2.

Pressure and depth

Definition. Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by water (or air in the
atmosphere) on either side of the unit area.
Units. The units of force are (mass length / time^2) which you can remember from
Newton's Law F = ma. The units of pressure are (force / length^2) or (mass /[length
time^2]).
cgs: dynes/cm^2.
mks: Newtons/m^2 and 1 Pascal = 1 Newton/m^2.
Atmospheric pressure is usually measured in bars. 1 bar = 10^6 dynes/cm^2 =
10^5 Pascal.
Ocean pressure is usually measured in decibars. 1 dbar = 10^-1 bar = 10^5
dyne/cm^2 = 10^4 Pascal.
Description. The force due to pressure comes from the difference in pressure
from one point to another - i.e. the "pressure gradient force" since the gradient
is the change over distance. The force is in the direction from high to low
pressure, hence we say the force is oriented "down the pressure gradient".
In the ocean, the downward force of gravity is balanced mostly by an upward
pressure gradient force. That is, the water is not accelerating downwards -
instead it is kept from collapsing by the upward pressure gradient. Therefore
pressure increases with increasing depth.
The pressure at a given depth depends on the mass of water lying above that
depth. (Hydrostatic equation given in class.) If the pressure change is 100
decibars (100 dbar), gravity g = 9.8 m/sec^2, and density is 1025 kg/m^3, then
the depth change is 99.55 meter.
The total vertical variation in pressure in the ocean is thus from near zero
(surface) to 10,000 dbar (deepest).
Horizontal pressure gradients drive the horizontal flows in the ocean (which are
much much stronger than the vertical flows). The horizontal variation in
pressure in the ocean is due entirely to variations in the mass distribution.
Where the water column above a given depth (or rather geopotential surface,
parallel to the geoid) is heavier because it is either heavier or thicker or both,
the pressure will be greater. Note that the horizontal pressure differences which
drive the ocean currents are on the order of a decibar over hundreds or
thousands of kilometers, that is, much smaller than the change in pressure with
depth.
How is pressure measured?
(1) Until recently, and possibly still in some circumstances, pressure was
measured using a pair of reversing thermometers - one protected from seawater
pressure by a vacuum and the other open to the seawater pressure. They were
sent in a pair down to whatever depth, then flipped over, which cuts off the
mercury in an ingenious small glass loop in the thermometer. They were
brought back aboard and the difference between the mercury column length in
the protected and unprotected thermometers was used to calculate the pressure.
(2) Quartz transducer now used with electronic instruments. The accuracy is 3
dbar and the precision is 0.5 dbar.
Figure. Depth versus pressure calculated from a CTD profile near Japan.
3. Temperature, heat and potential temperature
3.1. Temperature
Definition. Temperature is a thermodynamic property of a fluid, and is due to
the activity of molecules and atoms in the fluid. The more the activity (energy),
the higher the temperature. Temperature is a measure of the heat content. Heat
and temperature are related through the specific heat: (equation in class). When
the heat content is zero (no activity), the temperature is absolute zero (on the
Kelvin scale).
Units. Temperature units used in oceanography are degrees Celsius. For heat
content and heat transport calculations, the Kelvin scale for temperature should
be used. In the special case when mass transport is zero across the area chosen
for the heat transport calculation, degrees Celsius can of course be used. Most
oceanographic applications of heat transport rely on making such a mass
balance. (See discussion in topic 3.) 0 C = 273.16 K. A change of 1 deg C is the
same as a change of 1 deg K.
How is temperature measured? (1) Reversing mercury thermometers (see
pressure discussion above). These were invented by Negretti and Zamba in
1874. Accuracy is 0.004C and precision is 0.002C. (2) Thermistors for
electronic instruments, including replacement for reversing thermometer pairs.
Quality varies significantly. The best thermistors commonly used in
oceanographic instruments have and accuracy of 0.002C and precision of
0.0005-0.001C.
3.2. Heat
Heat per unit volume is computed from temperature using Q = density*specific
heat*T where Q is heat/volume and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin. (When
making a heat calculation within the ocean, where pressure is non-zero, use
potential temperature, as defined below.) mks units of heat are joules (i.e. an
energy unit). Heat change is expressed in Watts (i.e. joules/sec). Heat flux is in
Watts/meter^2 (energy per second per unit area).
