress) &s a result, the rock "ecomes more compact
and harder) Aoose sand can "ecome sandstone in this #ay)
Main article: diagenesis
he term diagenesis is used to descri"e all the chemical, physical, and "iological
changes, including cementation, undergone "y a sediment after its initial
deposition, e-clusive of surface #eathering) Some of these processes cause the
sediment to consolidate: a compact, solid su"stance forms out of loose material)
Koung sedimentary rocks, especially those of Huaternary age (the most recent
period of the geologic time scale) are often still unconsolidated) &s sediment
deposition "uilds up, the over"urden (or lithostatic) pressure rises and a process
kno#n as lithification takes place)
Sedimentary rocks are often saturated #ith sea#ater or ground#ater, in #hich
minerals can dissolve or from #hich minerals can precipitate) +recipitating
minerals reduce the pore space in a rock, a process called cementation) :ue to
the decrease in pore space, the original connate fluids are e-pelled) he
precipitated minerals form a cement and make the rock more compact and
competent) =n this #ay, loose clasts in a sedimentary rock can "ecome 8glued8
together)
When sedimentation continues, an older rock layer "ecomes "uried deeper as a
result) he lithostatic pressure in the rock increases due to the #eight of the
overlying sediment) his causes compaction, a process in #hich grains
mechanical reorganiCe) 4ompaction is, for e-ample, an important diagenetic
process in clay, #hich can initially consist of <@/ #ater) :uring compaction,
this interstitial #ater is pressed out of pore spaces) 4ompacation can also "e the
result of dissolution of grains "y pressure solution) he dissolved material
precipitates again in open pore spaces, #hich means there is a nett flo# of
material into the pores) Jo#ever, in some cases a certain mineral dissolves and
not precipitate again) his process is called leaching and increases pore space in
the rock)
Some "iochemical processes, like the activity of "acteria, can affect minerals in a
rock and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis) Fungi and plants ("y their
roots) and various other organisms that live "eneath the surface can also
influence diagenesis)
,urial of rocks due to ongoing sedimentation leads to increased pressure and
temperature, #hich stimulates certain chemical reactions) &n e-ample is the
reactions "y #hich organic material "ecomes lignite or coal) When temperature
and pressure increase still further, the realm of diagenesis makes #ay for
metamorphism, the process that forms metamorphic rock)
[edit] #roperties
& piece of a "anded iron formation, a type of rock that consists of alternating
layers #ith iron(===) o-ide (red) and iron(==) o-ide (grey)) ,=Fs #ere mostly
formed during the +recam"rian, #hen the atmosphere #asn(t yet rich in o-ygen)
Moories 3roup, ,ar"erton 3reenstone ,elt, South &frica)
[edit] Color
he color of a sedimentary rock is often mostly determined "y iron, an element
#ith t#o maLor o-ides: iron(==) o-ide and iron(===) o-ide) =ron(==) o-ide only
forms under ano-ic circumstances and gives the rock a grey or greenish colour)
=ron(===) o-ide is often in the form of the mineral hematite and gives the rock a
reddish to "ro#nish colour) =n arid continental climates rocks are in direct
contact #ith the atmosphere, and o-idation is an important process, giving the
rock a red or orange colour) hick se!uences of red sedimentary rocks formed in
arid climates are called red "eds) Jo#ever, a red colour does not necessarily
mean the rock formed in a continental environment or arid climate)
0>2
he presence of organic material can colour a rock "lack or grey) 9rganic
material is in nature formed from dead organisms, mostly plants) Bormally, such
material eventually decays "y o-idation or "acterial activity) %nder ano-ic
circumstances, ho#ever, organic material cannot decay and "ecomes a dark
sediment, rich in organic material) his, can for e-ample, occur at the "ottom of
deep seas and lakes) here is little #ater current in such environments, so o-ygen
from surface #ater is not "rought do#n, and the deposited sediment is normally
a fine dark clay) :ark rocks rich in organic material are therefore often shales)
0.20>2
[edit] %e&ture
:iagram sho#ing #ellEsorted (left) and poorlyEsorted (right) grains)
he siCe, form and orientation of clasts or minerals in a rock is called its te-ture)
he te-ture is a smallEscale property of a rock, "ut determined many of its largeE
scale properties, such as the density, porosity or permea"ility)
0?2
