Final Report for

ASHRAE Senior Undergraduate Project Grant Program

Development of Smoke Venting
Demonstration Apparatus


Students Involved in Project

Sudarman,
Ali Abdurrahman Sungkar,
Cahya Tri Anggara,
Muhammad Taufiq Ramadhan,
Muhammad Andira Mulia Siregar,
Yosua,
Muhammad Agung Santoso, ST.,
Refaldo Panther, ST,
Tito Apriano, ST.








Universitas Indonesia

Faculty Advisor

Dr. Yulianto S Nugroho
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia
Kampus UI Depok 16424
Phone: +62 21 7270032, Fax: +62 21 7270033,
Email: yulianto@eng.ui.ac.id




ii


ABSTRACT

Fire safety is a critical design factor in tall buildings. Smoke is recognized as
the major killer in fire situations. Building fires produce both smoke and heat. The
amount of smoke produced and their physical and chemical properties are greatly
affected by the interior building materials which is in todays buildings are mostly
made of cellulose and plastics.
Stairwell and passage pressurisation systems are an important component of
the means of egress system in many buildings and the effective operation of these
systems for fire isolated exits could mean the difference between life and death in a
fire evacuation.
Besides early warning system of smoke appearance, its management,
mitigation and containment should be an essential part of any HVAC design. The
protection and pressurization of stair towers and egress lobbies are of fundamental
importance to the building occupants.
The HVAC system as a potentially dangerous penetration of building
membranes, such as walls, floors etc., that can readily transport smoke and fire.
Thus, the air-conditioning system has traditionally been shut down when fire is
discovered. Nevertheless, shutting down the system does not actually prevent smoke
movement through ducts due to various other driving forces that assist smoke to
move.
This objective of this project is to develop a smoke management
demonstration apparatus for education proposes. This apparatus help the student
undertaking any HVAC related courses to have hands on experience at laboratory
scale. The student will also be able to compare their Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) results with experimental works. We believe a real world experience is an
important component in an engineering education curriculum.




iii


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The ASHRAE Senior Undergraduate Project Grant has been used to set-up a new
smoke venting demonstration apparatus for studying smoke management principal in
a high rise building. This demonstration apparatus help the student undertaking any
HVAC related courses to have hands on experience at laboratory scale. The student
will also be able to compare their Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) results with
experimental works. Direct relationship between theoretical simulation and physical
experimentation is incredibly beneficial to engineering students.

Students may also learn the basic enginering principle of engineering measurement,
since the new demonstration apparatus is equipped with modern measurement
apparatus. Morover, the student can also explore the trend and develop correlations
since the sensors for measurement of differential pressure, temperature, smoke
opacity are supported by DAQ system for continues recording of experimental data.

Dr. Yulianto S. Nugroho gratefully acknowledge the project grant provided by
ASHRAE. The grant has supported 9 students involved from the early stage of
design, construction, simulation and experimental stage. Dr. Nugroho would like to
express his gratitude to his students Sudarman, Ali Abdurrahman Sungkar, Cahya
Tri Anggara, Muhammad Taufiq Ramadhan, Muhammad Andira Mulia Siregar,
Yosua, Muhammad Agung Santoso, Refaldo Panther, and Tito Apriano for their
great enthusiasm on this project.

Depok, 31 Desember 2012

Yulianto S Nugroho


iv

CONTENTS

Abstract ii
Acknowledgment iii
Contents iv
List of Figures iii
List of Tables v

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Project Objectives 2

Chapter 2 Theory 3
2.1 Compartment Fires 3
2.2 Smoke Production and Measurement 6
2.3 Smoke Management 8
2.4 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 14
2.5 Numerical Simulation 15

Chapter 3 Design Features and Measuring Devices 16
3.1 Literature survey 16
3.2 Computer Simulation 18
3.3 Design Feature 18
3.4 Measuring devices and data acquisition system 22

Chapter 4 Bil of Materials and Cost 28
Chapter 5 Results 28
5.1 Results of Computer Simulation 29
5.2 Results of Experimental Measurement 31
5.2.1 Non Pressurised Conditions 31
5.2.2 Pressurised Conditions 34
5.2.3 Smoke Extraction Conditions 36
Chapter 6 Conclusions 25
References 38


