Construction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426
An investigation of the composite action of an FRPrconcrete prismatic beam L. Canning, L. Hollaway U , A.M. Thorne Uniersity of Surrey, Composite Structures Research Unit, Department of Ciil Engineering, Guildford, Surrey GU2 5XH, UK Received 15 December 1998; received in revised form 27 August 1999; accepted 29 August 1999 Abstract A novel compositerconcrete beam has been fabricated to use two component materials, bre-reinforced polymer composite and concrete, to their best advantage. The concrete and composite are wholly under compressive and tensile strains, respectively, together with any shear strain components, except where under direct compression at the supports. The shear transfer at the interface between these two components requires investigation and this paper describes six techniques used to develop this connection to give the most efcient shear transfer in order for the whole beam to act compositely. The six methods are used independently of one another and include the use of indents in the vertical walls of the permanent composite shuttering retaining the concrete, bonding the concrete to the permanent shuttering, forming the shear connection by using bolts through both the concrete and permanent shuttering, two methods using a resin injection to ll a pre-formed gap between the concrete and permanent shuttering and nally using an adhesive compatible with freshly made concrete. It was concluded that the most appropriate method of ensuring complete composite action between the two component materials was to bond the cured concrete to the permanent shuttering along the two vertical sides. However, this is not a practical option as it assumes that the concrete is removed from the mould after it has cured and then bonded back into the permanent shuttering. It is suggested that the best practical method is to use the adhesive compatible with freshly made concrete which still gave an adequate level of composite action. 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Concrete; Composites; FRP; Adhesive 1. Introduction In a typical reinforced concrete beam section, the concrete material below the neutral axis is purely for positioning and protecting the reinforcing steel. This implies that up to half the dead weight of the beam serves no function as a load-bearing medium. This might be considered to be a very inefcient structural unit. If the tensile region of the beam could be re- U Corresponding author. Tel.: q44-1483-300800; fax: q44-1483- 450984. placed with a material which has a high tensile strength and stiffness then a more efcient section would result. Recent use has been made of advanced composites in w x. civil engineering in the area of plate bonding 1 . Uni-directional carbon bre plates bonded to the soft of beams for strengthening andror repairing structures has been used successfully, giving several advantages over steel plate bonding: strength of plates; weight of plates; transportation; versatility of shape and design; 0950-0618r99r$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. . PII: S 0 9 5 0 - 0 6 1 8 9 9 0 0 0 5 0 - 1 ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 418 reduced construction period; easy and reliable surface preparations; fewer mechanical xings; durability of strengthening plate; and improved re resistance. The potential disadvantages are: cost of material, although overall costs of the strengthening operation have shown it to be the most economic solution in virtually all test cases; and mechanical damage. The same advantages and disadvantages pertain to the duplex beam. A fuller discussion on the cost of the material and of the manufacturing procedure is given in Section 7. Therefore, the use of advanced composites as the tensile component below the neutral axis of the beam in combination with the concrete unit above the neu- tral axis is a progression of the plate-bonding tech- nique. To optimise the use of uni-directional CFRP, the tensile ange has to be located as far from the neutral axis as possible. This was achieved with an advanced composite box section which also allowed relatively easy manufacture of the advanced composite section. The webs of this section are manufactured from a sandwich construction of face materials made . from "45 glass bre-reinforced polymer GFRP and a polymer foam core material to ensure no buckling occurs in the webs. The bottom ange is manufactured . from "45 GFRP interleaved with unidirectional UD . carbon bre-reinforced polymer CFRP . The concrete which will be in compression under load retains its . position as in a conventional reinforced concrete RC beam. A cross-section of the beam is shown in Fig. 1. However, to ensure an efcient section, composite ac- tion between the GFRP permanent shuttering and the concrete is essential. In this study shear transfer, and hence, the degree of composite action that the beam exhibits under load, was investigated by six different methods. This compositerconcrete system has been w x discussed more fully in 2 , where calculations for par- ticular thickness, dimensions and structural properties are presented. To manufacture the compositerconcrete system, a . MDF medium density breboard tool or mould was made. The layers of GFRP and CFRP pre-preg fabric were then laid up on the tool by hand in stages. In the rst stage, two layers of GFRP and one layer of CFRP pre-preg were laid up; following this the foam core material was located in position and bonded using a
resin lm placed on the surface of the beam see Fig.