4lastic rocks have a (clastic te-ture(, #hich means they consist of clasts) he 6:
orientation of these clasts is called the fa"ric of the rock) ,et#een the clasts the
rock can "e composed of a matri- or a cement (the latter can consist of crystals
of one or more precipitated minerals)) he siCe and form of clasts can "e used to
determine the velocity and direction of current in the sedimentary environment
#here the rock #as formedD fine, calcareous mud only settles in !uiet #ater,
#hile gravel and larger clasts are only deposited "y rapidly moving #ater)
01@20112

he grain siCe of a rock is usually e-pressed #ith the Went#orth scale, though
alternative scales are used sometimes) he grain siCe can "e e-pressed as a
diameter or a volume, and is al#ays an average value E a rock is composed of
clasts #ith different siCes) he statistical distri"ution of grain siCes is different
for different rock types and is descri"ed in a property called the sorting of the
rock) When all clasts are more or less of the same siCe, the rock is called (#ellE
sorted(, #hen there is a large spread in grain siCe, the rock is called (poorly
sorted()
01520162
:iagram sho#ing the rounding and sphericity of grains)
he form of clasts can reflect the origin of the rock)
4o!uina, a rock composed of clasts of "roken shells, can only form in energetic
#ater) he form of a clast can "e descri"ed "y using four parameters:
017201;2
Surface texture descri"es the amount of smallEscale relief of the surface of a
grain that is too small to influence the general shape)
rounding descri"es the general smoothness of the shape of a grain)
(Sphericity( descri"es the degree to #hich the grain approaches a sphere)
(3rain form( descri"es the three dimensional shape of the grain)
4hemical sedimentary rocks have a nonEclastic te-ture, consisting entirely of
crystals) o descri"e such a te-ture only the average siCe of the crystals and the
fa"ric are necessary)
[edit] Mineralogy
Most sedimentary rocks contain either !uartC (especially siliciclastic rocks) or
calcite (especially car"onate rocks)) =n contrast #ith igneous and metamorphic
rocks, a sedimentary rocks usually contains very fe# different maLor minerals)
Jo#ever, the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more comple-
than those in an igneous rock) Minerals in a sedimentary rock can have formed
"y precipitation during sedimentation or diagenesis) =n the second case, the
mineral precipitate can have gro#n over an older generation of cement)
01<2
&
comple- diagenetic history can "e studied "y optical mineralogy, using a
petrographic microscope)
4ar"onate rocks dominantly consist of car"onate minerals like calcite, aragonite
or dolomite) ,oth cement and clasts (including fossils and ooids) of a car"onate
rock can consist of car"onate minerals) he mineralogy of a clastic rock is
determined "y the supplied material from the source area, the manner of
transport to the place of deposition and the sta"ility of a particular mineral) he
sta"ility of the maLor rock forming minerals (their resistance to #eathering) is
e-pressed "y ,o#en(s reaction series) =n this series, !uartC is most sta"le,
follo#ed "y feldspar, micas, and other less sta"le minerals that are only present
#hen little #eathering has occurred)
01>2
he amount of #eathering depends
mainly on the distance to the source area, the local climate and the time it took
for the sediment to "e transported there) =n most sedimentary rocks, mica,
feldspar and less sta"le minerals have reacted to clay minerals like kaolinite,
illite or smectite)
[edit] 'ossils
FossilErich layers in a sedimentary rock, &Mo Buevo State Reserve, 4alifornia)
Main articles: fossil and fossilisation
Sedimentary rocks are the only type of rock that can contain fossils, the remains
or imprints of dead organisms) =n nature, dead organisms are usually !uickly
removed "y scavengers, "acteria, rotting and erosion) =n some e-ceptional
circumstances a carcass is fossiliCed "ecause these natural processes are una"le
to #ork) he chance of fossilisation is higher #hen the sedimentation rate is high
(so that a carcass is !uickly "uried), in ano-ic environments (#here little
"acterial activity e-ists) or #hen the organism had a particularly hard skeleton)
Aarger, #ellEpreserved fossils are relatively rare) Most sedimentary rocks
contains fossils, though #ith many the fact only "ecomes apparent #hen studied
under a microscope (microfossils) or #ith a loupe)
,urro#s in a tur"idite, made "y crustaceans) San $incente Formation (early
'ocene) of the &insa ,asin, southern foreland of the +yrenees)