To change the temperature by 1C in a column of water which is 100 m thick
and 1 m^2 on the top and bottom, over a period of 30 days, requires what heat
flux? The density of seawater is about 1025 kg/m^3 and the specific heat is
about 3850 J/(kg C). The heat flux into the volume must then be
density*specific heat*(delta T)*volume/(delta t) where T is temperature and t is
time. This gives a heat change of 100 W. The heat flux through the surface area
of 1m^2 is thus 100 W/m^2.
Maps of surface heat flux are shown in topic 3.
3.3. Potential temperature
Pressure in the ocean increases greatly downward. A parcel of water moving
from one pressure to another will be compressed or expanded. When a parcel of
water is compressed adiabatically, that is, without exchange of heat, its
temperature increases. (This is true of any fluid or gas.) When a parcel is
expanded adiabatically, its temperature decreases.
The change in temperature which occurs solely due to compression or
expansion is not of interest to us - it does not represent a change in heat content
of the fluid. Therefore if we wish to compare the temperature of water at one
pressure with water at another pressure, we should remove this effect of
adiabatic compression/expansion.
Definition. "Potential temperature" is the temperature which a water parcel has
when moved adiabatically to another pressure. In the ocean, we commonly use
the sea surface as our "reference" pressure for potential temperature - we
compare the temperatures of parcels as if they have been moved, without
mixing or diffusion, to the sea surface. Since pressure is lowest at the sea
surface, potential temperature (computed at surface pressure) is ALWAYS
lower than the actual temperature unless the water is lying at the sea surface.
3.4. Distribution of temperature
Temperature maps at the sea surface (Levitus annual mean).
Atlantic and Indian Oceans
Pacific Ocean
Globe (winter - JFM northern hemisphere, JAS southern hemisphere)
Surface temperature is dominated by net heating in the tropics and cooling at
higher latitudes. The total range of temperature is from the seawater freezing
point up to about 30C. Land temperatures have a much larger range. A number
of factors contribute to limiting the maximum ocean temperature - a convincing
argument has been made for the role of clouds in blocking incoming solar
radiation. Atmospheric convection becomes very vigorous when ocean
temperatures exceed about 27C.
Vertical profiles of temperature and potential temperature.
Subtropical and subpolar North Pacific
South Atlantic (20S, 25W): profiles of salinity, temperature, potential
temperature, sigma theta and sigma 4
Meridional section of temperature (to contrast with potential temperature
section)
Atlantic (25W)
Meridional sections of potential temperature
Atlantic (25W)
Pacific (150W)
Indian (95E)
The potential temperature sections show warm water at the surface to cold
down below. Warm waters reach a bit deeper in the bowls of the subtropical
gyres. Coldest deep water extending northward from Antarctica. Large rise in
isotherms south of 40S is associated with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
The potential temperature inversion layer in the South Atlantic must be
balanced by salinity since on these large scales true density inversions are never
seen.
4. Salinity and conductivity
4.1 Salinity
Definition. Salinity is roughly the number of grams of dissolved matter per
kilogram of seawater. This was the original definition, and at one time salinity
was determined by evaporating the water and weighing the residual. The
dissolved matter in seawater affects its density (see section 5 below), hence the
importance of measuring salinity.
The "law" of constant proportions (Dittmar, 1884), formalized the observation
that the composition of the dissolved matter in seawater does not vary much
from place to place. Why constant proportions? Salts come from weathering of
continents and deep-sea vents, etc - the input is very very slow (order 100000
years) compared with the mixing rate of the whole ocean (which is order 1000
years). Thus it is possible to measure just one component of the dissolved
material and then estimate the total amount of dissolved material (salinity).
This approach was used until the 1950's.
The main constituent of sea salt is Cl, the second largest is Na, followed by
many other constituents (see Pickard and Emery for table). In actuality, there is
a slight variation in the proportions, and recommendations are underway to
formulate new definitions of salinity which depend on the actual constituents -
this may likely take the form of geographically-dependent tables of corrections
to the quantity which is measured (usually conductivity).
