Chillers

A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-

compression or absorption refrigeration cycle
Or
Chiller is a device that cools the process stream by refrigerant at the
temperature lower than the prevailing water. It uses refrigerant such as
ammonia or Freon.
Chillers are a key component of air conditioning systems for large buildings. They
produce cold water to remove heat from the air in the building. They also provide
cooling for process loads such as file-server rooms and large medical imaging
equipment. As with other types of air conditioning systems, most chillers extract heat
from water by mechanically compressing a refrigerant.
Functioning of Chillers
The working principle of a chiller is quite simple. The reservoir is filled with a fluid,
typically water or an ethylene glycol/water mix, to be recirculated. The reservoir is
connected to the equipment needed and power is provided to the chiller. Chiller's
functions are regulated by the controller. Individual users can set the parameters
according to their requirements like temperature, flow and pressure. An internal strainer
is used to keep the harmful particles away from the system.
Type of Refrigeration systems:
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components:
evaporator, compressor, condenser, and expansion (or throttle) valve. The most widely
used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. In an ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor as a slightly
superheated vapor at a low pressure. It then leaves the compressor and enters the
condenser as a vapor at some elevated pressure, where the refrigerant is condensed as
heat is transferred to cooling water or to the surroundings. The refrigerant then leaves
the condenser as a high-pressure liquid. The pressure of the liquid is decreased as it
flows through the expansion valve, and as a result, some of the liquid flashes into cold
vapor. The remaining liquid, now at a low pressure and temperature, is vaporized in the
evaporator as heat is transferred from the refrigerated space. This vapor then reenters
the compressor.

The refrigerant enters the compressor Vapor-compression refrigeration cycles

specifically have two additional advantages. First, they exploit the large thermal energy
required to change a liquid to a vapor so we can remove lots of heat out of our air-
conditioned space. Second, the isothermal nature of the vaporization allows extraction
of heat without raising the temperature of the working fluid to the temperature of
whatever is being cooled. This is a benefit because the closer the working fluid
temperature approaches that of the surroundings, the lower the rate of heat transfer. The
isothermal process allows the fastest rate of heat transfer. The cycle operates at two
pressures, Phigh and Plow, and the statepoints are determined by the cooling
requirements and the properties of the working fluid. Most coolants are designed so that
they have relatively high vapor pressures at typical application temperatures to avoid
the need to maintain a significant vacuum in the refrigeration cycle.
The ideal vapor-compression cycle consists of four processes.

Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator

The P-h diagram is a convenient diagram often used to illustrate the refrigeration cycle.

Step One, Evaporation:


Liquid refrigerant at a sufficiently low pressure is brought into contact with the heat
source (the medium to be cooled). The refrigerant absorbs heat and boils, producing a
low-pressure vapor. The heat exchanger used for this process is called the evaporator.
Step Two, Compression:

The compressor raises the pressure of the refrigerant vapor, normally using an electric
motor drive. This increases the temperature at which the vapors will condense to a
temperature above the temperature of the heat sink. Most common compressors are
reciprocating (piston and cylinder) or screw (looking much like an old meat grinder)
compressor designs.
Step Three, Condensing:
The high-pressure refrigerant gas now carrying the heat energy absorbed at the
evaporator plus the work energy from the compressor, enters the condenser. Since the
refrigerant's condensing temperature is higher than that of the heat sink, heat transfer
will take place, condensing the refrigerant from a high-pressure vapor to a high-
pressure liquid.
Step Four, Expansion:
The condensed liquid's pressure is reduced (called "throttled") to the lower pressure
evaporator using a valve, orifice plate or capillary tube device. In actual practice, the
condenser cools the refrigerant a bit more, subcooling it below the condensing
temperature. This is an important efficiency improving attribute to the cycle, since it
reduces the amount of refrigerant liquid that has to evaporate (it is called flashing at
this stage in the cycle) to a gas in the expansion valve to reduce the pressure and
temperature of the liquid entering the evaporator. This reduction in flash gas is
important to improve system performance.
2. Cascade refrigeration systems
Very low temperatures can be achieved by operating two or more vapor-compression
systems in series, called cascading. The COP of a refrigeration system also increases as
a result of cascading.



