Linear Integrated Circuits and Applications

April/May 2011
1. The basic chemical reaction in the epitaxial growth process of pure silicon is the
hydrogen reduction of silicon tetrachloride.
1200
0
C
SiCl
4
+2H
2
<-------> Si + 4 HCl

2 .*Miniaturisation and hence increased equipment density.
*Cost reduction due to batch processing.
*Increased system reliability due to the elimination of soldered joints.
*Improved functional performance.
*Matched devices.
*Increased operating speeds.
*Reduction in power consumption.

3.1. Open loop voltage gain is infinity
2. Input impedance is infinity.
3. Output impedance is zero
4. Bandwidth is infinity.
5.Zero offset.
6.Infinite bandwidth
7. Infinite CMRR.
8. Infinite slew rate.
9. Infinite PSRR

4.Packages of IC741
Dual Inline Package, Metal can package, flat package.

5. In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of physical quantities is
usually done with the help of transducers. The output of transducer has to be amplified So that it
can drive the indicator or display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation
amplifier.

6. It is defined as the total time required converting an analog signal into its digital output. It
depends on the conversion technique used & the propagation delay of circuit components. The
conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is given by T(n+1) Where T---clock
period Tc---conversion time n- no. of bits

7. *FSK generator
*Pulse-position modulator

8. Capture range.
The range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock with the input signal is called as
capture range. Capture range = sqrt(fL *f1) where f1=1/ (2**R*C)]
9. The maximum current capability of 723 regulator is 140mA. In certain applications this value
of current is not sufficient. Hence current boosting is done using series pass transistor.

PART-B
11.a.

A circuit with diodes, npn transistor, resistors and capacitors is considered. Typical steps
involved is shown ->
Step 1: Wafer preparation
The starting material called the substrate is a p-type silicon wafer 10-cm diameter and 0.4
mm thick. The resistivity is approximately 10 -cm corresponding to concentration of
acceptor atom, NA = 1.4 10
15
atoms/cm3.


Step 2: Epitaxial growth
An n-type epitaxial film (525 mm) is grown on the p-type substrate
This finally becomes the collector for transistor, or an element of diode or a diffused
capacitor
Thus all active and passive components are fabricated within this layer
The resistivity of n-epitaxial layer is of the order of 0.1 to 0.5 -cm .

Step 3: Oxidation
A SiO2 layer of thickness of the order of 0.02 to 2 mm is grown on the n-epitaxial layer using
thermal oxidation process

Step 4: Isolation diffusion
four components have to be fabricated so we require four isolated islands
For this, SiO2 is removed from five different places using photolithographic technique.
The wafer is subjected to heavy p-type diffusion for a long time interval so that p-type
impurities reach the ptype substrate.
The area under the SiO2 are n-type islands that are completely surrounded by p-type moats. p-
type substrate is held at a negative potential - > pn junctions between the isolation islands are
reverse biased and these regions are electrically isolated from each other by two back-to-
back Diodes























Step 5: Base diffusion
A new layer of SiO2 is grown over the entire wafer a new pattern of openings is formed using
photolithographic technique.
Now, p-type impurities, such as boron, are diffused through the openings into the islands
The depth of this diffusion must be controlled so that it does not penetrate through n-layer into
the substrate.
This diffusion is utilized to form base region of the transistor, the anode of the diode ,
junction capacitor or a resistor

Step 6: Emitter diffusion
A new layer of SiO2 is again grown over the entire wafer
It is selectively etched to open a new set of windows
n-type impurity (phosphorus) is diffused through them.
This forms emitter for transistor and cathode region of diode.
To make ohmic contacts with n-type layer, 2 Windows (W1, W2 etc.) are etched into n-region
Heavy concentration of phosphorus (n+) is diffused into these regions simultaneously with the
emitter diffusion. This n+ layer thus makes a good ohmic contact with the Al-layer.

Step 7 : Aluminium metallization
Now the IC chip is complete with all active and passive devices
A new layer of SiO2 is again grown over the entire wafer
It is selectively etched to open a new set of windows where contacts have to be made
A thin coating of aluminium is vacuum deposited over entire wafer surface
Interconnect pattern is formed by photolithography technique and Al at undesired places
removed by etching
This forms interconnection between transistor, diode, resistor and capacitor

11.b. Refer May/June 2013 11.a.

12.a. Refer May/June 2013



13.a.
Wide range resistors are required in binary weighted resistor type DAC. This can be
avoided by R-2R type DAC where only 2 values of resistors are used.
Very much suitable for IC realization
Typical value of R ranges from 2.5k to 10k
Consider a 3 bit DAC as shown in figure. Switch position corresponds to binary 100.