. 1 . The second stage consisted of laying up the nal ve layers of GFRP and three layers of CFRP pre-preg material. The curing of the advanced composite sec- tion, was achieved by covering the whole section in a pin-prick material, and the composite and tool were then enveloped in a blanket and vacuum bag. The whole assembly was nally placed in an oven under a vacuum of 1 atm for 16 h at a temperature of 60C. 2. Shear transfer methodology Six different techniques to obtain shear transfer between the concrete and GFRP permanent shuttering were investigated: a mechanical bond using indents; manual epoxy adhesive bonding; mechanical bond us- ing bolts; two types of epoxy adhesive bonding by injection; and an epoxy adhesive suitable for bonding to fresh concrete. A similar procedure to that of the latter method was used to bond steel plates to fresh Fig. 1. Cross-section of beams 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 419 w x. concrete 3,4 . The six methods will now be described. . The rst method beam 1 to obtain shear transfer utilised indents in the vertical faces of the permanent shuttering, these indents acted as mechanical keys and . are shown in Fig. 2a. The second method beam 2 to obtain shear transfer, shown in Fig. 2b, was to cast the concrete into the permanent shuttering, and then to remove it after 14 days. The vertical sides of the concrete were then grit-blasted to roughen them in preparation for bonding back into the permanent shut- tering. The surfaces of the permanent shuttering were sanded and cleaned with acetone. An epoxy adhesive was applied to both the vertical faces of the concrete and the permanent shuttering, and the concrete was again positioned into the permanent shuttering. The . third method beam 3 for developing shear transfer was to place bolts horizontally through the permanent shuttering at the centre section of the concrete; this is illustrated in Fig. 2c. In this case, shear transfer was effected by bearing of the bolts against the permanent shuttering and concrete. Using bolts andror epoxy adhesive to effect shear transfer between concrete and an FRP material has been used in CFRP plate-bonding to concrete beams for strengthening and is a well-docu- w x. . mented technique 5,6 . The fourth method beam 4 consisted of placing l-mm thick shims adjacent to the vertical faces of the permanent shuttering and casting the concrete against them. Fourteen days after casting the concrete, the shims were removed and the space vacated by them was injected with resin from one end of the beam. This enabled the voids to be lled with resin and to form a bonding interface between the concrete and permanent shuttering. This method is shown in Fig. 2d. The manufacturing method for the fth beam used a similar technique to that used in the fourth beam, namely, resin injection; however, in this case a vacuum was applied to one end and positive pressure to the other to enable a bond between the permanent shuttering and concrete to be achieved. The . sixth method beam 6 used an epoxy resin adhesive . . . . . Fig. 2. a Method of shear transfer in rst beam plan view . b Method of shear transfer in second beam plan view . c Method of shear . . . . transfer in third beam plan view . d Method of shear transfer in fourth and fth beam plan view . e Method of shear transfer in sixth beam . plan view . ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 420 which was able to polymerise against freshly made . concrete see Fig. 2e . The internal surfaces of the permanent shuttering were sanded and cleaned with acetone. The adhesive was then applied to the cleaned surfaces. Fresh concrete was then poured into the permanent shuttering and allowed to harden for 28 days. . The various methods discussed in this paper of achieving composite action between the concrete and composite materials are summarised as: 1. a mechanical technique using indents in the per- . manent shuttering beam 1 ; 2. a bonding technique between the concrete and permanent shuttering by removing the concrete from the shuttering, grit-blasting it, and then bond- . ing it back into the shuttering beam 2 ; 3. a mechanical technique by casting the concrete around pre-xed bolts through the vertical sides of . the permanent shuttering beam 3 ; 4. a bonding technique between the concrete and permanent shuttering by injecting adhesive into the . space between the component parts beam 4 ; 5. a bonding technique between the concrete and permanent shuttering by applying negative pres- sure at one end of the beam to ll the space . between the two components beam 5 ; and 6. an adhesive applied to the permanent shuttering before the fresh concrete is placed in position . beam 6 . 3. Beam manufacture The manufacture of all the beams was essentially the same. The technique used was vacuum bag curing of a low-temperature resin system. The GFRP and CFRP were used in pre-preg form, allowing easy laying-up of the FRP onto the timber mould. The particular fabrica- tion of each beam is now described. 3.1. Beam 1 Fig. 1 shows the cross-section of the 1.5-m long beam which was used in the investigations. The webs below the neutral axis were formed as a sandwich construc- tion; the inner and outer faces of the sandwich system were manufactured from Advanced Composites Group . 1 Ltd. ACG material as bi-directional glass bre pre- pregs at "45; the inner face had three layers of GFRP and the outer face had seven layers. The foam core was made from Airex R63.80 PVC Rigid Foam and was 12 mm thick. The GFRP face materials of the webs sandwich construction extended into the compressive region to form the permanent shuttering for the con- crete. The soft of the beam was fabricated by wrap- ping the "45 GFRP pre-preg around the base of the beam; four laminates of unidirectional CFRP pre-preg 2 were interleaved between the GFRP laminates. Table 1 gives some mechanical properties of the composite material, foam and concrete; the values for the two former materials were taken from the manufacturers data sheet. The values for the concrete were obtained from compression tests undertaken on three 100-mm diameter=200-mm high cylinders in the University of Surreys laboratories. The concrete consisted of a mix
ratio of 1:1.98:2.74 Ordinary Portland cement: ne
. aggregate: coarse aggregate and had a free waterr cement ratio of 0.5. Three cube tests gave an average strength of 40.35 Nrmm 2 using a target strength of 40 Nrmm 2 .
