168

The Sport Psychologist, 2010, 24, 168-193

2010 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Connaughton and Hanton are with the Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff,
UK. Jones is with Lane 4 Management Group Ltd., Buckinghamshire, UK.
The Development and Maintenance of
Mental Toughness in the Worlds Best
Performers
Declan Connaughton and Sheldon Hanton
University of Wales Institute
Graham Jones
Lane 4 Management Group Ltd.
Eleven superelite participants (7 performers, 2 coaches and 2 sport psycholo-
gists) were interviewed regarding the development and maintenance of mental
toughness. Findings revealed that this process occurred over four distinct career
phases: three developmental phases, and one maintenance phase. Factors infu-
encing development and maintenance included: skill mastery, competitiveness,
successes, international competitive experience, education and advice, the use of
psychological skills, access to an understanding social support network, and refec-
tive practice. In addition, positive and negative critical incidents were perceived
by participants to act as catalysts in initiating or enhancing specifc components
of mental toughness. Practical implications highlight the importance of a mental
toughness attitude/mindset to development, while future directions are discussed
in relation to measurement and intervention strategies.
For many years the term mental toughness has been associated with sporting
excellence and highlighted as an important psychological contributor to successful
performance (Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987) and winning Olympic
titles (Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002). Despite such reports, the majority
of mental toughness explanations have emanated from anecdotal evidence, and
only recently have researchers investigated the concept of mental toughness using
empirical methods (for reviews, see Connaughton & Hanton, 2009; Connaughton,
Hanton, Jones, & Wadey, 2008).
Jones et al. (2002) were the frst researchers to address mental toughness
from such a standpoint. Adopting Personal Construct Theory (Kelly, 1955) and
performance profling as guiding frameworks, they defned mental toughness as a
natural or developed psychological edge that enables mentally tough performers
to generally cope better than their opponents with the demands and related pres-
sures that occur at the highest level in sport. Jones et al. (2002) also identifed 12
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 169
essential characteristics that related to self-belief, desire and motivation, focusing,
coping with anxiety, and also dealing with pain and hardship. Encouragingly, the
fndings from this study have been supported, with subtle differences in specifc
single sport investigations (e.g., Bull, Shambrook, James, & Brooks, 2005; Guc-
ciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008; Thelwell, Weston, & Greenlees, 2005). Although
these investigations enhanced understanding, mental toughness research was still
deemed to be in its infancy, and a number of recommendations were offered. Bull
et al. (2005), Jones et al. (2002), and Thelwell et al. (2005) suggested the inclusion
of coaches and sport psychologists to glean a more holistic understanding of mental
toughness. In addition, the defnition and attributes proposed by Jones et al. (2002)
suggested an outcome component to mental toughness. Specifcally, the wording of
the defnition involved comparisons that resulted in successful outcomes (e.g., cope
better than your opponents), while the attributes described the achievement or suc-
cessful completion of an action rather than having the ability to do so (e.g., thriving
on the pressure of competition rather than having an ability to thrive on pressure).
In response to these suggestions, Jones et al. (2007) investigated mental
toughness in a sample of performers, coaches, and sport psychologists who had
achieved the outcome component criteria of Olympic or World Champion or had
been a coach or sport psychologist to such performers. The participants were classed
as superelite and confrmed Jones et al.s (2002) defnition of mental toughness.
Interestingly, the superelite participants identifed 30 distinct attributes compared
with the 10 and 12 attributes reported by Thelwell et al. (2005) and Jones et al.
(2002), respectively. This difference suggested that while elite and superelite indi-
viduals may agree on what mental toughness is (i.e., the defnition), the superelite
appeared to possess a greater understanding of its precise make-up (Jones et al.,
2007). Jones et al. (2007) then developed a framework of mental toughness, which
categorized the 30 attributes under 13 subcomponents within 4 overall dimensions
(attitude/mindset, training, competition, and postcompetition: see Table 1). From
an applied perspective, this framework provides the context in which the attributes
and subcomponents are applicable, and could contribute to the description of how,
and under what conditions, mental toughness may be developed and maintained.
The acknowledgment that mental toughness could be acquired (i.e., Bull et
al., 2005; Jones et al., 2002, 2007; Thelwell et al., 2005) strengthened the call for
researchers to investigate the mechanisms by which it is developed. Previous stud-
ies examining the psychological factors of outstanding individuals and the means
by which they have obtained such characteristics have used in-depth interviews
(e.g., Bloom, 1985; Ct, Baker, & Abernethy, 2003; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde,
Whalen, & Wong, 1993; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 2002; Hanton
& Jones, 1999). Three of these studies were conducted within a sporting context,
investigating the development and maintenance of: facilitative interpretations of
competitive anxiety-related symptoms (Hanton & Jones, 1999), factors perceived to
be important to expert performance (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002), and the psy-
chological characteristics responsible for the development of Olympic Champions
(Gould et al., 2002). Overall, these studies revealed that athletes sporting careers
