1

UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II














YEAR I- SE MESTER 2

THEORY

Version 1: December 2008

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING II

COURSE CODE: SUG 102


2

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING II (TSL 102)

THEORETICAL COURSE INDEX



WEEK 1. 1.0 TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING

1.1 Introduction to Tacheometry.1

WEEK 2. 1.2 Calibration of Instrument...7

WEEK 3. 1.3 Sources of error in Stadia
Tacheometry....11
1.4 Application of Stadia
Tacheometry....12

WEEK 4. 2.0 THE THEODOLITE

2.1 Theodolites and Uses... .17
2.2 Theodolites Resolutions.. 17
2.3 Basic Components of an optical
Theodolite18

WEEK 5. 3.0 GLOBAL POSITIONNING SYSTEM
3.1 Introduction G.P.S....23
3.2 Space Segment of the G.P.S...............24
3.3 G.P.S. Positionning Methods.26

WEEK 6. 3.4 How G.P.S. Works..28

WEEK 7. 3.5 G.P.S. Instrumentation..30
3.6 Application of the G.P.S. .32


WEEK 8. 4.0 THE TOTAL STATION
4.1 Introduction to Total Station.39
4.2 Angle Measurement ..43
4.3 Distance Measurement.43
4.4 Power Supply.45

WEEK 9. 5.0 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING.
5.1 Theodolite Traversing.................46
5.2 Types of Traversing.............46

3

5.3 Traverse Specification
and Accuracy .......48

WEEK 10. 5.4 Traverse Field Work ...50
5.5 Station Markings 51

WEEK 11. 6.0 SETTING OUT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

6.1 Introduction to Setting Out53
6.2 Aims of Setting Out......53
6.3 Stages in Setting Out54

WEEK 12. 6.4 Equipment for Setting
Out Buildings....56

WEEK 13. 6.5 Setting Out a Simple Building
Plan62
6.6 Setting Out Subsidiary Lines...63

WEEK 14. 7.0 TRIANGULATION AND TRILATRATION
7.1 Triangulation and Trilatration65
7.2 Triangulation and Trilatration Field
Work....67

WEEK 15. 7.3 Distance Measurement..70
7.4 Angle Measurement..70







4

WEEK ONE

Introdution toTachoemetry.

1.1 Tacheometry is a branch of surveying where heights and distances are determined
from the instrumental readings alone; these readings are usually taken with a specially
adopted theodolite known as a Tacheometer. Chaining operation is eliminated and
tacheometry is therefore very useful in broken terrain e.g. land cut by ravines, river valley,
over standing crops etc. where direct linear measurement would be difficult and inaccurate.
All that is needed is that the surveying assistant, who carries a levelling staff on which the
tacheometer is sighted shall be able to reach the various points to be surveyed and levelled
and that a clear line of sight exists between the levelling staff and the tacheometer must not
exceed a maximum, beyond which error due to inaccurate reading becomes excessive,
normally, 50m.
The field work in tachometry is rapid compared with direct levelling and measurement and it
is widely used therefore to give contoured plans of areas, especially for reservoir and hydro
electric project tipping site, road and railway reconnaissance, housing sites etc. With
reasonable precautions, the results of tachometry obtained can be of the same order of
accuracy as, or even better than the results obtained by direct measurement in some cases.
In stadia tachometry, a levelling staff is held vertically at one end of the line being measured
and a level or theodolite is set up above or below the other. The staff sighted and readings
taken using lines engraved on the telescope diaphram as shown in figure below. The vertical
angle along the line of sight can be either horizontal or inclined as shown in the below figure.
The vertical compensating system of the theodolite must be in correct adjustment since
vertical angles are read on face only.



5




RLx







Figure1.0 Inclined line of sight in stadia tacheometry.

With reference to the above figure;
Horizontal distance P x =D =KS cos
2
+C cos (i)
Vertical distance V = K S sin 2 +C sin (ii)
Reduced level of X =RL
X
=RL
P
+hi V m (iii)
Where;
K =the multiplying constant of instrument, usually 100
C =the additive constant of the instrument, usually 0
S =the difference between the two stadia readings
=the vertical angle along the line of sight
hi =the height of trunnion axis above point p
m =the middle staff reading at X
Stadia lines
M
X
hi
D
P
S
V


6

+v =used if there is an angle of elevation
- v =used if there is an angle of depression
Example 1.
A theodolite having a multiplying constant of 100 and additive constant of 0.00was centred
and levelled at a height of 1.48m above a point C, of reduced level 46.87m.
A levelling staff was held vertically at points D and L in turn and the readings shown in table
1.1 below were taken.

Required:
calculate;
a. The reduced levels of points D and L
b. The horizontal distances; D
CD
and D
CL



Table 1.0 : Stadia readings.
Staff
position
Staff readings
(m)
Vertical circle
readings
Horizontal circle
readings
D 3.240, 3.047, 2.853 02
0
21

07

56
0
49

31

L 2.458, 2.230, 2.002 02
0
21

36

98
0
07

18

7

SOLUTION

















Figure 1.2 tacheomeyric Exercise.
(a) The reduced levels of points D and L are obtained as follows;
From equation (ii)
V
CD
= KS sin 2 +C sin
= (100) (3.240 2.853) sin 2(02
0
21

07

) +0
=50 (0.387) sin (4.70389
0
)
=1.587m
V
CL
= KS sin 2 +C sin
=(100) (2.458 2.002) sin 2(02
0
21

36

) +0
=50(0.456) sin (4.720
0
)
=1.876m
Using equation (iii)
Reduced level at point D =RL
D.

RL
D
=RL
C
+hi +V
CD
m
=46.87 +1.48 +1.587 3.047
=46.89m
RL
L
=RL
C
+hi V
CD
m
=46.87 +1.48 1.876 2.230
=44.24m
(b) The horizontal distance DL =KS cos
2
+C cos
VCL
m C
D
VCD
m
1.48m
L
02
0
21

36

02
0
21

07

DCL
DCD

8

From equation (i)
Horizontal distance D
CD
=100 (3.240 2.853) cos
2
(02
0
21

07

) +0
=38.7 (0.998315911)
=38.635m
Horizontal distance =100 (2.458 2.002) cos
2
(02
0
21

36

)
=45.60 (0.998304362)
=45.523m
Slope = Difference in RL = 46.89 44.24
Total distance 38.635 +45.523


= 2.650 =0.0315
84.158
=tan
-1
0.0315 =1.804
0


9

WEEK TWO

1.2 CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMENT.


Figure 2.1 A Theodolite.

10


Figure 2.2 Observing through the Instrument.

The tacheometer at every time has two constants namely;
The multiplying constant, denoted by K.
Additive constant denoted by C.
These constant can be determined for any instrument whose either are not known or need to
be recalibrated.
Finding K and C for an instrument
The instrument to be calibrated or recalibrated is centred at a point on a horizontal ground;
the eyepiece focusing is used for stadia measurements of two staff positions placed at
different distances away from the instrument say 100m and 200m with the staff held

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vertically upright. The staff is sighted with the telescope at a horizontal line of sight. The
lower and upper staff readings are carefully read and recorded as illustrated in the figure
below.











