Characteristics of human eye:The characteristics are:Visual acuity,Persistence of vision,Brightness and

colour sensation
Visual acuity: 1.Ability to resolve finer details in the picture 2.Determines number of scanning lines
persistence of vision1.Determines the storage capacitance of human eye 2.Determines the rate of
scanning
Brightness and colour sensation characteristics:They are related to intensity information and colouring
These characteristics affect the camera tube and the picture tube light transfer and spectral
response requirements.
Resolution:The resolution depends on the number of picture elements that can be produced with many
small picture elements, the finer detail of the image is evident.
So, to have a good resolution, as many picture elements as possible should reproduced. This
makes the picture clearer. Hence smaller details can be seen and objects in the image are
sharp.Good resolution also gives apparent depth to the picture by bringing in details of the
background
There is also a limit to the resolving power of the eye.
The minimum viewing angle of resolution is 1.22 /D radians.
D diffraction effects caused by the finite sized aperture - wavelength of light
The scene brightness (B) is related to the equation:
B = Constant / C
2

0
2
C - contrast ratio
0
- minimum resolvable angle
Brightness perception and photometric quantities: Visible light is the range of the electromagnetic
spectrum of radiant energy that can be perceived by the human eye
The range of wavelength from about 0.4 to 0.7 m.luminosity or brightness.The term luminosity
or brightness is to mean the visual sensation of brightness of light or colour.Luminous intensity
is a measure of light intensity.International unit is candela (cd).
Illumination or Illuminance: Illumination or Illuminance is the average luminance flux incident
onto a surface.Its unit is lux (lx).It is also expressed as foot-candles.One foot candle is equalent
to 10 lx.
Luminance:The luminance indicates how much luminous power will be perceived by an eye
looking at the surface from a particular angle of view.Luminance is thus an indicator of how
bright the surface will appear.Luminance is used in the video industry to characterize the
brightness of displays.
Where L
v
is the luminance (cd/m
2
), F is the luminous flux or luminous power (lm), is the angle
between the surface normal and the specified direction, A is the area of the surface (m
2
), and
is the solid angle.

Video Bandwidth:To find the maximum video signal frequency or the video bandwidth, consider the
chess board pattern and this pattern obtained by combining the horizontal and vertical bar pattern used
to find resolution.
While converting this pattern into electrical signal, we have no signal output for black area and
maximum signal output for white area. So, the video signal obtained after the scanning of these
pattern are in the form of square wave.
The effective number of vertical line is 533. one scanning a single line, we get 267 (533/2) cyclic changes
as electrical signal output.Time for one horizontal trace = 52 sNumber of cyclic changes (square wave)
= 267Time taken for one square wave = horizontal trace time / number of cyclic changes = 52 x 10
-6
/
267 Sec.
Maximum video frequency = 1 / t = 267 /52 x 10
-6

= 5 x 10
6
= 5 Mhz
=> Max. video frequency = N
a
x A.R x K / 2 x Horizontal trace time
= 585 x 4/3 x 0.69 / 2 x 52 x 10
-6
= 5 Mhz
Where, Na = Active number of lines; A.R = Aspect ratio; K = Kell factor
Therefore the maximum video signal bandwidth used in television system is 5 Mhz.
Interlaced Scanning:In television pictures an effective rate of 50 vertical scans per second is used to
reduce flicker. This is done by increasing the downward rate of travel of the scanning electron beam.
Hence, every alternate line gets scanned instead of every successsive line. When the beam reaches the
bottom of the picture frame, it quicky returns to the top to scan those lines that were missed in the
previous scanning. Hence the total number of lines is divided into two groups called fields. Each field is
scanned alternately. This way of scanning is called interlaced scanning
Each frame is divided into two fields odd and even.each second 25 frames is scanned and also
its field (both odd and even field) is exposed for 50 times. Hence flicker can be
avoided.Meaning of interlacing is combining.In interlaced scanning the 625 are grouped into
two fields. Odd field and even field.Each field contains 312.5 lines.Even field contain even field
lines and odd field contain odd numbered lines.
During first scanning, line numbers 1,3,5.(odd field) are scanned and during next scan line
numbers 2,4,6 (even field) are scanned i.e., alternate lines are scanned every time. Due to
this vertical rate of scanning is increased twice and flicker can be reduced.
Two successive interlaced scans, each at 25 Hz rate so, totally operating the vertical field scan at
50 Hz and make up the complete picture frame.This keeps 312.5 lines are scanned in 1/50
second.The 625 lines of the full picture are scanned in 1/25 second. Upto 20 lines are allowed
for vertical flyback after each of two field (so totally 40 lines for odd and even fields).i.e., out of
625 lines only (625-40=) 585 lines actually bear picture information. These are called active
lines.The odd field starts at the top left and ends at the bottom centre, while even-line field
begins at the top centre and ends at the bottom right.
Reason for 50 vertical scanning per second
Frame repetition rate of 25 frames/sec. or vertical scanning rate of 50 frames/sec was chosen to
make the field frequency equal to power line frequency of 50 Hz.
Scanning periods:The signal obtained during the retrace period are not used.Useful video signal are
obtained during the trace periods only. So the tracing time is larger than the retrace time.Horizontal
frequency = 15, 625 Hz
Horizontal time period = 1/15,525 = 64 x 10
-6

Trace period = 52 s; retrace period = 12 s
Vertical frequency = 50 Hz
Vertical time period = 1/50 = 20 ms
Trace period = 18.72 ms
Retrace period = 1.28 ms
During vertical retrace period horizontal scanning take place. So, some of the horizontal lines
are scanned during this period. These are not used and blanked by the blanking pulses.
Vertical retrace time = 1.28 ms
Time for one horizontal line = 64 s(trace & retrace)
Number of horizontal lines lost during one vertical retrace = vertical retrace time / Time for one
horizontal trace and retrace = 1.28 ms / 64 s = 20 lines
20 horizontal lines are lost per field and in total 40 horizontal lines are lost during scanning of
each frame (odd field 20 lines and even field 20 lines)
Active number of lines = Na = 625 40 = 585 lines
PLUMBICON:To overcome the drawbacks of vidicon tube.It has fast response and produces high quality
pictures even at low light.Small size and light weight.
Cons:Electron gun and scanning system is similar like vidicon camera tube.The construction of
plumbicon is similar to vidicon except the target plate.In between P & N layer pure intrensic lead
monoxide (Pbo), acts as a photoconductive layer.Less dark current, high sensitivity, less image
lag are some of the advantages of plumbicon camera tube.
Inner surface of glass plate is coated with a transparent conductive layer of sno2 (tin oxide).The
region act as a N-type layer and serves as the signal plate.Next to it a pure layer of Pbo (lead
monoxide) is deposited. This layer acts as a intrinsic region.Finally, a layer of pure PbO is doped
and it forms the P type region.On this region only, the electron beam is landing.The overall
thickness is about 15 x 10
-6
m.
Working : In plumbicon each element is considered as a capacitor in series with a reverse
biased light dependent diode.The conductive coating of SnO2 is connected to a supply of +40 V
through a load resistance.Across the load resistance only o/p is taken.With no light on the target
plate, the PIN diode is reverse biased and its resistance is high. So charge on the capacitor is not
discharged and no current flow takes place. Whenever light is falling on the target plate, the
resistance of the PIN diode decreases and coz of this capacitor is discharged.During the scanning
of electron beam, some electron are moving through the target plate and so current is
flowing.The current and o/p voltage taken across RL is directly proportional to incident light
intensity on the target plate. Here the slope of the response curve is higher than the vidicon
tube.Due to reduced recombination of photo generated holes and electrons, this type of tubes
have high o/p current and high sensitivity.The spectral response of plumbicon is very close to
that of human eye

disadvantage: High cost
Spectral response is poor for red colour region
Silicon diode array / multidiode vidicon:This is another type of vidicon, in which the target plate is
formed using a thin n-type silicon wafers and there is no deposited layer.An array of silicon photo
diode is formed on the target plate. So, it is called as silicon diode array or multidiode vidicon.This
type of vidicon have the trade name Epicon N type silicon substrate is oxidized to form a thin film
of SiO2 (Silicon dioxide).It acts as a insulating layer.By masking and etching process, an array of small
opening is formed on this layer.Now the boron is vapourized through the holes, which forms islands
of P type silicon on one side of the n-type substrate.To make contacts for signal o/p, a thin layer of
gold is deposited.Anti reflection coating is given to the face plate, on which the light is falling.Due to
this type of construction an array of photo diode is formed.The size of the target plate is about
0.003 cm thick and 1.5 cm square having an array of 540 x 540 photo diodes.Except the target plate,
the tube construction is similar to vidicon photo tube. Principle of operation: The photo diodes are
reverse biased, by the application of +10 V to the N layer on the substrate.On the other side, only
the optical image is focused.Due to the incident light energy, electron hole pairs are formed in the
substrate region.Coz of the +10 V, holes are moving towards the P side of the depletion region. This
produces the reverse bias on the diodes. During the scanning operation, the electrons are deposited
on the P side to make the reverse bias on the diode to their original higher value.A sudden increase
in current will take place due to this operation.So the resulting current which flow, through the load
resistance produce a voltage that is proportional to intensity of light falling on the target plate.For
bright light, a peak signal current of about 7 mA is produced.
Adv: Low dark current,Good resolution,High sensitivity,Long life and lightly overloaded
Dis: Speed of response is not good,Dark current is temperature dependent ,
Adv of ccd: No need for electron gun and electron beam,No need for high voltage,No need for
vacuum envelope
Comparison of camera tubes
S.
No.
Parameters Image orthicon vidicon plumbicon
1 Photo electric
conversion
Photo emissive Photo conductive Photo conductive
2 sensitivity high Good better
3 S/N ratio 30 dB 50 dB 50 dB
4 speed No lag Severe lag Reduced lag
5 Resolution at 400
lines (5 Mhz)
30 50% 55% 40 - 50%
6 Spectral response Close to eye good Poor in red
7 gamma 1 near black 0.5
near high lights
0.4 to 0.9 0.9 to 1
8 operation Elaborate Simple simple
9 Cost costlier cheaper costlier
10 size Bulky compact Small and
compact
medium