Units. In the original definition, salinity units were o/oo (parts per thousand).
This was replaced by the "practical salinity unit" or psu. Most recently, the
recommendation of the SCOR working group on salinity is that salinity be
unitless, as the measurement is now based on conductivity and is not precisely
related to the mass of dissolved material.
The total amount of salt in the world oceans does not change except on the
longest geological time scales. However, the salinity does change, in response
to freshwater inputs from rain and runoff, and freshwater removal through
evaporation.
How is salinity measured? (1) Evaporate and weigh residual (oldest method).
(2) Determine amount of chlorine, bromine and iodine to give "chlorinity",
through titration with silver nitrate. Then relate salinity to chlorinity: S =
1.80655 C. Accuracy is 0.025 (less than 2 places). This method was used until
the International Geophysical Year in 1957. (3) Measure conductivity (see
next).
4.2. Conductivity
Definition. Conductivity of sea water depends strongly on temperature,
somewhat less strongly on salinity, and very weakly on pressure. If the
temperature is measured, then conductivity can be used to determine the
salinity. Salinity as computed through conductivity appears to be more closely
related to the actual dissolved constituents than is chlorinity, and more
independent of salt composition. Therefore temperature must be measured at
the same time as conductivity, to remove the temperature effect and obtain
salinity. Accuracy of salinity determined from conductivity: 0.001 to 0.004.
Precision: 0.001. The accuracy depends on the accuracy of the seawater
standard used to calibrate the conductivity based measurement.
How is conductivity for calculating salinity measured? (1) For a seawater
sample in the laboratory, an "autosalinometer" is used, which gives the ratio of
conductivity of the seawater sample to a standard solution. The standard
seawater solutions are either seawater from a particular place, or a standard
KCl solution made in the laboratory. The latter provides greater accuracy and
has recently become the standard. Because of the strong dependence of
conductivity on temperature, the measurements must be carried out in carefully
temperature-controlled conditions. (2) From an electronic instrument in the
water, either inductive or capacitance cells are used, depending on the
instrument manufacturer. Temperature must also be measured, from a
thermistor mounted close to the conductivity sensor. Calibration procedures
include matching the temperature and conductivity sensor responses.
4.3. Distribution of salinity and conductivity
Salinity maps at the sea surface (Levitus annual mean).
Atlantic and Indian Oceans
Pacific Ocean
Global
Surface salinity is dominated by net evaporation in the subtropical regions, and
net precipitation/runoff at higher latitudes and in the tropics. The range of
salinity in the open ocean is about 31 to 38. Higher values are found in the
Mediterranean and Red Seas, and Persian Gulf. Lower values are found at river
outflows and near melting ice edges. (Salinity in coastal areas can be much
lower.)
Vertical profiles of salinity, conductivity and temperature
Gulf of Alaska (northeast Pacific) salinity, conductivity, temperature.
Subtropical and subpolar North Pacific salinity
These show that salinity in the subpolar regions is lowest at the sea surface and
increases monotonically downward. In the subtropical regions, the low salinity
from the higher latitudes is found at depth (around 500 to 1000 meters), and the
surface waters are more saline due to evaporation in the subtropics. Salinity
profiles for the other ocean basins are similar, but differ much from one another
than do the temperature profiles. Please look carefully at the vertical sections
presented next for each ocean.
Meridional sections of salinity
Atlantic (25W)
Pacific (150W)
Indian (95E)
5. Density, potential density and neutral density
For mapping general circulation, it is more useful to use density as our vertical
coordinate than pressure since we assume that water parcels much more nearly
conserve density than pressure. Thus we often map properties on isopycnal
surfaces. However, the isopycnals which we choose must have the effect of
changing pressure removed since most of the density variation in the ocean is
due to pressure, which has no bearing on sources of heat/salt for water parcels.
Thus we introduce the concept of potential density or neutral surfaces, which
attempt to remove the effect of pressure changes on density.
5.1. Density
Definition. Seawater density depends on temperature, salinity and pressure.