In order to fabricate the beam a MDF medium
. density breboard timber male tool was manufactured. A glass-reinforced self-adhering PTFE lm was applied to the surface of the tool for ease of demoulding the composite. 3.2. Beam dimensions and lay-up procedure for beam 1 The manufacture of the rst beam, shown in Fig. 3, took 3 days to perform involving two curing cycles; subsequent beams, however, were produced in under 1 day with modied manufacturing techniques. The rst stage of the manufacturing process for beam 1 is shown . diagrammatically Fig. 4a in which two resin-impreg- 1 . GFO100 390 gsm E glass 2=2 twill rLTM 2650% Vf. 2 HTA 12k150 gsmrLTM 2668 gsm 60% Vf. Table 1 Material properties Material Longitudinal modulus Transverse modulus Through-thickness of elasticity of elasticity modulus of elasticity 2 2 2 . . . kNrmm kNrmm kNrmm Concrete 28 28 28 UD CFRP 140 10 10 "45 GFRP 11 5 5 Foam 0.037 0.037 0.037 ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 421 Fig. 3. Beam cross-section and detail of indent. nated peel-plies were laid up on the mould in the concrete zone and a trim strip of GFRP was placed around the corners of the mould between the compos- ite tensile and concrete compressive zones. This was followed by the fabrication of the three inner web GFRP plies, one uni-directional CFRP ply and a non- impregnated peel-ply. The GFRP was slit and patched at the location of the indents in the compression zone of the beam. The beam and tool were then prepared for vacuum compression by surrounding the whole beam in a pin-prick material, breather blanket and vacuum bag. It was essential to provide a loose t vacuum bag to avoid bridging of the bag over any part of the beam. For the cure cycle, the oven was raised at 20Crh up to a maximum of 60C. Once the oven had reached 60C, the temperature was maintained for an 8-h cure period. The second stage of the lay-up consisted of removing the beam and tool from the oven and allowing them to cool down to 30C. The consumables were then re- moved from the tool and beam, taking care not to loosen the GFRP composite from the tool. The outer surface of the beam was then cleaned and degreased whilst it remained on the tool. An adhesive lm was placed on the sides of the beam at the location of the . foam Fig. 4a , to enable the foam to be bonded to the GFRP composite. The pre-cut foam panels were then placed against the adhesive lm, the bagging material was replaced around the beam and tool, and a vacuum was applied for 5 min to effect a good bond between the two component parts. The second stage lay-up is illustrated in Fig. 4b. All the GFRP plies were applied as two pieces, due to the GFRP roll dimensions, with the overlaps staggered and interchanged at each ply. Again the GFRP was slit and patched at the indents in the permanent shuttering sections. The tool and beam were enveloped in the pin-prick, breather blanket and vacuum bag and placed in the oven. The second cure then took place under the same temperature and pressure regime as in the rst cure. The cut-off temperature was set at 60C and the beam was cured for 16 h. The nal stage in the fabrication of the beam system was to mould the horizontal plate, which held the concrete in the beam, and the end diaphragms which were placed in the beam at the supports to prevent buckling of the webs. Both of these were cut out and moulded onto PTFE-coated timber tools. The plate required six plies of GFRP, giving a thickness of 1.8 mm, and the end diaphragms each had 10 plies, giving an overall thickness of 3 mm. These were then cured in the oven during the second cure of the main tool. One end of the foam cores were chamfered for two reasons; to prevent laying up the advanced composite material around a sharp corner and to ensure good compaction from the applied vacuum. The concrete was then poured into the permanent shuttering with the ends blocked off with timber blocks. The concrete was cured indoors for 28 days under polythene. 3.3. Beams 26 The manufacture of this beam used essentially the same method as for beam 1. However, after testing beam 1 it became clear that the number of layers of the GFRP pre-preg could be reduced. Therefore, for all subsequent beams, seven layers of GFRP were used as opposed to 10, consisting of two layers in the inner . . Fig. 4. a First-stage lay-up procedure. b Second-stage lay-up procedure. ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 422 Fig. 5. Four-point bending experimental apparatus. web face and ve layers in the outer web face. In addition to this, the beam was cured in only one stage, as opposed to the two stages used for the rst beam. 4. Flexural testing of beams 4.1. Experimental set-up Each beam was tested in four-point bending; the dimensions and experimental set-up are shown in Fig. 5. In each case the load was applied by a hydraulic jack onto the beam via a load cell. The strain at certain locations on the beam were recorded using electrical resistance strain gauges. The midspan deection was recorded using a linearly variable differential trans- . former LVDT . 4.2. Methods to ensure composite action To achieve composite action, neither the bonding . agent in this case an epoxy adhesive , concrete or permanent shuttering must fail in shear. Assuming the maximum shearing force calculated by using the simpli- ed stress block in BS 8110 to be solely due to the force in the concrete just prior to failure, then at .. midspan this shearing force is: see Appendix a . . . F s 0.9x 0.45f b s cu s0.9=40=0.45 =40 =75 s 48.60 kN, giving a shear stress, s0.81 Nrmm 2 . The shear strengths of the relevant materials are: 1. plain concrete: the shear strength is very difcult to determine experimentally, however, a tentative
gure of 20% of the compressive strength 8
2 . w x. Nrmm can be assumed 7 ; and 2. epoxy resin: the shear strength is 23.2 Nrmm 2 from the manufacturers data sheet. For the third beam the bolt spacingrsize was calcu- lated initially by assuming the midspan concrete force was shared equally between the bolts. Therefore, using the bolt arrangement shown in Fig. 6, the force on each bolt is 48.60r5s9.72 kN. However, a more accurate method of calculating the force on each individual bolt is to nd the average compressive force in each concrete segment between .. the bolts see Appendix b . 5. Experimental results The loaddeection behaviour of each beam is shown in Fig. 7. To provide an indication of the degree of composite action achieved from each method, the load-deection behaviour assuming perfect composite action, given by the nite element results, is also in- cluded in the same graph. Due to the greater number of GFRP layers used in its fabrication, beam 1 has a greater exural rigidity, compared to the other beams, in terms of central deection against applied load. Fig. 6. Bolt arrangement for fourth beam. ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 423 Fig. 7. Loaddeection behaviour for beams 16. The change in exural rigidity, calculated from the midspan deection, with load for each beam is shown in Fig. 8. From these results it is clear that beam 1, using indents for shear transfer, gives the greatest rigidity of all the beams, undoubtedly due to the greater number of GFRP layers. Beam 3, utilising bolts, shows a markedly lower exural rigidity than the other beams. This is assumed to be due to a lower level of composite action between the concrete and composite sections. During the test of beam 1, the permanent shuttering separated from the concrete at a relatively low load of magnitude 2.2 tonnes, although the beam continued to support the increasing applied load without any sign of Fig. 8. Change in exural rigidity with applied load. ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 424 undue distress. The load at which separation occurs cannot be readily calculated as the dependent factors are not easy to obtain from experiment; two of these factors are the concrete tensile strength and the nature and value of the weak bond between the concrete and permanent shuttering. 6. Finite element analysis To calculate the strain, deection and buckling modes of the beam, a nite element analysis was carried out w x using the pre-processor PATRAN 8 and the w x solverrpost-processor ABAQUS Versions 5.55.7 9 . A linear elastic static analysis was used to nd the strain and deection of the beam, and an eigenvalue w x analysis used to nd the buckling modes; Ref. 10 gives a good introduction to the nite element technique. A more detailed discussion on the nite element analysis w x associated with this investigation is given in 2 . In the current analysis, slippage and separation between the concrete and permanent shuttering was not modelled. Therefore, the analysis assumed that a perfect bond existed between the concrete and permanent shutter- ing. A contour plot of longitudinal strain in the beam half-model is shown in Fig. 9. 7. Discussion The results from the FE analysis agree with all the experimental results within 5%; the second beam has almost linear load-deection behaviour, therefore, this beam can be assumed to have the greatest level of composite action. The level of composite action in the other ve beams will, therefore, be compared to the second beam. Using this datum, the rst, third, fourth, fth, and sixth beams have a 104, 75, 102, 100, and 100% level of composite action, respectively. Beam 3 has the lowest level of composite action, and this is probably due to the permanent shuttering and concrete deforming slightly as the bolts bear onto them. Subse- quent examination of the concrete surface of beam 3 showed that above the bolt positions the concrete had cracked. This may have reduced the stiffness of the concrete, contributing to the relatively low exural rigidity. During adhesive injection of beam 5, it was found that a full bond with no air voids could not be