Fossils can "oth "e the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their
skeletons) Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as
"ones, shells, #oody tissue of plants) Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of
"eing preserved and fossiliCed and soft tissue of animals older than 7@ million
years is very rare)
01.2
=mprints of organisms made #hile still alive are called trace
fossils) '-amples are "urro#s, foot prints, etc)
,eing part of a sedimentary rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes
as the rock) & shell consisting of calcite can for e-ample dissolve, #hile a cement
of silica then fills the cavity) =n the same #ay, precipitating minerals can fill
cavities formerly occupied "y "lood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues)
his preserves the form of the organism "ut changes the chemical composition, a
process called permineralisation)
01?205@2
he most common minerals in
permineralisation cements are car"onates (especially calcite), forms of
amorphous silica (chalcedony, flint, chert) and pyrite) =n the case of silica
cements, the process is called lithification)
&t high pressure and temperature, the organic material of a dead organism
undergoes chemical reactions in #hich volatiles like #ater and car"on dio-ide
are e-pulsed) he fossil, in the end, consists of a thin layer of pure car"on or its
mineraliCed form, graphite) his form of fossilisation is called car"onisation) =t is
particularly important for plant fossils)
0512
he same process is responsi"le for the
formation of fossil fuels like lignite or coal)
[edit] #rimary sedimentary structures
4rossE"edding in a fluviatile sandstone, Middle 9ld Red Sandstone (:evonian)
on ,ressay, Shetland =slands
& flute cast, a type of sole marking, from the ,ook 4liffs of %tah
Ripple marks formed "y a current in a sandstone that #as later tilted (JaN"erge,
,avaria)
Structures in sedimentary rocks can "e divided in (primary( structures (formed
during deposition) and (secondary( structures (formed after deposition)) %nlike
te-tures, structures are al#ays largeEscale features that can easily "e studied in
the field) Sedimentary structures can tell something a"out the sedimentary
environment or can serve to tell #hich side originally faced up #here tectonics
have tilted or overturned sedimentary layers)
Sedimentary rocks are laid do#n in layers called "eds or strata) & "ed is defined
as a layer of rock that has a uniform lithology and te-ture) ,eds form "y the
deposition of layers of sediment on top of each other) he se!uence of "eds that
characteriCes sedimentary rocks is called "edding)
05520562
Single "eds can "e a
couple of centimetres to several meters thick) Finer, less pronounced layers are
called laminae and the structure it forms in a rock is called lamination) Aaminae
are usually less than a fe# centimetres thick)
0572
hough "edding and lamination
are often originally horiContal in nature, this is not al#ays the case) =n some
environments, "eds are deposited at a (usually small) angle) Sometimes multiple
sets of layers #ith different orientations e-ist in the same rock, a structure called
crossE"edding)
05;2
4rossE"edding forms #hen smallEscale erosion occurs during
deposition, cutting off part of the "eds) Be#er "eds then form at an angle to
older ones)
he opposite of crossE"edding is parallel lamination, #here all sedimentary
layering is parallel)
05<2
With laminations, differences are generally caused "y
cyclic changes in the sediment supply, caused for e-ample "y seasonal changes
in rainfall, temperature or "iochemical activity) Aaminae that represent seasonal
changes (like tree rings) are called varves) Some rocks have no lamination at all,
their structural character is called massive "edding)
3raded "edding is a structure #here "eds #ith a smaller grain siCe occur on top
of "eds #ith larger grains) his structure forms #hen fast flo#ing #ater stops
flo#ing) Aarger, heavier clasts in suspension settle first, then smaller clasts)
hough graded "edding can form in many different environments, it is
characteristic for tur"idity currents)
05>2
he "edform (the surface of a particular "ed) can "e indicative for a particular
sedimentary environment too) '-amples of "ed forms include dunes and ripple
marks) Sole markings, such as tool marks and flute casts, are groves dug into a
sedimentary layer that are preserved) hese are often elongated structures and
can "e used to esta"lish the direction of the flo# during deposition)
05.205?2
Ripple marks also form in flo#ing #ater) here are t#o types: asymmetric #ave
ripples and symmetric current ripples) 'nvironments #here the current is in one