Colder water is denser. Saltier water is denser. High pressure increases density.
The dependence is nonlinear. An empirical equation of state is used, based on
very careful laboratory measurements. (See Gill, Appendix 3, and the
fortran/matlab/c subroutines linked to the study notes.)
Units. Mass/volume.
mks: kg/m^3.
cgs: g/cm^3.
Discussion. Freshwater density is 999 kg/m^3. Typical densities for seawater
are only slightly higher: 1020 to 1050 kg/m^3, with most of this range being
due to pressure. The range of densities at the sea surface is about 1020 to 1029
kg/m^3.
Other expressions for density: sigma = density - 1000. alpha (specific volume)
= 1/density.
Density depends nonlinearly on temperature and salinity.
Figure (left panels). Density as a function of temperature for pure and salty
water.
Fresh water (S=0) at atmospheric pressure (p=0) has maximum density at
temperature 4C. (Thus colder fresh water is less dense, which has implications
for lake overturn and ice floating.) As salinity is increased, the density
maximum moves to lower temperature. At a salinity of about 24.7, the
maximum density is at the freezing point.
Figure. Density at pressure 0 dbar as a function of temperature and salinity for
low salinity, showing the locus of maximum density and the freezing point. The
maximum density curve should be smooth - bumpy because maxima were
calculated from a discrete grid with no interpolation.
The nonlinearity of the equation of state is apparent in contours of constant
density in the plane of temperature and salinity (at constant pressure) - they are
curved. They are concave towards higher salinity and lower temperature.
Figure. Density at pressure 0 dbar as a function of temperature and salinity.
5.2. Potential density
Seawater is compressible, although not as compressible as a gas. As a water
parcel compresses, the molecules are crushed together and the density
increases. (At the same time, and for a completely different reason,
compression causes the temperature to increase which very slightly offsets the
density increase due to compression.)
Figure (top right). Increase in density with pressure.
Most variation in seawater is caused by pressure variation. This has little to do
with the source of water, and if we wish to trace a water parcel from one place
to another, one depth to another, we prefer to remove the pressure dependence.
(This is in analogy with temperature; we also remove the pressure dependence
in the temperature.)
We define potential density as the density a parcel has when moved
adiabatically to a reference pressure. If the reference pressure is the sea surface,
then we compute the potential temperature of the parcel, and evaluate the
density at pressure 0 dbar. The measured salinity is used as it has very little
pressure dependence.
We can also use any other pressure as a reference. We refer to potential density
at the sea surface as "sigma sub theta" (Greek in class - sorry about the notes),
if potential temperature is used, and "sigma sub t" if measured temperature is
used. The latter is an outdated method. We refer to potential density referenced
to 1000 dbar as "sigma sub 1", to 2000 dbar as "sigma sub 2", to 3000 dbar as
"sigma sub 3" and so on, following the nomenclature introduced by Lynn and
Reid (1973); in these cases, potential temperature relative to the reference
pressure is used in evaluating the potential density.
Cold water is more compressible than warm water. That is, it is easier to
deform a cold parcel than a warm parcel. Therefore cold water
becomes denser than warm water when they are both submerged to the same
pressure. Therefore various reference pressures are necessary. We use a
pressure which is relatively close to the depth we are interested in studying.
The compressibility effect is apparent when we look at contours of density at
say 4000 dbar compared with those at 0 dbar.
Figure. Potential density relative to 0 and 4000 dbar as a function of
temperature and salinity.
The dependence of compressibility on temperature can be important. For
instance, water spilling out of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Gibraltar
is extremely salty and rather warm, compared with water spilling into the
Atlantic from the Greenland Sea over the Greenland-Iceland ridge. They both
have about the same density at their sills. However, the warm, saline
Mediterranean water does not compress as well as the Greenland Sea water,
and does not reach the ocean bottom. (There is also a difference in how the two
types of water entrain other waters as they plunge downwards, so this is not a
straightforward explanation.)