Fiigure: 2.3 Calibration of Equipment


We know that horizontal distance =KS cos
2
+C cos
Since the line of sight is horizontal, it follows that =0.This implies that horizontal distance,
D =KS +C . (iv)
Equation (iv) is used to determine the constants for any instrument whose readings are taken
as explained previously.



Example 2.



The table below shows the observations (readings) taken to determine the two constants for
an instrument.





Theodolite
Upper Stadia
reading
Lower Stadia
reading
Upper Stadia
reading
Lower Stadia
reading
100m
200m
Staff

12


Table 2.0 : Stadia readings




Required:
Find the values of these constants












Using equation (iv)
D =KS +C
For staff 1, D
1
=KS
1
+C
=>30 =K (0.3) +C .. (1)
For staff 2, D
2
=KS
2
+C
=>90 =K (0.9) +C .. (2)
Subtracting equation (1) from (2)
90 =K (0.9) +C
- 30 =K (0.3) +C
60 =0.6K +0
K =
60
/
0.6
=100
K =100
Horizontal distance
(m)
Reading on staff.
( m)
Lower wire Upper wire
30 1.133 1.433
90 1.452 2.352
Theodolite
1.433
1.13
2.352
1.452
30m
90m
Staff 1
Staff 2

13

Substituting the value of K into equation (1)
30 =100 (0.3) +C
30 30 =C
=>C =0
Hence, the values of these constants are;
K =100 and C =0


Questions:
A theodolite is to be used in tacheometric survey to pick the details of up and down stream
features of a new dam. It was tested on known bases as follows;
Table 2.2 Stadia readings.
Horizontal distance
(m)
Vertical angle Staff reading
(m)
Upper Lower
30.00 90
0
00

00

1.433 1.183
89.98
90
0
00

00

2.247 1.542

Required: Find the multiplier and additive constants of the instrument
The instrument above was used to generate the following data;
Upper stadia reading =1.330m
Lower stadia reading =1.100m
What is the horizontal distance between the instrument and the staff?
The instrument height =1.210m and the reduced level at the instrument position =39.47m









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WEEK THREE



1.3 SOURCES OF ERROR IN STADIA TACHEOMETRY

The accuracy of basic stadia tacheometry depends on two categories of error; instrumental
and field errors.
(A) INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
An incorrectly assumed value for K, the multiplying constant, caused by an error in the
construction of the diaphragm of the theodolite or level used.
Errors arising out of the assumption that K and C are fixed when strictly, both K and C are
variable.
The possible errors due to 1 and 2 above limit the overall accuracy to distance measurement
by stadia tachometry to 1 in 1000.

(B) FIELD ERRORS
These can occur from the following sources.
when observing the staff, incorrect readings may be recorded which result in an error in the
staff intercept S. Assuming K =100, an error of 1mm in the value of S results in an error of
10mm in D.
Since the staff reading accuracy decreases as D increases, the maximum length of a
tachometric sight should be +50mm.
2. Non verticality of the levelling staff can be a serious source of error. This and
poor accuracy of staff readings form the worst two sources of error.
The error in distance due to the non verticality of the staff is proportional to both the angle
of elevation of the sighting and the length of the sighting. Hence, a large error can be caused
by steep sightings, long sighting or a combination of both. It is therefore advisable not to
exceed =10
0
for all stadia tachometry.
3. A further source of error is in reading the vertical circle of the theodolite. If the line of
sight is limited to 10
0
, errors arising from this source will be small. Usually, it is
sufficiently accurate to measure the vertical angle 1

and although it is possible to improve

15

this reading accuracy, it is seldom worth doing so due to the magnitude of all the other errors
previously discussed.
Considering all the sources of error, the overall accuracy expected for distance measurement
is 1 in 500 and the best possible accuracy is only 1 in 1000.
The vertical component V is subject to the same sources of error described above for
distances and the accuracy expected is approximately 50mm.
The precision of stadia tachometry is of paramount importance for best results.


1.4 APPLICATIONS OF STADIA TACHEOMETRY

Vertical staff tacheometry is ideally suited for detail surveying by radiation techniques. This
method of survey is best restricted to the production of contoured site plans since the best
possible accuracy obtainable is only 1 in 1000 and should not be used to measure distances
where precision better than this are required.

Example 3.
The following readings were taken on a vertical staff with a tacheometer fitted with an
anallatic lens and having a constant of 100.

Table 3.0 : Stadia readings.
Staff
station
Bearing Stadia Reading (m)
Lower middle Upper

Vertical angle
A.
B.
27
0
30

00

207
0
30

00

1.000, 1.515, 2.025
1.000, 2.055, 3.110
+80
0
00

00

- 5
0
00

00


Required: Calculate the relative levels of the ground at A and B, and the mean slope between
the two points (A & B).






16




Solution














Figure 3.0 Tacheo metric Exercise.

From Equation (ii)
V
A
= KS Sin 2 +C sin
= (100) (2.025-1.000) Sin 2(8
0
00

00

) +0
=50(1.025) sin (16
0
00

00

)
=14.13m
V
B
= KS sin 2 +C Sin
= (100) (3.110-1.000) sin 2(5
0
00
I
00
II
)
=50 (2.110) Sin (10
0
00

00

)
=18.32m
For horizontal distances H
A
and H
B
, equation (i) is applicable.
Hence, H
A
=Ks cos
2
+C cos
=100 (1.025) cos
2
(8
0
00

00

) +0
=100.51m
H
B
=Ks cos
2
+C cos
=(2.110) cos
2
(5
0
00

00

)
V
2

m C
A
V
1
m
hi
B
-5
0
00

00

+8
0
00

00

H
2 H
1

17

=209.40m
Let x be the height of instrument above datum;
Level of A =14.12 +x 1.515
=x +12.61
Level of B =18.32 x 2.055
=x 16.27
The difference in level from A and B;
Level of A level of B
=(x +12.61) (x 16.27)
=x +12.61 x +16.27
=12.61 +16.27
=28.89m
The bearings slow that A, B and the instrument lie on a straight line
(207
0
30

00

27
0
30

00

=18
0
00

00)
=>Mean slope =Difference in level
H
A
+H
B

= 28.89
(100.15 +209.40)

= 28.8
309.91
= 0.093220
=tan-
1
0.093220 =5.33
0




ASSIGNMENT 1
Q1. Tachometric survey conducted to pick the details of the up and down stream features
of a proposed new dam generated the following data;

Table 3.1 :Stadia readings.
Levelling staff
station
Upper stadia
reading (m)
Middle stadia
reading(m)
Lower stadia
reading (m)
Vertical angle

18

A 1.433 1.308 1.183 20
0
15

00

B 2.247 1.849 1.452 - 12
0
30

00


The instrument has a multiplying constant of 100 and an additive constant of 0, whose height
is 1.47m and centred at point x of reduced level 39.85m.
Required:
Calculate the reduced levels of stations A and B.
Determine the horizontal distance from station A to B.
Q2. A theodolite whose height of instrument level is 182.56m has a multiplier constant of
100 and an additive constant of 1.00
If the angle of elevation is 10
0
00

00

and upper, middle and lower stadia readings

are 5.00, 3.50 and 2.00 respectively.
What is the horizontal distance of the staff from the station of instrument if the instrument is
levelled at 1.42m height?
What is the reduced level at the staff?
Q3. Given the following data, determine the two constants for the instrument used and
distance x
Station of
Instrument
Staff distance
(m)
Staff reading (m)
Lower
Stadia
Upper stadia
A 100 3.620 4.610
200 2.980 4.970
X

1.830 2.100



19

WEEK FOUR

2.1 THEODOLITES AND USES.
Theodolites are telescopic instruments used basically for measuring both vertical and
horizontal angles. They are also useful in determining horizontal and vertical distances by
stadia prolonging straight lines and low order differential levelling.