direction, such as rivers, produce asymmetric ripples) he longer flank of such
ripples is oriented opposite to the direction of the current)
06@206120652
Wave ripples
occur in environments #here currents occur in all directions, such as tidal flats)
&nother type of "ed form are mud cracks, caused "y the dehydration of sediment
that occasionally comes a"ove the #ater surface) Such structures are commonly
found at tidal flats or point "ars along rivers)
[edit] Secondary sedimentary structures
Secondary sedimentary structures are structures in sedimentary rocks #hich
formed after deposition) Such structures form "y chemical, physical and
"iological processes inside the sediment) hey can "e indicators for
circumstances after deposition) Some can "e used as #ay up criteria)
9rganic presence in a sediment can leave more traces than Lust fossils) +reserved
tracks and "urro#s are e-amples of trace fossils (also called ichnofossils))
0662

Some trace fossils such as pa# prints of dinosaurs or early humans can capture
human imagination, "ut such traces are relatively rare) Most trace fossils are
"urro#s of molluscs or arthropods) his "urro#ing is called "iotur"ation "y
sedimentologists) =t can "e a valua"le indicator of the "iological and ecological
environment after the sediment #as deposited) 9n the other hand, the "urro#ing
activity of organisms can destroy other (primary) structures in the sediment,
making a reconstruction more difficult)
4hert concretions in chalk, Middle Aefkara Formation (upper +aleocene to
middle 'ocene), 4yprus)
Secondary structures can also have "een formed "y diagenesis or the formation
of a soil (pedogenesis) #hen a sediment is e-posed a"ove the #ater level) &n
e-ample of a diagenetic structure common in car"onate rocks is a stylolite)
0672

Stylolites are irregular planes #ere material #as dissolved into the pore fluids in
the rock) he result of precipitation of a certain chemical species can "e
colouring and staining of the rock, or the formation of concretions) 4oncretions
are roughly concentric "odies #ith a different composition from the host rock)
heir formation can "e the result of localiCed precipitation due to small
differences in composition or porosity of the host rock, such as around fossils,
inside "urro#s or around plant roots)
06;2
=n car"onate rocks such as limestone or
chalk, chert or flint concretions are common, #hile terrestrial sandstones can
have iron concretions) 4alcite concretions in clay are called septarian
concretions)
&fter deposition, physical processes can deform the sediment, forming a third
class of secondary structures) :ensity contrasts "et#een different sedimentary
layers, such as "et#een sand and clay, can result in flame structures or load casts,
formed "y inverted diapirism)
06<2
he diapirism causes the denser upper layer to
sink into the other layer) Sometimes, density contrast can result or gro# #hen
one of the lithologies dehydrates) 4lay can "e easily compressed as a result of
dehydration, #hile sand retains the same volume and "ecomes relatively less
dense) 9n the other hand, #hen the pore fluid pressure in a sand layer surpasses
a critical point the sand can flo# through overlying clay layers, forming
discordant "odies of sedimentary rock called sedimentary dykes (the same
process can form mud volcanoes on the surface))
& sedimentary dyke can also "e formed in a cold climate #here the soil is
permanently froCen during a large part of the year) Frost #eathering can form
cracks in the soil that fill #ith ru""le from a"ove) Such structures can "e used as
climate indicators as #ell as #ay up structures)
06>2
:ensity contrasts can also cause smallEscale faulting, even #hile sedimentation
goes on (synEsedimentary faulting))
06.2
Such faulting can also occur #hen large
masses of nonElithified sediment are deposited on a slope, such as at the front
side of a delta or the continental slope) =nsta"ilities in such sediments can result
in slumping) he resulting structures in the rock are synEsedimentary ffolds and
faults, #hich can "e difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed "y
tectonic forces in lithified rocks)
[edit] Sedimentary enironments
he setting in #hich a sedimentary rock forms is called the sedimentary
environment) 'very environment has a characteristic com"ination of geologic
processes and circumstances) he type of sediment that is deposited is not only
dependent on the sediment that is transported to a place, "ut also on the
environment itself)
06?2
& marine environment means the rock #as formed in a sea or ocean) 9ften, a