v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Fire development phase [Quintiere, J.G. (2006)], 3
Figure 2 Beam of light untuk mengukur optical density [Drysdale, D.(2003)], 6
Figure 3 Typical smoke migration routes (Buchanan, A., 2001), 9
Figure 4 Typical central HVAC, fire mode (Buchanan, A., 2001), 10
Figure 5 Lay out the mesh used in the simulation
Figure 6 Lay out the fan shaft for stairwell pressurization, 18
Figure 7 The design mockups, 20
Figure 8 The stairwell pressurization system and the dropwall, 20
Figure 9 Centrifugal Fan with the injection system of the roof., 21
Figure 10 Construction of Smoke Venting Demonstration Apparatus by Stairwell
Pressurisation System, 22
Figure 11 Temperature measurement using type K thermocouples and DAQ system, 23
Figure 12 Orifice meter equipped with differential pressure measurement and
amplifier system., 23
Figure 13 Laser beam sensor equipped with amplifier and power supply system, 24
Figure 14 Home made laser pointer beam sensor equipped with amplifier and power
supply system, 25.
Figure 15 Standar glasses having various optical density for sensor calibration, 25
Figure 16 Fans for Stairwell Pressurization and Smoke Extraction equipped with
speed control and an inverter, 25
Figure 17 Smoke source generated by heating papers, 26
Figure 18 Comparison of the smoke filling into the stairwell for (a) no stairwell
pressurization, (b) 1 door open, (c) 2 doors open, and (d) 3 doors open, 29
Figure 19 Comparison of optical density with time without the pressure of the door
open 1, 30
Figure 20 Comparison of optical density with time without the pressure of the door
open 2, 30
Figure 21 Comparison of optical density with time without the pressure of the door
open 3, 31.
Figure 22 Changes in opacity of the smoke on the stairwell without pressure, 32


vi

Figure 23 Data opacity in the stairwell without pressure, HRR 3.4 kW, 34
Figure 24 Changes in opacity of smoke in the pressurised stairwell with 3.4 kW heat
release rate, 35
Figure 25 Data opacity in the stairwell pressure, HRR 3.4 kW, 36
Figure 26 Effect of Air change per hour to optical density, 37.




vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Comparison of Various Code of Practise [Wild, J.A. (1998), 12.
Table 2 Design Pressure (Wild, J.A., 1998), 13.
Table 3 Typical leakage area around doors (Wild, J.A., 1998), 14.
Table 4 Positions of the measurement sensors for FDS simulation, 18


CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

In recent years, there is an increasing number of high-rise building
development in big cities of the developed countries but also in developing countries
like Indonesia. Construction of high-rise building is not only to meet the housing
needs, but also to represent economic development. No wonder many countries build
high-rise buildings as an icon of the countrys achievement. Construction of tall
buildings or commonly referred to as high rise building face many challenges, one of
which is fire safety technology.
The field of fire safety engineering is in growing stages, since fires caused by
the absence or weakness of application of fire safety has an enormous impact on the
loss of life caused by the smoke which is a cause of death in the event of fire.
Planning and management of fire safety is a major challenge for a multi-
storey building as the building type is very susceptible to smoke during a fire event.
Smoke produced during fire can spread into other parts of the building and
potentially life-threatening and damaging property. Thus, a high-rise building should
have and maximizing the smoke control system since the design stage to emergency
operation. Smoke control system can effectively to limit the spread of smoke to
various rooms in the building [ASHRAE (2007), Wild, J.A. (1998)].
Furthermore, smoke control systems in buildings are aiming to secure
occupants of a building in fire to evacuate safely to the assembly point. However, the
flow of smoke during the fire spreads tend to move into a room in the vicinity of fire
through various openings, such as cracks in construction, effluent piping, ducting,
and the doors open. Factors causing smoke to spread to areas outside the
compartment is the chimney effect, the effect of fire temperature, weather conditions,
especially wind, mechanical and air treatment systems [ASHRAE (2007)].
High-rise building fire stairs deservedly have a pressurization system as it has
a very important part for evacuation in the event of a fire. Fire stairs are planned
specifically for rescue in the event of a fire. In principle, pressurization system of fire


1

stairs provide a difference in air pressure from the stairwell to another room in the
building. The method is designed to control smoke movement. In the process of
evacuation of fire stairs door opens, the air supply should be provided with sufficient
velocity to prevent smoke entering the stairwell.
This study combines field-based simulation models using the Fire Dynamic
Simulator (FDS. Version 5) [McGrattan, et al., (2010b] and experiments using the
mock-up of the smoke venting demonstration apparatus . Comparison between the
experimental results with the simulation results will provide better understanding on
the obtained trend graph.

1.2 Project Objectives

This objective of this project is to develop a smoke management
demonstration apparatus for education proposes. This apparatus will help the student
undertaking any HVAC related courses to have hands on experience at laboratory
scale. The student will also be able to compare their Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) results with experimental works. We believe a real world experience is an
important component in an engineering education curriculum.





2


CHAPTER TWO
THEORY

2.1 Compartment Fire

Fire room or compartment is an event where there are flames confined in a
room. Factors that limit the spread and growth indoors is the firing rate and duration
of combustion. Fire compartment can be divided into several phases, ignition,
growth, flashover, fully developed fire and decay.

Figure 1. Fire development phase [Quintiere, J.G. (2006)]

Ignition phase is the phase where a new fire burning in a fire. After that, if
there is not an act of extinguishing the fire either as a result of human action or
dikarenankan properties influence the fire, the fire will grow larger and growth
phase. Fire is a function that is strongly influenced by the availability of fuel. Fire
can also be described as the rate of energy from the combustion of fuel products.
Therefore, if the availability of fuel and enough air in a room, the fire can grow into
bigger impact on increasing the room temperature.