Pickup tube and deflection unit:The camera pickup deflection unit contains the focusing coil, horz. And
vert. deflection coils, alignment coils and magnets.If the motion of the electron is along the magnetic
field they produce straight line without any interaction with the focusing field.Even the divergent
electron moves towards the the magnetic field, they move towards the focusing field in a spiral-cycloidal
motion. Horizontal and vertical deflection coils are a pair of coils each in the shape of yokes to mount on
cyclindrical shape of picture tube.
Horz. Deflection coil produce vertical field
Vert. deflection coil -- produce horz. Field
The field strength (horz. & vert. field) is 1/10
th
of focusing coil.
Horz. And vert. def. is done by passing sawtooth currents
Focusing coil and deflection coil:
Video processing of camera pickup signal:The video signal obtained from the target plate of a camera
tube is quite small & requires amplification & some signal processing before it fed to video monitors
Pre-amplifier:The signal is amplified by a low noise high i/p impedance FET amplifier mounted very close
to the tube o/p terminal.FET is well shielded to reduce RF or hum pickup problems.The pre-amp. Is also
known as Head amplifier.
Aperture correction & image enhancement:Camera lens, beam splitter(for RGB), finate size of scanning
beam all contribute to loss of resolution.Only an ideal point size beam will give sharp transition between
black & white shade to produce square wave signal.A finate diameter beam spot tends to blur or round
off the o/p signal produced at the black & white crossings.The quality of picture is improved by aperture
correction & image enhancement techniques.Boosting the high frequency content in the signal provides
the electronic correction.One method for error correction is to employ a second derivative
compensating signal.This process involves double differentiation of the signal & subtracting it from the
original signal.
a) effect of finate beam size (b) aperture correction
Finate beam size and aperture correction:
Gamma correction:If the system is linear, the gamma of the system is unity.If the gamma of the system
is less than 1, the characteristics from a bow upwards, while if the gamma is greater than 1 they form a
low downwards.The overall transfer characteristics of pick-up tube should be unity or 1.2
White clip:A video signal in the camera chain has a normal amplitude 1 V peak to peak, of which 0.7 V is
the picture signal & 0.3 V is the sync. Signal.In a blanking adder, a large negative going pulse of the
duration of the blanking pulse is added to the video signal & then the combined signal is clipped at the
reference black level in the black clipper.This ensures that there is no noise signal present during the
blanking period.
Black clipper:The black clipper clips the picture signal black level & established a reference black level.In
a blanking adder, a large negative going pulse of the duration of the blanking pulse is added to the video
signal & then the combined signal is clipped at the reference black level in the black clipper.This ensures
that there is no noise signal present during the blanking period
Shading correctors:In some cameras there is gradual & slightfall in the video level from one end to the
other either horizontally or vertically.This results in variation in tube sensitivity.To offset this, horizontal
& vertical shading correctors are provided.These correctors add sawtooth signal to the video signals to
raise the average level at the end which is darker.
Polarity reversal:Polarity reversal circuits convert the positive picture tube into negative by inverting the
black & white levels. So that the peak white becomes peak black & peak black becomes peak white.The
clamping circuit requires to be suitably modified to clamp the black porch which was originally the
reference black at the peak white level.
Television camera pickups:Camera pickup tube device serves as an eye in TV system which consists
of light sensitive target & scanning or sensing system to generate electrical signals.It must have
characteristics similar to the human eye i.e., it should have good resolution capability.The target of
these devices basically either (i)photoemission (or) (ii) photoconduction
Characteristics of camera tube:Camera tubes have the following important characteristics:
1.Light transfer characteristic 2.Spectral response 3.Sensitivity4.Dark current5.Lag characteristic
Light transfer characteristic: It gives the relation between light falling on the camera tube and the
electrical current produced due to that light. Spectral response: Ability of the camera tube to response
equally to all colors like the human eye Sensitivity: Good camera tubes have high sensitivity. It is the
ability to respond for even very low illumination Dark current: This is the current produced, when there
is no light falling on the camera tube. The current is produced due to thermal agitation of charge carrier
in the photo sensitive target plate. Good camera tubes have very low dark current. Lag characteristic: It
is the inability of the photo sensitive layer to follow faster changes in illumination on the camera tube
Resolving power: It is found that number of black & white lines lines of resolution in picture is
increased.The signal produced is not able to attain full changes in the black & white levels.Consider a
pattern consists of different width of black and white strips projected on the face plate of camera
pickup.Some part contain wide black and white stripes.When the electron beam scans the picture, the
corresponding charge image produces signal currents with a fundamental frequency. Having a period
equal to the time required for scanning of wide stripes.a- current changes for the same level of dark and
white levels (normally it is less) b- current changes during the wide stripes will yield a peak to peak
value.The ratio a/b is represented as percentage modulation depth and is commonly adopted as a
resolving power of camera tube.
The percentage modulation a/b reduces as the number of lines of resolution increases due to
cross modulation and lags b/w adjacent picture elements and certain amount of scattering of
light.
A plot of percentage modulation with the number of lines of resolution for plumbicon camera
tube is shown in the plot.

Target plate
..
Photo conductive coating
Transparent film
Glass plate
Vidicon camera tube: Vidicon is a general name
for camera tube that uses photo conduction principle.Depending upon the target plate used, we
have different types of camera tube as below:
Vidicon ,Plumbicon ,Staticon ,Newvicon ,Chalnicon ,Silicon diode array
It is a small size camera tube operates on the principle of photo conduction.Here the conduction
of target plate increases with the intensity of light falling on it.
Cons: Vidicon camera tube has the following three sections.1.Photo conductive target
plate2.Scanning section and3.Electron gun section
Target plate: The target consist of thin photo-conductive layer madeup of either antimony or
selenium compounds.On the inner surface of the face plate a transparent, conductive film is
coated and on this the photo-conductive material is deposited.The conductive coating is also
called as signal electrode.
Scanning section: The scanning section is used to move the electron beam horizontally (left to
right) and vertically (T-B) to scan the entire target plate.Horizontal and vertical deflection coils
are used for this purpose.Electron beam approaches the target plate with low velocity and due
to low velocity, secondary emission are avoided.
Electron gun section
Heater, cathode, control grid, focussing coils
and accelerating anode forms the electron
gun section.
Cathode: used to emit electron
Control grid: used to control the electrons
coming out of the cathode
Focussing coils: used to focus the electron
beamto a sharp point on the target plate
Working principle
The principle of vidicon based on 1)
photoconductive and 2) leaky capacitor
principle
Photo conductive principle

Leaky capacitor principle
The picture element on the target plate may be
considered as a capacitor in parallel with a light
dependent resistor (see fig.)
When there is no light falling on the target plate,
each capacitor is charged to about +40 V.
Whenever, light is falling on the plate, the value
of resistance in parallel with the capacitor is
changed.
For bright light the resistance reduced to very low
value and the charge stored in the capacitor gets
discharged.
Leaky capacitor principle
..
During scanning process the electrons in
the beam are deposited to recharge it to +40 V. because of this flow of current is taken place
and o/p is taken across load resistance RL.
For low light intensity the capacitor is discharged only slightly and current is minimum.The o/p
taken across RL is passed to an amplifier for necessary amplification.
Light transfer char: Dark current is the o/p current with no light falling on the target plate.By
adjusting the target voltage, the dark current may be set to different value.By increasing the
target voltage both dark current and sensitivity are increased.With a dark current of 0.02 mA,
the output is about 0.4 mA for bright light.
Image lag:Due to time lag in the photo conductive layer, the output current is not able to follow
the fast changes in the brightness on the target plate. Advantages of vidicon: Resolution is
high,Long life and small size,By varying the target voltage, it can be operated at different levels
of sensitivity.Gamma cancellation circuit is not necessary
Dis: High dark current,Poor sensitivity,High image lag
CAMERA LENSES: A camera lens (also known as photographic lens, objective lens or
photographic objective) is an optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a
camera body and mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other
media capable of storing an image chemically or electronically. To televise a picture or a scene,
it is first necessary to focus the light emitted or reflected from the scene accurately on the
photosensitive surface of a camera tube by means of optical lens system.Intelligent selection of
lenses can improve the quality of image produced.It is necessary to know about the properties
of various lenses.
Focal length: It is a distance between the centre of the lens and the image formed by it of an
object at infinity.Lenses of longer focal length are physically of greater dimension and offer an
effective magnification, compared to lenses of shorter focal length.
Image is focused on the face plate of a camera tube, with the help of longer focal length (fig. a)
and smaller focal length (fig. b)
It is useful to employ a lens of longer focal length when observing distant objects in detail.If the
image falls in the larger focal length lens, the image occupies larger area in the face plate and in
the smaller area of the face plat, some images may fall outside the limit of the face plate.Almost
all TV camera tubes employ lenses that have focal lengths slightly adjustable by movement of
the front element of the lenses located on the barrel of the lens.
Focal power: The focal power () of a lens expressed in diopters.It is the reciprocal of the focal
length f in meters.Shorter the focal length then greater the focal power.Convex and concave
lens are assumed to have positive focal power and negative focal power respectively. The
optical power of a system is made up of 2 thin lenses, each of the focal power
1
&
2
and
separated by small distance d and is defined as
=

1
+

2
- d
1

2

Aberrations due to lenses: Failure of light rays from the same point but taking different paths
through the lens to converge to a single point after passing through a lens is called spherical
aberration.
d
h
diameter of the halo of a point image
Spherical aberrations can be reduced by narrowing down the effective radius of the lens by
placing an aperture stop or iris in the beam path.This reduces the amount of light entering the
lens and the light efficiency of the lens

Compounded lenses:Lenses used in photographic cameras.Separation b/w the lenses will minimize
spherical aberrations and other optical distortions like coma, astigmatism, chromatic aberrations
etc.,Light efficiency of the lens in producing a sufficiently bright and large image depends on the speed
of the lens and f-stop number.
Viewing angle of lens:
Fig. shows that lens of shorter focal length views a wider area than one of a longer focal
length.The lenses of shorter focal lengths are wide angle lenses while those with longer focal
lengths are narrow angle lenses.