Figure 4.0 : Detailed sketch of a Theodolite.

Theodolites are precision instruments used extensively in construction work for measuring
angles in the horizontal and vertical planes.
Many different theodolites are available for measuring angles and they are often classified
according to the smallest reading that can be taken with the instrument known as the
Theodolite Resolution

20


2.2 Theodolite Resolution.

This can vary from 1

to 0.1

and for example, a 1

theodolite is one which can be used read

to 1

directly without any estimation.

At this point, it is worth noting that a full circle is 360
0
and a reading system capable of
resolving to 1

directly shows the degree of precision in the manufacture of theodolites.

In order to measure horizontal and vertical angles, the theodolite must be centred over a point
using a plumbing device and must be levelled to bring the angle reading systems of the
instrument into appropriate planes.
All types of optical theodolites are similar in construction and the general features of the
SOKKIA TM20H are shown in figures below.
The various parts of a theodolite and their functions are given as follows;


Figure 4.2 : Parts of a Theodolite.

2.3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN OPTICAL THEODOLITE
Alidade level

21

Transparent tube that contains liquid and an air bubble; it serves as a guide for positioning the
alidade on the vertical axis.
Illumination mirror
Adjustable polished glass surface that reflects light onto the circles so that the angles can be
read.
Leveling head
Platform serving as a support for the theolodite.
Horizontal clamp
Knob that locks the alidade to prevent it from rotating.
Leveling head locking knob
Knob that locks the alidade to the leveling head.
Leveling head level
Transparent tube that contains liquid and an air bubble; it serves as a guide for positioning the
leveling head on the horizontal axis.
Base plate
Plate to which the leveling head is attached by means of three leveling screws.
Leveling screw
Screw that adjusts the theodolites leveling head level on the horizontal plane.
Telescope
Optical instrument composed of several lenses; it can be adjusted in the horizontal and
vertical planes and is used to observe distant objects.
Optical sight

22

Device with an eyepiece that precisely aims the telescope at the target whose angles are to be
measured.
Adjustment for horizontal-circle image
Knob that adjusts the sharpness of the image of the horizontal circle (graduated from 0 to
360) in order to read the angles on the horizontal axis.
Micrometer screw
Knob that adjusts the micrometer to give a very precise reading of the circles measurements.
Adjustment for vertical-circle image
Knob that adjusts the sharpness of the image of the vertical circle (graduated from 0 to 360)
in order to read the angles on the vertical axis.
Alidade
Part of the theodolite that rotates on a vertical axle to measure angles by means of the
telescope.

The trivets stage

This forms the base of the instrument and in order to be able to attach the theodolite to the
tripod, most tripods have a clamping screw which locates into a
5
/
8
inch threaded centre on
the trivet. This enables the instrument to move on the tripod head and allows the theodolite to
be centred. The trivet also carries the feet of three threaded levelling foot screws.

The tripod

This is used to provide support for the theodolite, the tripod may be telescopic i.e. it has
sliding legs or may have legs of fixed lengths.




23


















Figure 4.3 A tripod stand.

The Tribrach

This is the body of the instrument carrying all other parts. It has a hollow slightly conical
shape socket into which fits the reminder of the instrument. The tribrach can be levelled
independently of the trivet stage.



The lower plate

This carries the horizontal circle. The term glass arc has been used to describe optical
theodolites because the horizontal and vertical circles on which the angle graduations are
photographically etched are made of glass. Many types of optical theodolite are available,
varying in reading precision from 1

to 0.1

although 20

and 6

reading theodolites are most

commonly used in engineering surveying.


24

The focusing screw

This is fitted concentrically with the barel of the telescope and diaphram can be illuminated
for night or tunnel wok. When the main telescope is rotated in altitude about the trunnion axis
from one direction to face in the opposite direction, it has been transmitted. The side of the
main telescope, viewed from the eyepiece, containing the vertical circle is called the face.

Standards

This is the frame mounted directly on the cover plate carrying the telescope.

Transit axis or trunnion axis

This axis rests on the limbs of the standard and is securely held in position by a lock nut.
Attached to the transit are the telescope and the vertical circle.
Plate Bubble

When this is levelled, that is at the centre of its run, the line of sight is horizontal.

Optical plummet

This assists the centering of the instrument particularly in windy weather.

25


WEEK FIVE

3.1 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (G.P.S.)
The global positioning system is one of the available systems used for satellite positioning. It
is also another method of determining horizontal and three dimensional positions for
engineering surveys by processing measurements from artificial Earth satellites.
The development of GPS (also known as NAVSTAR for navigation system using timing and
ranging) began in 1973. Designed primarily for military users, GPS is managed and is under
the control of the U.S. department of Defence. It is developed so that a user at any point on
near the Earth can obtain three dimensional coordinates instantaneously. These fixes can be
taken at any time of the day or night and in the any weather conditions.
The GPS consists of three segments called the space segment, the control segment and user
segment.





26


Figure 5.1 : A hand held skygolf-slycaddie-sg4-gps-system











27

3.2 Space segment



Figure 52 :SPACE_GPS_NAVSTAR_IIA_IIR_IIF_Constellation.

28


Figure 5.3 : A 748px-GPS_Satellite_NASA,

When fully operational, the space segment will consist of 24 satellites all of which will be it
orbits at an altitude of 20200km. at this altitude, each satellite will orbit the Earth every 12
hours and this, together with a suitable choice of orbital plane for each satellite, ensure that at
least four (the minimum needed for a position fix) will be in view at any time.
All satellites in the constellation transmit two L band signals known as L
1
and L
2
of
frequencies 1575.42MH
Z
and 1227.60MH
Z
respectively. L
1
is modulated with two binary
codes known as the C/A (course acquisition) and p (precise) codes and a data message.
The data message consists of an almanac giving the approximate position of all the satellites
in the system, the satellite ephemeris which contains; precise information about the position
of the host satellite and subsidiary information such as clock corrections and the status of the
system. The L
2
carrier is modulated with the p code and data message only.
The coarse acquisition code allows access to the standard position service which has an
intended accuracy for single point positioning of the order of 150m and the precise code
allows the precise positioning service which has an intended accuracy of about 15m. By
giving an approximate position, the C/A code is able to help a receiver acquire code for more
precise measurement of position.
Control and user segments

29

Five monitor stations form the control segment of global positioning system; a master control
station situated at Colorado Springs and four other stations at Hawaii, Kwajalein, Diego
Garcia, and Ascensio Island. Each station tracks all the GPS satellites and this information is
relayed to the master control station (at Colorado) where it is used to predict future orbits for
all satellites. In addition, the clock on board each satellite is monitored and comparison is
made with the GPS clock at Colorado Springs to enable corrections to be computed to keep
satellite clocks in step with the GPS time. The ephemeris predictions and clock corrections
are loaded to the satellites regularly and the data message transmitted by each satellite
changes every hour. In case problems arise with the tracking network, each satellite stores
sufficient data to be able to predict and transmit orbit data 14days without any update.
The GPS user segment consists of all civil and military users of the system. In addition to
land surveyors, the number of other civilian users of GPS is considerable since it is capable
of dynamic positioning and has applications in hydro graphic surveying, setting out, civil
engineering construction, vehicle navigation and all forms of navigations.