distinction is made "et#een deep and shallo# marine environments) :eep
marine usually refers to environments more than 5@@ m "elo# the #ater surface)
Shallo# marine environments e-ist adLacent to coastlines and can e-tend out to
the "oundaries of the continental shelf) he #ater in such environments has a
generally higher energy than that in deep environments, "ecause of #ave
activity) his means coarser sediment particles can "e transported and the
deposited sediment can "e coarser than in deep environments) When the
availa"le sediment is transported from the continent, an alternation of sand, clay
and silt is deposited) When the continent is far a#ay, the amount of such
sediment "rought in may "e small, and "iochemical processes dominate the type
of rock that forms) 'specially in #arm climates, shallo# marine environments
far offshore mainly see deposition of car"onate rocks) he shallo#, #arm #ater
is an ideal ha"itat for many small organisms that "uild car"onate skeletons)
When these organisms die their skeletons sink to the "ottom, forming a thick
layer of calcareous mud that may lithify into limestone) Warm shallo# marine
environments also are ideal environments for coral reefs, #here the sediment
consists mainly of the calcareous skeletons of larger organisms)
07@2
=n deep marine environments, the #ater current over the sea "ottom is small)
9nly fine particles can "e transported to such places) ypically sediments
depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of microE
organisms) &t 7 km depth, the solu"ility of car"onates increases dramatically
(the depth Cone #here this happens is called the lysocline)) 4alcareous sediment
that sinks "elo# the lysocline dissolve, so no limestone can "e formed "elo# this
depth) Skeletons of microEorganisms formed of silica (such as radiolarians) still
deposit though) &n e-ample of a rock formed out of silica skeletons is
radiolarite) When the "ottom of the sea has a small inclination, for e-ample at the
continental slopes, the sedimentary cover can "ecome unsta"le, causing tur"idity
currents) ur"idity currents are sudden distur"ances of the normally !uite deep
marine environment and can cause the geologically speaking instantaneous
deposition of large amounts of sediment, such as sand and silt) he rock
se!uence formed "y a tur"idity current is called a tur"idite)
0712
he coast is an environment dominated "y #ave action) &t the "each,
dominantly coarse sediment like sand or gravel is deposited, often mingled #ith
shell fragments) idal flats and shoals are places that sometimes dry out "ecause
of the tide) hey are often crossEcut "y gullies, #here the current is strong and
the grain siCe of the deposited sediment is larger) Where along a coast (either the
coast of a sea or a lake) rivers enter the "ody of #ater, deltas can form) hese are
large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front
of the mouth of the river) :eltas are dominantly composed of clastic sediment)
& sedimentary rock formed on the land has a continental sedimentary
environment) '-amples of continental environments are lagoons, lakes, s#amps,
floodplains and alluvial fans) =n the !uiet #ater of s#amps, lakes and lagoons,
fine sediment is deposited, mingled #ith organic material from dead plants and
animals) =n rivers, the energy of the #ater is much higher and the transported
material consists of clastic sediment) ,esides transport "y #ater, sediment can in
continental environments also "e transported "y #ind or glaciers) Sediment
transported "y #ind is called aeolian and is al#ays very #ell sorted, #hile
sediment transported "y a glacier is called glacial and is characteriCed "y very
poor sorting)
0752
[edit] Sedimentary facies
Sedimentary environments usually e-ist alongside each other in certain natural
successions) & "each, #here sand and gravel is deposited, is usually "ounded "y
a deeper marine environment a little offshore, #here finer sediments are
deposited at the same time) ,ehind the "each, there can "e dunes (#here the
dominant deposition is #ell sorted sand) or a lagoon (#here fine clay and
organic material is deposited)) 'very sedimentary environment has its o#n
characteristic deposits) he typical rock formed in a certain environment is called
its sedimentary facies) When sedimentary strata accumulate through time, the
environment can shift, forming a change in facies in the su"surface at one
location) 9n the other hand, #hen a rock layer #ith a certain age is follo#ed
laterally, the lithology (the type of rock) and facies eventually change)
0762