Lens Speed: The speed of a lens is determined by the amount of light it allows to pass through it.
Lenses are greater diameter is faster.Most camera lenses have a variable operning called iris
located in the lens assembly that can alter the lens speed.It can also be used to compensate for
varying conditions of scene illumination camera sensitivity etc., The lens speed is defined as the
ration between the aperture (lens opening d) and the focal length F.. d/F = 1/(F/d).The lens
speed is expressed as f-stop number = f/(F/d)
F/d is referred to as stop number marked on the iris or aperture ring of the lens barrel as f/1,
1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22 etc.,
Depth of field: When a lens is focused on an object at a certain distance, objects nearer and farther
away may not appear in focus.Depth of field is the distance between the nearest object in focus and
the farthest object in focus.Depth of field depends upon a number of factors like the focal length,
aperture and the lens-to-object distance.Variation in these factors causes defocusing to some extent
and this makes, not be apparent to the human eye up to certain limit. When the object-to-lens distance
is D and the hyper focal distance is H, the limits of the depth of field are given by:

Viewing angle of lens
The lens angle () is given by
Lens turret: Television cameras can produce images to different scales according to the viewing
angle or the focal length of the lens employedNarrow angle (less than 20
o
) lenses are suitable
for telephoto or close-ups.Medium angle (20
o
to 60
o
) lenses are suitable for commonly televised
scenes and are called as universal lenses. Angles over 60
o
are used in wide angle lenses required
for wide angle location shots.Television camera is mounted on a turret.Use of turret mounted
lenses with different viewing angles enables quick changes of lenses.
Zoom lenses: In modern cameras, especially color cameras, the turret lens system has been
completely eliminated by the use of a zoom lens with a variable focal length of range 10:1 or
ever greater.The variable focal length of a zoom lens is obtained by moving individual lens
elements of a compound lens assembly. If spacing between two lens elements of focal powers
1 and 2 is change, the focal power of the combination given by
tot
=
1
+
2
-
1
.
2
.d will
also change enabling the focal length or viewing angle to be controlled.
Lens Mounts: To enable maximum possible applications by interchanging the lens
system.Telephoto lenses permit a close observations of distant objects.
Basic Principle: The whole picture was made up of small elementary areas called as picture
elements.This picture elements makes the visual image of the scene.To telecast these visual or
optical images, we have to convert them in to electrical images.t is very difficult to convert all
the picture elements into electrical signal at a time. So scanning operation takes place at a fast
rate.The scene to be telecast is focused on photosensitive surface and based on photo electric
principle, optical to electrical conversion takes place.The construction of the image plate is such
that the electrical signal of one picture element will not disturb the electrical signal of the other
picture element. Two photo electric effects, which are used to convert optical images into
electrical signals are:
Photo emission and 2,Photo conduction
Photo Emission: When light falls on certain material, it emits electrons. This property is known
as photo emission and the emitted electrons are called as photo electron.The material which
emit electron, when light falls on it is called as photo cathode. Cesium-silver or bismuth-silver-
cesium oxides are examples of photo emissive or photocathode materials.Depending on the
intensity of the falling light, more energy is delivered from the material.Light consist of photonic
energy due to photons.Whenever light falls on a photo cathode material, the photonic energy
gives the valence electron of the material.
Camera lens assembly is used to focus the light images on the face plate of the camera tube in
which photo emissive coating is done.
The photo electrons emitted out of the surface are moving towards the target plate and deposit
some charge on it.On the other side of the target plate, we have electron gun to scan the target
plate. The electron beam motion is controlled by electric and magnetic field so that it lands on
the target plate smoothly.Due to smooth landing of electrons, secondary electron emission is
avoided.Coz of electron declaration at the target plate, the electrons are return back from target
plate and is collected at the collector electrode. Since some of the electrons are deposited on
the target plate, the number of electrons on the return beam are always less than the number
of electrons emitted from the electron gun.Depending on the brightness of the image, electrons
are deposited on the target plate. So, the number of electrons in the returned beam and the
amount of current flowing towards the target plate depends on brightness variations of the light
image.Collection electrodes are used to collect the returned electrons and the output file is
taken across the load resistor R
L
.Therefore the o/p current variations represents picture
(optical) information.
The optical image is focused on the face plate using lens assembly in the camera unit.The face
plate is coated with photo conductive material.Depending on the intensity of light falling on the
face plate, different points in conductive coating will have different conductivity.The electrons
emitted from the electron gun are used to scan the coated plate.Depending on the conductivity
of the scanned point, the electrons in the electron beam flow through the face plate.The
reflected electrons are collected by the collector electrode and the current will flow through
load resistance RL.The amount of current varies in accordance with the intensity of light falling
on the face plate. Thus optical to electrical conversion takes plate.
The o/p current obtained from the camera tube face plate is very low.
If we use conventional amplifier to amplify then it will produce very low S/N ratio and cause
more disturbance to the video signal.So we are using special type called electron multiplier. The
special type of anode-cathode structure called as dynode are mount internally with different
orientation. Photo cathode with 0 potential emits electron depending on the intensity of light
falling on it.The emitted electron will incident on dynode-1 and produce secondary electron.
Now the number of electrons are increased.While making incident on dynode-2, again
secondary electrons are created. Due to this type of action, the number of electrons in the beam
will increased.In the anode we have more number of electrons, thus electron multiplier action
takes place.
color television signals and systems :ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUMCones are used to identify
colour information.We have three different cones to identify the three primary colours.They are
called as red cone, blue con and green cone.All the colour information's are separated into three
primary colors' by these cones.The separated primary colour information's are transferred to the
optical centre of the brain by the optic nerves.They are mixed together to identify the true colour.
The wavelength of different colours and their relative sensitivity in electromagnetic spectrum is
shown in fig. (see EMS picture)Green colour has more sensitivity than any other colour.
Three colour theory:In monochrome (black & white) system, we are transmitting only the luminance
(brightness) information.In colour system, we have to transmit colour information also in addition to
brightness information.Our eye segregates all optical information into three colours by cones and they
are combined at the optical centre of the brain to identify the original colour. The three basic colours
called as primary colours 1.Red 2.Green andBlue
To get different colours shading, we have to mix the primary colors with different intensities.
Two types of mixing used in general are1.Additive mixing and2.Subtractive mixing
LUMINANCE, HUE and SATURATION: The characteristics of colour signal to specify its visual
information are LUMINANCE,HUE (or) TINT and&SATURATION
LUMINANCE: It is the amount of light intensity received by the eye regardless of the colour.It is
also called as brightness signal or y-signal.
HUE: It is the predominant spectral colour. For example red apple has red hue.Spectrum colour
has different hue. For example red colour has red hue, blue colour has blue hue.Weather it is
primary colour or secondary colour, according to their wavelength hue will also change.Reason
for any particular colour is hue.
Saturation: Saturation is the spectral purity of colour light.It indicates how much white is mixed
with a colour.If no white is found in a colour, then it is fully saturated colour.Brightness is called
luminance.Hue and saturation put together are called chrominance. But brightness information
is not available in chrominance. Also called as chromaCHROMINANCE DIAGRAM:
Chromaticity diagram is a graphical representation of primary colour and their mixtures in
convenient space coordinate.Based on the principle of tristimulus value, white colour is formed
by mixing 30% red, 59% green and 11% blue.Chromaticity diagram was in the shape of horse
shoe.Using this diagram we can identify the colours produced by additive mixing process.
Chrominance (chroma or C for short) is the signal used in video systems to convey the color
information of the picture, separately from the accompanying luma signal (or Y for short).
Chrominance is usually represented as two color-difference components: U = B' Y' (blue
luma) and V = R' Y' (red luma). Each of these difference components may have scale factors
and offsets applied to it, as specified by the applicable video standard. In composite video
signals, the U and V signals modulate a color subcarrier signal, and the result is referred to as
the chrominance signal.Chrominance is represented by the U-V color plane in PAL and SECAM
video signals, and by the I-Q color plane in NTSC. The chromaticity diagram is a convenient space
coordinate representation of all the spectral colours and their mixtures.The corners represents
the three primary colours red, green and blue.As the central area of triangle is approached, the
colours become pale and less saturated, representing mixed colours. The white lies at the
central point W with coordinates x=0.31 and y=0.32.There is no specific white light; sunlight,
skylight and daylight are all forms of white light.The practical advantage of chromaticity diagram
is that, in a arrangement of x and y coordinates, it is possible to determine the result of additive
mixing of two or more colours.
Colour television: A colour TV camera consists of three camera tubes, one for each colours.A
group of mirrors (prisms) called as diachroic mirrors are used for this purpose.These mirrors are
coated with a special material that reflects a particular colour light and allows other colours to
pass through it i.e., red diachroic mirror reflects red colour and allow other colour to pass
through it.
The light from the scene is focussed by the zoom lens package on the diachronic mirror
setup.The mirror splits the light falling on it, into basic primary colour light (red, green and
blue).These colours are passed through the colour filters which can provide precise primary
colour images.Filtered colour lights are converted into video signals using three vidicon camera
tubes.
Unit 2-Composite video signal (cvs): CVS consists of
Camera signal: corresponding to picture or scene to be transmitted.
Blanking pulses: to make the horizontal and vertical retrace invisible.
Synchronizing pulses: to synchronize the transmitter and receiver scanning system.Information
about colour signal and some sample of colour sub-carrier frequency also be send if we are
using colour TV transmission
Video signal dimensions: Video signal amplitude is separated into 2 sections:
Camera signal: occupies 75% Sync. Pulses: occupies 25%
The level of video signal obtained for maximum white light is called as peak white level. This
level exist between 10 to 12.5% .Black level: which is at 73% corresponds to dark picture.The
blanking pulses are added at 75% level and called as blanking level.Black level and blanking level
is closed to each other practically they merge with each other.The difference between black
level and blanking level is called pedestal height Useful video signal information lies between
10% to 75% level.Since the modulation used is ve modulation, if the picture is dark then the
amplitude of video signal is high.The region between 0% to 10% is called as whiter than white
region.The signals in those region create more bright spots on the screen and it will create
disturbance to eye of the viewer.To reduce noise effect, usually the whiter than white regions
are not used
DC component: The average background brightness of the scene is represented by the DC
level.Since the DC level for different lines are at different level, background brightness are
different depending on the scene to be transmitted.The distance between DC level and blanking
level is called as pedestal height.It is used as a measure of average brightness of the scene.It is
not possible to follow the changes that takes place in background brightness if the DC levels are
not properly maintained
DC insertion: The video control operator, who observe the scene to be telecast directly at the
studio knows the background brightness and it is his responsibility to properly set (insert) the DC
level with the video signal. This process is called as DC insertion.
Blanking pulses: To make the retrace invisible, blanking pulses are added at 75% level.Since this
is above black level, no picture is seen on the screen.Synchronization pulses are also added in
this blanking region to achieve the synchronizationIt is not possible to use blanking pulses as