3

The next phase is the phase flashover which is a phase transition from the
growth phase to the fully developed stage. In this phase flashover temperatures or
temperature changes significantly as shown in Figure 1. Phase flashover has several
mechanisms that can be described as follows [Quintiere, J.G. (2006)]:
1. Remote Ignition, i.e. ignition suddenly by autoignition or piloted ignition
due to the heat. Criteria heat release in general this type of flashover is at 20 kW/m
2
.
Temperatures were measured in this mechanism is the range at 500
o
- 600
o
C.
2. Rapid Flame Spread, the flames rapidly widening. This mechanism may
occur due to the influence of the burning of a material. This mechanism has the
distinction because steam generated by the mixing of fuel and air are burned
simultaneously. The process takes place quickly in a short time. Thus, this type of
flashover mechanism of rapid flame spread speeds that range at 1 m/s.
3. Burning instability, when a burst of flame suddenly occur, even tanpat
spreading away from combustion sources. In this mechanism occurs thermal feed
back, the process of heat transfer between objects on fire and a heated room. Thus,
an increase in temperature of the room quickly and combustion in a fuel at the point
of equilibrium.
4. Oxygen supply, the addition of oxygen suddenly from going outdoors
because there is damage to the door or window. This process occurs suddenly,
causing a sudden increase in combustion. Increased pressure can result in significant
damage to the walls, doors or other windows that were around the room.
5. Boilover. This phenomenon occurs because water sprayed the room with a
burning fuel that has a higher boiling point than water. Water droplets that exist on
the surface of the liquid fuel vaporized fuel with a fuel vapor resulting in an increase
in the number of times that fire can cause detonation.

The next phase is fully developed fire, that fire the release phase of the
greatest among the others in the room. In this phase, widely available fuel that is
readily available in the room. If there is enough ventilation in the room so that
unburned fuel will come out with the gases of combustion to produce flame, so that
the outdoors can be burned. At this phase lasts, the environment in the room really
affect the rate of pyrolysis of materials in the room.


4

Once fully developed phase occurs, the existing fuel decreases. Then, the
decay phase occurs which will decrease the rate of heat release. In this condition, the
flame will change from being controlled ventilation controlled fuel then the fire will
die if there is a fuel that has been burned.

After ignition and during the initial fire growth stage, the fire is said to be
fuel-controlled, since, in the initial stages, there is sufficient oxygen available for
combustion and the growth of the fire entirely depends on the characteristics of the
fuel and its geometry. When the fire grows toward flashover it may become
ventilation-controlled, when there is not enough oxygen available to combust most of
the pyrolyzing fuel. The energy release rate of the fire is then determined by the
amount of oxygen that enters the enclosure openings, and the fire is therefore termed
ventilation-controlled. During the decay stage the fire will eventually return to being
fuel-controlled.
The growth stage of the fire (and the pre-flashover fire) is therefore often
associated with the fuel-controlled fire, and the fully developed stage (and the post-
flashover fire) is often associated with the ventilation-controlled fire. (Karlsson, B.,
James G. Quintiere, 2000).
The factors that influence the development of a fire in an enclosure can be
divided into two main categories: those that have to do with the enclosure itself, and
those that have to do with the fuel. These factors are :
- the size and location of the ignition source
- the type, amount, position, spacing, orientation, and surface area of the fuel
packages
- the geometry of the enclosure
- the size and location of the compartment openings
- the material properties of the enclosure boundaries







5

2.2 Smoke production and measurement

With very few exceptions, particulate smoke is produced in all fires. The
effect of reduced visibility is to delay escape and increase the duration of exposure of
the occupants of a building to the products of combustion. These will contain a
highly complex mixture of partially burned species, some of which are capable of
causing individuals to be overcome. The length of exposure will be increased if the
visibility is poor.
The yield of particulate smoke from a burning material may be assessed by
one of the following methods:
- Filtering the smoke and determine the weight of the material, this method
is only suitable for small-scale testing.
- Collecting smoke on the known volume and determining the optical
density of the smoke, this method can be done for small to medium skale.
- Flowing smoke a pipe, and then to measure the optical density where the
obstruction flow has been established and integrated in a single device for
measuring the total particulate smoke.

Optical density measurements done by measuring the intensity of a beam of light
caused by smoke particles passing through the beam. Mechanisms measurement
beam can be shown through Figure 2 below:

Figure 2 Beam of light untuk mengukur optical density [Drysdale, D.(2003)]

The sensor beam of light to work with the fire intensity light through the light source
and then received by the receiver (photo cell) which read as Io. By the time the
smoke from passing through the light beam sensor, the measured intensity values are
identified as Ix, the intensity of which was reduced from the initial intensity. The