achieved the air voids were estimated to cover 40% of
. the potential bonding area . This occurred due to the resin taking the easiest path through the space vacated by the shims and leaving other less accessible areas starved of adhesive. However, this did not apparently affect the rigidity or strength of the beam. Of the bonding techniques, the use of bolts and the fresh concrete-compatible adhesive methods are the most applicable for site applications. 7.1. Comparison of adanced composite and RC beams A balanced RC beam section with the same breadth and depth as the advanced composite beam, 75 and 180 mm, respectively, and 2% by area tensile steel rein- forcement has an ultimate moment capacity of approxi- . Fig. 9. Longitudinal strain plot of FE half-model under 1 tonne total load . ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 425 mately 13.5 kNm and a long-term exural rigidity of approximately 445 kNm 2 , using a partially cracked sec- tion. This can be compared with the advanced compos- iterconcrete beam which has an ultimate moment ca- pacity of 14.29 kNm and a long-term exural rigidity of approximately 150 kNm 2 . The weight of the advanced compositerconcrete beam is primarily due to the concrete. A comparison of the advanced compositerconcrete beam with an RC beam of the same dimensions gives a decrease in weight of 78%. 7.2. Adantages of adanced compositerconcrete beam The use of advanced composites with concrete pro- vide the following advantages of the aforementioned beam and an RC beam: The units are easy to transport and handle as the concrete can be poured conventionally on site. There is less concrete used in the elements, thereby reducing their weight by over 75% leading to lighter, more efcient structures with reduced foundation requirements. Bridge foundations are typically 50% of the cost of a bridge. Greater freedom in the shape of the beams, with tapering sections and arches, for example, being accomplished much more efciently than is presently possible. Reduced temporary support requirements, by using the composite component as permanent formwork. Improved durability, resulting in lower whole-life costs by avoiding the repairs necessary to corroding reinforcement. The durability and corrosion resis- tance of advanced polymer composite materials is generally good. Initial in-service property tests un- dertaken in the laboratory show that they have superior properties to the current conventional ma- terials used in reinforced concrete construction. This has particular implications for hostile environments, e.g. marine applications. The disadvantages of the duplex beam are as follows: Lack of experience of use of composite materials on site compared with traditional materials and meth- ods. A high level of site supervision by experienced staff will be required. Cost of material: bre-reinforced composite mate- rial is more expensive than reinforced concrete materials of the equivalent load capacity, however, when the whole-life costing of the fabrication, erec- tion and maintenance of the beam is considered, the overall costs will be comparable to those of a reinforced concrete beam. The cost of the composite material and, therefore, the duplex beam is more expensive than an equivalent reinforced concrete beam of the same dimensions. However, with an emphasis on developing cheaper carbon bre, more economic fabrication techniques, greater utilisation of the advanced composite materials in construction and more competition between suppli- ersrfabricators the cost can only decrease. The whole- life cost of the duplex compositerconcrete beam is lower than for steel-reinforced concrete due to less maintenance, excellent durability and ease of repair if damage occurs. 