a) Experimental Design

1) Experimental design
a) Time; Digital stopwatch/clock seconds (nearest second)
b) Temperature; thermometer Kelvin (nearest 0.5celcius)
c) Mass; electronic balance kilogram
d) Volume of gas; gas syringe cm
3
(nearest 0.1cm
3
)
e) Volume of liqiuid; measuring cylinder (nearest cm3) pipette/burette
(nearest 0.1cm3)
2) Methods of purification and analysis
a) Solid-solid; sublimation
b) Solid-liquid; filtration
c) Liquid-liquid;
i) Dissolved solids; crystallization
ii) immiscible liquids; simple distillation/separating funnel
iii) miscible liquids w/ range of boiling points; fractional distillation
d) Paper chromatography; different substances have different
solubilities, hence moving diff distances on chromatogram.
i) Locating agent needed for colourless substances
ii) Rf value = distance moved by substance/distance moved by
solvent
3) Identification of ions and gases
a) Cations
b) Anions
c)
CO3
2-
Dil HCl. Pass gas pdc
limewater
Effervescence. Gas form
white ppt in limewater.
Cl
-
Dil HNO3. AgNO3 soln. White ppt of AgCl2
formed.
I
-
Dil HNO3. AgNO3 soln. Yellow ppt of AgI2 formed.
NO3
-
Dil NaOH. Al foil. Warm.
Test gas moist red litmus.
Litmus turn blue.
SO4
2-
Dil HNO3. BaNO3 soln. White ppt BaSO4 formed.

NaOH Excess NH3 Excess
Al
3+
White ppt dissolve White ppt insol
Pb
2+
White ppt Dissolve White ppt Insol
Zn
2+
White ppt Dissolve White ppt Dissolve
Ca
2+
White ppt Insol - -
Cu
2+
Light blue ppt Insol Light blue
ppt
Dissolve deep
blue soln
Fe
2+
Green ppt Insol Green ppt Insol
Fe
3+
Red-brown ppt Insol Red-
brown
ppt
Insol
NH4
+
No ppt
Ammonia gas given off on
heating. Turn moist red litmus
blue.


b) Particulate Nature of Matter
1) Kinetic Particle Theory
a) Solid; particles tightly packed together in an orderly arrangement,
vibrating about their fixed positions. Strong intermolecular forces of
attraction.
b) Liquid; particles closely packed together, with no regular arrangement.
They can move and slide past one another, taking shape of container.
Weak intermolecular forces of attraction.
c) Gas; particles spread far apart in a random arrangement, vibrating and
moving anywhere throughout its container at a fast speed. Little to no
intermolecular forces of attraction.
2) Atomic structure
a) Proton no.; No. of protons in an atom
b) Nucleon no.; No. of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
c) Isotopes; Atoms of the same element with diff no. of neutrons but same
no. of protons.
3) Structure and properties of materials
a) Element; Pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical methods or electricity.
b) Compound; Pure substance that contains 2 or more elements chemically
combined.
c) Mixture; 2 substances added together without the formation of
chemical bonds.
d) Giant molecular substance;
e) Simple molecular substance
f) Diamond; Strong covalent bonds between the atoms held in a
tetrahedral structure. Large amount of energy needed to break the
strong extensive covalent bonds between atoms.
g) Graphite; Each C atom covalently bonded to 3 other C atoms in each
layer. 1 delocalised electron from each C able to move freely around
solid. Large amt of energy needed to break the strong extensive covalent
bonds between atoms. Weak van der waals forces of attraction between
layers of atoms, allowing the layers to slide past each other easily.
Structure Particles Bonds b.p. Solubility Electrical
conductivity
molecular small
covalent
molecules
Very weak
forces of
attraction btw
molecules.
strong
intramolecular
covalent
bonds.
Low Insoluble No
Giant
covalent
Atoms Strong
covalent
bonds
High Insoluble No
Ionic Positive
and
Strong ionic
bonds
High Soluble Yes molten
or aqueous
4) Ionic bonding
a) Formation of ionic bonds; Transfer of electron(s) to from metal to nm
atom, forming ions. Metal and nm ion joined tgt by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction a.k.a ionic bond. Giant lattice structure of
alternating cations and anions held together by strong ionic bonds
b) Physical properties relation to lattice structure; sol state cannot
conduct electricity. No mobile ions to carry charge, all ions held in
lattice structure. High m.p. b.p. Mobile ions in molten/aqueous state
free to move around solid and carry charge, hence can conduct
electricity.
5) Covalent bonding
a) Nm atoms sharing (no. of pairs of electrons) to obtain electronic
configuration of a noble gas.
b) One pair = one covalent bond
c) Low b.p.; Small amt of energy required to overcome weak vdw forces of
attractions between molecules.
d) Dont conduct electricity; all electrons used up. No mobile electrons free
to move around and conduct electricity
6) Metallic bonding
a) Structure; Lattice of positive ions in a sea of negative electrons.
b) Conduct electricity; Sea of delocalized electrons able to move freely
around solid and carry electric charge.

3. Formulae, stoichiometry, moles
a) Relative atomic mass; Avg mass of one atom of element as compared to
1/12 of mass of atom of carbon-12.
b) Relative molecular mass; avg mass of one molecule of a substance when
compared to 1/12 of mass of one atom of carbon-12.

4. Electrolysis
a) Decomposition of an ionic compound, the electrolyte, when molten or aqueous
by passing electricity through it.
b) 4124; 4OH
-
-> O2 + 2H2O + 4e
-

c) 2H2O -> 2H2 + O2
d) Electrolyte becomes more acidic or alkaline after pdts discharged. / Conc of
(ion/compound) increases after pdts discharged.
e) Electroplating; e.g. steel electroplated to protect from corrosion and give
attractive appearance.