synchronization pulse coz some time extreme black signal may rise above the blacking level. If
this happens then it may false trigger the synchronization oscillator Video signal to sync. Pulse
ratio: The picture signal amplitude to sync. Pulse amplitude ratio is 4:3. This has been found
satisfactory due to the following reasonsLet picture signal amplitude is increased and sync. Pulse
amplitude is decreased: S/N ratio of Rx. Signal falls (ie., noise level increases) below a limit, then
amplitude of sync pulse is not sufficient to keep the synchronization properly. However picture
signal can able to produce acceptable picture
Video signal to sync. Pulse ratio:
Let sync. Pulse amplitude is increased and picture signal amplitude is decreased: S/N ratio falls
below the limit, then amplitude of sync. Pulse is sufficient to synchronize and lock the picture
frame. But video signal amplitude is insufficient to produce a good acceptable picture on the
screen
MASTER CONTROL ROOM:Camera pulse processing,Sync pulse generator,Genlock and slavelock
arrangement
The Master control (MCR) room houses equipment that is too noisy or runs too hot for the
Production control room (PCR). It also makes sure that coaxial cable and other wire lengths and
installation requirements keep within manageable lengths, since most high-quality wiring runs
only between devices in this room. This can include the actual circuitry and connections
between
Character genrator (CG),Camera control units (CCU),Digital video effects (DVE),Video servers
Vision mixer (Video Switcher),VTRs,Patch pannels
MCR in TV studio contains master routing switcher and electronic video equipment associated
with each studio on separate racks.Centralized video equipments that include sync pulse
generators, pulse distributors, master routing switcher equipments and test equipments are
also present.A special video oscilloscope-line monitor is provided for measurement of pulse tips,
rise time and other parameter on line signal
Pulse Processing: Provides pulses for scanning generators that generate necessary drive
waveform for horizontal and deflection coils.Introducing blanking and sync pulses also blanks
the camera flyback or retrace periodThe deflection of electron beam in camera pickup tube
require horizontally 15625 times/sec. and the vertical deflection from top to bottom requires at
the rate of 50 times/sec. The deflections are effected electromagnetically by sending sawttooth
currents through the deflection coils that produce required deflecting fields.The basic pulses
required in camera chain are:
Line drive or H drive,Field drive or Vdrive ,System blanking at the H & V rate,Synchronizing pulse
at H & V rate,Camera blanking at H & V rate
The first 4 is developed by sync pulse generator (SPG) and they are designed as Line drive (LD),
field drive(FD), mixed blanking (MD) and mixed sync (MS) pulses or H, V, A (Austastung) & S
pulses.Camera blanking pulses are generated from the H & V drive (Gen) pulses.In some
cameras, MS pulses are used to develop the line and field drive pulses and they are sent to
camera head.Fig. shows LD and FD pulses of SPG for triggering the H & V scanning generators
and blanking generators.MB pulses are given to the camera amplifier for system blanking
The timing unit in sync pulse genrator has master oscillator at a freq. of about 2 H and this
synchronize with (i) crystal oscillator, (ii) External 2 H frequency source or (iii) ac main
frequency.Ac main frequency with the help of phasedetector and AFC ckt/. That compares the
50 Hz vertical freq. rate with the main frequency The required pulse timings at H & V rate are
derived from 2 H master oscillator through frequency dividers (see fig.)The blanking and sync
pulses are derived from 2 H, H and V pulses employing suitable pulse shapers and pulse adders
or logic gates.Principles of Genlock and Slavelock TechniqueIn studio various programs is mixed ,
superposed or inlaid if they are synchronous (line & field sync) at the mixed point.If sources are
from same SPG, then it is easy to synchronous & this can be done by applying genlock or
slavelock.Non-sync. Sources driven from separate SPG cannot mixed or superposed.They can
only switched by cutting the picture & sync signals together Switching b/w two non-synchronous
sources leads to sudden change in the transmission sync pulses.The line time base may recover
quickly, but the field time base may take several seconds to recover.This can be avoided if the
field sync components of the two sources are brought approximately inphase by suitable phase
shifting network at the moment of switching In the genlock process, the line and field
components of the local SPG are locked in frequency and phase to line and field components of
a remote incoming video signal without producing any visual disturbance in the monitor
Slavelock is similar to genlock except for the feedback arrangement.In both modes, the timing
phase comparator is suited at the mixing point.In genlock mode, the error control signal is used
locally to adjust the timing of the appropriate sync component of the video signal at the mixing
point.In slavelock, the error control signal is fedback in an inverted sense to correct the timing of
the appropriate synchronising component from the incoming signal
Insert figure 6.9, page 129
production control room (PCR):
The production control room (PCR), also known as the "gallery" or Studio Control Room (SCR), is
the place in a television studio in which the composition of the outgoing program takes
place.Master control is the technical hub of a broadcast operation common among most over-
the-air television stations and television networks. It is distinct from a PCR in television studios
where the activities such as switching from camera to camera are coordinated. A transmission
control room (TCR) is usually smaller in size and is a scaled down version of central casting.
Facilities in a PCR include:
A video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, cameras, graphics and other video
sources. In some facilities, the monitor wall is a series of racks containing physical television and
computer monitors; in others, the monitor wall has been replaced with a virtual monitor wall
(sometimes called a glass cockpit"), one or more large video screens, each capable of displaying
multiple sources in a simulation of a monitor wall. A vision mixer, a large control panel used to
select the multiple-camera setup and other various sources to be recorded or seen on air and, in
many cases, in any video monitors on the set. The term 'vision mixer' is primarily used in Europe,
while the term 'video switcher' is usually used in North America. An professional audio mixing
console and other audio equipment such as effects devices. A character generator (CG), which
creates the majority of the names and full digital on-screen graphics that are inserted into the
program lower third portion of the television screen. digital video effects, or DVE, for
manipulation of video sources. In newer vision mixers, the DVE is integrated into the vision
mixer; older models without built-in DVE's can often control external DVE devices, or an external
DVE can be manually run by an operator. A still store, or still frame, device for storage of
graphics or other images. While the name suggests that the device is only capable of storing still
images, newer still stores can store moving video clips and motion graphics. The technical
director's station, with waveform monitors, vector scopes and the camera control units (CCU) or
remote control panels for the CCUs. In some facilities, (Video Tape Recorder) VTRs may also be
located in the PCR, but are also often found in the central apparatus room A major objective of
TV program control facilities is to maintain a smooth continuous flow of program.The overall
control of the program is done in the PCR by the producer with the help of production assistant,
CCU engineer and engineer at the vision mixer.The producer and program assistant gives
instructions to the cameramen, boom operator, audio engineer, floor manager and floor
assistantThe producer can speak to the studio floor and also to the selected telecine operator,
over the intercommunication system.During rehearsal, the producer can employ a public
address system to give instructions to people on the studio floor and other rooms, but during
actual programs, the communication is done over the intercom system on headphones
Ccu: The studio cameras are connected to the video distribution amplifier and mixer via the
camera control unit.CCU contains controls for the aperture, optical focus, zoom of the lens,
beam focus and brightness control of the camera tube.CCU engineer has to be alert to adjust
the picture video signal, BAS level to a constant 1 V level, for possible variations in the lighting
condition
Vision mixer:Vision mixer or video switcher enables the program producer to select the desired
sources or a combination of the sources in order to compose the program.The vision mixer is
typically a 10 x 6 or 20 x 10 crossbar switcher which select any one of the 10 or 20 i/p sources to
6 or 10 different lines.i/p source include: camera-1, camera-2, camera-3, Telecine-1, Telecine-
2,VTR-1, VTR-2, test signal etc., Vision mixer provides the following operational facilities for
editing TV programs:Take- selection of any one i/p or cut switching cleanly from one source to
anotherDissolve fading in or fading outLap dissolve dissolving from one source to another
with overlap or mixingSuperposition of two sources keyed caption when the selected inlay is
superposed on the background pictureSpecial effects split screen or wipe effects The selected
o/p can be monitored in the preview monitor of the monitor stack
Vision mixer:mechanical pushbutton switcher:This has the video signals on the actual switch
contacts.This type of switcher is used primarily for portable field units
Vision mixe relay switcher: It has magnetically activated reed switch-contacts, in an evacuated
glass envelope, that operates within 1 ms. The switching action is overlapped for about 1 ms,
preventing loss of sync during switching.This is called D-switching.This employs rack-mounted
reed relays
Vision mixer vertical interval switcher or electronic cross bar: This is electronic solidstate
switching.This switches one source to another during the vertical blanking interval.After the cut
button is pressed, a memory holds the information until the next field blanking period when the
switching takes place
Typical video switcher (see fig)
The system consists of cutting switches, an A-B mixing amplifier, special effect equipment, sync
adder-stabilizing amplifier and monitors.Each vertical row of switching buttons on a video
switching panel corresponds to a single picture source & each horizontal row corresponds to o/p
bus.The o/p buses are interlocked so that at a time only one picture source can appear at a time
An A-B mixer can superpose two video i/p signals.Mixing is done by having a common collector
load so that the o/p is an addition of two input signals.One may separate the two control levers
and reduce the level of one signal to zero before increasing the gain control and hence the level
of the next picture.For superimpose, one may also separate the control levers to adjust the
relative levels of the two picture signals to be combined
The key signals from two camera sources alternated by means of electronic switch and this is
shown in fig.During C1 camera 1 is ON and displayed in the screen and if we want to switch over
and at position 2 (screen) C2 will be ON. Vestigial sideband transmission: The maximum video
frequency obtained in the 625 line system is 5 Mhz.If we are using double side band AM
modulation, the video signal bandwidth becomes 10 Mhz.Due to practical difficulty of filter
design, the filters are not able to attenuate or terminate abruptly. Due to this, on both side of
the channel we have an attenuation slope of 0.5 Mhz.To avoid interference with adjacent
channel a guard band of 0.25 Mhz should be allowed. So the channel bandwidth is 11.25 Mhz If
we are using such a long bandwidth channels, then within the given range of frequencies, the
number of channels used are reduced. So we have to reduce the bandwidthSince the upper and
lower side bands have the same interlegancy, one of the side band may be completely removed
and we can use single sideband system. Due to this upto 5 Mhz channel bandwidth is reduced.
The lower video frequency components are near the carrier frequency. Using filter circuits they
cannot be completely attenuated.Also the fine details of picture are in low frequency range
only.So if completely eliminating one side band, phase distortion may occur.Coz of this problem,
some part (vestige) of lower side band, upto 0.75 Mhz is retained and others are attenuated.
This method of transmitting a full upper side band and vestige of lower side band is called as
vestigial side band transmission
Channel bandwidth = Attenuation slope + vestigial part (VLSB) + USB + attenuation slope + guard
band
= (0.5 + 0.75 + 5 +0.5 + 0.25) = 7 Mhz
So, if we are using VSB modulation, then channel bandwidth is reduced from 11.25 Mhz to 7 Mhz
and bandwidth saving upto 4.25 Mhz is achieved
In VSB modulation, low frequencies upto 0.75 Mhz are available on both the sideband.
But the signal in the frequency range of 0.75 Mhz to 5 Mhz are available in one band only.Due to
this, the gain of voltage level at the receivers, RF and IF should be properly controlled.The o/p
voltage obtained for low frequency (0 to 0.75 Mhz) signal are twice, than the high frequency
(0.75 to 5 Mhz) signals. To correct this problem the response curve of IF amplifier should be
properly designed
adv: Channel bandwidth is reduced.2,Reduction in transmitted power Dis: Some powers are wasted in
VSB filters2. S/N ratio is reduced upto 6 db, due to IF picture carrier placed at 50% gain at the
receiver3.Chances for amplitude and phase distortion.4.The tuning at the receiver is more critical
HORIZONTAL SYN DETAILS