progressed through three main phases of development, followed by a maintenance
phase, and a variety of factors, individuals, and institutions infuenced this process,
either directly or indirectly.
170 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
Table 1 Mental Toughness Framework Dimensions and
Subcomponents (Jones et al., 2007)
Dimension Subcomponent
Attitude/Mindset Belief
Focus
Training Using long-term goals as the source of motivation
Pushing yourself to the limit
Controlling the environment
Competition Controlling the environment
Belief
Regulating performance
Staying focused
Awareness and control of thoughts and feelings
Handling pressure
Postcompetition Handling failure
Handling success
Within the area of mental toughness, Bull et al. (2005) was the frst study to
highlight factors perceived to infuence its development. They focused on cricket
and categorized global themes under 4 locations relating to environment, character,
attitudes, and thinking. The category locations were suggested to provide a reference
point for the development of mental toughness and a winning mind, but specifc
details of how mental toughness actually developed were absent. More recently,
Connaughton et al. (2008) investigated mental toughness development and main-
tenance in elite performers. Based on Jones et al.s (2002) defnition and 12 attri-
butes, fndings revealed that mental toughness developed over three distinct career
phases (early, middle, and later years) and was infuenced by differing underlying
mechanisms. Specifcally, during the early years, effective leadership, observing
elite performers in training and competition, and advice from parents and coaches
provided the knowledge, inspiration, and correct motivational climate to begin the
process of mental toughness development. The middle years were infuenced by
competitive rivalry, rationalization of successes and failures, and receiving guid-
ance from an understanding social support network. In the later years, competitive
experience, simulation training, positive experiences, and rationalization of setbacks
contributed to the development of mental toughness to its highest perceived levels.
Connaughton et al. (2008) also suggested that once acquired, mental toughness
needed to be maintained with a variety of psychological skills. Finally, perceived
critical incidents (e.g., disruptions at school, loss of a peer, parental divorce) were
identifed as having a crucial role in the development of mental toughness.
While Connaughton et al. (2008) investigated the development and mainte-
nance of mental toughness, the study was based on elite performers perceptions
of Jones et al.s (2002) defnition and 12 attributes of mental toughness. Jones et
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 171
al. (2007) has since proposed as a more detailed framework of mental toughness
using superelite performers, coaches, and sport psychologists. Therefore, a more
holistic insight into the underlying processes involved in the development and
maintenance of mental toughness may be achieved by using Jones et al.s (2007)
fndings and participant criteria.
The purpose of this study was to examine the development and maintenance
of mental toughness in a sample that met Jones et al.s (2007) outcome component
criteria and included the insights and unique contributions of performers, coaches,
and sport psychologists. To assist in the overall understanding and articulation,
Jones et al.s (2007) framework was used as a guide for when and how each of the
four dimensions and 13 subcomponents were developed and maintained.
Method
Participants
The respondents from Jones et al.s (2007) original sample were recontacted as
they possessed a comprehensive understanding of the mental toughness framework.
They were informed of the purpose, and 11 of the 15 participants (7 performers,
2 coaches, and 2 sport psychologists) agreed to contribute their views and experi-
ences once more, while the remaining four were unable to participate due to time
constraints. At the time of interviewing, the coaches and sport psychologists were
working with superelite performers, while the seven performers were retired. The
criteria for these superelite individuals were: at least one Gold medal at an Olympic
Games or World Championships (performers), while coaches and sport psycholo-
gists had to have coached or consulted with Olympic or World Champions on a
long-term basis (see Jones et al., 2007). The sports represented were swimming,
athletics, judo, rowing, pentathlon, squash, and rugby union, while nationalities
included Australia, England, Canada, and Wales.
At the time of investigation, the superelite performers (4 males and 3 females,
aged between 25 and 48) laid claim to seven Olympic gold medals and 10 World-
Championship titles, and an average of seven years experience at the highest level.
The coaches (2 males; aged 40 and 62), and sport psychologists (2 males; aged
40 and 47) had worked with superelite performers during their careers (between 7
and 20 years). None of the coaches or sport psychologists in this study had worked
with superelite performers in the early stages of their sporting careers; therefore,
the authors deemed it necessary to develop two interview guides (one for perform-
ers and one for coaches/sport psychologists) and present their fndings separately.
Instrumentation
Interview Guides. The two interview guides were developed to elicit the
relevant data and to facilitate the interview process. Both guides outlined the
aims of the study, the interview process, participants rights, and issues relating
to data confdentiality and anonymity. Questions were primarily open-ended,
with probes used to clarify any discussion points of confusion. The participants
were encouraged to elaborate and expand upon any information they thought
relevant when discussing mental toughness development and maintenance (cf.
172 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
Patton, 2002). The design of both guides were based on the four dimensions
and 13 subcomponents contained within Jones et al.s (2007) mental toughness
framework (see Table 1), and studies that have employed interview guides in the
development and maintenance of expert performance in sport (Durand-Bush &