Neutral density. When analyzing properties in the ocean to determine where
water parcels originated, it is assumed that most motion occurs with very little
change in the density of the parcel, with the exception of changes due to
pressure. This concept is essentially a statement that water follows an isentropic
surface if it moves with no exchange of heat and salt. Defining an isentropic
surface in the presence of mixing presents some difficulties. The isopycnal
surfaces which we use in practice to map and trace water parcels should
approximate isentropic surfaces. We typically use a reference pressure for the
density which is within about 500 meters of the pressure of interest. (This
pressure interval has just been found through experience to be adequate.)
Therefore when working in the top 500 meters, we use a surface reference
pressure. When working at 500 to 1500 meters, we use a reference pressure of
1000 dbar, etc. This discretization takes care of most of the problems associated
with the effect of pressure on density. When isopycnals cover a greater range of
pressure, then they must be patched into the shallower or deeper range - this is
the practice followed by Reid in his various monographs on Pacific and
Atlantic circulation.
Ivers (1976), working with Reid, introduced a more continuously varying
reference pressure for isopycnal surfaces, which he then referred to as a
"neutral surface". If a parcel is followed along its path, assuming the path is
known, then it is possible to track its pressure continuously and continuously
adjust its reference pressure and density.
McDougall (1987) refined the neutral surface concept and Jackett and
McDougall (1997) have released a computer program and lookup table for
computing neutral density. Neutral density depends on location in
latitude/longitude/depth and is based on marching outwards around the world
from a single point in the middle of the Pacific, using a climatological
temperature/salinity data set, and tracking imaginary parcels along radiating
lines.
Initial usage indicates that neutral density as determined from this program can
successfully replace the approximate neutral surfaces produced by adjusting
reference pressures every 1000 dbar.
Density maps at the sea surface (Levitus annual mean [kg/m^3-1000]).
Atlantic and Indian Oceans
Pacific Ocean
Globe (winter - JFM northern hemisphere, JAS southern hemisphere)
Meridional sections of potential density
Atlantic (25W) potential density relative to 0 dbar.
Atlantic (25W) potential density relative to 4000 dbar.
Atlantic (25W) neutral density (Jackett and McDougall gamma-n)
Pacific (150W) potential density relative to 0 dbar
Pacific (150W) potential density relative to 4000 dbar
Pacific (150W) neutral density (Jackett and McDougall gamma-n)
Indian (95E) potential density relative to 0 dbar
Indian (95E) potential density relative to 4000 dbar
Indian (95E) neutral density (Jackett and McDougall gamma-n)
In the Atlantic sections, note the deep inversion of sigma theta with depth in the
South Atlantic due to use of surface pressure for referencing the density. There
is no such deep inversion in sigma 4 since a more appropriate, local, reference
pressure is used.
6. Sound speed
The speed of sound (expression in class c = partial rho/partial p|T,S) in water is
approximately 1500 m/sec. It depends on pressure and on temperature. The
higher the pressure, the higher the sound speed (in a sense, the water is more
"rigid" and so the speed increases). The higher the temperature, the higher the
sound speed. In most areas of the ocean, the warm water at the surface and the
high pressure at the bottom produce a sound speed profile which is maximum
at the surface and bottom, with a minimum in between. This sound speed
minimum is referred to as the SOFAR channel. Where temperature is low or
inverted near the surface, then there is no surface maximum in sound speed and
the SOFAR channel is found at the sea surface (typical of the subpolar and
polar regions).
Where there is a sound speed minimum, it functions as a wave guide.
Figure. Profiles of sound speed, Brunt-Vaisala frequency, potential
temperature, salinity from the western subtropical North Pacific.
7. Sea ice
The freezing point of seawater is lower than that of freshwater. As sea water
freezes, it forms pockets of salt. The salt (brine) leaches out of the bottom of
the ice and the brine drips into the water below the ice. Thus sea ice when
melted is considerably fresher than the original water which was frozen. The
"brine rejection" process creates dense water below the sea ice formation area.
This can be an important contributor to dense water formation in a global sense
as the densest waters are formed at high latitudes, and often involve sea ice.
The faster that sea ice is frozen, the less likely that the salt can escape. Thus the
saltiest sea ice is formed at the lowest temperatures. Sverdrup et al. (1942 text)
tabulate the salinity of ice formed from water which starts at salinity 30. When
frozen at an air temperature of -16C, the salinity of the ice is 5.6. When frozen
at an air temperature of -40C, the salinity of the ice is 10.2.