3. Multistage compression refrigeration systems




4. Multipurpose refrigeration systems
A refrigerator with a single compressor can provide refrigeration at several
temperatures by throttling the refrigerant in stages


5. Liquefaction of gases
Another way of improving the performance of a vapor-compression refrigeration
system is by using multistage compression with regenerative cooling. The vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle can also be used to liquefy gases after some
modifications.




6. Gas Refrigeration Systems
The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing them. Of
these, the reversed Brayton cycle, which is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle, is
used to cool aircraft and to obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is modified
with regeneration. The work output of the turbine can be used to reduce the work input
requirements to the compressor. Thus, the COP of a gas refrigeration cycle is









7. Absorption Refrigeration Systems.
Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a
source of inexpensive heat energy at a temperature of 100 to 200C is absorption
refrigeration, where the refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium and compressed
in liquid form. The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia-
water system, where ammonia serves as the refrigerant and water as the transport
medium. The work input to the pump is usually very small, and the COP of absorption
refrigeration systems is defined as






8. Thermoelectric Refrigeration Systems
A refrigeration effect can also be achieved without using any moving parts by simply
passing a small current through a closed circuit made up of two dissimilar materials.
This effect is called the Peltier effect, and a refrigerator that works on this principle is
called a thermoelectric refrigerator.

The thermoelectric device, like the conventional thermocouple, uses two dissimilar
materials. There are two junctions between these two materials in a thermoelectric
refrigerator. One is located in the refrigerated space and the other in ambient
surroundings. When a potential difference is applied, as indicated, the temperature of
the junction located in the refrigerated space will decrease and the temperature of the
other junction will increase. Under steady-state operating conditions, heat will be
transferred from the refrigerated space to the cold junction. The other junction will be at
a temperature above the ambient, and heat will be transferred from the junction to the
surroundings. A thermoelectric device can also be used to generate power by replacing
the refrigerated space with a body that is at a temperature above the ambient.





Refrigerants:
The ideal refrigerant has good thermodynamic properties, is unreactive chemically, and safe.
The desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target
temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high
density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are
affected by pressure, refrigerants may be made more suitable for a particular application by
choice of operating pressure. These properties are ideally met by the chlorofluorocarbons.
Classification of refrigerants:
Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change (typically boiling), using the
refrigerant's latent heat.
Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible heat', the quantity of heat
beingthe specific heat capacity x the temperature change. They are air, calciumchloride brine,
sodiumchloride brine, alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of Class 2
refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature from Class 1 refrigerants and convey this
lower temperature to the area to be air-conditioned.
Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of liquefiable agents or
refrigerating media. These solutions function by nature of their ability to carry liquefiable
vapors, which produce a cooling effect by the absorption of their heat of solution. They can
also be classified into many categories.
Uses:
Natural refrigerants such as ammonia, carbon dioxide and non-halogenated
hydrocarbons preserve the ozone layer and have no (ammonia) or only a low (carbon
dioxide, hydrocarbons) global warming potential They are used in air-conditioning
systems for buildings, in sport and leisure facilities, in the chemical/pharmaceutical
industry, in the automotive industry and above all in the food industry (production,
storage, retailing)
R-744 can be used as a working fluid in climate control systems for cars, residential air
conditioning, hot water pumps, commercial refrigeration, and vending machines.
Refrigerant Nomenclature:
The number assigned to each refrigerant is related to its chemical composition and the system
has been formalized as ASHRAE Standard 34. The numbering system rules are as follows:
1. The first digit on the right is the number of fluorine (F) atoms.
2. The second digit from the right is one more than the number of hydrogen (H) atoms.
3. The third digit fromthe right is one less than the number of carbon (C) atoms. When this
digit is zero it is omitted fromthe number.