Salmela, 2002), psychological characteristics of Olympic Champions (Gould et
al., 2002), and mental toughness in elite performers (Connaughton et al., 2008).
Unique to the performers guide was an involvement progression questionnaire,
adapted from Blooms (1985) and Ct et al.s (2003) three career phases of talent
and expertise development. The development and maintenance of mental toughness
was divided into four specifc career phases, three developmental phases termed as:
(a) initial involvement to intermediate level, (b) intermediate to elite level, (c) elite
to Olympic/World Champion status, and (d) one maintenance phase. The guide for
coaches and sport psychologists did not contain an involvement progression ques-
tionnaire but drew on their experiences of working with superelite sports performers
to glean their views and beliefs of how the dimensions and subcomponents of mental
toughness were developed and maintained in performers. The fnal section for both
guides concluded with recommendations sought for developing future mentally
tough performers and participants appraisal of the interview process. Copies of
the interview guides are available from the corresponding author.
Procedure
In line with the lead authors university ethical research procedures, voluntary
informed written consent was obtained from each participant. To help establish
the parameters of the study and allow participants time to refect on and refresh
their experiences, and for performers to refect on experiences within each spe-
cifc career phase, the relevant interview guide was sent to each participant two
weeks before interviewing (Jones et al., 2007). To enhance the interview process
and before being interviewed, participants were asked to write down comments
that they felt were important to mental toughness development and maintenance.
Finally, performers were reminded to maintain perspective to the specifc career
phases that questions related to.
All interviews were conducted face-to-face by the same researcher, who was
trained in qualitative techniques and was previously an elite sports performer.
Interviews were recorded in their entirety and transcribed verbatim, lasting between
120180 min (performers) and 90120 (coaches/sport psychologists), collectively
yielding over 500 single-spaced typed pages. The transcripts and researchers inter-
pretations of the data were then sent to participants and comments regarding their
accuracy solicited via follow-up phone calls. Each participant confrmed that the
information provided accurately refected their experiences and thoughts regarding
mental toughness development and maintenance.
Analysis
The data analysis procedures adopted in this study incorporated seven steps: (a)
transcripts were independently and then collectively studied in detail by the research
team to ensure content familiarity. Regular meetings were held to ensure a complete
understanding of the textual material; (b) the data were coded in relation to framework
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 173
dimensions and subcomponents, and analyzed to identify common themes from the tran-
scripts. This coding involved deductively analyzing the transcripts in accordance with
Jones et al.s (2007) mental toughness framework; (c) any disagreement resulted in all
three researchers rereading and discussing the transcripts until consensus was reached;
(d) two external researchers, knowledgeable in qualitative research and familiar with
the subject matter, provided feedback with regard to the data analysis; (e) participant
feedback further verifed the interpretation of the data; (f) direct quotations from the
transcripts were selected and presented to allow the reader the opportunity to interpret
the data in a more meaningful way (Sparkes, 1998); and fnally; (g) trustworthiness
characteristics relevant to this study were met through thick description, recording and
transcribing all interviews, peer-debriefng, and member-checking (cf. Hanton, Cropley,
Miles, Mellalieu, & Neil, 2007; Jones et al., 2002, 2007).
Results
This study was concerned with the development and maintenance of mental
toughness, and fndings are presented in relation to the four dimensions and 13
subcomponents of Jones et al.s (2007) mental toughness framework.
Performers Perspectives on Mental Toughness
Development and Maintenance
Presented in Table 2, the performers description of the underlying themes account-
able for the development and maintenance of mental toughness are categorized in to
four distinct sections: three development phases (initial involvement to intermediate
level, intermediate to elite level, elite to Olympic/World Champion status), and one
maintenance phase (maintenance years).
Initial Involvement to Intermediate Level. This phase varied from 6 to 10 years
with performers indicating that they were not mentally tough at the beginning
of their sporting careers. Individuals engaged in various sports and activities
for enjoyment, a means of socialization, and skill mastery. Development began
within the attitude/mindset dimension, namely the subcomponents, belief and
focus, and was followed by two of the three training dimension subcomponents,
using long-term goals as the source of motivation, and pushing yourself to
the limit. Mastering the various sports skills that the participant engaged in,
and deriving pleasure and a sense of achievement further enhanced belief
and focus. Participants reported being competitive, learning new skills faster,
and performing to a higher level than their peers. This skill mastery created a,
perceived superiority, compared to my peers and initiated the belief that they
were talented and special, thus motivating them to practice more and increasing
their focus to strive to be better. One performer commented:
I think I was sporty and enjoyed being active . . . The idea of learning initially
. . . do one skill and then do the next skill . . . I guess mastery of a skill . . . I
liked racing against other kids . . . having success raised my self-esteem and
I felt good about myself . . . so I liked beating other people . . . it was about
achievement and being the best I could. (Performer 4)
174
T
a
b
l
e