3.3 GPS POSITIONING METHODS

Pseudo ranging: by this method, GPS positioning is carried out with a single receiver
determining Pseudo ranges
Both the C/A and P codes transmitted by each GPS satellites are digital Pseudo random
timing codes. The C/A code has a frequency of 1.023MH
Z
and repeats every 1ms, whereas
the p code has a frequency of 1.023HM
Z
, but is 38 weeks long. At a frequency of
1.023HM
Z
, the spacing between binary digits on the C/A code is about 300m and for the p
code, the spacing is about 30m. These spacing (or the frequency of the codes) dictate what
accuracy is possible from Pseudo range measurements with GPS. Since the C/A code
repeats every 1ms, it is easy for a ground receiver to acquire without knowing the pseudo
random sequence.
However, unless a user has prior knowledge of the p code, it is impossible to decode
because of the long pseudo random sequence involved.
When a receiver locks into a satellite, the incoming signal triggers the receiver to generate a
C/A code identical to that produced by the satellite. The replica code generated by the
receiver is then compared with the satellite code in a process known as cross correlation in
which the receiver code is shifted until it is phase with the satellite code. The amount by
which the receiver generated code is shifted is equal to the transit time of the signal between
satellite and receiver, multiplied by the speed of light; this gives the distance between the

30

satellite and receiver. If measurements are to be taken using the p code, the receiver repeats
all cross correlation process and the so called hand over word instructs the receiver
which portion of the p code to generate.
All GPS satellites are fitted with very accurate caesium clocks which are all kept
synchronised in GPS time by applying frequent corrections. On the other hand, receiver
clocks are of power quality and are not usually synchronised with GPS time.
Consequently, the receiver generated codes contain a clock error which affects transit times.
Because of this, all ranges measured by receiver will be biased and are called pseudo
ranges.
As well as pseudo range measurement, a receiver will also decode the data message and
from this computes the position of the satellite at the time of measurement.
ii. Carrier phase measurement: Although the equipment and methods used in EDM are
very different to GPS, the GPS receivers also use phase comparison to measure distances to
satellites but this is carried out by comparing the phase of an incoming satellite signal with a
similar signal generated by the receiver. These phase measurements are taken on the L
1
and
L
2
carrier waves with a resolution of about 1
0
and because the carriers have very short wave
lengths of 0.19m (L
1
signal) and 0.24m (L
2
signal) it is possible to observe a range with
millimetre precision.
At the start of a measurement, a GPS receiver must first remove the codes from the L
1

and L
2
signals so that it can access the carrier wave.

31

WEEK SIX

3.4 How GPS Works





Figure 6.1 G.PS. Configuration.

When people talk about "a GPS," they usually mean a GPS receiver. The Global Positioning
System (GPS) is actually a constellation of 27 Earth-orbiting satellites (24 in operation and
three extras in case one fails). The U.S. military developed and implemented this satellite
network as a military navigation system, but soon opened it up to everybody else.

Each of these 3,000- to 4,000-pound solar-powered satellites circles the globe at about 12,000
miles (19,300 km), making two complete rotations every day. The orbits are arranged so that
at any time, anywhere on Earth, there are at least four satellites "visible" in the sky.,


32

A GPS receiver's job is to locate four or more of these satellites, figure out the distance to
each, and use this information to deduce its own location. This operation is based on a simple
mathematical principle called trilateration. GPS receiver calculates its position on earth based
on the information it receives from four located satellites. This system works pretty well, but
inaccuracies do pop up. For one thing, this method assumes the radio signals will make their
way through the atmosphere at a consistent speed (the speed of light). In fact, the Earth's
atmosphere slows the electromagnetic energy down somewhat, particularly as it goes through
the ionosphere and troposphere. The delay varies depending on where you are on Earth,
which means it's difficult to accurately factor this into the distance calculations. Problems can
also occur when radio signals bounce off large objects, such as skyscrapers, giving a receiver
the impression that a satellite is farther away than it actually is. On top of all that, satellites
sometimes just send out bad almanac data, misreporting their own position.

Differential GPS (DGPS) helps correct these errors. The basic idea is to gauge GPS
inaccuracy at a stationary receiver station with a known location. Since the DGPS hardware
at the station already knows its own position, it can easily calculate its receiver's inaccuracy.
The station then broadcasts a radio signal to all DGPS-equipped receivers in the area,
providing signal correction information for that area. In general, access to this correction
information makes DGPS receivers much more accurate than ordinary receivers.


33

WEEK SEVEN

3.5 GPS INSTRUMENTATION




Figure 7.1 G.P.S. Instrumentation.

*** The weld GPS system 200 from Leica has a 9 - channel dual frequency
receiver which means that it can track 9 satellites simultaneously and can take measurements
on both L
1
and L
2
signals. It uses a reconstructed carrier in phase measurements but should
the p code becomes encrypted, it can switch to the signal squaring method. The system 200
supports all the measurement modes used for precise GPS surveying and with their SKI post
processing soft ware, the accuracy quoted by Leica for baseline measurements is 5mm x
1ppm of the baseline length. For single point positioning with pseudo ranges the accuracy
is 15m subject to SA.

34



*** The 400 SSE Geodetic surveyors from Trimble navigation is also a dual
frequency of 9 - channel receiver. Normally, it uses p codes measurements on both L
1
and
L
2
frequencies ambiguity resolution but during periods of p code encryption the receiver
measures the cross correlation of the encrypted by either reconstructing the original carrier
or by using a signal squaring technique. In order to be able to reconstruct the original
carrier, an exact knowledge of pseudo random binary codes (usually the p code) is
required.
Squaring techniques, on the other hand, require no knowledge of codes (this is known as the
codeless approach) and give a carrier with codes eliminated at twice the original frequency.
Because of this, the squaring technique is capable of being more accurate since phase
measurements are taken at half the original wavelength. Unfortunately this method suffers the
disadvantage that the squaring process destroys the data message and an external ephemeris
must be used to obtain satellite positions.
P Codes in conjunction with the C/A codes instead. This combination of observables
according to the manufacturer, provides faster ambiguity resolution than squaring techniques
when used for static positioning, the 4000 SSE has a quoted accuracy of 5mm +1ppm times
the baseline length and when used in the various kinematic surveying mode sit has a quoted
accuracy of 200mm +1ppm of the base-line length.Data processing for the 400 SSE is
carried out with a software package known as GPSurvey.