13.b. Refer May/June 2013


14.a.Features of 555 timer:
555 timer is the most versatile highly stable device for generating accurate time delays.
When used as an oscillator the frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled by
only two external components, a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C).
A single 555 timer can provide time delay ranging from microseconds to hours
555 timer can be used with supply voltage in the range of +5V to +18V and can drive
upto 200mA.
Compatible with TTL and CMOS
Used in many applications like oscillator, pulse generator, ramp and square wave
generators, missing pulse detector, pulse width modulator, mono-shot multivibrator,
burglar alarm etc.

Modes of operation:
Monostable mode
Astable mode

Monostable mode
It has only one stable state, hence called one-shot multivibrator.
When trigger is applied, it produces a pulse at the output and returns back to its stable
state.Duration of pulse depends on R and C.



In stand by state,
Qbar of flipflop=1-> Q1 ON -> External timing capacitor C clamped to ground ->Output ->
LOW
When the trigger input goes lesser than Vcc/3, FF-> set , Qbar =0 -> Q1 OFF -> short circuit
across timing capacitor is released
Since Qbar=0, output =HIGH(Vcc).
The timing cycle now begins;
1. Since C is unclamped, voltage across it rises exponentially through R towards Vcc with
time constant RC.
2. After time period T, the capacitor voltage is just greater than 2/3Vcc and the upper
comparator resets FF. Qbar=1 ->Q1 ON -> capacitor rapidly discharged to ground
potential. Output returns to stand by state i.e, ground potential.
Once trigger pulse is applied and the output goes high, any additional trigger pulse coming
during this period will not change the output state. But when reset pulse (negative) is applied,
Q2->OFF, Q1->ON -> external timing capacitor is discharged immediately.


Timing interval is independent of supply voltage but depends only on R and C.

Astable Multivibrator
The circuit has no stable state and the circuit changes its state alternately. Hence the operation is
called free running oscillator or astable multivibrator.The threshold input is connected to the
trigger input.


1. When the external power supply is connected,
A. External timing capacitor gets charged to Vcc with time constant (Ra+Rb)C.
B. During this time, output is high as Reset R=0, Set S=1. =>Qbar=0 => Timing
capacitor C is unclamped.
2. When the capacitor voltage is just greater than 2/3Vcc, the upper comparator triggers
reset so that Qbar=1. This makes Q1 ON and capacitor C starts discharging to ground
through Rb and Q1 with time constant RbC.
1. During discharge of C, when the voltage is just less than Vcc/3, the lower comparator is
triggered and S=1, R=0 -> Qbar=0 -> unclamps the external timing capacitor C.
2. Capacitor is thus periodically charged and discharged between 2/3Vcc and 1/3Vcc.
The length of time tat the output remains HIGH is the time for the capacitor to charge from
1/3Vcc to 2/3Vcc.

The capacitor voltage for a low pass RC circuit with step input Vcc
Vc= Vcc(1-e
-t/RC
)
The time t1 taken by the circuit to charge from 0 to 2/3Vcc is
2/3Vcc= Vcc(1-e
-t1/RC
)
T1=1.09RC
Time t2 to charge from 0 to 1/3Vcc is
1/3Vcc =Vcc (1-e
-t2/RC
)
T2=0.405RC
So time to charge from 1/3Vcc to 2/3Vcc is
tHigh=1.09RC - 0.405RC = 0.69RC
So, tHigh = 0.69(Ra+Rb)C
The output is low while the capacitor discharges from 2/3Vcc to 1/3Vcc.
The voltage across the capacitor is given by
1/3Vcc = 2/3Vcc e
-t/RC

T=0.69RC. so tlow= 0.69RbC
Ra and Rb are in the charge path but only Rb is in the discharge path.
Total time= T =Thigh+Tlow
=0.69(Ra+ 2Rb)C
f= 1/T = 1.45/(Ra+2Rb)C
Duty cycle of a circuit is defined as the ratio of ON time to the total time period.
Here when Q1 is ON, the output goes low. Hence,
D% = tLow/T*100 = Rb/(Ra+2Rb)*100
For this astable multivibrator circuit, duty cycle cannot be more than 50% since tHigh =
0.69(Ra+Rb)C is always greater than tLow =0.69RbC.