2

P
e
r
f
o
r
m
e
r
s

P
e
r
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e
s

o
n

t
h
e

C
a
r
e
e
r

P
h
a
s
e
s

o
f

M
e
n
t
a
l

T
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
/
M
a
i
n
t
e
n
a
n
c
e
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

I
n
v
o
l
v
e
m
e
n
t

t
o

I
n
t
e
r
m
e
d
i
a
t
e

L
e
v
e
l
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n

a
n
d

S
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
U
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
g

t
h
e
m
e
s
A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
M
i
n
d
s
e
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

S
o
c
i
a
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

F
o
c
u
s

S
k
i
l
l

m
a
s
t
e
r
y

B
e
i
n
g

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e

L
e
a
r
n
i
n
g

n
e
w

s
k
i
l
l
s

f
a
s
t
e
r

t
h
a
n

p
e
e
r
s
T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

U
s
i
n
g

l
o
n
g
-
t
e
r
m

g
o
a
l
s

a
s

t
h
e

s
o
u
r
c
e

o
f

m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n

D
e
r
i
v
i
n
g

p
l
e
a
s
u
r
e

f
r
o
m

s
k
i
l
l

m
a
s
t
e
r
y

A
c
h
i
e
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

g
a
i
n
s

P
u
s
h
i
n
g

y
o
u
r
s
e
l
f

t
o

t
h
e

l
i
m
i
t

B
e
i
n
g

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)

B
e
l
i
e
f

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)

R
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)

S
t
a
y
i
n
g

f
o
c
u
s
e
d

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)

A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s

a
n
d

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

o
f

t
h
o
u
g
h
t
s

a
n
d

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)
P
o
s
t
-
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

f
a
i
l
u
r
e

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

s
u
c
c
e
s
s

(
n
o
t

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d

i
n

t
h
i
s

c
a
r
e
e
r

p
h
a
s
e
)
(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
175
I
n
t
e
r
m
e
d
i
a
t
e

t
o

E
l
i
t
e

L
e
v
e
l
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n

a
n
d

S
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
U
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
g

t
h
e
m
e
s
A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
M
i
n
d
s
e
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

S
k
i
l
l

m
a
s
t
e
r
y

F
o
c
u
s

C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e
n
e
s
s

E
x
p
e
r
t

c
o
a
c
h
i
n
g

/
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
d

r
e
g
i
m
e
n

O
b
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

o
l
d
e
r
,

e
l
i
t
e

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
e
r
s

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

e
x
p
e
c
t
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

b
e
l
i
e
f

a
n
d

f
o
c
u
s

w
h
i
c
h

e
n
h
a
n
c
e
d

a
l
l

3

T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

s
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

A
c
h
i
e
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

g
o
a
l
s

i
n

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

f
u
r
t
h
e
r

e
n
h
a
n
c
e
d

t
h
e

A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
m
i
n
d
s
e
t

s
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s
,

b
e
l
i
e
f

a
n
d

f
o
c
u
s

T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

U
s
i
n
g

l
o
n
g
-
t
e
r
m

g
o
a
l
s

a
s

t
h
e

s
o
u
r
c
e

o
f

m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n

P
u
s
h
i
n
g

y
o
u
r
s
e
l
f

t
o

t
h
e

l
i
m
i
t

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

A
d
a
p
t
i
o
n

o
f

A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
m
i
n
d
s
e
t

&

T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

s
u
b
c
o
m
-
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

t
o

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e

s
e
t
t
i
n
g
s
.