Out of 64 s line period, the blanking period occupies 12 s and useful information occupies 52
s.
Within the blanking period sync. Pulses are also added.Leading edge of these sync pulses are
used to trigger the deflection oscillator circuitHorizontal blanking period consists of following 4
main regions:1.Front porch2.Line (Horizontal) sync pulse3.Back porch and4.Colour burst signal
Front porch:It is a brief cushioning period of 1.5 s length.It is inserted b/w the end of picture
information and leading edge of the sync pulsePulling on whites: the video signal for peak white
information exists in the whiter than white region and nearly touches the zero level.
Line sync pulses:At the end of front porch, sync pulses necessary for horizontal synchronization
are added.It having a period of 4.7 s (see fig)These pulses are separated at the receiver and
after differentiation used for triggering the horizontal deflection oscillator
Back porch:The back porch is having a period of 5.8 s.It gives necessary time for the retrace (fly
back) to be completed.During this period, the reversal of current direction of the horizontal time
base circuit takes place.Also at the receiver side, this level is used for the production of AGC voltage
in the AGC circuit

Colour burst signal
If we are using colour signal, then some
samples of these colour subcarrier frequency
called colour burst signal is added for each line
and send along this back porch
S. No. period Time (s)
1 Horizontal blanking
pulse
12
2 Horizontal sync pulse 4.7
3 Front porch 1.5
4 Back porch 5.8
5 Visible time period 52
6 Total time period 64