8. Conclusions The best methods of ensuring full composite action between the concrete and composite sections are by bonding the concrete into the permanent shuttering using an epoxy adhesive which is applied directly to the concrete surface or by injecting adhesive into the inter- face between the cured concrete and permanent shut- tering. For all future research work in this project the . direct bonding method beam 2 will be used as it gives the greatest control over the bond quality. It is realised that this is impractical on site, but this method gives a reliable exural rigidity and the bond remains intact up to failure. The mechanical method of ensuring compos- ite action using indents in the rst beam was adequate as regards to rigidity and strength, but the load at which the permanent shutteringrconcrete separation occurred can not readily be calculated, and indeed, is likely to be variable depending on the weak natural concretershuttering surface bond. The two methods of bonding the concrete to the permanent shuttering, namely adhesive injection . . beams 4 and 5 and the direct technique beam 2 , are both satisfactory in terms of the level of composite action that develops, but the adhesive injection method is simpler and quicker to perform. Of the techniques outlined, the most practical one, which still achieved a high level of composite action, was the fresh concrete compatible adhesive bonded . beam beam 6 . Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support provided by the Engineering and Physical Sci- . ences Research Council EPSRC . Thanks are also due to Mr J. Sinden, R & D Projects Leader, Advanced Composites Group Ltd., Heanor, Derbyshire for the advice and help on the technology transfer of the ACG Ltd. Optimised Low Temperature Cure Vacuum Process-Prepreg and to Mr J. Darby, John Darby Asso- ( ) L. Canning et al. rConstruction and Building Materials 13 1999 417426 426 ciates, Abingdon and Mr M. Leeming, Mouchel Con- sultants, West Byeet, Surrey, for their advice during the current work. Appendix. Calculation of shear force between the concrete and permanent shuttering and maximum bolt force . a Calculation of shear force between the concrete and permanent shuttering: . . . F s 0.9x 0.45f b s cu s0.9=40=0.45=40=75s48.60 kN. Then the area this shearing force acts over is the area of the permanent shuttering on both sides of the concrete, up to the midspan point: A s2=40=750s60=10 3 mm 2 , sh and the shear stress is therefore, s48.60=10 3 r60=10 3 s0.81 Nrmm 2 . . b Calculation of maximum bolt force: . . . average force in segment A, F s 0.9x 0.45f b a cu s0.9=40=0.45=40=75s48.60 kN; . average force in segment B, F sF = 525r600 s b a 42.53 kN; . average force in segment C, F sF = 375r600 s c a 30.38 kN; . average force in segment D, F sF = 225r600 s d a 18.23 kN; and . average force in segment E, F sF = 75r600 s e a 6.08 kN. Therefore: the force on bolt as48.60y42.53s6.07 kN; the force on bolt bs42.53y30.38s12.15 kN; the force on bolt cs30.38y18.23s12.15 kN; the force on bolt ds18.23y6.08s12.15 kN; the force on bolt es6.08y0s6.08 kN; and the maximum bolt forces12.15 kN. Hence: . 2 . shear stress in bolt s 12.15r2 r =3 s215 Nrmm 2 ; . . bearing stress on concretes 12.15 r 75=6 s27.0 Nrmm 2 ; and . bearing stress on GFRP shutterings 12.15r2 r 2.1 . 2 =6 s482 Nrmm . References w x 1 Hollaway LC, Leeming MB, editors. Strengthening of rein- forced concrete structures using externally bonded FRP com- posites in structural and civil engineering, ROBUST book. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Ltd., 1999. w x 2 Canning L, Hollaway L, Thorne A. The manufacture, testing and numerical analysis of an innovative polymer compositer concrete structural unit. Proceedings, Inst Civ Engrs, Struc- tures & Buildings, vol. 134. 1999, p. 23141. w x 3 Mays GC, Vardy AE. Adhesive-bonded steelrconcrete com- . posite construction. Int J Adhes Adhes 1982;2 2 :1037. w x 4 Mays GC, Ong KCG, Wong CK, Cusens AR. The performance of model composite bridge decks constructed with open sand- . wich slabs. Int J Cem Compos Lightweight Concr 1983;5 3 : 15163. w x 5 Evbuomwan NFO. Behaviour of FRP prismatic sections in composite action with concrete. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Fibre Reinforced Composites, April 1998. w x 6 Garden H. The strengthening of reinforced concrete members using externally bonded composite materials. Doctoral thesis, University of Surrey, July 1997. w x 7 Fintel M. Handbook of concrete engineering. 1974, p. 155. w x 8 MSCrPATRAN version 6.0. MacNeil-Schwendler Co., 1996. w x 9 HKS, ABAQUS version 6.1. Pawtucket, RI: Hibbit Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc., 1996. w x 10 Fagan MJ. Finite element analysis: theory and practice. Eng- land: Longman Scientic and Technical, 1992.
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