B
e
l
i
e
f

R
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

c
o
a
c
h
e
s

a
n
d

m
o
r
e

e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
d

a
t
h
l
e
t
e
s

S
t
a
y
i
n
g

f
o
c
u
s
e
d

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

s
k
i
l
l

u
s
a
g
e

A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s

a
n
d

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

o
f

t
h
o
u
g
h
t
s

a
n
d

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
P
o
s
t
-
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

f
a
i
l
u
r
e

R
e
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

s
u
c
c
e
s
s

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

s
k
i
l
l

u
s
a
g
e
T
a
b
l
e

2

(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
176
E
l
i
t
e

t
o

O
l
y
m
p
i
c
/
W
o
r
l
d

C
h
a
m
p
i
o
n

S
t
a
t
u
s
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n

a
n
d

S
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
U
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
g

t
h
e
m
e
s
A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
M
i
n
d
s
e
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e

d
e
s
i
r
e

t
o

w
i
n

A
c
h
i
e
v
i
n
g

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
e
s

i
n

i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n
s

o
r

g
a
m
e
s

F
o
c
u
s

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e

e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e

U
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g

o
f

w
o
r
l
d

c
l
a
s
s

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

r
e
g
i
m
e
s

a
n
d

p
r
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n

s
c
h
e
d
u
l
e
s

S
p
o
r
t
i
n
g

s
u
p
p
o
r
t

n
e
t
w
o
r
k

N
o
n
s
p
o
r
t
i
n
g

s
u
p
p
o
r
t

n
e
t
w
o
r
k

K
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e

o
f

a

w
i
d
e

r
e
p
e
r
t
o
i
r
e

o
f

p
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

s
k
i
l
l
s

a
n
d

s
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
s

A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d

p
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

s
k
i
l
l

u
s
a
g
e

R
e
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e

R
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
e
s

a
n
d

f
a
i
l
u
r
e
s

i
n

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n
T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

U
s
i
n
g

l
o
n
g
-
t
e
r
m

g
o
a
l
s

a
s

t
h
e

s
o
u
r
c
e

o
f

m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n

P
u
s
h
i
n
g

y
o
u
r
s
e
l
f

t
o

t
h
e

l
i
m
i
t

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

R
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

S
t
a
y
i
n
g

f
o
c
u
s
e
d

A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s

a
n
d

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

o
f

t
h
o
u
g
h
t
s

a
n
d

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
P
o
s
t
-
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

f
a
i
l
u
r
e

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
T
a
b
l
e

2

(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
177
M
a
i
n
t
e
n
a
n
c
e
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n

a
n
d

S
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
U
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
g

t
h
e
m
e
s
A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
M
i
n
d
s
e
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

B
e
l
i
e
f

f
r
o
m

w
i
n
n
i
n
g

O
l
y
m
p
i
c
s

/

W
o
r
l
d

C
h
a
m
p
i
o
n
-
s
h
i
p
s

F
o
c
u
s

S
e
t
t
i
n
g

n
e
w

c
h
a
l
l
e
n
g
i
n
g

t
a
r
g
e
t
s

a
n
d

g
o
a
l
s

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
g

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

a
n
d

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

r
o
u
t
i
n
e
s

M
a
i
n
t
a
i
n
i
n
g

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

w
i
t
h

r
e
g
a
r
d

t
o

s
p
o
r
t

a
n
d

l
i
f
e

A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d

p
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

s
k
i
l
l

u
s
a
g
e

R
e
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

n
e
g
a
t
i
v
i
t
y

a
n
d

e
x
p
e
c
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

U
s
i
n
g

l
o
n
g
-
t
e
r
m

g
o
a
l
s

a
s

t
h
e

s
o
u
r
c
e

o
f

m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n

P
u
s
h
i
n
g

y
o
u
r
s
e
l
f

t
o

t
h
e

l
i
m
i
t

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

R
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

S
t
a
y
i
n
g

f
o
c
u
s
e
d

A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s

a
n
d

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

o
f

t
h
o
u
g
h
t
s

a
n
d

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
P
o
s
t
-
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