Shifting sedimentary facies in the case of transgression (a"ove) and regression of
the sea ("elo#)
Facies can "e distinguished in a num"er of #ays: the most common #ays are "y
the lithology (for e-ample: limestone, siltstone or sandstone) or "y fossil content)
4oral for e-ample only lives in #arm and shallo# marine environments and
fossils of coral are thus typical for shallo# marine facies) Facies determined "y
lithology are called lithofaciesD facies determined "y fossils are "iofacies)
0772
Sedimentary environments can shift their geographical positions through time)
4oastlines can shift in the direction of the sea #hen the sea level drops, #hen the
surface rises due to tectonic forces in the 'arth(s crust or #hen a river forms a
large delta) =n the su"surface, such geographic shifts of sedimentary
environments of the past are recorded in shifts in sedimentary facies) his means
that sedimentary facies can change either parallel or perpendicular to an
imaginary layer of rock #ith a fi-ed age, a phenomenon descri"ed "y Walther(s
facies rule)
07;2
he situation in #hich coastlines move in the direction of the continent is called
transgression) =n the case of transgression, deeper marine facies are deposited
over shallo#er facies, a succession called onlap) Regression is the situation in
#hich a coastline moves in the direction of the sea) With regression, shallo#er
facies are deposited on top of deeper facies, a situation called offlap)
07<2
he facies of all rocks of a certain age can "e plotted on a map to give an
overvie# of the palaeogeography) & se!uence of maps for different ages can give
an insight in the development of the regional geography)
[edit] Sedimentary basins
Main article: sedimentary basin
+laces #here largeEscale sedimentation takes place are called sedimentary "asins)
he amount of sediment that can "e deposited in a "asin depends on the depth of
the "asin, the so called accommodation space) :epth, shape and siCe of a "asin
depend on tectonics, movements #ithin the 'arth(s lithosphere) Where the
lithosphere moves up#ard (tectonic uplift), land eventually rises a"ove sea level,
so that and erosion removes material, and the area "ecomes a source for ne#
sediment) Where the lithosphere moves do#n#ard (tectonic su"sidence), a "asin
forms and sedimentation can take place) When the lithosphere keeps su"siding,
ne# accommodation space keeps "eing created)
& type of "asin formed "y the moving apart of t#o pieces of a continent is called
a rift "asin) Rift "asins are elongated, narro# and deep "asins) :ue to divergent
movement, the lithosphere is stretched and thinned, so that the hot asthenosphere
rises and heats the overlying rift "asin) &part from continental sediments, rift
"asins normally also have part of their infill consisting of volcanic deposits)
When the "asin gro#s due to continued stretching of the lithosphere, the rift
gro#s and the sea can enter, forming marine deposits)
When a piece of lithosphere that #as heated and stretched cools again, its density
rises, causing isostatic su"sidence) =f this su"sidence continues long enough the
"asin is called a sag "asin) '-amples of sag "asins are the regions along passive
continental margins, "ut sag "asins can also "e found in the interior of
continents) =n sag "asins, the e-tra #eight of the ne#ly deposited sediments is
enough to keep the su"sidence going in a vicious circle) he total thickness of
the sedimentary infill in a sag "asins can thus e-ceed 1@ km)
& third type of "asin e-ists along convergent plate "oundaries E places #here one
tectonic plate moves under another into the asthenosphere) he su"ducting plate
"ends and forms a foreEarc "asin in front of the overriding plateOan elongated,
deep asymmetric "asin) ForeEarc "asins are filled #ith deep marine deposits and
thick se!uences of tur"idites) Such infill is called flysch) When the convergent
movement of the t#o plates results in continental collision, the "asin "ecomes
shallo#er and develops into a foreland "asin) &t the same time, tectonic uplift
forms a mountain "elt in the overriding plate, from #hich large amounts of
material are eroded and transported to the "asin) Such erosional material of a
gro#ing mountain chain is called molasse and has either a shallo# marine or a
continental facies)
&t the same time, the gro#ing #eight of the mountain "elt can cause isostatic
su"sidence in the area of the overriding plate on the other side to the mountain
"elt) he "asin type resulting from this su"sidence is called a "ackEarc "asin and
is usually filled "y shallo# marine deposits and molasse)
07>2
4yclic alternation of competent and less competent "eds in the ,lue Aias at