4. The fourth digit fromthe right is equal to the number of unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds
in the compound. When this digit is zero, it is omitted fromthe number.
5. The number of chlorine (Cl) atoms is found by subtracting the sumof the flourine (F),
bromine (Br - if present) and hydrogen (H) atoms fromthe total number that can be attached
to carbon. With one carbon, the total number of attached atoms is four. With two carbons, the
total number is six and with three carbons, the total number is eight.
6. In some cases, part or all of the chlorine atoms are replaced with bromine and the letter
B is used in the number. The number following the letter B shows the number of bromine
atoms present.
7. Blends are designated by their respective refrigerant numbers and weight proportions. rest
of text okay, add this. To differentiate among blends having same components with different
proportions, an uppercase letter shall be added to designation. For example, R-402A and R-
402B.
8. Zeotropic blends that have been commercialized shall be assigned an identifying number
in the 400 series. This number designates which components are in the mixture but not the
amount of each. Theamount of each component is designated as described in 7 above. For
example the 60/40 weight % mixture of R-12 and R-114 would be R-400 (60/40).
9. Azeotropic compounds that have been commercialized shall be assigned an identifying
number in the 500 series. It is not necessary to cite the percentages parenthetically once a 500
series is assigned.
10. The 600 series has been assigned to miscellaneous organic compounds. Within the
organic 600 series, the assignments are serial.
11. The 700 series has been assigned to inorganic compounds with relative molecular
masses less than 100. Within the 700 series, the relative molecular mass of the compounds is
added to 700 to arrive at the identifying refrigerant numbers. When two or more inorganic
refrigerants have the same relative molecular masses, uppercase letters (i.e., A, B, C, etc.) are
added to distinguish among them.
12. The 1000 series has been assigned to unsaturated organic compounds.
Types of Chillers
The classification of chillers can be done on various basis like portability, working, etc. Here
we have classified chillers on the basis of their functioning.
ON THE BASIS OF THEIR FUNCTIONING:
1) Air-cooled chillers
Air-cooled chillers absorb heat fromprocess water and are transferred to the ambient
air. They are mostly used in applications where the heat discharged is not a factor. They don't

need a cooling tower and condense water pump. The maintenance of air cooled chillers are less
than water cooled units. However they consume 10% more power.
2) Water Cooled Chillers
In water cooled chillers, heat is absorbed fromprocess water and is transferred to a separate
water source like a river, pond, cooling tower, etc. Mainly used at the places where the heat
generated by air cooled chillers pose a problem. Due to their less consumption of power they
are usually preferred by those seeking optimum efficiency of power consumption.
ON THE BASIS OF CYCLE:
I. mechanical compression:


In a compression refrigeration machine, a mechanical compressor is used to take the
refrigerant vapors from the lower evaporation pressure to the higher condensation pressure.
The condensation heat produced in the condenser is dissipated by means of a cooling tower,
while the evaporator produces the refrigeration capacity, taking heat at a low temperature.
1) Reciprocating Chillers:
Hermetically sealed units:
In hermetically sealed units, the motor and the compressor are direct-coupled and housed in a
single casing that is sealed to the atmosphere. Of the two types, hermetically sealed units are
the most common.
Open construction:


. In open construction units, the motor and the compressor are in separate housings and are
connected by a direct drive shaft or by a V-belt. In general, open construction uni ts have a
longer service life, lower maintenance requirements and higher operating efficiencies.
Working:
Its compression is carried in compressors having similar to a car engine with multiple pistons,
a crankshaft is turned by an electric motor, the pistons compress the gas, heating it in the
process. The hot gas is discharged to the condenser instead of being exhausted out a tailpipe.
The pistons have intake and exhaust valves that can be opened on demand to allow the piston
to idle, which reduces the chiller capacity as the demand for chilled water is reduced. This
unloading allows a single compressor to provide a range of capacities to better match the
systemload. This is more efficient than using a hot-gas bypass to provide the same capacity
variation with all pistons working. Some units use both methods, unloading pistons to a
minimum number, then using hot-gas bypass to further reduce capacity stably. Capacities
range from 20 to 125 tons.
Advantages:
Reciprocating chillers offer several advantages. Compared with other types of chillers,
their initial cost is low for units of 100 tons or less.
Reciprocating chillers have a higher condensing temperature than other chillers, making
themmore suited for applications where air-cooled condensers must be used.
It is easy to closely match the capacity of the chiller to the building load by installing
multiple machines.
Multiple machines also allow the facility manager to stage operation for part-load
conditions, increasing operating efficiency.
Disadvantages:
A major drawback of reciprocating chillers is their high level of maintenance
requirements in comparison with other chiller types.
Reciprocating chillers have more moving parts than centrifugal or rotary chillers,
resulting in an increased need for wear-related maintenance activities.
Reciprocating chillers also generate high levels of noise and vibration.
Reciprocating chillers are not well suited for applications with cooling loads in excess
of 200 tons
The energy requirements for larger units exceed that of other chillers types.