f
a
i
l
u
r
e

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
T
a
b
l
e

2

(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
178 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
Mastering skills and outperforming peers enhanced the belief that the performers
could achieve their goals, and motivated them to focus on mastering more advanced
skills. This increase in belief and focus triggered the development of the subcom-
ponents using long-term goals as the source of motivation and pushing yourself
to the limit (training dimension). A typical comment was:
I didnt really train properly then . . . I did it because I wanted to be good . . . I
saw it as a challenge . . . an enjoyable one . . . I had that drive of wanting to be
better. It starts off as an enjoyable thing but when you know you can do well,
you train to do the best you can . . . that motivated me to try to achieve . . . it
gave me an awareness of what I had to do to get to the next level . . . because
in new levels you get to learn a new set of skills . . . and that motivated me
to push myself hard so I could get to learn a new set of skills. (Performer 7)
The successes achieved enhanced motivation and work ethic in training, and further
strengthened belief and focus. Perceived critical incidents were common throughout
this phase, and positive incidents were reported to increase belief, while negative
experiences resulted in enhanced focus. For example:
The PE teacher recognized my talent and suggested I go to (named elite sports
school) . . . I didnt realize people recognized my talent, that gave me a lot
of belief . . . I began to believe in myself, I tried harder, took more interest in
what I was doing and why. (Performer 3)
My focus was low really especially in the beginning . . . I was bullied and
isolated at school . . . (sport named) was something that I could be good at .
. . that drove me to focus on the things that I was good at . . . on trying to be
the best performer I could be. (Performer 1)
Intermediate to Elite Level. This phase varied in length from 3 to 6 years with
participants describing it as the time where the majority of mental toughness
subcomponents developed. First was the final subcomponent within the
training dimension, controlling the environment, followed by four of the six
subcomponents within the competition dimension, belief, staying focused,
regulating performance, and controlling the environment. The two remaining
competition subcomponents, handling pressure, and awareness and control of
thoughts and feelings developed later in this phase and in conjunction with the
development of the two subcomponents within the postcompetition dimension,
handling success and handling failure.
Development of the subcomponent, controlling the environment (training
dimension), was achieved in one of two ways: being promoted to a more
advanced training squad with expert coaching, or purposely relocating to a
club or team that had a more structured regimen. Being part a more structured
program increased performers perceived control of the training environment
as, this was the structure and discipline I needed to achieve my goals.
Observing older, elite performers in such teams was described as having an
infuence on attitude/mindset and training dimensions. Specifcally, they saw
these successful athletes for the, real people they were, how they trained, and
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 179
how they reacted to pressure thus increasing the belief that they too, could
achieve what these older performers were doing. Being in such an environ-
ment enhanced the expectation of future success and the, proven track record
of the coach and training increased their belief and motivated them to strive
harder in training to achieve their long-term goals. Mastery was still a factor
for development, however, competitiveness and, doing what was necessary to
achieve success became the biggest infuenceBeing in a better (sport named)
environment and having better people around me . . . better coaches, facilities
. . . we watched and copied older performers . . . I saw them working hard and
how they did it . . . it had a big impact on me . . . I felt I could achieve that .
. . so I decided I would work harder to get there. My expectations of success
increased. (Performer 6)
The development of subcomponents within the attitude/mindset and training
dimensions were reported to have a positive and reciprocal impact upon each other.
Specifcally, development of the attitude/mindset subcomponents, belief and
focus strengthened all three training dimension subcomponents, while achiev-
ing successes and goals in training, and the recognition of these achievements by
coaches, further impacted on belief and focus. One performer stated:
Because of my belief and focus I worked harder in training, set more goals
and tried harder . . . success and achieving these goals meant I was right, my
program was right . . . the more I focused on my work the better I got . . . I
was as good as I believed. (Performer 7)
During this career phase, all six subcomponents within the competition dimen-
sion began to develop, but not all at the same time or rate. Performers believed
they could directly transfer or adapt the fve subcomponents within the attitude/
mindset and training dimensions into the four subcomponents of belief, staying
focused, regulating performance, and controlling the environment (competition
dimension). Specifcally, previous experience of successes in training enhanced
performers beliefs that they could regulate their performance in competitions,
control the environment, and succeed in competition. This enhanced belief enabled
them to stay focused and increase their commitment to achieving competition
goals, despite distractions:
My strength in competitions was around belief and focus . . . and regulating
my performance . . . probably mainly from training . . . knowing that I could
tap in to something when I need a little bit extra. I could focus on what I had
to do . . . to win. (Performer 3)
To develop the two remaining subcomponents within the competition dimen-
sion, handling pressure and awareness and control of thoughts and feelings per-
formers searched for ways to educate themselves on how to recognize inappropriate
thoughts and feelings, and then implement strategies to control and change these
thoughts and feelings. Trial and error, advice from more experienced performers
and coaches, and refective practice enabled the performers to, develop strategies
that enhanced decision making, coping abilities, and control over pre-competition