6

relationship between the value of the intensity Io and Ix can be explained through
Bouger's Law, as follows [Mulholland, G.W. (2002)]:
( )
0
exp
x
I I KL = [1]
where K is the value of the absorption coefficient with units of m-1 and L is the
distance of the light source and photo cell. For optical density value has units of
(1/m), which can use the equation [Mulholland, G.W. (2002)]:
10
log
o
x
I
OD KL
I
| |
= =
|
\ .
[2]
The amount of light transmission values obtained from the comparison of the
measured intensity of the smoke and the initial intensity may be expressed using the
equation:
0
1
100
x
I N
T
I
= =
[3]
where T is the value of the transmission of light received by the photo cell in units of
percentage (%) and N is the percentage of opacity measured at the photo cell (%).
Thus, from the relationship equations [2] and [3] obtained a new equation, namely:
exp( ) T OD =
[4]
Thus, the value of the optical density is linearly related to the value of the
transmission through the equation:
10
1
log OD
T
| |
=
|
\ .
[5]
By getting the value of the absorption coefficient of the equation (2.6) and (2.7), the
concentration of smoke measured period can be determined by using the equation
[Mulholland, G.W. (2002)]:
m
K
m
K
=
[6]

where Km is the specific extinction coefecient with units m2g-1. Thus, time in units
of grams of smoke can be determined through the relationship of concentration
during smoke through the equation:
s r
M V m =
[7]


7

Vr is the volume of the room where the smoke was accommodated on a space with
units of m
3
. By getting the value of the property, it can be determined the value of
soot yield (g / g) by the equation [Mulholland, G.W. (2002)]:

s s b
Y M M =
[8]
where M is the mass of fuel burned with units of grams.

2.3 Smoke Management

Past catastrophes involving fire have shown that it is the smoke and fumes given
off by the fire that are the greatest danger to people trapped in buildings. The precise
concept of the total fire protection and smoke management system to be incorporated
into a building is a very important subject during the planning phase of any
construction project.

The objectives of smoke management systems are to minimise smoke migration
through a building due to a fire occuring within that building. The ASHRAE text
Principles of Smoke Management (Klote and Milke 2002) states that smoke
movement can be managed by use of one or more of the following mechanisms:
compartementation, dilution, air-flow, pressurization, or bouyancy. The
pressurization approach for controlling smoke can be carried out using mechanical
fans and applied in stairway pressurization, elevator pressurization, and any other
smoke control systems.
The priciple expectation from all smoke control system is that smoke is kept on
one side of a well-defined plane within a building. The plane may be horizontal or
vertical and is usually simply defined by the contruction features of the building. In a
high rise building smoke can and does cross the boundary represented by the plane
through the buildings leakage paths to floors which may be well above the actual
fire (Figure 3).


8


Figure 3 Typical smoke migration routes (Buchanan, A., 2001)

HVAC systems used to control smoke movement in the building would typically be
configures as follows (Figure 4).


9


Figure 4 Typical central HVAC, fire mode (Buchanan, A., 2001)


Pressurised stairwell are designed and constructed aiming to provide a smoke-free
exit a building during a fire. In addition, pressurized stairway also provides access to


10

the firefighters in performing their duties. In a floor fires, pressurized stairs should be
able to maintain a positive pressure differential at the stairwell door closed to prevent
smoke entering the stairwell. During a fire occurs in the building, some doors opened
as wide stairs during evacuation and fire fighting, and even some of the doors are
blocked to keep it open. Ideally there should be enough air flow to prevent smoke
entering the stairwell. Therefore, the system needs to be pressurized stairs suitable to
overcome it.

Exhaust system shall be designed to provide an output as the air supply route to leave
the building on fire floor area is located. Exhaust can be made through four methods:

- Through existing leaks to cracks in the window to exit the building. In reality
this is not realistic because the crack area will not suffice as an exhaust.
- Through the window or vent automatically attached to one side of the
building. This method allows for dilakykan the condition of the space is
enough to accommodate a vent located. Using the second method requires
almost 0.5 m for the vent area on each floor in the stairwell pressurization.
- Provide a vertical line through the entire height of the building with a damper
arranged to open automatically on the fire floor.
- With a mechanical system, namely the extraction of smoke in the area that is
not exposed to pressurization. Exhaust fan will be selected to remove smoke
generated at the fire floor. By the time the doors open and the fire stairwell
pressurization active then there will be a flow of leads exit stairwell smoke
and exhaust fan is working to get rid of the smoke out of the building.

There are two parameters that can have a large effect on the size of the air supply
through the fan, that is:
1. Air velocity through the door.
2. Effective number of door openings are expected.

Thomas, P.H. (1970) estimated that a fire with a HRR of 2.4 MW will cause the
smoke to flow with the speed of 3-4 m / s through a door open wide by 0.9 m.


11

Measure of the rate of this magnitude is hardly likely to reach all areas of the
building as pressurization to control smoke, it must be given consideration. Doors
considered in open conditions that can reduce the speed and vary the number of door
openings as well as a parameter in determining the size of the supply air fan. These
can be viewed using the estimated velocity through the open door to the stairwell fire
in some countries, such as in Table 1.

Table 1 Comparison of Various Code of Practise [Wild, J.A. (1998).


A pressurization system has three modes of operation, as follows:
1. Detection phase, which increases the pressure differential system for fire
protection on the staircase as required by estimated 50 Pa, under the door closed.



12

2. Evacuation phase, namely to maintain airspeed, specifically, through the open
door of 0.75 m/s withspecified variations or by giving a 10 Pa pressure difference
with a variety of closed and open doors that have been customized.