2) Centrifugal Chillers:
Centrifugal chillers are variable volume displacement units. Typically, an electric drive powers
one or more rotating impellers that use centrifugal force to compress the refrigerant vapor. The
cooling capacity is controlled through the use of inlet vanes on the impellers that restricted
refrigerant flow. Centrifugal chillers are generally manufactured in capacities from 90 to 1,000
tons, with most units falling in the range of 150 to 300 tons.

Like reciprocating chillers, centrifugal units are available in both hermetically sealed and open
construction. Despite its lower operating efficiency, the hermetically sealed unit is more widely
used.
Advantages:
Centrifugal chillers are popular in part because of their low energy cost per ton of
cooling produced relative to other chiller types.
Centrifugal chillers also are small in comparison with reciprocating units, and do not
produce as many vibrations
Disadvantages:
A serious drawback to centrifugal chillers has been their part load performance.When chiller is
operated at lower loads it automatically partially opens its vanes that reduces its efficiency by
increasing its power requirements.
Centrifugal chillers also can be difficult to operate at low cooling loads since it causese
surging. Unrestricted, surging can lead to serious chiller damage.
3) Rotary Chillers:
Rotary or screw chillers, like reciprocating chillers, are positive-displacement compressors. An
electric motor drives two machined rotors that compress refrigerant gas between their lobes as
they mesh. Units are available in both hermetically sealed and open construction.
Rotary chillers are available in capacities ranging from 20 to 2,000 tons, with most installations
falling in the range of 175 to 750 tons. Typical chiller efficiencies are between 0.70 and 0.80
kW per ton, making rotary chillers more efficient than comparably sized reciprocating chillers,
but less efficient than centrifugal chillers.
The screw or helical compressor has two mating helically grooved rotors in a stationary
housing. As the helical rotors rotate, the gas is compressed by direct volume reduction between
the two rotors. Capacity is controlled by a sliding inlet valve or variable-speed drive (VSD) on
the motor. Capacities range from20 to 450 tons.
Advantages:
With a relatively high compression ratio and few moving parts, rotary chillers are
smaller and lighter than reciprocating and centrifugal chillers of the same cooling
capacity.
Rotary chillers also offer quieter, vibration-free
operation.


Disadvantage:

The major drawback of rotary chillers is their high first cost. For small cooling loads,
reciprocating chillers are less expensive to purchase and install; for large loads, Absorption
Chillers

II. Absorption chiller:
Absorption chillers differ fromthe more prevalent compression chillers in that the cooling
effect is driven by heat energy, rather than mechanical energy. The simplest absorption
machines are residential refrigerators, with a gas flame at the bottom, ice cubes at the top and
no electricity involved. An absorption chiller is larger and more complicated, but the basic
principle is the same. The absorption chiller cycle is shown in Figure 1. The evaporator allows
the refrigerant to evaporate and to be absorbed by the absorbent, a process that extracts heat
fromthe building. The combined fluids then go to the generator, which is heated by the gas or
steam, driving the refrigerant back out of the absorbent. The refrigerant then goes to the
condenser to be cooled back down to a liquid, while the absorbent is pumped back to the
absorber.
The cooled refrigerant is released through an expansion valve into the evaporator, and
the cycle repeats. Absorption chillers are either lithium bromide-water (LiBr/H2O) or
ammonia-water equipment. The LiBr/H2O system uses lithium bromide as the absorber and
water as the refrigerant. The ammonia-water system uses water as the absorber and ammonia
as the Refrigerant.