Ayme Regis, southern 'ngland
[edit] "nfluence of astronomical cycles
=n many cases facies changes and other lithological features in se!uences of
sedimentary rock have a cyclic nature) his cyclic nature #as caused "y cyclic
changes in sediment supply and the sedimentary environment) Most of these
cyclic changes are caused "y astronomic cycles) Short astronomic cycles can "e
the difference "et#een the tides or the spring tide every t#o #eeks) 9n a larger
timeEscale, cyclic changes in climate and sea level are caused "y Milankovitch
cycles: cyclic changes in the orientation and*or position of the 'arth(s rotational
a-is and or"it around the Sun) here are a num"er of Milankovitch cycles
kno#n, lasting "et#een 1@,@@@ and 5@@,@@@ years)
07.2
Relatively small changes in the orientation of the 'arth(s a-is or length of the
seasons can "e a maLor influence on the 'arth(s climate) &n e-ample are the ice
ages of the past 5)< million years (the Huaternary period), #hich are assumed to
have "een caused "y astronomic cycles)
07?20;@2
4limate change can influence the
glo"al sea level (and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary
"asins) and sediment supply from a certain region) 'ventually, small changes in
astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and
sedimentation)
[edit] Sedimentation rates
he rate at #hich sediment is deposited differs depending on the location) &
channel in a tidal flat can see the deposition of a fe# metres of sediment in one
day, #hile on the deep ocean floor each year only a fe# millimetres of sediment
accumulate) & distinction can "e made "et#een normal sedimentation and
sedimentation caused "y catastrophic processes) he latter category includes all
kinds of sudden e-ceptional processes like mass movements, rock slides or
flooding) 4atastrophic processes can see the sudden deposition of a large amount
of sediment at once) =n some sedimentary environments, most of the total
column of sedimentary rock #as formed "y catastrophic processes, even though
the environment is usually a !uiet place) 9ther sedimentary environments are
dominated "y normal, ongoing sedimentation)
0;12
=n some sedimentary environments, sedimentation only occurs in some places) =n
a desert, for e-ample, the #ind deposits siliciclastic material (sand or silt) in
some spots, or catastrophic flooding of a #adi may cause sudden deposis of large
!uantities of detrital material, "ut in most places eolian erosion dominates) he
amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of
supplied material, "ut also on ho# #ell the material consolidates) 'rosion
removes most deposited sediment shortly after deposition)
0;12
[edit] Stratigraphy
he +ermian through Jurassic stratigraphy of the 4olorado +lateau area of
southeastern %tah that makes up much of the famous prominent rock formations
in protected areas such as 4apitol Reef Bational +ark and 4anyonlands Bational
+ark) From top to "ottom: Rounded tan domes of the BavaLo Sandstone, layered
red Payenta Formation, cliffEforming, vertically Lointed, red Wingate Sandstone,
slopeEforming, purplish 4hinle Formation, layered, lighterEred Moenkopi
Formation, and #hite, layered 4utler Formation sandstone) +icture from 3len
4anyon Bational Recreation &rea, %tah)
hat ne# rock layers are a"ove older rock layers is stated in the principle of
superposition) here are usually some gaps in the se!uence called
unconformities) hese represent periods #here no ne# sediments #ere laid
do#n, or #hen earlier sedimentary layers raised a"ove sea level and eroded
a#ay)
Sedimentary rocks contain important information a"out the history of the 'arth)
hey contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals) 4oal is
considered a type of sedimentary rock) he composition of sediments provides
us #ith clues as to the original rock) :ifferences "et#een successive layers
indicate changes to the environment over time) Sedimentary rocks can contain
fossils "ecause, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at
temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains)
[edit] See also
,ackEstripping
:eposition (geology)
:unham classification
erosion
Aist of minerals
Aist of rock types
Sediment transport
[edit] (eferences
1) ) ,uchner Q 3rapes (5@11), p) 57
5) R
a

b
:ott (1?<7)
6) R
a

b
,latt et al. (1?.@), p) >.5
7) R
a

b

c
+rothero Q Sch#a" (5@@7)
;) R
a

b
,oggs (5@@<)
<) ) Sto# (5@@;)
>) R
a

b
Aevin (1?.>), p) ;>
.) ) ar"uck Q Autgens (1???), pp) 17;S17<
?) ) ,oggs (1?.>), p) 1@;
1@) ) ar"uck Q Autgens (1???), pp) 1;<S1;>
11) ) Aevin (1?.>), p) ;.