3. Fire extinguishing phase, which provides air flow with a specific speed of 2 m/s
through the open door with a maximum variation.

In the design the stairwell pressurization system, the designer must also consider the
level of pressure based on height of buildings.

Table 2 Design Pressure (Wild, J.A., 1998)


To withstand fire smoke into the stairwell fire at the adjusted pressure levels, need to
be given sufficient air capacity to hold the smoke when the doors open in an
evacuation situation. Calculation of air capacity is obtained from the equation made
by Hobson and Stewart (1977):

[9]

where Q is the required air capacity (m3 / s), while AE is a leak in the room (m2), n
is the leakage factor (2 for leaks such as doors and 1.6 for smaller leaks like a
window), and P is the difference pressure (Pa)







13

Table 3 Typical leakage area around doors (Wild, J.A., 1998)


2.4 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

The smoke venting demonstration apparatus developed in this program was built to
scale 1 : 20, which means that the size of the compartment is scaled geometrically
according to this ratio. A Froude scaling technique was considered here [Quintiere,
J.G. (2006), Ingason, H. (2007)]. The influence of the material thermal inertia and
radiation effects on fire spread were not considered. The HRR, the time, the energy
and mass were scaled according the following equations:

For a comparison between the data obtained from the model and experiment, it is
necessary to first performed dimensional analysis in order to generate comparative
data comparison is quite ideal. Analisis dimensional calculated in this study is the
HRR and time, as follows [Ingason, H. (2007)]:

[10]
where L is the length scale and the index M refers to the model scale, while F is the
actual scale. Next is a dimensional analysis to be used in experiments and
simulations, as follows:

[11]
Where t represents the time of data collection were carried out both in the experiment
and the simulation.


14

2.5 Numerical Simulation
The smoke development on designated fire scenariowas simulated using CFD
software Fire Dynamic Simulator Version 5 (FDS5) which was developed by NIST
(National Institute of Standards and Technology). FDS solves numerically a form of
the Navier stokes equations for low speed, thermally driven flow with an
emphasis on smoke and heat transport from fires. The core algorithm is an explicit
predictor corrector scheme, second order accuracy inspace and time. Turbulence is
treated by means of the Smagorinsky form of Large Eddy Simulation (LES), in
which large-scale eddies are computed directly and the sub-grid dissipative processes
are modelled. It is possible to perform a Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS), in
which dissipative terms are computed directly, if the underlying numerical grid is
fine enough [McGrattan et al., (2010a)]. The detailed explanation about FDS can be
seen in reference [McGrattan et al., (2010a and 2010b)] The prediction generated by
FDS can be visualized by a post processor called Smokeview.








15

CHAPTER THREE
DESIGN FEATURES AND MEASURING DEVICES

3.1 Literature survey

The literature survey is becoming an important aspect of this work, since the
progress on fire and smoke dynamics and management for high rise building are
enormous in recent years. From the literature survey, it is becoming reasonable to
focus this project on the development of combained demonstration apparatus for
simulating of stairwell pressurization and smoke venting systems for high rise
building.

3.2 Computer Simulation

Prior to the development of the experimental set up, fire and smoke dynamics
simulation was carried out using Fire Dynamic Simulator Version 5 (FDS5). The
simulation was conducted to study the effect of operating parameters of stairwell
pressurization on the spread of smoke into the stair area. For fire simulation, an
actual size of typical high-rise buildings was selected. The building consists of 10
storeys with a total height of 42 meters. During a fire, two fire doors will be opened,
one in the fire floor and the exir door in the first floor.

A constant fire source of 2 MW heat release rate was selected in this smilation work.
Smoke opacity and visibility will be studied with and without the activation of
pressurization fan. Other operating parameter studied include the effect of the
number of open doors. In summary the conditions will be varied as follows:
1. One door is open, on the floor of fire origin.
2. Two doors are open, on the floor of fire origin and the exit door on the first
floor.
3. Three doors are open, i.e. on the floor of the fire origin, the exit door and one
the other floor.


16


3.2.1 Domain
In the simulation using FDS 5, there is strong relation between the size of the domain
and the size of the grid used in the simulation. The magnitude of the grid affects the
accuracy of the results of a simulation. Besides, the grid size is affecting the
computing time of a simulation. This study used a grid size of 0.23 x 0.23 x 0.21 m.



Figure 5 Lay out the mesh used in the simulation

3.2.2 Geometry
Geometry used in this simulation refer to the size of high-rise buildings where the
actual size of the building with the scale ratio of 1:1 is simulated. Meanwhile,
comparison of simulations with experiments is 1:20. The simulation consists of two
scenarios, namely a high-rise building with and without the use of stairwell
pressurization system. The simulated high-rise building has dimensions up to a
volume of 13.0 x 17.5 x 40.0 m (x, y, z).





17


Figure 6 Lay out the fan shaft for stairwell pressurization

The positions of the measuring equipments used in the simulation are given in Table
4.