Difference between Absorption and Compression Machine:
The main difference between a compression and an absorption cycle is that the former
needs mechanical energy as a driving energy for the compressor and the latter needs thermal
energy for the desorber and only a small amount (2% of the driving energy) of electricity for
the liquid pump.



Types
Absorption chillers are generally classified as direct- or indirect-fired, and as single, double
or triple-effect. In direct-fired units, the heat source can begas or some other fuel that is burned
in the unit. Indirect-fired units use steam or some other transfer fluid that brings in heat from a
separate source, such as a boiler or heat recovered froman industrial process. Hybrid systems,
which are relatively common with absorption chillers, combine gas systems and electric
systems for load optimization and flexibility.

1. Single Effect
The single-effect cycle refers to the transfer of fluids through the four major
components of the refrigeration machine - evaporator, absorber, generator and condenser,
Single-effect LiBr/H2O absorption chillers use low pressure steam or hot water as the heat
source. The water is able to evaporate and extract heat in the evaporator because the system is
under a partial vacuum. The thermal efficiency of single-effect absorption systems is low.
Although the technology is sound, the low efficiency has inhibited the cost competitiveness of
single-effect systems. Most new single-effect machines are installed in applications where
waste heat is readily available. Single-effect chillers can be used to produce chilled water for
air conditioning and for cooling process water, and are available in capacities from 7.5 to 1,500
tons.


Simplified diagram of a single effect absorption cycle

2. Double Effect
The desire for higher efficiencies in absorption chillers led to the development of
double-effect LiBr/H2O systems. The double-effect chiller differs from the single-effect in that
there are two condensers and two generators to allow for more refrigerant boil-off from the
absorbent solution.
The higher temperature generator uses the externally supplied steamto boil the refrigerant
fromthe weak absorbent. The refrigerant vapor from the high temperature generator is
condensed and the heat produced is used to provide heat to the low temperature generator.
These systems use gas-fired combustors or high pressure steam as the heat source. Double-
effect absorption chillers are used for air-conditioning and process cooling in regions where the
cost of electricity is high relative to natural gas. Double-effect absorption chillers are also used
in applications where high pressure steam, such as district heating, is readily available.
Although the double-effect machines are more efficient than single-effect machines, they have
a higher initial manufacturing cost. There are special materials considerations, because of
increased corrosion rates (higher operating temperatures than single-effect machines), larger
heat exchanger surface areas, and more complicated control systems.

3. Triple Effect
The triple-effect cycles are the next logical improvement over the double-effect.
Triple-effect absorption chillers are under development, as the next step in the evolution of
absorption technology. The refrigerant vapor from the high and medium temperature
generators is condensed and the heat is used to provide heat to the next lower temperature
generator. The refrigerant from all three condensers flows to an evaporator where it absorbs
more heat.

Two different triple-effect absorption chiller cycles are capable of substantial performance
improvements over equivalent double-effect cycles. One uses two condensers and two
absorbers to achieve the triple effect. A second, the double condenser coupled (DCC) triple-
effect, uses three condensers as well as a third condenser subcooler. Triple-effect systems offer
the possibility of thermal efficiencies equal to those of electrical chillers. The cost, however,
will be higher, so systemcost effectiveness will need to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
The higher efficiency levels would open wider markets for absorption chillers.

4. Hybrid Systems
Hybrid systems capture the best of both gas and electric usage by installing an absorption
systemin parallel with an electric vapor compression system. In a typical hybrid system, the
electricity-driven chiller takes advantage of the lowest time-of-use costs during off-peak hours.
The absorption chiller is used as the primary source during the on-peak hours, with the vapor
compression chiller used for the remainder of the load, as needed. The specifics of any hybrid
systemdesign depend on the nature of the cooling load, and the characteristics of the local gas
and electric rates, but here are many applications where a hybrid systemis advantageous. This
is especially true for large facilities with sophisticated energy management personnel who can
optimize system performance and energy costs. The hybrid plant crystallizes the concept of a
systemdesign that maximizes the flexibility of time dependent energy selection. The use of
absorption chillers eliminates the high incremental cost of electricity. The hybrid approach will
play a larger role in cooling options as utility rate structures continue to be more variable.