14.b.Voltage controlled oscillator
A voltage controlled oscillator is an oscillator circuit in which the frequency of
oscillations can be controlled by an externally applied voltage.
VCO provides linear relationship between applied voltage called control voltage and
oscillation frequency Hence VCO is called voltage to frequency converter
Commonly used VCO ICs are NE/SE566. It is a 8 pin IC with 2 outputs. It can
simultaneously produce square and triangular wave outputs which are functions of i/p
voltage(modulating voltage)

Features:
1. Linear modulation characteristics
2. High temperature stability
3. Excellent power supply rejection
4. 10 to 1 frequency range with fixed CT
Frequency can be controlled by current, voltage, resistor, capacitor

Typical connection and operation:
The opamp A1 is used as a buffer. A2 -> Schmitt trigger A3 ->inverter(current amplifier)
Control voltage is applied to the modulating i/p pin.
A timing capacitor C
T
is linearly charged or discharged by a constant current source/sink.
The amount of current can be controlled by changing the voltage Vc applied at the
modulating input (pin 5) or by changing the timing resistor Rt external to IC chip.
The voltage at pin 6 is held at the same voltage as pin 5.
Thus if modulating voltage at pin5 is increased ,the voltage at pin 6 also
increases,resulting in less voltage across Rt and thereby decreasing the charging current
The voltage across the capacitor Ct is applied to the inverting input terminal of schmitt
trigger A2 via buffer amplifier A1.
The output voltage swing of the schmitt trigger is designed to Vcc and 0.5 Vcc.
If Ra=Rb in the positive feedback loop,the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of
A2 swing from 0.5 Vcc to 0.25 Vcc.
When voltage across capacitor Ct exceeds 0.5 Vcc during charging ,the output of schmitt
trigger goes LOW(0.5 Vcc).
The capacitor now discharges and when is at 0.25Vcc, the output of the schmitt trigger
goes HIGH(Vcc).
Since the source and sink currents are equal ,the capacitor charges and discharges for the
same amount of time.
This gives a triangular waveform across Ct which is also available at pin 4.
This square wave output of the schmitt trigger is inverted by inverter A3 and is available at pin 3.


The output frequency of the VCO can be changed either by (i) RT ,(ii) CT or (iii)the
voltage vc at the modulating input pin5
The components R
T
and C
T
are first selected so that VCO output frequency lies in the
centre of operating frequency range.
Vc can be varied by connecting a voltage divider circuit using R1 and R2.
The modulating input voltage is usually varied from 0.75 Vcc to Vcc which can produce a
frequency variation of about 10 to 1.
With no modulating input signal, if the voltage at pin 5 is biased at 7/8Vcc gives the
VCO output frequency as

15.a.


ICL 8038 FUNCTION GENERATOR
The ICL8038 is a function generator chip, capable of generating triangular, square , sine, pulse
and sawtooth waveforms . From these sine, square & triangular wave forms can be made
simultaneously.There is an option to control the parameters like frequency,duty cycle and
distortion of these functions.This is the best function generator circuit for a beginner to start with
and is of course a must on the work bench of an electronics hobbyist.The circuit here is designed
to produce waveforms from 20Hz to 20 kHz.The ICL 8038 has to be operated from a dual power
supply.

As shown in Fig. 4.17, transistors Q1, and Q2 form programmable current source whose
magnitudes are set by external resistors RA and RB. These current source are driven by the
emitter follower (transistor Q3). It also compensates base-emitter voltage for Q1 and Q2 to
ensure V
RA
= V
RB
=Vi. Thus I
A
= Vi/R
A
and I
B
=Vi/R
B
. Current IA controls the charging rate of
capacitor C. The Current I
B
is diverted to current mirror (Q4-Q5-Q6) where it undergoes polarity
reversal as well as amplification by 2 due to the combined action of Q5 and Q6. The result is a
current sink of magnitude of 2 I
B
.

Voltage across capacitor is applied to the Schmitt trigger. Schmitt trigger is similar to that of the
IC 555, with VUT = 2/3 VCC and VLT =1/3Vcc. Transistor Q7 acts as a switch. When output of
flip-flop is high. Q7 saturates and pulls the bases of Q5 and Q6 low, thus shutting off the current
sink. As a result capacitor C starts charging at a rate set by current I
A
. Once capacitor voltage
reaches 2/3 Vcc(VUT), CMPI triggers and clears the flip-flop, thus tuming Q7 off. This enables
current mirror to sink current equal to 2I
B
so that net current flowing out of the capacitor is I
L
= 2
Ib Ia. This causes capacitor to discharge. Once capacitor voltage reaches 1/3Vcc, CMP2
triggers and sets flip-flop and action repeats. The net current flowing out of capacitor C should
be positive => 2Ib Ia >0 =>2Ib>Ia