*** The Ashtech Z 12 is a 12 channel GPS receiver that uses the p code on both L
1

and L
2
frequencies and the C/A code to obtain carrier phase and pseudo range
measurements. These are all combined to resolve carrier phase ambiguities when anti
spoofing (AS) is turned on, the instrument automatically activates its Z Tracking mode
which enable the cancellation of the effects of AS. The Z 12 has an accuracy quoted in
millimetres, the exact figure depending on observation times and operating mode.






35


3.6 APPLICATIONS OF GPS

The GPS is a rather complex system that can be used in so many ways. For basic point
positioning and navigation, hand held receivers with an accuracy at the 100m level have
found wide spread use while at the other end of the GPS spectrum, geodetic receivers with a
computer and post processing software are now starting to be used for routine survey work
at the centimetre level.
Although the accuracy of GPS is important, some surveyors feel that the main advantage of
the instrument compared with conventional surveys is that it can be used in any weather
condition day or night. This enables GPS surveying to be carried out over extended periods at
any time of the year without restrictions such as rain, fog and poor visibility delaying work.
Another advantage when surveying with GPS is that inter visibility between stations or
points surveyed is not necessary. This allows control stations to be placed where convenient
and not at locations which may be difficult to get to in order to establish lines of sight.
At the moment, the full potentials of GPS has not been realised even though the accuracy
required for engineering surveys can be achieved. One of the reasons for this is the cost of
GPS surveying which can be uneconomical compared with conventional surveying. These
high costs are caused by firstly the receivers which are between five and ten times more
expensive than total stations and secondly the fact that GPS is not fully kinematics and there
are problems with satellite coverage, both of which can result in long occupation times.
Added to these, there are difficulties in defining heights above survey datums such as mean
sea level and with real time data processing and control.
Despite these draw backs, GPS has been very successfully used for control surveys where it
has joined traversing triangulation and trilateration as a method for coordinating stations in a
network.
The best application identified so far for GPS have been for improving existing national
control networks and for surveys in remote areas. GPS is also used on engineering projects
that extend over large areas, especially where a high degree of precision is required, e.g. in a
tunnel network surveying.
Another application where GPS has been successfully utilised in engineering surveying is in
providing control for a number of major route location and highway maintenance schemes. In
these examples, GPS provided what is known as the primary control or points with height
precision spread out over relatively long distances. These were used as reference points for

36

providing further control, for example link traversing was carried out between the GPS
reference points using total station or combined theodolite and EDM systems. This may well
be the best use for GPS in future where it is integrated with other methods of surveying rather
than trying to compare with them.
As far as detail survey and setting out are concerned, GPS is not used extensively in Civil
Engineering and construction as it can not compete with conventional large scale surveying
systems at present, particularly regarding costs. However, the possible applications in
engineering surveying f0r low cost, small size GPS black box capable of high precision,
real time surveys are enormous. Such surveying system would be integrated with or even
replace existing methods for control surveys, detail surveys and setting out and would
completely change surveying as it is known today. Much research is being carried out to
achieve this and developments in receiver technology and associated software.




37

WEEK EIGHT

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO TOTAL STATIONS
The total station otherwise known as electronic tachometer is an instrument used in surveying
which is capable of measuring angles and distances electronically. J ust as is common with
other electronic surveying instruments, the total station is operated using a multi function
key board which is connected to a micro processor built into the instrument. The micro
processor not only controls both the angle and distance measuring systems but also used as a
small computer that can electronically calculate slope corrections, vertical components, and
rectangular co ordinates and in some cases, can also store observations directly using an
internal memory.



Figure 8.1: A Detailed sketch of the Total Station.
Below is a figure showing the NIKON DTM A 5LG, SOKKIA SET3C and the Zeiss Elta 5,
a sample of total station from the extensive range now available.



38



Figure 8.2 : A KTS-442R-445R-Total-Station.


39


Figure 8.3 : A 76e%20TotalStation






40


Figure 8.4 : A TOTAL STATION




The table below shows the technical specifications in summary of the types given



Table 8.1: Specifications of some examples of total station.


41

Instrument Type. Nikkon DMT
A5LG
SOKKIA SET 3C ZEISS ELTA 5
Angle measurement
- H accuracy
- V accuracy

2

2


3

5
Distance measurement
- to one prism
- to three prisms
Accuracy

2.3km
3.1km
(2mm +2ppm)

2.2km
2.9km
(3mm +3ppm)

1.0km
1.5km
(5mm +3ppm)
Measurement time 3.0 seconds 3.2 seconds 3.4 seconds
Data displayed
- H and V angles
- SD, HD and VD
- X, Y and Z co ords
- setting out data

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Data recording Data recorder field
computer
Data recorder field
computer memory
card
Data recorder field
computer
Compensator battery Singleaxis Ni
cad 7.2v
Dual axis Ni cad
6.0v
Single axis Ni cad
4.8v

4.2 Angle measurement
This exercise is done using an electronic theodolite .All features associated with the
electronic theodolite (a theodolite that produces a digital output of direction or angle) is
appliance to all total stations.
Typically, a total station can record angles with resolution of between 1

and 20

and all
instruments incorporate some form of compensator, the more expensive using dual axis and
the less sophisticated, single axis compensator.







42

4.3 Distance measurement

Currently, most total stations use a Ga As infra red carrier source and phase comparison
techniques in order to measure distances. However, compared to theodolite mounted systems
nearly all total stations use coaxial optics in which the EDM transmitter and receiver are
combined with the theodolite telescope. This makes the instrument much more compact and
easier to use on site. Normally a total station will measure a slope distance and the micro
processor uses the vertical angle recorded by the theodolite along the line of sight (line of
distance measurement) to calculate the horizontal distance. In addition, the height difference
between the trunnion axis and prism centre is also calculated and displayed. All instruments
use some form of signal attenuations to protect the receiver.
Three modes are usually available for distance measurement namely;
Standard (or coarse) mode: This has a resolution of 1mm and a measurement time of 1 2
seconds.
Precise (or refine) mode: This has a resolution of 1mm but a measurement time of 3 4
seconds. This is more accurate than the standard mode since the instrument repeats the
measurement and refines the arithmetic mean value.
Tracking (or fast): Mode in which the distance measurement is automatically replaced at
intervals of less than one second. Normally, this mode has a resolution of 10m and is used
extensively when setting out since readings are updated very quickly and vary in response to
movements of the prism which is usually pole mounted.
The range of a total station is typically 1 3km to a single prism assuming visibility is
good and up to a range of 500m which covers 90 percents of the distance measured on site,
the precision of a typical total station is about 5mm. Most instruments allow for the input of
temperature and pressure which enables the distance readings to be automatically corrected
for atmospheric effects. Also, any value of prism constant can be entered into the instrument
via the alpha numeric key board.
If a code is entered from the key board to define the feature being observed, the data can be
processed much more quickly by downloading it into approximate software.
On numeric key boards codes are represented by numbers and/or letters which give greater
versatility and scope. The alpha- numeric control panel of the Topcon GTS 6 is shown in
figure below.



43


Figure 8.5 A sketch of the Alpha Numeric key board of the Total Station.