Table 4 Positions of the measurement sensors for FDS simulation

Device X-axis Y-axis Z-axis
Beam 1
Beam 2
Beam 3
6.25-18.75 m
9.00-16.00 m
9.00-16.00 m
29-29 m
22-22 m
19-19 m
11.2-11.2 m
11.2-11.2 m
10.7-10.7 m

3.3 Design Features
3.3.1 Small Scale Model Development

A small scale model of high rise building (a mock-up) has been designed and
constructed with a scale of 1: 20 of the actual building size. Thus, the model has the
sizes of 65cm width, 86 cm length, and 200 cm tall. This model is equipped with
enclosed stairwell pressurised with a adjustable-speed fan to represent stairwell
pressurization system of a high-rise buildings.

Fan shaft


18

The design specifications for the manufacturing the mock-up are as follows:
1. The mock-up design has the size of 70 cm x 65 cm x 200 cm or 1:20 scale
use than the actual 10 stories building.
2. Each story is connected with scaled stairs.
3. The interior of the model was made of transparent acrylic material of 3 mm
thick, while the outer frame and the lid using transparent acrylic of 5 mm
thick.
4. The mock-up was placed on the moveble base for easy access and storage.
5. The doors are equipped with hinges, so that they can be opened or closed as
needed.
6. The area close to the exit stair was protected with drop walls to represent
passive protection means of smoke spread.
7. A rectangular duct shaft for supplying air during fire mode (when the
stairwell pressurization fan is activated), was installed with openings in every
floor.
8. The final mock-up is also equipped with smoke extraction system.




19



Figure 7 The design mockups

After the mock-up design was completed, the construction of the mock-up was
carried out by professional maker using laser cutting technique to ensure the
accuracy and finest. The mock-up was mainly made of acrylic material. Although the
cost is relatively expensive, but it has the advantage of safer and lighter than glass,
with almost the same level of clarity for smoke opacity measurement and visual
observations. Nevertheless, good care of sample burning process should be placed to
ensure that only the smoke was realease during the smoldering heating of the sample.



20



Figure 8 The stairwell pressurization system and the dropwall

As shown in the above figure, multiple injection system was chosen because it is
more effective to fire stair pressurization especially when a lot number of the open
door.

Figure 9 Centrifugal Fan with the injection system of the roof.




21




Figure 10 Construction of Smoke Venting Demonstration Apparatus by Stairwell
Pressurisation System

3.4 Measuring devices and data acquisition system

a. Temperature measurement

Type K Thermocouples were used during the experimental for measuring air and
smoke temperature in various places. The data was recorded using National
Instrument cDAQ-9174, CompactDAQ chassis (4 slot USB), and NI 9211 4-Ch 80
mV, 14 S/ s, 24-Bit Thermocouple Differential Analog Input Module.


22


Figure 11 Temperature measurement using type K thermocouples and DAQ system

b. Flow measurements
A typical orifice meter is constructed by inserting between two flanges of a
pipe a flat plate with a hole.


Figure 12 Orifice meter equipped with differential pressure measurement and
amplifier system.


23


We design and constructed a assumed a ratio of the hole and pipe diameter, = d/D,
a small value in order to obtain a large pressure drop over the orifice giving a more
clearer reading by the differential pressure transmitter. The differential pressure was
measured using Keyence AP-47 Micro-pressure difference sensor head, equipped
with AP-V41AW Separate thin amplifier type NPN.

c. Smoke opacity measurements

Smoke opacity measurement is the unique feature of this smoke venting
demonstration apparatus. As mentioned earlier, the sensor beam of light to work with
the smoke intensity light through the light source and then received by the receiver
(photo cell) which read as Io. By the time the smoke from passing through the light
beam sensor, the measured intensity values are identified as Ix, the intensity of which
was reduced from the initial intensity.

A state of the art laser beam sensor was applied to measure the smoke opacity and
visibility, i.e. the Keyence IB-01 Laser Thrubeam Sensor (Sensor head) and IB-1000
Laser Thrubeam Sensor (Amplifier).

Figure 13 Laser beam sensor equipped with amplifier and power supply system.

Since simultaneous opacity measurements are needed, home made opacity
measurement apparatus was developed. The source of the laser light was laser
pointer with photo sensor to measure light intensity changes.


24



Figure 14 Home made laser pointer beam sensor equipped with amplifier and power
supply system.

Before measurement was carried out, the opacity sensors were calibrated using
standar glasses having a certified optical density.


Figure 15 Standar glasses having various optical density for sensor calibration.

d. Fans for Stairwell Pressurization and Smoke Extraction
Stairwell pressurization and smoke extraction systems were created using Fan
system. The flowrate of the air and smoke flow was control by speed control and an
inverter. Measurement of the flow rate was carried out using orifice meter,
meanwhile the air velocity was measured using a hot wire anemometer.



Figure 16 Fans for Stairwell Pressurization and Smoke Extraction equipped
with speed control and an inverter.


25

e. Smoke source
Smoke source was generated by heating 1 gr of paper using a solder heating
element. Smoke source was placed in the third storey of the mock-up.