Standards and Ratings

Currently there are no states or federal standards that regulate gas absorption cooling systems.
However, there are several metrics that are used to define absorption chiller efficiency,
including:
COP
IPLV
APLV

A. Coefficient of Performance (COP)

The performance of gas cooling equipment is usually rated in terms of COP, defined
as the cooling output, or refrigeration effect, in Btu, divided by the energy input, in Btu. This
same metric is applied to electric chillers, but since it is based on site energy, it is not good for
comparing gas and electric chiller efficiencies. Gas absorption chillers, as well as electric
chillers, are rated to Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute ARI-550-92 conditions as
listed below:

Chilled Water Conditions:
44F chilled water supply temperature
54F chilled water return temperature
2.4 gpm/ton chilled water flow
Water Cooled Condensers:
85F condenser water supply temperature
95F condenser water returns temperature
3.0 gpm/ton condenser water flow

Air Cooled Condensers:
95F air supply temperature
20F temperature differential between air supply and condensing refrigerant
2F refrigeration system loss to the condenser

B. Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV)

Another measurement of chiller efficiency is Integrated Part Load Value, IPLV.
IPLV is an industry standard for calculating an annual COP based on a typical load profile and
the part load characteristics of chillers. It was originally conceived as part of ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 90.1 (Standard for Energy Efficient Design of New Nonresidential and High-Rise
Residential Buildings) in response to a need for directly comparing manufacturers part load
data. The method assumes that the chiller operates at a specific part load for a specific number
of hours during the year. According to the following equation:

IPLV =____________1______________
[(.17/A)+(.39/B)+(.33/C)+(.11/D)]


Chil ler Load
(%)
Chi lled Water Return
Temp (F)
Manufacturer Rated
COP
Part Load Hours
(%)
100 85 A 17
75 78.75 B 39
50 72.5 C 33
25 66.25 D 11

COP ratings A, B, C and D at each part load condition are obtained fromthe chiller
manufacturer and should be derived from actual chiller tests. Note that the calculation allows
for a 2.5F reduction in the entering cooling water temperature for every 10% drop in cooling
load. A lower entering cooling water temperature corresponds to part load (reduced) cooling
demand, which results froma drop in ambient temperature. Although IPLV is a useful way to
compare different manufacturers chiller models, it probably doesnt represent actual operating
conditions. For applications where cooling load is not significantly affected by ambient
temperature conditions, (e.g., when cooling load is dominated by internal gains) this estimate
of part load performance may not provide accurate results. Chiller performance should be
modeled to actual building load profiles tailored to site-specific ambient conditions.

C. Applied Part Load Value (APLV)

The Applied Part Load Value, APLV is calculated using the same IPLV formula,
except that actual chilled and condenser water temperatures and flow rates are used. The
advantage of using the APLV over the IPLV, is that this rating more closely approximates
actual operating conditions imposed on the chiller. The disadvantage is the additional
performance data that needs to be collected.


Efficiencies


Efficiencies of absorption chillers are described in terms of coefficient of performance
(COP), which is defined as the refrigeration effect, divided by the net heat input (in comparable
units such as kBtu). Single-effect absorption chillers have COPs of approximately 0.6-0.8 out
of an ideal 1.0. Since the COPs are less than one, the single-effect chillers are normally used in
applications that recover waste heat such as waste steam frompower plants or boilers. Double-
effect absorption chillers have COPs of approximately 1.0 out of an ideal 2.0. While not yet
commercially available, prototype triple effect absorption chillers have calculated COPs from
1.4 to 1.6. The COP metric is also applied to electric chillers. However, since COP is based on
site energy, it is not good for comparinggas and electric chiller efficiencies. A better metric is
the Resource COP, which accounts for the source to site efficiency of the fuel, accounting for
electricity generation and transmission losses. Figure 5 shows typical values for both electric
chillers and absorption chillers.