4.4 Power supply

Rechargeable nickel cadmium (Nicad) batteries are now standard for surveying instruments
and these are connected directly to the total station without using cables. For angle and
distance measurements, between two and ten hours use can be obtained from a battery,
depending on the instrument. Most total stations are capable of giving a battery power
indication and some have an auto save feature which switches the instrument off or into
some standby mode after it has not been used for a specified time. It is a good practice, no
matter what assurances a manufacturer may give about the life of a battery to have a fully
charged spare with the instrument at all times.
The micro processor of the total station apart from controlling the angle and distance
function, it is also programmed to perform coordinate and other calculations.
Even though a total station can perform many of the calculations often done manually on site,
this does not mean that the surveyor or engineer should lose this ability. Thus, this
opportunity should be seen as a method and not a substitute for other surveying principles.
GTS-6
REC BAT MENU





F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
DISPLY SREEN

44

WEEK NINE

5.1 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
A traverse is a continuous framework of lines connecting a number of points, lengths of the
lines and their angular relationship to each other being measured. The lines are known as legs
and the points as stations.
A traverse is a means of providing horizontal control in which rectangular coordinates are
determined from a combination of angle and distance measurements along lines joining
adjacent stations.

USES
Traverse surveys are used where site conditions make the chain triangulation method
impossible, i.e. a wood, built up factor blocks, long winding river or where the survey is of
large area and details are required.
The main purpose of theodolite traversing is to establish the bearing and lengths of a series of
adjoining lines which together form the framework for the survey of a particular area. The
bearings and distances are then plotted with protractor or by triangular co ordinate.

5.2 TYPES OF TRAVERSING
We have two major types;
Open traverse
Close traverse

OPEN TRAVERSE
A traverse whose starting and finishing stations do not coincide or are not both fixed or
known is called an open traverse. This type of traverse is used to survey rivers, roads or
railway routes.
Open traverse commences at a known point and finishes at unknown point or station and
therefore are not close. Since open traverse are used only in exceptional circumstances, there
is no external check on the measurement.




45

CLOSE TRAVERSE

When a framework form a close figure (or when the traverse connects station which position
are known) it is known as a closed traverse, such a traverse is easily checked, as a surveying
start and finishes at a fixed point or points.
In the figure below, a traverse has been run from station A (of known position) to stations 1,
2, 3 and another known position B. Traverse A ,1, 2, 3,B is therefore; closed at B. This type
of traverse is called a link, connecting or close route traverse.









Figure 9.1 :Closed Traverse Network.
The figure shown below is a framework of a closed traverse known as a polygon traverse it
started and ended at a common point x.









Figure 9.2 : Closed Traverse Network.




A
1
2
3
B
N
X

46

5.3 TRAVERSE SPECIFICATION AND ACCURACY

The accuracy of a traverse is governed largely by the type of equipment used and the
observing and measuring techniques employed. These are basically dictated by the purpose of
the survey work.
Many types of traverse are possible but three broad groups can be defined and are given in
table 2.1 below.
The most common type of traverse for general engineering work and site surveys would be of
typical accuracy 1 in 10, 000.
An important factor when selecting traverse equipment is that the various instruments should
produce roughly the same order to precision, that is, it is pointless using a 1

theodolite to
measure traverse angles if the lengths are being measured with a synthetic tape.

Table 9.1 : General traverse specifications
Type Typical Purpose Angular
measurement
Distance
measurement
Geodetic or
precise
1 in 50, 000 or
better
1. Major control
for mapping
large circles
2. Provision of
very accurate
reference points
for engineering
surveys.

0.1

EDM
General 1 in 5, 000 to 1
in 50, 000
1. General
engineering
survey that is,
setting out and
site surveys
2. Secondary
control for
mapping large
areas
1

or 2

theodolite
EDM, steel taps

47

Low accuracy 1 in 500 to 1 in
5, 000
1. Small scale
detail surveys.
2. Rough large
scale detail
surveys.
3. preliminary
or
reconnaissance
surveys
20

or 1

theodolite
Synthetic tapes,
stadia
tacheometry


48

WEEK TEN


5.4 Traversing field work: Reconnaissance
This is one of the most important aspects of any survey and must always be undertaken
before any angles or lengths are measured. The main aim of the reconnaissance is to locate
suitable positions for traverse stations and a poorly executed reconnaissance can result in
difficulties at later stages in a survey leading to waste of time and inaccurate work.
To start a reconnaissance, an over all picture of the area us obtained by walking all over the
site keeping in mind the requirements of the survey. If an existing map or plan of the area is
available, this is a useful aid at this stage.
When sitting station, an attempt should be made to keep the number of stations to a minimum
and the lengths of traverse legs should be kept as long as possible to minimise the effect of
any centring errors.
If the traverse is being run for a detail survey then the method which is to be used for the
subsequent operation must be considered. For most sites a polygon traverse is usually sited
around the area at points of maximum visibility. It should be possible to observe across
checks or lines across the area to enable other points inside the area to be fixed and also to
assist in the location for angular errors. Traverse for read works and pipelines generally
require a link traverse. Since these sites tend to be long and narrow. The shape of the read or
pipe line dictation the shape of the traverse.
If distance measurements are to be carried out using tapes the ground conditions between
stations should be suitable for this purpose, steep slopes or badly broken ground along the
traverse lines should be avoided and it is better if there are as few changes of slopes as
possible. Roads and paths that have been surfaced are usually good for ground measurements.
Stations should be located such that they are clearly inter visible, preferably at ground level,
that is, with a theodolite set up at one point, it should be possible to see the ground marks at
adjacent stations and as many others as possible. This eases the angular measurement process
and enhances its accuracy.
Stations should be placed in firm level ground so that the theodolite and tripod are supported
adequately when observing angles at the stations. Very often stations are used for a sited
survey and at later stage for setting out. Since some time elapse between the site survey and
the start of the construction, the choice of firm ground in order to prevent the stations moving
in any way becomes even more important. It is sometimes necessary to install semi
permanent stations.

49

Owing to the effects of lateral refraction and shimmer traverse ,lines of sight should be well
above ground level (greater than 1m) for most of their length to avoid any possible angular
errors due to rays passing close to ground level (grazing rays). These effects are serious in hot
weather.
When are stations have been sited a sketch of the traverse should be prepared approximately
to scale. The stations are given reference letters or numbers. This greatly assists in the
planning and checking of fieldwork.

5.5 STATION MARKING
When a reconnaissance is completed, the stations have to be marked for the duration or
longer of the survey. Station markers must be permanent, not easily disturbed and they should
be clearly visible. The construction and type of station depends on the requirements of the
survey.
For general purpose traverse, wooden pegs are used which are hammered into the ground
until the top of the peg is almost flushed with the ground level (see figure below).





300-500mm



Figure 10.1 ; station peg.
If it is not possible to drive the whole length of the peg into hard ground the excess above the
ground should be sawn off. This is necessary since a long length of peg left above the ground
is liable to be knocked down. A nail should be tapped into the top of the peg to define the
exact position of the station as shown in figure above.
Stations in roadways can be marked with 75mm pipe nail driven flush with the surface. The
nail surround should be painted for easy identification. These marks are fairly permanent, but
it is usually prudent to enquire if the road is to be resurfaced in the near future.