Figure 17 Smoke source generated by heating papers.

a. Experimental Procedure

A typical experimental run was carried out using the following procedure :

1. Place the measuring devices and DAQ system in the designated positions, i.e.
laser sensors were placed in in 4 positions (2 sensors in main room, 1 sensor
in near exit door and the last in the stairway evacuation).
2. Carry opacity sensors calibration.
3. Take note of the starting value for each device (pressure sensor, opacity
sensor and thermocouple).
4. Prepare and weight paper to 1 gram, then rool the paper around the heating
element.
5. Place the smoke source into the mock-up at the designated position.
6. Turn on the heating elemet and wait until a paper was burned and generate
smoke.
7. Start a stopwatch and take a data of laser opacity sensor every 10 second.
8. After laser sensor shows 80 %, turn on the fans at the setting rpm. Take the
time from opacity of 80% to 99%.


26

9. The measurement was terminated after the laser opacity sensor shows 99
%.record all data and start the fan at full speed to purge the interior of the
mock-up.
10. The next experiment can be started when the laser sensor shows 100 %.



27

CHAPTER FOUR
BILL OF MATERIAL AND COST







No. Item name Quantity Status Description Price (Rp) Price (USD)
Source of
funding
1 Mock-up Stand and accessories 1 Make by
order to
professional
maker
High rise
building
miniature for
education
demonstration
10,499,000.00 1,095.00 ASHRAE
2 Fan, orifice meter and accessories 1 Make by
order to
professional
maker
Flow
measurement
2,100,000.00 210.00 ASHRAE
3 National Instrument cDAQ-9174,
CompactDAQ chassis (4 slot USB)
and accessories
1 Buy Data acquisition
system
867.00 ASHRAE
4 National Instrument 9211 4-Ch
80 mV, 14 S/s, 24-Bit
Thermocouple Differential Analog
Input Module
1 In Kind Module 373.00 University
contribution
5 Keyence IB-01 Laser Thrubeam
Sensor (Sensor head)
1 Buy Opacity
measurement
sensor
13,789,606.25 1,438.00 ASHRAE
6 Keyence IB-1000 Laser Thrubeam
Sensor (Amplifier)
1 Buy Amplifier 12,402,368.75 1,290.00 ASHRAE
7 Omron Power supply for IB-1000 1 In Kind Power suply 600,000.00 63.00 University
contribution
8 Home made laser pointer beam
sensor equipped with amplifier
and power supply system.
3 Made Opacity
measurement
2,000,000.00 210.00 Project Team
9 Keyence AP-47 Micro-pressure
difference sensor head
1 In Kind Pressure
difference
measurement
sensor
3,064,343.75 322.00 University
contribution
10 AP-V41AW Separate thin amplifier
type NPN
1 In Kind Amplifier 2,650,262.50 278.00 University
contribution
11 Inverter 1 In Kind Frequency
control
2,500,000.00 263.00 University
contribution
12 Heater 1 In Kind Heating 200,000.00 21.00 Project Team
13 CFD Simulation 1 In Kind Computation 1,000,000.00 105.00 Project Team
14 Thermocouples 4 In Kind Temperature
measurement 300,000.00 31.00
Project Team
USD 6,566.00
USD 4,900.00
USD 1,299.00
USD 367.00
Total expenditure
ASHRAE
Cost distribution:
University contribution
Project Team


28

CHAPTER FIVE
RESULTS

5.1 Results of Computer Simulation

This section discusses the effect of pressurization on smoke filling and smoke
opacity in the stairwell area.


(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 18 Comparison of the smoke filling into the stairwell for (a) no stairwell
pressurization, (b) 1 door open, (c) 2 doors open, and (d) 3 doors open.

In the numerical simulation using FDS 5 the actual size of the high-rise
buildings that have been designed. The building consists of 10 floors with a total
height of 42 meters. At the same HRR, the constant 2 MW will be seen the influence
of the HRR to the value of opacity of smoke in high-rise buildings without the
activation of pressurized fan in the stairwell fire. Conditions are varied according to
the number of doors that are opened.




29



Figure 19 Comparison of optical density with time without the pressure of the door
open 1


Figure 20 Comparison of optical density with time without the pressure of the door
open 2


30




5.2 Results of Experimental Measurement

5.2.1 Non Pressurised Conditions

Source of smoke in the experiment is the result of the burning of 1 gram of paper is
heated using a heater. Smoke opacity was measured from the three main points show
the movement of smoke from the source of the smoke to reach the fire stairwell. The
third beam sensor was placed on the 3rd floor. Activation of the sensor beam was
initiated as soon as the smoke was detected or reading the sensor beam. The heat
release rate of the burning paper are assumed constant at 3.4 kW.

In Figure 22 visible smoke density changes with the light beam sensors are
increasingly visible. At 30 seconds of the first sensor, beam 1 and the two are starting
to look obvious, while the sensor beam 3 on the staircase is still not visible. Then,
when it reaches the first minute, the sensor beam 3 is already starting to look
sketchy.