BENEFITS:

(a) Reduction in Operating Costs:
The primary energy benefit of gas cooling systems is reduction in operating costs by
avoiding peak electric demand charges and time-of-day rates. The use of gas absorption
chillers eliminates the high incremental cost of electric cooling.
(b) Simplicity:
The restructuring of the electric utility industry adds significant complexity and
uncertainty to the HVAC design and operation. The key is operational flexibility. Gas
cooling systems eliminate some of the variability associated with electric rate
structures, while ahybrid systemmaximizes the flexibility of an all- energy plant.
(c) Resource efficiency
Natural gas cooling systems have greater resource efficiency than similar electric
systems. Typical electricity generation and distribution results in an approximately 65%
- 75% loss in the initial energy resource of the fuel. In contrast, only about 5% to 10%
of the fuel resource is lost with agas system.
(d) Cost Effectiveness
Additionally, electricity costs per Btu are typically three to four times the cost per Btu
for electricity, so the cost of a unit of output (refrigeration) can often be lower with an
absorption unit. Utilizing waste heat that would otherwise be unused greatly increases
the cost-effectiveness of the systems, compared to consuming gas directly.
(e) Non-energy Benefits:
Gas absorption systems have several non-energy benefits over conventional electric
systems including:
Elimination of the use of CFC and HCFC refrigerants
Quiet, vibration-free operation
Lower pressure systems with no large rotating components
High reliability
Low maintenance
The contribution that gas cooling technologies can make to the goal of improved
emissions is substantial. Natural gas-powered air-conditioning equipment offers
substantial advantages to the environment in regard to CFCs and HCFCs, because they
are not used in the absorption cycle. Legislative activities are focused on pushing the
nation toward energy-efficient technologies that reduce harmful emissions. While gas-

fired chillers produce emissions at the site, combustion efficiencies can be high and
harmful emissions comparatively low for a well-operated absorption unit. A direct-fired
absorption systemcan supply hot water in addition to chilled water if:
equipped with an auxiliary heat exchanger
the hot water circuit of the auxiliary heat exchanger includes the necessary control
devices.
If the equipment is to provide heating as well as cooling, then a true comparison of
equipment cost and annual maintenance costs between an electric and gas systemmust
consider the electric centrifugal chiller plus a boiler. The results of such a comparison
should show the direct-fired absorption chiller annualized costs, including maintenance,
operating, and first costs, to be less than or roughly equal to those of an electric chiller
and boiler.

LIMITATIONS
(a) Initial Cost And Economy:
Cost is the primary constraint on the widespread adoption of absorption chiller systems.
The low thermal efficiency of single-effect absorption systems has made themnon-
competitive except in situations with readily available free waste heat. Even double
effect systems are not cost-effective in many applications. Although absorption chillers
can be quite economical in the right situation, their exact economics must be worked
out on a project-by-project basis.
(b) Energy Requirements
Absorption systems also require greater pump energy than electric chillers. The size of
condenser water pumps is generally a function of the flow rate per uni t cooling
capacity. Cooling technologies with lower COPs typically require a significantly higher
condenser water flow rate than those technologies with higher COPs, therefore
requiring larger pumps.
(c) Cooling Tower Capacity:
Similarly, absorption chillers require larger cooling tower capacity than electric
chillers, due to the larger volume of water.


Examples of Typical Installations:
(i) Greene Hospital, San Diego, California
One 400 ton McQuay direct-fired
double-effect absorption chiller was installed
during an expansion project in 1993 to
provide cooling to 300,000 sq. ft. The use of
the absorption chiller allowed the hospital to
avoid the cost of upgrading its electric
service.
"Using a natural gas-powered chiller is how
we reduce our electric load," says Bob Diehl,
acting vice president for Scripps Health.
"We would've had to buy additional electric
equipment in order to satisfy an electric load
increase and upgrade. By using the natural gas-powered chiller we are saving 35 percent per
year in energy costs. That translates into a yearly savings of $25,000."