15) ) ,oggs (1?.>), pp) 115S11;
16) ) ,latt et al. (1?.@), pp) ;;S;.
17) ) Aevin (1?.>), p) <@
1;) ) ,latt et al. (1?.@), pp) >;S.@
1<) ) Folk (1?<;), p) <5
1>) ) For an overvie# of maLor minerals in siliciclastic rocks and their relative sta"ilities,
see Folk (1?<;), pp) <5S<7)
1.) ) Stanley (1???), pp) <@S<1
1?) ) Aevin (1?.>), p) ?5
5@) ) Stanley (1???), p) <1
51) ) Aevin (1?.>), pp) ?5S?6
55) ) ar"uck Q Autgens (1???), pp) 1<@S1<1
56) ) +ress et al. (5@@6), p) 1>1
57) ) ,oggs (1?.>, p) 16.
5;) ) For descriptions of crossE"edding, see ,latt et al. (1?.@), p) 15., pp) 16;S16<D +ress
et al. (5@@6), pp) 1>1S1>5)
5<) ) ,latt et al. (1?.@), pp) 166S16;
5>) ) For an e-planation a"out graded "edding, see ,oggs (1?.>), pp) 176S177D ar"uck Q
Autgens (1???), p) 1<1D +ress et al. (5@@6), p) 1>5)
5.) ) 4ollinson et al. (5@@<), pp) 7<S;5
5?) ) ,latt et al. (1?.@), pp) 1;;S1;>
6@) ) ar"uck Q Autgens (1???), p) 1<5
61) ) Aevin (1?.>), p) <5
65) ) ,latt et al. (1?.@), pp) 16<S1;7
66) ) For a short description of trace fossils, see Stanley (1???), p) <5D Aevin (1?.>), pp)
?6S?;D and 4ollinson et al) (5@@<), pp) 51<S565)
67) ) 4ollinson et al. (5@@<), p) 51;
6;) ) For concretions, see 4ollinson et al. (5@@<), pp) 5@<S51;)
6<) ) 4ollinson et al. (5@@<), pp) 1.6S1.;
6>) ) 4ollinson et al. (5@@<), pp) 1?6S1?7
6.) ) 4ollinson et al. (5@@<), pp) 5@5S5@6
6?) ) For an overvie# of different sedimentary environments, see +ress et al. (5@@6) or
'insele (5@@@), part ==)
7@) ) For a definition of shallo# marine environments, see Aevin (5@@6), p) <6)
71) ) ar"uck Q Autgens (1???), pp) 7;5S7;6
75) ) For an overvie# over continental environments, see Aevin (5@@6), pp) <>S<.)
76) ) ar"uck Q Autgens (1???), pp) 1;.S1<@
77) ) Reading (1??<), pp) 1?S5@
7;) ) Reading (1??<), pp) 5@S51
7<) ) For an overvie# over facies shifts and the relations in the sedimentary rock record "y
#hich they can "e recogniCed, see Reading (1??<), pp) 55S66)
7>) ) For an overvie# of sedimentary "asin types, see +ress et al. (5@@6), pp) 1.>S1.?D
'insele (5@@@), pp) 6S?)
7.) ) For a short e-planation of Milankovitch cycles, see ar"uck Q Autgens (1???), pp)
655S656D Reading (1??<), pp) 17S1;)
7?) ) Stanley (1???), p) ;6<
;@) ) &ndersen Q ,orns (1??7), pp) 5?S65
;1) R
a

b
Reading (1??<), p) 1>
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