Vertical sync details :Vertical sync pulses (VSP) are added at the end of each field.Construction of VSP is
tedious than horizontal sync pulses.The requirements to satisfy by VSP train are:It should provide
vertical blanking interval so that vertical retrace is not visible on screen.It should provide VSP for proper
triggering of vertical oscillator .During the vertical blanking and sync pulse period, horizontal scanning
and triggering of horizontal oscillator should not affected.Vertical retrace has 20 horizontal lines.It has a
period of 1280 s or 1.28 ms (20 x 64 s).To blank the vertical retrace, we have to add such a long pulse
having the duration of 1.28 ms. If we are using such a long pulse then large amount of power is wasted.
So we are using a pulse duration of 2.5 line period as
Serrated vertical pulse:From the figure of vertical sync pulse train and sync pulse generation circuit, the
following problems are to be considered for future modificationsHorizontal sync pulses are available
during both vertical trace and retrace period. But during the vertical sync period (2.5 line period)
horizontal sync pulse are not available. Due to this the horizontal oscillator may come out of
synchronization during vertical sync period At the end of first field, the leading edge of vertical sync
pulse came in the midway of a line (line 313). This may false trigger the horizontal oscillator.To achieve
the horizontal sync during the vertical sync period, 5 narrow slots of 4.7 s duration is inserted (see fig).
The leading edges of these pulses are used to trigger the horizontal oscillatorThe vertical slots of 4.7 s
duration that are inserted in the vertical sync period to achieve horizontal sync are called as serrated
pulses. This process is called notching or serration of field sync pulse
Equalizing pulsesTo separate vertical sync pulse, we are using integrator circuit at the receiver.Figure
shows the integrator output.At the beginning of first field, the separation b/w vertical sync pulse and
line sync (625) is a full period of 64 s.But the beginning of second field the separation between vertical
and line sync pulse (313) is only half-line period of 32 s The integrator capacitor is charged during the
horizontal sync pulse and is completed discharged before the occurance of next horizontal sync pulse.At
the beginning of first field no problem occurs. The second field begins at the mid way of a line. So the
charges stored in the capacitor are not completely discharged as in the beginning of the first field Due to
the half line difference and stored charges at the beginning of the second field, there exists some
problem in triggering the vertical oscillator during odd and even field.Ie., the vertical oscillator is
triggered with a little time difference. This error is called as time-error.To avoid this we are adding five
pulse before and after the vertical sync period. these pulse used to avoid the time error are called as
equalizing pulses The pulses are having the duration of 2.3 s and five pulses are added in the interval of
2.5 line period with a separation of 32 s between them. Due to these pulses, the time error is
completely avoided.The pulses added before the vertical sync pulse are called as pre-equalizing pulse
and that added after the vertical sync are called as post-equalizing pulse These pulses are having a short
duration of 2.3 s, the capacitor is charged to only a small value.So during the start of vertical sync,
during both field, the capacitor is discharged to zero level
Video signal to sync.: Pulse ratioLet sync. Pulse amplitude is increased and picture signal amplitude is
decreased: S/N ratio falls below the limit, then amplitude of sync. Pulse is sufficient to synchronize and
lock the picture frame.
But video signal amplitude is insufficient to produce a good acceptable picture on the screen
Unit 3-Antenna feeders:The antenna feeder is the transmission line which delivers the antenna signal to
the receiver with correct matching of impedance at the antenna and the receiver input with minimum
loss.Two types of feeders commonly used:
Balanced and ,Unbalance,Balanced twin wire type:Also known as parallel wire ribbon cable,
which has two conductor wires spaced apart by polythene ribbon or tubing
Unbalanced shielded :cablesWhich have a central conductor wire completely enclosed in an outer metal
sheath often made of fine copper wire briad to give flexibility with some dielectric spacer medium
Choice of feeders: Choice of the feeder is made on the basis of the following factors:
The impedance of the cable must match with the receiver i/p impedance for maximum power transfer
and prevention of reflections at the two ends. the characteristics impedance of the feeder line of low
losses is given by:In the balanced or unbalanced condition, the antenna and the receiver i/p must be
properly tuned, otherwise there will be a tendency for ghost and interference problems.The loss of the
feeder cable should be minimum at the frequency of operation. This loss will increase with increase in
frequency coz of core dielectric or spacer material loss. Cable with minimum use of dielectric spacing
materials (commonly polethelene, teflon etc.,) gives lower losses. Weathering conditions like wetness
and dirt accumulation on cable increases loss
Twin wire feeders: Out of II el wire feeders, the flat ribbon type feeder is most popular transmission
line for VHF reception coz of its low cost, low loss, convenient balanced 300 ohm impedance and good
flexibility.Double clad twin wire ribbon with plastic gasket is shown in fig(b), it is less susceptible to
weathering and moisture.To make the cable more robust for outdoor use and less susceptible to wetting
and weathering, ribbon cable is provided with jacket or cladding Alternative form suitable for outdoor is
tubular outer conductor. This cables have a little higher dry loss than the simple ribbon but the loss in
wet condition is lower.Reduction in the polyethylene spacer b/w the conductors reduces the line loss (as
in the airlead feeder or open wire line with spacers) (fig)
This is an unbalanced shielded type of transmission line consist of central conductor in a polystyrene
dielectric completely enclosed in a copper-aluminium flexible braids of wires.The plastic jacket forms a
protective coating (fig) Disadvantage: The shielded cables have a greater capacitance and the losses
due to the dielectric medium are also large (about 3.7 dB/100 ft at 100 Mhz) Adv: Makes the cable
immune to stray interference pick-up and also unaffected by inelement weather Characteristic
impedance: Characteristic impedance of a coaxial cable is by:
where D -> diameter of the outer conductor and d -> diameter of inner conductor -> dielectric
constant of the spacer mediumApplication: The cable is useful in aerial installations where stray
interference pick-up is high.It is commonly used in the cable distribution systems of closed circuit
television and CATV
Block diagram of TV transmitter, visual exciter and aural exciter: In a TV Transmitter, we have to
transmit both video and audio signal. So we have 2 types of transmitter within the TV main transmitter.
They are
Visual transmitter,Aural transmitter ,
Visual transmitter is used for transmitting video signals and aural transmitter is used for transmitting
audio or sound signal.o/p of these two transmitters are combined before transmitting through common
antenna. The combining network is called diplexer.Before transmission, the video signal is amplitude
modulated (AM) and audio signal is frequency modulated (FM). After modulation and proper power
amplification they are fed to a common antenna through the diplexer.Initially a camera is used to
convert optical image into electrical signal. After adding sync pulses and blanking pulses we get
composite video signal which is to be AM modulated Similarly, a microphone (MIC) is used to convert
audio signal into electrical signal.After pre-emphasis and proper amplification we have to FM modulate
the audio signal.TV transmitter: In the simplified block diagram of monochrome television transmitter,
the main sections are given below
(a) Video and audio processing unit,Video signal modulation unit an,Audio signal modulation unit
In video processing unit, the camera o/p signal having 1 volt p-p amplitude is converted into
standard form by eliminating hum and noise.If necessary, linearity correction can also be done.
This correction is done during the back porch by clamping the video signal.Controlling facilities
for linearity correction, gain, black setup, sync level, picture to sync ratio, sync stretching are
also available in this unit Sync pulses and blanking pulses are added to the camera signal to get
CVS. Several cameras are used to telecast the scene from different angles.In audio processing
unit we have microphone, which convert the audio signals into electrical signal. Here pre-
emphasis circuit is used, which will give necessary frequency compensation for the audio
signal.To pickup audio signals from different locations associated with the program, large
number of microphones are provided Amplified CVS signals are fed to the modulation unit
through the distributor and switcher.The distributer is used to receive the signals from other
studios also.CVS and picture carrier signal are fed as i/p to the modulator unit. Crystal controlled
oscillator is used for generating the picture carrier signal visual exciter: After AM modulation, it
is power amplified and fed as i/p to the modulator unit.Crystal controlled oscillator is used for
generating the picture carrier signal.After AM modulation, it is power amplified and fed to the
combining network.To save the power, VSB technique is used in TV transmitters.Before
combining with the audio signal, the video signals are passed through the VSB filters
Audio signal modulation or aural exciter: FM modulation is used for audio signals in TV
transmitter. This frequency modulator is a crystal controlled one.Here the FM modulation of
audio signal takes place with a carrier signal from crystal oscillator.To have an automatic
frequency control (AFC) facility, phase detector and CPF stages are used.If there is any change in
frequency of carrier signal, then phase detector will produce a dc correcting voltage. This dc
voltage is used to automatically correct any change in carrier frequenc.To increase the power
level, audio power amplifiers are used. To up convert the frequency level, frequency multipliers
are used.Turnstile antenna array is used to broadcast the TV signals from the combining
network.The combining network is used to combine the audio and video signal, without any
interference between them
Television signal booster amplifier: Booster amplifier is a high gain RF amplifier for one or more
TV channel frequencies providing a good S/N ratio to minimize noise spots in the picture and
ensure good synchronization of weak signals.A good booster amplifier can be helpful in the
following situations:Helpful in increasing the sensitivity of a receiver when its gain is moderate.
Ex: if a receiver has a sensitivity of 100 V, a booster amplifier which steps up the signal by 10
times. Along with the signal, the noise voltages at the i/p of the amplifier are also amplified
Booster amplifier can effect improvements in the S/N, if the noise factor of the amplifier is less
than the receiver tuner i/p circuit.If the antenna download feeder has a tendency to pick-up
extraneous noise and interference, a booster amplifier mounted near the antenna may be
useful in raising the signal level higher so, the S/N ratio is maintained to the level available at the
antenna TV signal booster is particularly useful in reception of weak signals in the fringe areas.
Here the signal may be very weak even though a high gain directive antenna is used to pick-up
maximum signal.The booster amplifier is also useful in lifting the wanted signal, when the
wanted signal falls to low level in a bid to minimize ghosting and other interference.
Design principle of TV Transmitters, IF Modulation, power output stages:
Requirements of TV broadcast transmission:
The standard channels of 7 Mhz bandwidth is provided in bands I and III in VHF range and bands
IV and V in UHF range, in the CCIR-B system.The signal strength available from a transmitter is
proportional to the square root of the transmitter power and varies inversely as the distance
from the transmitter.The signal strength at any place in the service area must be large enough
to overcome the noise and provide satisfactory picture In the VHF bands, the man-made noise
generated by vehicle ignition systems and other sparking effects determines the minimum field
strength requirements.TV transmitter is classified into various grades. Grade A: it is the area
within the signal strength counter which gives a satisfactory noise-free picture on the average
receiver, Grade B: in this area within the field intensity counter that may result in intermittent
noise in the picture on the average receiver Location of the antennas at a high point is desirable
and reduction of shadow effects due to hills and tall buildings may reduce the signal intensity
considerably.The height of the transmitting antenna is very important. Increase in the height is
great advantage than increase in transmitting power.Example: doubling the antenna height is
nearly equivalent to increase in the transmitted power by a factor of about five.Television
transmitter comprises a visual transmitter for the picture and aural transmitter for the
sound.For visual transmitter EIRP (effective isotropic radiated power) is given in terms of peak
carrier.The aural transmitter powr is rated in terms of rms value and is 10 or 20% of the visual
power Greater powers are not only uneconomical, but also worsen problems of sound carrier
beats with the colour subcarrier in colour TV transmissions.In order to avoid co-channel and
adjacent channel interference, the channel assignment has to be done with care so that such
stations are as far as possible For antenna heights of upto 300 m, the powers are generally
limited to 100 kw in band I, 316 kw in band III and 5000 kw in band IV and V
Design principles of TV transmitters: The picture carrier was directly modulated by video signal
in TV Tx. This can be carried out at a high level or low level modulation.In modern Tx., IF
modulation at low level, is commonly used.IF modulation Tx. Has many advantages, including
simplicity of design, ease of operation and superior performance High level modulation
(disadvantages): The video modulator has to supply high video voltages of up to several
hundred volts Low level modulation: One or more stages of linear modulated stage is used.
These stages is designed for linear and wideband operation.VSB filter is located immediately
after the modulated amplifier and hence can be operated at much lower power.Earlier power
tubes for linear amplification suffered from nonlinearity, low gain and bandwidth.
Improvements in vacuum tubes have made with high power ceramic tetrodes with high gain and
bandwidth capability at VHF frequencies with excellent linearity
IF modulation: This is low level modulation and typically the standard 38.9 Mhz video IF used in
TV Rx.The modulated IF is converted to channel frequency by heterodyning with suitable
oscillator frequency. This method has number of advantagesIF modulation (advantages): Gives
greater efficiency and reliability.Possible to introduce VSB filter at low power level (just after the
IF modulator) and can be designed with lumped components, not only to shape the lower side
band but also upper side band response.VSB filter can be tuned permanently for wide wide
band linear operation and to simplify tuning procedure.Visual excitors for all channels in the VHF
or UHF bands are identical in IF modulation. This results in considerable economy.Group delay
compensation carried out in IF requires only 3 stages else when done it in video frequencies
requires 7 or 8 sections to compensate the same VSB filter
Power output stages: Power o/p of VHF Tx. Employs triodes or tetrodes.In lumped
components: coz of their small size cannot handle large RF currents and voltages.Hence ceramic
tetrodes with quarter-wave mode re-entrant cavities are conveniently used to overcome the
problem Output stages of UHF band Tx: employs tetrodes or klystrons.Tetrodes provide greater
efficiency but their power gains are less and tube failure risk is greater.The life of klystron is
greater than the present day available triodes and tetrodes.Klystron provides gain almost 3 to 4
times that of tetrodes.Klystron provides lower efficiency (hence the cooling system of the
klystron transmitter must handle larger dissipation)The power supply voltages require is
considerably higher.Modern UHF Tx. Use multi-cavity klystrons or travelling wave tubes that
have a high power gain
Diplexer:Combining network: Combining network is a network used to combine the audio and
video signals before final transmission,Diplexer is a balancing unit that combines the audio
signal and video signal from the corresponding transmitters and fed them to a common antenna
for final transmission.A combining network in the form of a bridge is shown in figure.

Combining network:Two turnstile antenna are placed on two arms of the bridge.Capacitive reactances
are placed on the other two arms.Balun is a balancing unit. Whenever the bridge is in balanced
conditions, audio and video signals are radiated through a common antenna without disturbing each
Quarter wave matching: Quarter wave matching section of a transmission line can be used for
matching.When terminated in Zo at one end, it offers impedance Z1 at the other end and it is given by
Z
1
= Z
o
2
/ Z
2
where Z
o
is the characteristic impedance of the line.
Balun Transformers:A Balun is a device which converts balanced impedance to unbalanced and vice
versa. In addition, baluns can also provide impedance transformation,hence the name
Balun Transformers.A balanced to unbalanced line impedance transformation with a ratio of 4:1 is often
required in the antenna circuits for matching balanced 300 ohm line to unbalanced 75 ohm line
circuits.This can be done by 2:1 RF coupling transformer.But in conventional coupling transformers,
limits the high frequency response.Broadband impedance transformation is possible by transmission
line transformers. In this type the bandwidth of the order of hundreds of megahertz can be achieved
Balun transformer:A compact balanced to unbalanced connection is possible by combining two quarter
wave matching sections (fig)This unit is called balun which allows balanced to unbalanced impedance
matching.The quarter wave sections of characteristic impedance equal to 150 ohm have a pair of
terminals in series to provide a match to 300 ohm and the other pair of terminals in parallel to match
the 75 ohm.Either of the paralleled ends may be earthed without affecting the balanced conditions at
the other end
Provides a satisfactory response over wide frequency range.Decreasing permeability with
increasing frequency reduces the effective inductance at higher frequencies and produces
wideband flat frequency response.Fewer the number of turns required for a given frequency
response
Interference problems: Unwanted signals or noise which creep into the desired channel frequency
range produce disturbance in the picture and sound reproduction. These are of the following
types:Man-made impulsive interference,RF interference,Co-channel interference,Atmospheric noise
interference
Man-made impulsive interference: This is caused by electrical discharges or sparks produced
from man-made appliances, vehicles etc.,Example: sparking due to ignition systems of motor
cars, internal combustion engines, sparking across contacts of electric switches, brush contacts
of dc motors, commonly used universal motor in home and workshop appliances, arc welding
equipment and so on,Interference appears in the form of dark and white spots on the TV picture
with a tendency to disturb the line and field synchronization and if severe, causes production of
crackles in the sound
RF interference: CW radio frequency signals, Causes due to harmonic radiations from various
RF equipment like diathermy, other TV sets etc.,This may pass receiver circuits to produce
pattern effects on the TV picture
Co-channel interference: Shared channel working can cause interference in the form of the
venetial blind effect when unusual ionospheric or tropospheric condition cause freak reception
of long distance TV signals in weak signal areas of local station.
Atmospheric noise interference: This is RF noise originating from thunderstorms, outer space and other
natural sources appearing as dots on the screen
Parasitic elements: Additional rod elements placed on either side of dipole antenna and
parallel with it can make the dipole unidirectional in response.These rod elements that have no
electrical connection is called parasitic elements.Depending upon their lengths and how they are
placed, these can act as reflectors or directors for the signal being received
Parasitic elements
Reflector Director
The re-radiated field Err at the
reflector is 180
o
lagging or
opposite to the original field
The re-radiated field wave lags by 90o
so there is no phase difference b/w
the incident field & field radiated by
director
Re-radiated wave have no additional
phase difference due to identical
travelling time
For the signal arriving from
backside, there is not different
in travelling time b/w the i/c
wave and re-radiated wave.
Since the reflected (front end
and back end) is in opposite
phase they cancel each other
The signal coming from backside is
180o phase shift b/w , i/c & re-
radiated wave. Hence they both cancel
each other
Two yagi antenna arrays horizontally stacked,
can be conveniently connected together by
(3/4) matching sections, to match similar
line of impedance 300