31

30 s

120 s

60 s

150 s

90 s

180 s


Figure 22 Changes in opacity of the smoke on the stairwell without pressure

At the time shows 1.5 minutes, a window opposite the sensor beam 1 was not seen,
indicating the density of the smoke is very high. Furthermore, the sensor beam 1 is
becoming clearer. It appears that without pressurization of the stairwell, there is an
increase in the opacity of smoke in the stairwell as the fire door is open. After
overcoming the smoke barrier, then the smoke freely enter the stairwell.

In a system where there are two types of fluid adjacent to where there is a density
difference it will greatly affect the buoyant force on the fluid. Fluid with a lower
density will float on the state of the environment in which there is a fluid that has a
density greater. The relative magnitude that occurred between the two styles is the


32

ratio of buoyancy to drag viscosity expressed in Grashof number [Drysdale, D.,
2003], namely:


( )
3
3
0
2 2
gl
gl T
Gr
v v

|

A
= =
[11]

Grashof number is the ratio between the buoyancy force due to the barrier effect of
the fluid density. In a stream of smoke, Grashof number determines the type of flow
of smoke.

Opacity values obtained by measuring the intensity of a beam of light caused by the
passage of smoke particles with a value of Io and Ix. The relationship between Io and
Ix are described in bouger's Law is useful for calculating the value of the optical
density of smoke [Drysdale, D., 2003]:


10
log
o
x
I
OD KL
I
| |
= =
|
\ .
[12]

To determine the value of light transmission and light passing through the smoke
opacity can be determined by the equation:


0
1
100
x
I N
T
I
= =
[13]


Thus the two equations obtained optical density value of a property, namely:

10
1
log OD
T
| |
=
|
\ .
[14]


The following graph show the plot of the experimental data of obtained optical
density with the condition without pressurization in the fire stairwell.


33


Figure 23 Data opacity in the stairwell without pressure, HRR 3.4 kW

Just as the images of the video, the graph of the experimental results show that the
fire origin space, has the highest optical density of about reached 1.6 m
-1
, because
the smoke almost covers the entire light beam sensor 1. The outcome for the second
beam sensor also show the evident that the opacity of the smoke was thick in this
area, reaching about 0.8 m
-1
. Without pressurization of stairwell, smoke is able to
enter the stairwell, as detected by the sensor beam 3. After 70 s to 3 minutes, the
optical density of the stairwell was measured at 0.3 m
-1
.

5.2.2 Pressurised Conditions

In the second experiment will be conducted with the similar parameters as in the first
experiment. However, in this case stairwell pressurization will be provided through
the use of fan installed on the top of the high-rise building models. Injection system
is used to put pressure on the staircase representing a multiple injection close each
door of the stairwell. Air capacity provided through the fan was 0.0016 m
3
/s. As in
the experiment without the pressure of a staircase, with the source of the smoke on
the pressurization experiment was the result of the combustion of 1 gram of paper.


34

30 s

120 s

60 s

150 s

90 s

180 s


Figure 24 Changes in opacity of smoke in the pressurised stairwell with 3.4 kW heat
release rate.

As shown in Figure 25 pressurization of the stairwell could maintain low obtical
density measured by beam No. 2 and 3. The most significant effect are no sightings
of smoke in the fire stairwell, although there was slighly visible red beam sensor 3
occured.



35


Figure 25 Data opacity in the stairwell pressure, HRR 3.4 kW

5.2.3 Smoke Extraction Conditions

Using the smoke management demonstration apparatus, one can also study the effect
of smoke venting / smoke extraction system to the optical density in the fire
compartment (third floor in this case). By measuring the pressure difference in the
flow measurement apparatus operating at various fan speed, one can estimate the
flow rate of smoke extraction. In this project, the speed of fan was varied by setting
the frequency of the power supply at 40, 45 and 50 Hz. At these frequencies, we can
calculate the flow rate of smoke extraction as 2.84, 3.12, and 3.41 m
3
/h. As the
volume of the third floor of the model is 0.4 m
3
, then the air change per hour are
approximately 7, 8 and 9.

The results of the measured optical density of the fire compartment by operating the
smoke extraction fan are shown in the following figure. Increasing the air change per
hour (ACH) shortens the period for optical density recovery (the period to gain good
visibility). Nevertheless, higher ACH may not automatically lower the maximum
optical density values.


36



Figure 26 Effect of Air change per hour to optical density

-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
O
p
t
i
c
a
l

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
m
-
1
)
Time (s)
Air change per hour:
7
8
9


37



CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS

1. The demonstration apparatus designed for simulating smoke management in
buildings works well in accordance with the background theory.
2. Simulation and experimental results are comparable.
3. Stairwell pressurization can reduce measurable levels of smoke density.
4. Simultaneous measurement of optical density using laser beam sensors are
helpful to explain the changes of smoke opacity in different areas of the
building, including the effect of smoke management effort.
5. Pressurization of stairwell can reduce smoke opacity levels, so it can be
applied to prevent smoke entering the fire stairs.
6. Increasing the air change per hour (ACH) shortens the period for optical
density recovery.




38

REFERENCES

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nd
Edition, 2001
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