Instrumentao e Sensores

Aula 1
Amplificador operacional
AMPLIFIER FUNDAMENTALS
An amplifier is a two-port device that accepts an externally applied signal,
referred to as input, and in turn produces a signal, referred to as output, that is
proportional to the former: output= A x input, where A is a suitable
proportionality constant referred to as gain.
A device is called a linear amplifier to distinguish it from devices characterized
by a nonlinear input-output relationship, such as quadratic amplifiers and
log/antilog amplifiers.
Depending on the nature of the input and output signals, we can have four
types of amplifiers:
the voltage amplifier (voltage in, voltage out)
the current amplifier (current in, current out)
the transconductance amplifier (voltage in, current out)
the transresistantce amplifier (current in, voltage out).
AMPLIFIER FUNDAMENTALS
Thevenin's theorem states that any linear port can be modeled with an
appropriate voltage source and series resistance. Amplifiers are no exception.
The input port usually plays a purely passive role, producing no voltage of its
own; its Thevenin equivalent reduces to a mere resistance Ri.
The output port, however, includes a voltage source and must be of the
dependent type to indicate dependence of output upon input.
The term gain stems from the fact that the magnitude of A is usually larger than
unity, indicating signal magnification or amplification.
AMPLIFIER FUNDAMENTALS
Loading complicates life because each time we change the source or the
load, we need to recompute the overall gain, not to mention the fact that we
also have signal loss.
It would be nice if loading could be eliminated altogether so that we could claim
Vd/Vs = A regardless of Rs and RL.
To eliminate loading, the voltage drops across Rs and Ro must be zero
regardless of Rs and RL.
The only way to achieve this goal is by imposing Ri = and R0 = 0.
Such an amplifier is termed ideal.
THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
The operational amplifier is a voltage amplifier having extremely high gain.
For example, the uA741 has a typical gain of 200 000. The OP-77, has a typical
gain of 12 million.In fact, what distinguishes op amps from all other voltage
amplifiers is the sheer size of their gain. One can extrapolate and say that
ideally an op amp would have an infinitely large gain.
The inputs are respectively called inverting and noninverting. Their voltages
with respect to ground shall be designated as Vn and Vp, while the output
voltage shall be designated as Vo. The difference between Vp and Vn is called
the differential input voltage Vd. Differential input resistance rd voltage gain a,
and output resistance ro are called open loop parameters.
The Ideal Op Amp
To minimize loading both at the input and at the output, a well designed voltage
amplifier should have:
very high (ideally infinite) input resistance,
negligible (ideally zero) input current,
and very low (ideally zero) output resistance.
The ideal op amp is an ideal voltage amplifier with infinite gain.
In and lp denote the currents associated with the inverting and the noninverting
Inputs.
The Noninverting Amplifier
Since b is a finite number, the above limit is achieved
by letting a
The Noninverting Amplifier
Ri is infinite since the noninverting input terminal appears as a mere open
circuit.
Moreover, since the output comes directly from voltage source aVd, Ro will be
zero.
The present results were derived using the ideal op amp model.
The Voltage Follower
Letting R1 = and R2 = 0 in the noninverting amplifier turns it into a unity gain
amplifier or voltage follower. The circuit consists of the op amp plus a wire,
whose task is to feed the entire output Vo back to the input, so that b = 1. The
closed loop parameters are:
The Inverting Amplifier
The Inverting Amplifier
Unlike the noninverting amplifier, the inverting one will load down the input
source if the latter is nonideal.
IDEAL OP AMP CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
an ideal op amp operating with negative feedback will drive Vo to whatever
value is required to make Vn identical to Vp or, equivalently, to drive Vd to zero.
This constraint, referred to as the input voltage constraint, makes the input
terminals appear as if they were shorted together.
However, we also know that for an ideal op amp no current flows in or out of
either terminal (In = Ip = 0), so the apparent short conducts no current, a
constraint referred to as the input current constraint and expressed as ld = 0.
The Summing Amplifier
The Difference Amplifier
When:
The Op Amp Integrator
The output is proportional to
the integral of the input, with
the proportionality constant
determined by R and C.
The Op Amp Differentiator
The output is proportional
to the derivative of the
input, with the constant of
proportionality determined
by R and C
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
A voltage amplifier, whose purpose is to amplify signal V and produce output
signal Vo according to
Parameter a is called the open loop gain.
A feedback network, whose purpose is to sample output signal Vo and
produce feedback signal Vfb according to
Parameter b, which represents the transfer function of the feedback network,
is called the feedback factor.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
A summing network, denoted as , whose purpose is to compute the
difference between input signal Vi and feedback signal Vfb and produce signal
V for the amplifier:
V is called the error signal.
where A is called the closed loop gain of the system.
Effect of Negative Feedback on V and Vfb
When
When
As long as ab >> 1 a negative feedback amplifier drives the error signal V very
close to zero or, equivalently, forces the feedback signal Vfb to be a close replica
of the input signal Vi.
Gain Desensitivity
ab b
A
/ 1 1
1 1
+
=
( ) ( )
da
ab
dA
ab da
dA
2 2
1
1
1
1
+
=
+
=
( ) a
da
ab
ab b
da
ab A
dA
+

+
+
=
1
1
/ 1 1
1 1
1
1
2
Replacing differentials by finite
increments
a
a
ab A
A
+
=

1
1
Example:

=
=
=

0.002%
1 . 0
000 100
% 20
A
A
b
a
a
a
Effect of Feedback on Distortion
As long as ab >> 1, A will be fairly constant and close to ideal in spite of the
decrease in a as we move away from the origin.
The closed loop voltage transfer curve is therefore much more linear than the
open loop curve and is so over a wider signal range.
As we approach saturation, however, a eventually drops to zero and the
linearizing effect of negative feedback no longer applies due to the lack of loop
gain there.
Open loop voltage
transfer curve
Closed loop voltage
transfer curve
POWERING THE OP AMP
In order to function, an op amp needs to be externally powered.
Power supplies serve the twofold purpose of biasing the internal devices of the
op amp (transistors, diodes, etc.) and providing power that the op amp must in
turn supply to the output load and the feedback network.
Since op amps do not have provision for ground connection, the ground
reference point is obtained from the node between the power supplies, and all
other voltages are referenced to this node.
Typical values for Vcc and VEE are + 15 V and - 15 V, regulated.
Portable analog circuitry is often powered from batteries (Vcc = +9 V, VEE= -9 V)
or even from a single 9 V battery (Vcc = +9 V, VEE= 0 V).
There are op amps, especially those meant for consumer applications, that can
operate out of just a single 1.25 V cell.
Current flow diagram noninverting amplifier
Current flow diagram inverting amplifier
Output Saturation
Power supply voltages Vcc and VEE set upper and lower bounds on the output
swing capability of the op amp.
As the extremes of the power supply range are approached, internal transistor
saturation effects take place that prevent Vo from exceeding or even reaching
either supply rail.
The effect of output saturation is to flatten out the voltage transfer curve
extremes
Output Saturation
Inverting amplifier