5. Energy from chemicals
a) Exo; enthalpy change neg. Endo; pos.
b) Bond breaking; exo. Bond forming; endo.
negative
ions
soln
Metallic Positive
ions in a
sea of
negative
electrons
Strong
metallic bonds
High Insoluble Yes solid
and molten
c) Hydrogen fuel cell
a) Conversion of hydrogen and oxygen to water, releasing energy.
b) Cathode; Oxygen reduced to form hydroxide ions.
c) Anode; hydrogen oxidized to form water

5. Chemical Reactions
1) Speed of reaction
a) Catalyst; substance which alters or speeds up a chemical rxn without itself
being chemically changed at the end of the rxn.
Catalyst Usage
Platinum Catalytic converter; nitrogen oxides rxt with carbon
monoxide as they pass through platinum catalyst.
Vanadium(V)
oxide, V2O5
Manufacture of sulfuric acid;
Iron Haber process; manufacturing ammonia.
Nickel Hydrogenation of alkenes; manufacturing
margarine. Temp 150 celcius.
2) Redox
Oxidising Agents Reducing Agents
Bromine Carbon
Chlorine Carbon monoxide
Sulfuric acid Hydrogen
Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen sulfide
Potassium manganate (VII) KMNO4
Purple to colourless when reduced
Hydrogen peroxide
Potassium dichromate (VI)
K2Cr2O7
Orange to green when reduced.
Potassium iodide
Colourless to brown when oxidized.
Sulfur dioxide
Ammonia
Metals


6. Acids bases and salts
1) acids and bases
a) Strong vs weak acid; dissociate completely vs partially dissociate
b)
i) acid + metal; salt + hydrogen gas
ii) acid + base; salt + water
iii) acid + carbonate; salt + water + carbon dioxide gas
c) Sulfuric acid
d) Plants need soil of suitable pH for good growth
i) Too acidic; add calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide
ii) Too alkaline; add compost
e) Sulfur dioxide
i) Bleach
ii) Manufacture of wood pulp for paper
iii) Food preservative
f) Bases
i) Ammonium salts are decomposed when mixed with a strong base e.g.
the alkali sodium hydroxide produces ammonia gas
2) Salts
a) Preparation
3) Ammonia
a) Haber process
i) Nitrogen from air and hydrogen from cracking oil mixed tgt in ratio
1:3
ii) Conditions; iron catalyst, 200 atm, 450 degrees celsius
iii) Ammonia gas formed condensed into a liquid.
iv) Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen recycled
v) Reversible reaction
(1) N2 + 3H2 -> 2NH3 + heat
b) Displacement of ammonia from ammonium salts
i) Heating ammonium salt with alkali displaces ammonia from the salt
(1) NH4Cl (s) + NaOH (s) -> NaCl (s) + NH3(g) + H2O (l)

7. Periodic table arrangement of elements in the order of increasing proton no.
1) Periodic trends
a) Electronic structure
i) Elements in same group have same no. of valence electrons
b) Ionic charge
i) Charges on ions same as group no.
ii) Elements on left side lose valence electrons to form positive ions
iii) Elements on right side gain valence electrons to form neg ions
c) Group I alkali metals
i) Most reactive metals bc one valence electron
ii) Shiny, silvery solids
iii) Soft & easily cut with a knife
iv) Low densities and low m.p.
(1) Density increase down group
(2) M.p. decrease
v) React readily with air (kept under oil to prevent contact with air)
vi) React with water to give alkaline soln
Soluble Insol
SPAN
Chlorides LS lead, silver
Sulfates CLB calcium, lead, barium
SPA Carbonates
Rxn w/ excess insol
substances
Titration Precipitation
Add reagents
Filter mixture
Collect filtrate
Heat to saturation point
Crystallize
Filter
Pat dry
Titrate
Heat to saturation point
Crystallize
Filter
Pat dry
Add reagents
Filter mixture
Collect ppt
Pat dry
vii) React vigorously/violently with cold water
viii) Reactivity increase down group
ix) Readily gives up electrons in reactions to form positive ions`
d) Group VII halogens
i) Diatomic molecules
ii) Colour become darker down group
iii) Density increase down group
iv) Low m.p. and b.p., increasing down group
v) Less reactive down group
vi) More reactive halogen will displace less reactive halogen from an
aqueous soln of its ions
e) Group 0 - noble gases
i) Monoatomic elements that are chemically unreactive
ii) Impt in providing an inert atmosphere
(1) Argon and neon in light bulbs
(2) Helium in balloons
(3) Argon in manufacture of steel
iii) Lack of reactivity due to their stable electronic configurations; do not
usually from bonds with other atoms

8. Metals
1) Properties
a) Solids
b) High m.p. b.p.
c) Malleable
d) Good conductors of heat and electricity lattice of positive ions in a sea of
neg. electrons. Sea of delocalized electrons free to move around solid and
carry charge.
e) Alloys; mixture of metal with another element.
i) Atoms of different elements have diff sizes, disrupting the orderly
arrangement of layers of atoms, preventing them from sliding over
each other easily.
2) Reactivity series
a) Papa said cat mice and zebras isnt that lovely
b) Vigorously/violently; very fast/fast/moderately fast; readily; slowly
i) Potassium reacts very vigorously with cold water, producing
potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. A lot of heat is released which
causes the hydrogen to catch fire and explode.