Figure (bottom right panel). Freezing point temperature as a function of
salinity.
8. Tracers
Seawater properties are valuable tools for tracing water parcels as differing
water mass formation processes imprint different amounts of various properties
on the water parcels. They are of most use when the sources and sinks of one
property compared with another differ. Some tracers are biogenic and hence
non-conservative. These include oxygen and the various nutrients, all discussed
very briefly here. Some useful tracers are inert but with time-dependent inputs,
such as chlorofluorocarbons. Some useful tracers have decay times and decay
products, which can serve as a useful measure of age. The latter are referred to
as transient tracers, and are not discussed here.
8.1. Oxygen. Non-conservative tracer. Source is primarily air-sea interaction,
some subsurface source in outgassing by plankton. Oxygen is consumed in situ.
Oxygen content decreases with age, so it can be used in a rough way to date the
water. It is not a good age tracer because the consumption rate is not a constant.
Since waters of different oxygen content mix, the age is not simply related to
content.
Per cent saturation of oxygen depends strongly on temperature (show figure).
Cold water holds more oxygen. Thus the per cent saturation (or related quantity
"Apparent oxygen utilization" is a better tracer than oxygen content itself.
8.2. Nitrate and phosphate: Also non-conservative. Nitrate and phosphate are
completely depleted in surface waters in the subtropical regions where there is
net downwelling from the surface and hence no subsurface source of nutrients.
In upwelling regions there is measurable nitrate/phosphate in the surface waters
due to the subsurface source (figure from Hayward and McGowan; other
figures based on woce data). Nitrogen is present in sea water in dissolved N2
gas, nitrite, ammonia, and nitrate, as well as in organic forms. As water leaves
the sea surface, particularly the euphotic zone, productivity is limited by
sunlight and nutrients are "regenerated". That is, the marine snow is
decomposed by bacteria and produces nitrate and phosphate. Nitrate and
phosphate thus increase with the age of the water. Vertical sections and maps of
nitrate and phosphate appear nearly as mirror images of oxygen, but there are
important differences in their patterns, particularly in the upper 1000 meters;
vertical extrema are not always co-located and sometime large multiple
extrema appear on one parameter and not in the others (e.g. in oxygen but not
in nitrate/phosphate).
Nitrate/oxygen and phosphate/oxygen combinations - nearly conservative
tracers. Nitrate/oxygen and phosphate/oxygen are present in seawater in nearly
constant proportions, given by the Redfield ratio. There are small variations in
this ratio, with particularly large deviations near the sea surface. Because of the
near constancy of this ratio, a combination of nitrate and oxygen and of
phosphate and oxygen is a nearly conservative tracer (Broecker).
8.3 Dissolved silica - non-conservative. In seawater it is present as H2SiO4
(silicic acid) rather than silicate (SiO3), but many people use the term silicate.
This nutrient is also depleted in surface waters similarly to nitrate and
phosphate - completely depleted in downwelling areas and small but
measurable quantities in upwelling areas. Subsurface distributions of silica look
something like nitrate and phosphate and mirror oxygen since silica is also
regenerated in situ below the euphotic zone. However, silica in marine
organisms is associated with skeletons rather than fleshy parts and so dissolves
more slowly in the water. Much of the silica thus falls to the bottom of the
ocean and accumulates in the sediments (map of types of sediments).
Dissolution from the bottom sediments constitutes a source of silica for the
water column which is not available for nitrate, phosphate or oxygen. Another
independent source of silica are the hydrothermal vents which spew water of
extremely high temperature, silica content, and helium content, as well as many
other minerals, into the ocean. The three named quantities are used commonly
to trace hydrothermal water.
8.4. Transient tracers. Other tracers used commonly for ventilation and deep
water circulation include chlorofluorocarbons, tritium, helium-3 and carbon-14.
CFC's and tritium are strictly anthropogenic. Their source functions have been
well described and they are used to trace recently ventilated waters into the
ocean, and various combinations of CFC's, tritium/helium3 are used to attach
ages to water parcels, although not without approximation.