Propagation phenomena:As the radio waves propagate in the earths environments, they may
undergo changes in their paths due to earthly structuresThey may reflected by grounds,
mountains, buildings etc.,They may be refracted and change their direction as they pass through
the layers of the atmosphere which have different densities due to heat, moisture content etc.,
or different degrees of ionization They may be diffracted around tall massive objects to bend
around their shadows.The waves at microwave frequencies may be absorbed and attenuated as
they pass through media, containing water vapour, oxygen etc., Refraction, reflection and
diffraction: Reflection is when waves, whether physical or electromagnetic, bounce from a
surface .Back toward the source. A mirror reflects the image of the observer.Refraction is when
waves, whether physical or electromagnetic, are deflected when the waves go through a
substance. The wave generally changes the angle of its general direction. Diffraction: When the
ray of light bends slightly as it passes around the edge of an object
Radio wave characteristics: The radio wave is an electrical power escaping into free space from a
suitable aerial circuit.The radiated energy escaping into space in the form of electromagnetic
waves.These waves are characterized by electric field E and magnetic field H at right angles to it and
propagate at right angle to both.The E and H fields both go on alternating sinusoidally with respect to
time and space, travelling at the speed of 3 x 10
10
cm/s in free space .The radiated power spreads out
into space in all directions, radiated power density P is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance.


Radio wave characteristics
The relation between electric field intensity E
and power density P is analogous to that b/w
voltage and power in an electric circuit
Z is the characteristic space impedance
Polarization: Polarization of electromagnetic waves refers to the physical orientation of electric
field vector which is radiated along the same direction as the electric currents in the antenna
wires or rods.Horizontal antenna radiates electromagnetic waves with its electric field vector E,
while the magnetic field surrounds the antenna wire and is perpendicular to it.The waves are
said to be horizontally polarized .Vertical antenna perpendicular to the earths surface produces
vertically polarized radio waves.If the rotation is clockwise, looking in the direction of
propagation, it is right hand circular (RHC) polarization, while if it is rotation anticlockwise, it is
left hand circular (LHC) polarization
Circular polarization
Circularly polarized light consists of two
perpendicular electromagnetic plane waves of
equal amplitude and 90 difference in phase.
Elliptical polarization
Elliptically polarized light consists of two
perpendicular waves of unequal amplitude
which differ in phase by 90.

Reception: A wire placed in an electromagnetic field will have currents induced proportional to
the electric field and the Rx. Antenna absorb some of the radiated power.In order to receive a
maximum signal, the polarization of the receiving antenna wire or rod must be same as that of
the transmitting antenna.A vertical linear wire dipole antenna will radiate a vertically linear
polarized wave .The polarization of a wave, depends on its freq. & can be twisted during
propagation through ionosphere or rainy atmosphere, causing depolarization and loss of signal,
unless the receiving antenna is rotated to the changed direction of polarization.These problems
are encounters at microwaves in satellite antennas It is advantage to use ciruclar polarization, in
which depolarization has little effect, once the transmitting and receiving antennas have the
same direction, RHC or
Receiving antenna requirement: A television receiver antenna has the following functions to
perform:It must pick-up the desired signal and develop a maximum signal voltage from the
available field strength.It must discriminate against unwanted signals like:1.Man made
interference from cars, machines etc.
Reflections from buildings that produce ghost signals
Co-channel interference
If it is to receiver more channels or bands, it must be capable of wide-band operation and must
be rotatable if the stations are located at different locations .Resonant antenna and their
characteristics: In radio receiver for receiving signals any length of wire can act as aerial, but
this cannot be done for TV signals coz of very high frequency is used.Short antenna will affect
reception characteristics like directional response, B/W, impedance etc.,So it is essential to use
resonant or tuned antennas that have well designed received characteristics for TV reception
.Resonant antennas are just appropriate lengths of wires or rods in multiples of /4, behaving
like tuned circuits coz of their distributive inductive and capacitance
Dipole antennas are two types 1,/4 Macroni antenna 2./2 hertizan dipole
Marconi antenna:
Quarter-wave Marconi antenna
The
MARCONI ANTENNA is also known as the QUARTER-WAVE ANTENNA, and the GROUNDED ANTENNA.
Marconi antenna mounted ON the surface of the earth.The transmitter is connected between
the BOTTOM of the antenna and the earth. Although the antenna is only ONE-QUARTER
WAVELENGTH, the REFLECTION or IMAGE in the earth is EQUIVALENT to ANOTHER quarter-
wave antenna. By this arrangement, HALF-WAVE operation can be obtained from an antenna
only a QUARTER wavelength long.
Hertzian dipole: Formed by two /4 sections, a half-wave antenna is the basic resonant
antenna used in television reception, operating independent of ground.
It is called dipole antenna or hertzian dipole.
Simple and small antenna for VHF/UHF TV signals and has useful directional characteristics that
can receive the maximum signal when it is at right angles to the dipole and rejects signals in the
axial direction along its length
Directivity: The directivity of an antenna is the ability of an antenna to receive in different
directions in space.Directivity is often expressed by parameters like beamwidth, front to back
ratio & auxiliary lobes in various planes.Dipole has circular polar pattern in the plane at right
angles (fig).It can Transmit or receiver in all directions.Directivity pattern in the plane passing
through the dipole length is the figure of eight pattern
Beam width or lobe width: Directional antennas
have a radiation intensity peak in the particular direction. Beam width is the angular distance
between the points on two opposite sides of the peak direction where the radiation intensity
drops to the half of the peak intensity.
Front to back ratio: The ratio of amount of signal Rx. From the front to that received from the
back. This indicates the directivity of the antenna
Directivity gain: Defined as the ratio of power received by an antenna in a particular direction
to the power received by an isotropic antenna i.e., power Rx. in all directions
Antenna gain: Defined as the ratio of increase in Rx. Signal by an antenna with respect to
reference antenna
Antenna Impedance: Ratio of voltage to current at antenna input.
Bandwidth: Antenna bandwidth is the frequency range within which the antenna performance
meet specifications.
Shadow zones: The space wave propagation of TV signals at VHF and UHF frequencies creates
shadow zones behind hills and large buildings.
Diffraction effects and tropospheric bending enable reception to some extent in the shadow
zones, the bending effect decreases as high and higher frequencies are used.
Reception in such areas becomes a problem for which the only solution is to mount the aerial on
top of the hill or the tall building obstructing the waves and to use community antenna (CA TV)
system i.e., to provide a common antenna signal to a number of community members by a cable
distributor
Large buildings and trees can also attenuate signals on UHF channels and the signal strength
may vary between seasons due to the growth of foilage on trees near the signal path to the
receiving aerial

TELECINE EQUIPMENT :
Projector camera: In this type the slide projector is coupled to a video camera tube to form a
telecine film camera chain.For telecine, a source of high intensity (1000 lux) is used to illuminate
the face plate of a vidicon camera tube.Such camera tube can operate with a low target voltage
(about 20 V) without posing a problem of lag or smearThe selection of film sources is made in
two ways:
(i) By using semi-mirrors or prisms or
(ii) By means of rotation or moving mirrors
Light from the slide projector passing through the mirrors or prisms in straight paths, also lights
from 16mm/35 mm motion film projectors reflect Cine films still form a significant part of broadcast
programs and commercials on TV.Films have advantage of worldwide acceptance on TV as well as
cinema cicuits, coz they can be played with telecine equipment to any TV standard, without need of
complex standard conversion.Films can be easily duplicated.The quality of cine film images is better
than present day TV systems The film is an important medium for recording and storing pictures and
sound. Hence telecine equipment has kept abreast of modern technological developments for
improved performance and facilities.Many television programs originate from photographic cine
films (usually standard 35 mm and 16 mm).Slides are often required to be used in television
programs.In Telecine film camera which couples slide projectors to the television camera, to form an
important program source in the TV studio

Projector camera
Flying spot scanner: In this type,
the cine film passes continuously in front of special low persistence high brightness CRT screen.A
high intensity flying spot of light produced on the phosphor screen of CRT and it scans the film
image.The light transmitted through the film and colour splitter arrangement and it is collected
by corresponding pickup photomultipliers to generate RGB video signals Used in post-
production work.Has advantage of full resolution, zooming, colour grading adjustments and
wide contrast ranges in both ve and +ve film stock CCD film scanner: In TV broadcast system
CCD is more economical and offers certain advantages, like simple construction and operation.It
offers continuous vertical scan instead of jump scan or fast pull down scan.CCD sensors have
long reliable life and no burn in or afterglow problems.Each frame is scanned only once and
without conventional deflection voltages.No field flicker and also offers high quality picture with
high resolution, excellent S/N ratio and brilliant colour rendition is possible even in red
hues.Digital frame store (DFS) is provided for stills and slow or fast operationsVideo modulation:
Positive modulation: The type of modulation in which the modulated video signal amplitude
increases with the increase in brightness of the picture is called as +ve modulation.Here the
peak white signal corresponds to 100% modulation level and sync corresponds to minimum
level
Negative modulation: The type of modulation in which the modulated video signal amplitude
decreases with the increase in brightness of the picture is called as negative modulation.Here
the peak white signal corresponds to near zero level.The blanking level is at 75% modulation
level
Positive and negative modulation