(ii) Walter and Lois Curtis Middle School,
Allen, Texas
In 1994 the new 186,681 sq. ft. middle
school was constructed. Two 100 ton York
direct-fired double effect absorption chillers
were installed. The systemprovides all of the
schools cooling and part of the heating. The
operating savings were great enough to
convince the school district to install gas
cooling in a new 400,000 sq. ft. high school
then under construction.


(iii) FERC Office Building, Washington,
D. C.
The 868,000 sq. ft. Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission (FERC) office
building, which opened in 1995, has office
space, a health club and a 200 seat restaurant.
A 1,000 ton direct fired absorption chiller was
put into a hybrid plant with an electric chiller
to cool the facility. Other features affecting
the decision to install the systemwere low
maintenance and reduced use of CFC
refrigerants. The estimated savings are
approximately $40,000 to $50,000 per year or
about 3% to 5% of annual utility costs.

Device for transferring heat fromasubstance or space at one temperature to another at ahigher
temperature. It consists of a compressor, a condenser, a throttle or expansion valve, an
evaporator, and a working fluid (refrigerant). The compressor delivers vaporized refrigerant to
the condenser in the space to be heated. There, cooler air condenses the refrigerant and
becomes heated during the process. The liquid refrigerant then enters the throttle valve and
expands, coming out as a liquid-vapors mixture at a lower temperature and pressure. It then
enters the evaporator, where the liquid is evaporated by contact with the warmer space. The
vapor then passes to the compressor and the cycle is repeated. A heat pump is a reversible
systemand is commonly used both to heat and to cool buildings. It operates on the same
thermodynamic principles as refrigeration.
HEAT PUMPS:


Difference between Refrigerator and Heat pumps



1) Transfer of heat: Both the refrigerator and the heat pumps carry the heat fromlow
temperature reservoir or the sink to the high temperature reservoir or source. The main purpose
of the refrigerator is to chill or cool or freeze the substance, by maintaining very low
temperature in the freezer. It absorbs the heat from the freezer or evaporator and throws it to
the atmosphere which is at high temperature.
The main purpose of the heat pump is to heat the room during winter seasons or when the
atmospheric temperature is very low. It absorbs the heat fromthe atmosphere which is at low
temperature and throws it to the room which is at high temperature and which is to be heated.
2) Location of the evaporator: In the refrigerator the evaporator is located in the freezer
section. The evaporator absorbs the heat fromthe substance, which is to be cooled. In the heat
pump the evaporator is located outside the room which is to be heated. The evaporator absorbs
the heat, which is later thrown inside the roomfor heating it.
3) Location of the condenser: In the refrigerator the condenser is located outside the
refrigerator and it is exposed to the atmosphere. It is through the condenser that the heat is
thrown to the atmosphere. In the heat pump the condenser is located inside the room and it acts
as the heating devise.
4) Working of evaporator and condenser: In the refrigerator the evaporator performs the
main function of chilling or freezing, while the condenser performs the function of delivering
the heat to the atmosphere. In the heat pump, it is the condenser that performs the main
function of heating the room, while the evaporator performs the function of absorbing the heat
fromthe atmosphere.
Chiller Applications:
Chillers are used in many industrial applications. The most common applications are:
a. Plastics
In the plastics industry chillers are used for cooling the hot plastic that is injected,
blown extruded or stamped. Chillers can also be used to cool down the equipment used
in the manufacturing process.
b. Laser
Chillers are used to cool down the lasers and the power supplies used to power them.
c. Printing
Chillers remove the heat generated by the printing rollers and also cool down the paper
after it comes out of the ink drying ovens.
d. EDM
Chillers keep machinery at ambient temperature during the cutting process.
e. Machine Tool ing
Chillers cool the spindle of the machine as it produces the part and cools the liquid
being sprayed on part itself as it is being turned on the spindle.
f. MRI and PET Scans
Chillers cool the high powered electronics inside the machines that are the latest in
diagnostic tools.