A more permanent station would be normally required on marks set in concrete, typical
station designs are shown in the figure below.
50mm square
wooden peg
Nail



50


A reference or witnessing sketch of the features surrounding each stations should be
prepared, especially if the stations are to be left for any time before being used, or if they will
be required again at a much later stage.
Measurements are taken from the station to nearby permanent features to enable it to be
relocated. A typical sketch is shown in figure below.
















Metal
post
Station
14
(Iron Bar in Concrete)
Building
Man hole
3.4m 3.8m
N
Figure 10.2: Witnessing Sketch

51

WEEK ELEVEN

6.1 SETTING OUT
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in their publication ISO/DP 7078
Building construction defines setting out as the establishment of the marks and lines to define
the positions and levels of the elements for the construction work so that works may proceed
with reference of them.
Setting out can also be defined as the process whereby the positions and levels of new works
already recorded on a working plan are transferred to the ground.
A definition often used for setting out is that, it is the reverse of surveying. This definition
means that whereas surveying is the process of producing a plan or map of a particular area
or site, setting out begins with the plan and ends with the various elements of a particular
engineering project correctly positioned on the ground in the area.
However, as in surveying, setting out must be arranged so that the work at hand can be
properly checked. Every peg placed must be proved to be in its correct position as provided
in the plan within allowable limits.

6.2 AIMS OF SETTING OUT

There are two main aims when undertaking setting out operations;
The various elements of the scheme or work must be correct in all three dimensions both
relatively and absolutely, that is each element must be in its correct size, in its correct
position and at its correct deduced level.
Once setting out begins, it must proceed quickly and with little or no delay in order that the
works can proceed smoothly and the costs can be minimized.
In practice, there are many techniques, which can be used to achieve these two aims.
However, they are all based on three general principles
Points of known E, N coordinates must be established within or near the site from which the
design point can be set out in their correct plan positions. This involves horizontal control
techniques
Points of known elevation relative to an agreed datum are required within or near the site
from which the design points can be set out at their correct reduced levels. This involves
vertical control technique.

52

Accurate methods must be adopted to establish design points from these horizontal and
vertical controls. This involves positioning techniques

6.3 STAGES IN SETTING OUT.

As the work proceeds, the setting out falls into two broad stages;
Initially, techniques are required to define the site, to set out the foundations and to monitor
their construction. Once this has been done, emphasis changes to the above ground
elements of the scheme and methods must be adopted which will ensure that they are fixed at
their correct levels and positions. These two stages are explained as follows

FIRST STAGE SETTING OUT.

The first stage when setting out any work is to locate the boundaries of the works in their
correct position on the ground surface and to define the major elements. In order to achieve
this, horizontal and vertical control points must be established on or near the site as explained
earlier. These are then used not only to define the perimeter of the site which enables fences
to be erected and site clearance to begin but also to set out critical design points on the
scheme and to define slopes, directions and so on. For example; in a structural project, the
main corners and sites of the building will be located and the required depths of dig to
foundation level will be defined. In a road project, the centre line and the extent of the
embankments and cuttings will be established together with their required slopes.
When the boundaries and major elements have been pegged out, the top soil is stripped off
and excavation work begins. During this period, it may be necessary to relocate any peg(s)
that are accidentally disturbed by the plant and equipment. Once the formation level is
reached, the foundations are laid in accordance with the drawings and the critical design
points located earlier.
Setting out techniques is used to check that the foundations are in their correct three
dimensional positions. The first stage ends once construction to ground floor level, sub base
level or similar levels has been completed.





53

WEEK TWELVE

SECOND STAGE SETTING OUT.
This continues from the first stage, beginning at the ground floor slab, road sub base level
or similar levels. Up to this point, all the controls will still be outside the main construction,
for example, the pegs defining building corners, centre lines and so on will have been
knocked out during the earth moving work and only the original control will be
undisturbed. Some off set pegs may remain but these too will be set back from the actual
construction itself.
The purpose of second stage setting out therefore is to transfer the horizontal and vertical
controls used in the first stage into the various elements of the scheme.

6.4 EQUIPMENT FOR SETTING OUT OF BUILDING.

The nature and complexity of the building or any engineering work like; bridges, dams, roads
etc. determine the accuracy that need to be achieved, which in turns, defines or determines
which types of equipment will be selected for the task e.g. dumpy level or theodolite, fibre
glass tape or steel tape, plumb bob and line or optical plummet etc.



54

Figure 12.1 : A MEASURING TAPE.





Figure 12.2 : A STEEL MEASURING TAPE.



Figure 12.3 : A DIGITAL MEASURING TAPE.

PEGS
: These are usually made of two materials;


55



Figure 12.4 : Wooden Pegs.

i. Timber pegs 50mm section of variable length but having a pointed end to
facilitated driving into the ground by hammering. A timber peg may have a nail
fixed to its top at the centre to locate exactly the station point. All setting out pegs
should be clearly marked with a 50mm deep and red paint and should have a
board of blue paint.
ii. Steel pegs they are usually formed from lengths of steel reinforcement rods, cut to
a suitable lengths and may have one edge sharpened to facilitate careful driving
positions have been checked, they are normally surrounded by concrete.
Identification works may be made into the surface of the concrete before it sets
hard

Lines:
They are strings, wire, nylon etc. the weather condition plays a very vital role in selecting
which material to be used so that the line is safe from damage, stretch, sag in prevailing
working conditions of the weather. The lines provides straight out lines from a peg to
another. They define straight lines from points or stations.

PROFILE BOARDS:
These are used in conjunction with pegs so that extended lines positions may be marked by
using profile boards, the string or wire lines can be removed in the knowledge that when they
are required again, they can be positioned exactly as they were originally. Normally, a profile
boards is erected near each off set peg and used in exactly the same way as a sight rail, a
traveler are being used between profile boards to monitor excavation

56




FIGURE 12.5 : SHOWING PROFILE BOARD


SITE SQUARE:
This is an optical device used for setting out right angles whereby unskilled labour can attain
an accuracy of 5mm in 30m.
The instrument is basically of two telescopes mounted one above the other and with their
lines of sight set at 90
0
to each other. The site square is supported on a tripod stand, which
can be set over a fixed mark on the ground. The lower telescope is aimed along the line from
which the right angle is to be established being brought to bear on any site mark in the line by
moving the telescope:
In the vertical plane
Laterally by means of a fine turning screw. Once the adjustment of the lower telescope is
complete, the upper telescope will trace out a line at right angles to the original line and a
further site mark can be positioned as required by moving this telescope in the vertical plane
only.

57





















Figure 12.6 : Travelers used in setting out slopping ground

58

WEEK THIRTEEN

6.5 SETTING OUT OF BUILDING

Setting out the base line: The base line adopted in setting out a building is usually the
building line, although on extensive factory layouts are centre lines of buildings are
sometimes runs of machinery. In either case, the location of such lines is reacted to the
physical features of the site. The building line is the line of the front face of the building as
indicated in figure below (line AB).




Figure 13.1 : Setting out a simple building plan.
The position of the building line may be defined on the working plan by measurements from
any of the following;
The property boundary
The edge of the road kerb
The centre line of the road.