Yagi aerials :
A dipole antenna with a set of 2 or more directors and reflectors is called yagi aerials.Yagi-Uda is named
after the Japanese engineerYagi arrays are most popular among all the aerials and it is used for TV
reception in the VHF/UHF range coz of its simple construction and low wind resistance

The performance of yagi arrays can only be assessed after considering all antenna
characteristics, viz. impedance, gain, directivity and bandwidth.Closer spacing of directors
results in a higher front-to-back ratio with a broader main beam, while a wider spacing gives a
sharper beam. This is particularly true for the first director close to the dipole.The optimum
director length decreases slowly with increase in number of directors. Hence every time a new
director is added, its spacing is adjusted and all the lengths are shortened slightly Typical
dimensions of multielement yagi aerials used in VHF channels are given in table.The aerials are
generally constructed out of aluminium rods or pipes of diameter 10 to 12 mm for band I
channels and 8 to 10 mm for band III channels.The fold spacing-separation for the dipole should
be 60 to 80 mm for band I channels and 50 to 70 mm for band III channels Stacked arrays: Two
or more antennas of the same type called bays may be stacked vertically, one above the other
or horizontally one beside the other.This improves the directivity in the respective plane of
stacking, providing a power gain of 3 dB with each bay added.The signal from each bay must be
phased correctly before combining them together
Stacked arrays

High gain yagi antennas: The figure shows the construction of 13 element yagi antenna for
channels 5 to 8 in band III.The antenna provides:gain of 12 dB or 3 dB ,bandwidth of around 28
Mhz, front to back ratio of over 20 dB and VSWR less than 2.5, with output impedance of 300
ohm balanced
Television studios: Lighting,Autio pickup,Camera unit
A television studio is an installation in which a video productions take place, either for the recording of
live television to video tape, or for the acquisition of raw footage for post-production. The design of a
studio is similar to, and derived from, movie studios, with a few amendments for the special
requirements of television production. A professional television studio generally has several rooms,
which are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via intercom, and
personnel will be divided among these workplaces.
(Studio floor): The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place.
A studio floor has the following characteristics and installations:decoration and/or sets
Professional video camera (sometimes one, usually several) on pedestals,Microphones,Stage
lighting rigs and the associated controlling equipment.,Several video monitors for visual
feedback from the Production control room (PCR),a small public address system for
communication,A glass window between PCR and studio floor for direct visual contact is usually
desired, but not always possible,While a production is in progress, people composing a
television crew work the studio floor.,The on-screen "talent" themselves, and any guests - the
subjects of the television show.A floor manager, who has overall charge of the studio area stage
management, and who relays timing and other information from the television director.One or
more camera operators who operate the professional video cameras, though in some instances
these can also be operated from the PCR using remotely controlled robotic pan tilt zoom camera
(PTZ) heads.Possibly a telepromoter operator, especially if this is a live television news
broadcast
Lighting: The particular lighting set up depends on mood, purpose, or style of lighting needed.
There are many different ways to achieve this:Fresnel Spotlight,Scoop Floodlight,Cyclorama
Strip Light (cyc strip),Key Light,Fill Light ,Back Light,Side light,Background
light,Barndoors,Flags,Diffusion,Scrims,Gels ,Footcandle ,Light Meter,Color
Temperature,Motivated Light Source
Fresnel Spotlight: So named for its ring-stepped lens.In our studio, most of the fresnel spots
contain 500-1000 watt lamps.A 1000 watt instrument is called a ONE-K.The instrument has a
spot/flood control on the side or rear which allows the light to be changed from a narrow, highly
focused beam of light, to a wider, less intense spread. On the other side of each fresnel spot is a
knob called the "tilt lock". When tight, the up and down motion of the instrument is locked.
When loosened, the instrument may be tilted up or down to any position.
Scoop Floodlight: A deep open-faced (no lens) floodlight with a diffused, generally elliptical contoured
reflector. Often used as a fill light.
Cyclorama Strip Light (cyc strip): An rectangular open-faced instrument mounted horizontally at the top
of the cyclorama curtain. A cyc strip lights the curtain in a smooth and uniform manner. Often used to
wash the cyclorama with color. Key Light: The key light is defined as the apparent, main source of light.
The key light is the modeling light. A harsh, shadow producing instrument such as a Fresnel spotlight, is
usually used as the key light.
Fill Light: The fill light is the instrument used to soften the dark, well defined shadow produced
by the key light. Ideally, the fill light should not produce a shadow of its own.
Back Light: Back light is illumination from behind the subject. Its main purpose is to show the
separation between the subject and the background. Since the television screen is a two
dimensional object, it is necessary to imply the third dimension with light.
Without the backlight, the subject and the background tend to blend together, but when
correctly applied, the back light subtly rims the subject with light, which visually separates the
subject from the background.
Side light: Side light is sometimes used as an alternative to the standard three point lighting set
up. It is helpful to light this way for people with glasses because there are no reflections of the
lights in the glasses. It still involves a main, key source, and a soft fill, except the lights are aimed
almost directly from the side
Background light: These lights are usually considerably dimmer than the lights on the
performers. Background lights are similar to back lights in that they are both used to create a
feeling of depth and dimension in a two dimensional medium.The purpose of the background
light is to establish a "base level of overall lighting" on the set, and to illuminate the set pieces.
Barndoors: The flaps attached to the front of the instrument, they are manipulated to prevent
light from striking unwanted areas.
Flags: A Device which can block out light. Flags can be mounted on a light stand or in the
lighting grid.
Diffusion: Diffusion scatters light, creating soft, somewhat blurred shadow edges, and less
severe modeling. Diffusion act to reduce the intensity of an instrument without significantly
affecting the instruments color temperature.
Scrims: A wire screen used to cut down the amount of light emulating from an instrument. It is
inserted between the lens and the barndoors. But, they do not significantly alter the shadow
pattern or color temperature produced by a light.
Gels: Their purpose is to alter the color characteristics of the lights to which they are attached.
Gels are mounted in a "gel frame" or attached to the instruments barndoors with clothes pins.
Footcandle: Refers to the amount of light falling on a one-foot square surface from a candle
placed one foot away.
Light Meter: A device used to measure the quantity of light (in foot candles). The camera
requires a minimum amount of light to render an acceptable image.
Color Temperature: Color temperature refers to the redness or blue-white quality of light,
certain color temperatures are required for color TV. Cameras are calibrated for a specific color
temperature.You should also know that when you dim a light, its color temperature drops,
becoming more red based.
Audio Pick-up : For sound arrangement, the microphone placement technique depends upon
the type of program.In some cases eg. Discussions, news and musical programs, the mike may
be visible to the viewers and these can be put on a desk or mounted on floor stands.Other
programs like dramas, the mike must be out of view. Such programs need hidden microphones
or a boom mounted mike with a boom operator In television studio, there is considerable
ambient noise resulting from off-the-camera activity, hence directional mikes are frequently
used.The studio walls and ceilings are treated with sound absorbing material to make them as
dead as possible.Artificial reverberation is required to achieve proper audio quality
Camera units: In order to command different views of the program scenes, three plumbicon
camera units are generally used in bigger studios.Two of them are usually used in ground
operated dollies and third one is mounted on a crane for dramatic shots.Each camera unit is
mounted on a friction head with panning handle that moves the camera left or right for pans or
up and down for tilts.
Unit 4
Liquid Crystal DisplayLCD is used for display of numeric and alphanumeric character (either in
dot matrix or segmental display).3 LCD commonly used: (i) nematic, (ii) cholesteric, (iii)
Smectic Most popular type is Nematic Liquid Crystal.In this type molecules align (approx.)
parallel to unique axis (director).
Liquid is normally transparent, but if subjected to strong electric field, disruption in well
ordered crystal structure takes place which cause the liquid to polarize and turn opaque
Removal of applied potential allows the crystal structure to regain its original form (now the
material becomes transparent).LCDs are classified into 2 types: (i) dynamic scattering type, (ii)
field effect type
Dynamic scattering type
(construction): The display consists of 2 glass plates, each coated with tin oxide (Sno
2
); inside
the glass plate transparent electrode is placed which separates liquid crystal layer (thickness
of transparent electrode: 5 to 50 m thick).Oxide coating on the front sheet is etched to
produce single or multi-segment pattern of characters. Each segment will be insulated each
other (like 7 segment LCD display)
A weak electric field applied in the LCD tends to align the molecules in the direction of
field.When the voltage level exceeds certain threshold value, the domain structure gets
collapses and the appearance is changed.If voltage grows further then the flow becomes
turbulent and the substance turn optically inhomogenous.In this disordered state LCD scatters
light Thus if liquid is not activated it becomes transparent.When liquid is activated, the
molecular turbulence causes light to be scattered in all direction and the cell appears to be
bright.This phenomenon is called dynamic scattering
Field effect type: Construction is similar like dynamic scattering type except 2 thin polarizing
optical filters are placed at the inside of each glass sheet.LCD material is twisted nematic type
which twist the light (change in direction of polarization) passing through the cell when the
latter (cell) is not energized.This allows the light to pass through the optical filters and the cell
appears bright.When the cell is energized, no twisting of light takes place and the cell appears
dull.LCD are 2 types: (i) Transmittive type, (ii) Reflective type
1. In this type both glass sheets are transparent so that light from rear source is scattered in
the forward direction, when the cell is activated
2. In this type of cells have reflecting surface on one side of glass sheet.The incident light on
the front surface of the cell is dynamically scattered by an activated cell.Both type of cells
appear quite bright when activated even under ambient light condition
Lcd: Liquid crystal consume small amount of energy.In seven segment display ct/. Drawn is
25 A for dynamic scattering cells and 300 A for field effect cells.LCDs are normally used for
seven segment display
Adv: Low power consumption,economical
disadv: Very slow device (coz the turn ON and turn OFF time is quite large),When used on d.c.
their life span is quite small. Therefore they are used with a.c. supplies having a frequency less
than 50 Hz.,They occupy large area