thoughts and feelings.
180 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
Toward the end of this career phase, the two subcomponents within the
postcompetition dimension, handling success and handling failure began to
develop. Refective practice was an infuence and performers reported having
formal meetings with coaches to analyze why they were successful or had not
performed optimally. This process positively impacted upon all the subcomponents
in the attitude/mindset, training, and competition dimensions. Success increased
belief in themselves, their training program, competition preparation, their coach,
and perceived control over the environment, and consequently, motivated them to
push themselves to the limits of their capabilities. Alternatively, failures enhanced
focus, as they were rationalized as learning experiences and a means of providing
information on how to improve identifed weaknesses in training and competition:
I always reviewed what I did with (coach named), what I did well and what
didnt work. It was a structured session rather than just a chat. It was something
to learn from. We internalized successes and this helped us increase belief.
We didnt have failures, if things went wrong, we took that knowledge back
into training . . . change something I was doing or how I prepared . . . so we
would be better the next time. (Performer 2)
Perceived critical incidents also had an impact upon mental toughness develop-
ment in this career phase. Negative incidents included parental divorce, negative peer
infuence, injury, car accidents, and the death of a peer. Such unforeseen problems
were retrospectively viewed as a means of enhancing overall mental toughness.
Performers described the impact of such experiences as contributing to balancing
life and sport, and developing a clearer perspective on what they were doing and
why, and how they could ultimately achieve their goal. One performer described
the death of a friend:
I realized that this sort of thing could happen and you need to take control of
your own life . . . so you got to go for it as you never know what will happen
tomorrow . . . the other thing was that you can not rely on other people . . .
you need to take responsibility for your own stuff and get on . . . It made me
more determined to achieve something and I knew I had to do it for myself as
no one else can do it for you. (Performer 5)
Positive critical incidents included valued or prestigious successes, beating respected
opponents, and being selected for national squads. These incidents were perceived
as an indication that their potential could be achieved, it reassured my belief that
I was good enough to achieve my goals and this belief had a positive impact on
mental toughness.
By the end of this career phase all 13 subcomponents had developed to vary-
ing degrees. Development in this career phase coincided with many successes,
and performers linked moving into the elite to Olympic/World Champion status
phase with being selected for their country, making an Olympic/World/European/
Commonwealth fnal, or being successful at recognized events.
Elite to Olympic/World Champion status. The fnal development phase involved
the enhancement of all 13 subcomponents to what was described as, their highest
levels. Several factors infuenced this enhancement during a 24 year period,
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 181
including: competitiveness, a great desire to compete against and beat world
ranked performers, experience of international competition/games, an awareness
of the capabilities of world class peers, and knowledge of training regimes and
preparation schedules of competitors. Performers reported that the experience
of competing at the very highest levels, and observing and talking to world class
athletes and coaches, enhanced their knowledge of world class training schedules,
preparation, and coaching styles. This knowledge and their, competitive desire
to win enhanced overall mental toughness:
I traveled a lot and met other world (class) performers in my event, and even
the world record holder . . . from talking to these and watching them in training
and warming up . . . I tried to experience and learn from the different methods
to make sure my method was the best it could be. I got bits from everywhere
which enhanced my belief in what I was doing, my attitude to training, com-
petition, and life really. (Performer 1)
During this career phase, subcomponents in the competition and postcompe-
tition dimensions developed considerably. Successes such as winning important
competitions or games, gave me more and more belief... winning meant my train-
ing, decisions, preparation was correct . . . I used competitions as stepping stones to
increase my belief, focus, awareness and control. A wide ranging support network
(i.e., family, friends, coaches, sport psychologists) was reported to enhance all of
the subcomponents within the competition and postcompetition dimensions. One
participant stated that, family and friends contributed to my balance in life . . . to
get away from the sport and switch off . . . to use other people to help take pressure
off me . . . to stay in control. Working with a sport psychologist was reported as,
giving me the tools to deal with games . . . to develop the focus on/off switch .
. . imagery enhanced my self-belief . . . to recognize what I had done and what I
could do. Knowledge of sport psychology and the use of mental skills allowed
participants to interpret pressure, expectations, and anxiety in a more facilitative
way, and this knowledge increased focus and belief, and enhanced the performers
ability to control thoughts and feelings under pressure. Finally, sport psychologists
were perceived to aid development of the two postcompetition subcomponents,
handling success and handling failure, by assisting in reframing goals, rational-
izing good and bad performances, and attributing successes to ability and failures
to poor preparation:
The psychology support really helped . . . setting goals . . . analyzing how I
was feeling and how I should feel about training, coaches. Everything was
more organized. He (sport psychologist) helped develop an awareness of what
needed to be done . . . It wasnt just general guidance but specifc detail of
what you needed to do . . . when . . . by how much, that made you aware of
how each thing led to the ultimate goal. (Performer 4)
Performance failures caused temporary fuctuations in mental toughness, and
were explained by changes in personal circumstances (e.g., moving to a different