It is important to note that
Proposed building (structure)




EXISTING
BUILDING

EXISTING
BUILDING

59

Where there is no indication of the building line, its position must be agreed on site with the
local authority-building inspectors.
Where there is an obvious line of existing building frontages, this line is usually adopted as
the building line.
The building line is first ranged by eye and pegs are placed at the two front corners of the
outer face of the proposed building. Critical measurements are made from the boundary to the
building corners as shown in figure above or defined by local regulations and along the face
of the proposed building by nails hammed into the pegs.
6.6 B. Setting out the subsidiary lines:

From the two front pegs, A and B, angles are set out in accordance with the building plan to
follow the outer face of the flank walls. This could be done with a theodolite, setting up over
each peg in turn and turning off the required angle from the building line in each case. As the
angle of the flank wall is most often 90
0
this could be set out without a theodolite using the
following;
a. A 3:4:5 taped triangle
b. A builders square, which is a 3:4:5-ratio triangle made out of timber
c. An optical square
d. A site square, which is a proprietary instrument consisting of two small telescopes
fixed rigidly at right angles on a small stand.
e. A level incorporating a horizontal circle like a theodolite, but reading by venire to
about 5only. When the two rear pegs; C and D are placed and nail marked, they are
checked by measuring between them and by measuring the diagonals.
In a rectangle building, the two diagonals must be equal to prove the positioning of
the pegs.
After the main outline has been pegged ,any minor extensions or returns from the
main figure are pegged and checked, such as the pegs at e, f, g, h, j and k, when the complete
outline of the outer face of the building has been pegged and checked.
Setting out the reference marks: The pegs now placed will be destroyed as the
foundations are excavated and the reference system must be adopted. This can be achieved by
the use of profile boards, illustrated in the above figure.
Profile boards are constructed of 150 or 200mm by 25mm, boards supported on 50mm
square posts hammered firmly into the ground, well clear of the working area. On well
organized sites, the boards are placed at one level, usually finished floor level or dam proof
course level. The advantages of these are as follows;

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They help to keep the tape horizontal when making measurements.
They provide a level datum around the site so that less check leveling is needed subsequently.
Disturbance of the boards can easily be noted visually.
Levels of work below ground can be controlled by travelers using the profile boards as sight
rails.
Approximate levels can be obtained by direct vertical measurements up or down from lines
strung between the profile boards.
Once all boards have been placed in position, all at one level, lines are strung between
them and positioned vertically above the nail markers defining the building outline. If the line
is some distance above the peg, the peg position must be plumbed upward, using plumb line
in reference to the less accurate brick layers spirit level. When the lines have been accurately
strung across the profile boards, positions are marked with a nail or saw cut so that they
may be replaced at any time. The intersections of the various strung lines will then define the
peg positions when they are removed for excavations. Profile boards for minor buildings or
projections are not always erected or needed. Full foundation width is marked on the boards
and two lines strung between these points to define the width of the foundation trench to be
dug. Once the trench has been started, the lines are removed.
Alternatively, the lines may be temporarily defined along the ground by means of
strips of lime or sand to guide excavation of the trench.





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WEEK FOURTEEN

7.1 TRIANGULATION AND TRILATERATION.

Like traversing, triangulation and trilateration are surveying methods used to locate
control points or stations which form a network.
A triangulation network consists of a series of single or overlapping triangles as
shown below, the points (vertices) of each triangle forming control stations. Position is
determined by measuring all the angles in the network and by measuring the length of one or
more base lines such as XY or IB, with the base line, application of the Sine Rule in each
triangle throughout the network enables the lengths of all triangle sides to be calculated.
These lengths when combined with the measured angles enable the coordinates of the stations
to be computed.







Figure 14.1 : Triangulation Network.

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Figure 14.2 A map.

7.2 TRIANGULATION AND TRILATERATION: FIELDWORK.

The methods that can be used to establish and observe a combined network vary
considerably with its size and it is emphasized the following sections are concerned solely
with civil engineering and construction sites where distances between control stations seldom
exceed 1km.






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Figure 14 3:TRIANGULATION NETWORK

A trilateration network is a series of singles or overlapping triangles but in this case,
position is determined by measuring all the distances in the network instead of the angles.
However, to enable station coordinate to be computed, the measured distances are combined
with angle values derived from the side length s of each triangle.
Until the advent of EDM, the measurement of distances in a trilateration scheme with
sufficient accuracy was a very difficult and time consuming process and because of this
trilateration techniques were seldom used for establishing horizontal control. Traversing
techniques were also limited since it was not possible
to maintain a uniformly high accuracy when traversing over long distances. As a result
of that, triangulation was used extensively in the past to provide control for survey covering
large areas.
However, nowadays, because of the high precision, and accuracy of modern
equipment, traversing, triangulation and trilateration can all be used as methods of
establishing horizontal control. Although traversing is the most popular method for providing
control on site, combined triangulation and trilateration is often used; this involves the

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measurements of angles and distances through out a network rather than between selected
stations as in traversing. On construction sites, combined network are used where horizontal
control is required to be spread over large areas and they are also used to provide reference
points for control extension, for monitoring and for precise engineering work.
The reconnaissance for a network is the most important aspect of the survey and is
carried out to determine the positions of the control stations. Since this is linked to the size
and shape of the figure to be used in the scheme and to the number of measurements to be
taken, the reconnaissance will determine the amount of fieldwork that will have to be
undertaken.
To start the reconnaissance, information relevant to the survey area should e gathered,
especially that relating to any previous survey. Such information may include existing maps,
aerial photographs and any site surveys already prepared for the construction project.
From this information, a network diagram should be prepared, approximately to scale,
showing proposed locations for the stations. It is also important that the survey area is visited,
at which time the final positions for the stations are chosen.
Many guidelines for reconnaissance when traversing are also applicable here, but
particular attention must be paid to the establishing the station points, the layout of stations in
relation to the survey work and the precision and reliability of the network must be assessed.
Based on the reconnaissance, decisions regarding the measurements to be

taken are made and the instruments to be used for the survey are specified. Most

importantly, a check should be made to ensure that the survey meets its specifications

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WEEK FIFTEEN

7.3 DISTANCE MEASUREMENT.

During the observation of a network, the lengths of as of the triangles sides as possible are
measured using some sort of EDM equipment. When using the EDM equipment, the
meteorological conditions at the time of measurements must be monitored carefully and
suitable corrections made; also, any systematic instrument errors present in the equipment
must be allowed for by careful calibration of the of the equipment. For National Grid based
surveys, the scale factor is applied to each measured distance and, if the distance has been
measured at an appreciable elevation, a height correction must be applied since mean sea
level is the datum height for the National Grid.

7.4 ANGLE MEASUREMENT.

The instrument normally required for measurement of the angles in networks is a 0.1/0.2
or 1 double reading optical micrometer theodolite or an electronic theodolite of similar
precision.
The theodolite is set up and angles are observed and booked. Very often, a total station or
theodolite mounted EDM system is used to observe a network and distances and angles are
measured simultaneously at each station.



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Figure 15.1 :Distance measuring Instrument.