Maps at the sea surface
World nitrate
Atlantic and Indian oxygen
Atlantic and Indian silica
Atlantic and Indian nitrate
Atlantic and Indian phosphate
Pacific oxygen
Pacific silica
Pacific nitrate
Pacific phosphate
Meridional sections
Atlantic (25W) Oxygen (umol/kg)
Atlantic (25W) Silica (umol/kg)
Atlantic (25W) Nitrate (umol/kg)
Atlantic (25W) Phosphate (umol/kg)
Pacific (150W) Oxygen (ml/l)
Pacific (150W) Silica (umol/l)
Pacific (150W) Nitrate (umol/l)
Pacific (150W) Phosphate (umol/l)
Indian (95E) Oxygen (umol/kg)
Indian (95E) Silica (umol/kg)
Indian (95E) Nitrate (umol/kg)
Indian (95E) Phosphate (umol/kg)

Indian (60E - Geosecs western ) Oxygen (umol/kg)
Indian (60E - Geosecs western) Silica (umol/kg)
Indian (60E - Geosecs western) Nitrate (umol/kg)
Indian (60E - Geosecs western) Phosphate (umol/kg)
9. Property-property plots, water mass analysis, isopycnal analysis
Two objectives of studying the general circulation are to determine the velocity
structure and also the pathways for water parcels. We are also interested in the
fluxes of various properties. For physical oceanography and climate, heat and
freshwater fluxes are of interest. For climate and biogeochemical cycles, fluxes
of other properties such as carbon and nutrients are of interest.
As has already been described in the first half of the course (Hendershott) and
as will be discussed in topic 3, most of our knowledge of the circulation is
somewhat indirect, using the geostrophic method to determine velocity
referenced to a known velocity pattern at some depth. If the reference velocity
pattern is not known well, then we must deduce it.
Deduction of the absolute velocity field is based on all of the information that
we can bring to bear. This includes identifying sources of waters, by their
contrasting properties, and determining which direction they appear to spread
on average.
Water properties are used to trace parcels over great distances. Over these
distances, parcels mix with waters of other properties. It is assumed that mixing
is easier along isentropic (isopycnal) surfaces than across them. However, it is
clear from distributions of some properties that of course there is mixing both
along and across isopycnals (isopycnal and diapycnal mixing). This tracing of
waters is useful in conjunction with the relative geostrophic flow calculations
that can be made from the observed density field, in order to narrow down the
actual general circulation.
We use the concept of water masses as a convenient way to tag the basic
source waters. The definition of a "water mass" is somewhat vague, but is in
the sense of "cores" of high or low properties, such as salinity or oxygen, in the
vertical and along isopycnal surfaces. A range of densities (depths) is usually
considered for a given water mass. Water mass definitions may change as a
layer is followed from one basin or ocean to another. Many examples of water
masses will be given in topics 4 and following.
Traditionally, water mass analysis was based on plotting various properties
against each other, and attempting to explain the observed distributions of
properties as a result of mixing between the identified "sources". However,
point sources of waters occur only in relatively few regions, and in general
"source" waters have a range of properties. The sources are generally surface
waters (see properties given above in the surface maps), or near-surface waters
that are created by, say, brine rejection, or flow over and through a narrow
passage/sill.
More recently, water mass analysis has been quantified with the application of
least squares methods, but is still based on assumptions about the source
waters.
The most commonly used property-property displays are (a) potential
temperature vs. salinity, and (b) properties along isopycnal surfaces.
Worthington (1981) (figure) shows the volume of water as a function of
potential temperature and salinity for the world oceans. The diagram shows
how the three major ocean basins meet in properties at the cold and fresh
extreme, and are differentiated at higher temperatures. The Atlantic is the most
saline and the Pacific the freshest ocean. The Pacific contains a large amount of
water in a very narrow range of potential temperature/salinity, reflecting the
very long distance the deep Pacific waters have traveled from surface or
overflow sources, in comparison with the Atlantic which contains many
sources, and the Indian, which is intermediate between the Atlantic and Pacific.