team), how performers defned their sporting career within their life, and perfor-
mance expectations. These fuctuations enhanced the subcomponent, handling
failure (postcompetition dimension) and in combination with their social support
182 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
mechanism, positively impacted on all six subcomponents within the competition
dimension. Specifcally, these fuctuations assisted in creating the awareness, bal-
ance, and control to, love the pressure of high level competition:
Before (Olympics identifed) I had the top ranking and that put a lot of unwanted
pressure on me . . . I wasnt sleeping I couldnt cope with the expectations .
. . I felt trapped . . . I didnt have anything else in my life. It took me 5 months
to get over it (failure) . . . I decided to see if I could enjoy (named sport) . . .
train for 4 months better than I had done before . . . so I felt in total control of
it . . . training came easier because I had released myself . . . I built back my
belief from feeling in control and from small successes. I had balance in my
life and sport . . . I took control regarding my training and used my awareness
to understand what I should be doing . . . to enjoy it, to love it, pressure and
all. (Performer 6)
Perceived critical incidents, both negative (e.g., family illnesses, being beaten by
more junior athletes, injury) and positive (e.g., academic achievement, winning
major competition, out-performing signifcant individuals such as World Cham-
pions) were reported to result in increased belief, control, and balance in life, an
enhanced ability to handle pressure and expectation, and a greater awareness of
capabilities:
Mum got ill . . . really ill (condition named) . . . I realized that (sport named)
wasnt everything any more . . . I was too intense . . . I vowed to be more
relaxed . . . get a life . . . get balance in my life so that I could get away from
(sport named) when I needed to. (Performer 2)
I was competing against (competitor named) and I beat him . . . This was a
huge boost for me . . . he was my hero. It made me realize that even though
on paper this guy was the best, I beat him. Suddenly he was human, beatable
. . . I was able to beat him. (Performer 1)
Finally, winning an Olympic or World title coincided with the end of the elite
to Olympic/World Champion status phase, and the beginning of the mainte-
nance years.
Maintenance Years. During this time, lasting 25 years, no participant reported
any of the 13 subcomponents developing beyond those previously stated; it
was also believed necessary to continue to work on mental toughness or it
would diminish. Maintenance was achieved through the use of mental skills
and strategies, to keep mental toughness high, you need to constantly work
on it . . . in training, competitions . . . you formulate routines in training
and competitions so it is at its highest level for that important competition.
Winning the Olympics/World Championships was perceived to contribute
greatly to the maintenance of mental toughness, especially in the frst two
years after winning. Achieving this status reinforced their belief that they had
all the qualities necessary to be, the best in the world, and this assisted in
maintaining mental toughness:
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 183
Winning the Olympics validated everything . . . it confrmed my belief . . .
now you know your preparation is good enough to win . . . you know how to
win . . . you know how much time you need to get in to that state to win, so
you are relaxed about your preparation and you believe in your program much
more than before . . . You know how to handle the pressure and that you can
overcome it . . . use it . . . in fact my levels of mental toughness remained that
high for about 2 years because of winning the Olympics. (Performer 3)
Strategies to maintain mental toughness involved: setting new goals that
challenged the performer (e.g., adding European and Commonwealth gold to my
Olympic gold); developing routines for training and competition; maintaining the
correct balance with sport and lifestyle; adopting affrmative self-talk strategies and
positive rationalization; and controlling negativity and expectations.
All of the performers felt they experienced a lack of mental toughness within
the maintenance years. Three participants claimed to recover from this drop through
a radical change in routine and the use of mental skill and strategies, while the
others stated that this lack of mental toughness contributed to unsuccessful per-
formances and ultimately, retirement. Participants suggested the subcomponents,
belief and focus in the attitude/mindset dimension were affected frst, followed
by the subcomponents in the training, competition, and postcompetition dimen-
sions, my focus reduced, followed by my belief and this caused a domino effect
on the subcomponents in training, competition, and post-competition. A lack of
new challenges, injuries, or relationships, family, fnancial, or career overtaking
the importance of sport, were reported as reasons for this lack of mental toughness:
I needed another goal . . . I had won the Olympics, the Europeans, I had the
world record. I needed a focus, I couldnt get up about winning the Olympics
again . . . I lost my focus and this had a knock-on effect on my belief, my
training, competition . . . I could (sport activity named) well but I didnt have
that edge . . . that bit that allowed me to excel. (Performer 1)
The performers who overcame the reductions in mental toughness stated that
they found ways of setting new challenges that motivated them to focus on goal
achievement, and provided a different perspective on their sport (e.g., moving to
a new location, recruiting a new coach, changing events, and developing a more
technical side to their sport). One performer suggested that, a new coach gave
me a different perspective, a more technical side . . . it was a new challenge rather
than the same old one . . . it motivated me to focus more. I felt I had something
to prove again.
Development and Maintenance:
Coaches and Sport Psychologists Perspectives
From their experiences of working with superelite performers and based on Jones
et al. (2007) framework, coaches and sport psychologists provided their opinions
of how mental toughness is developed and maintained (presented in Table 3.). The
coaches and sport psychologists beliefs were merged together to incorporated
the unique and distinctive insights that they possessed in relation to a performers
sporting and nonsporting life.
184
T
a
b
l
e

3

C
o
a
c
h
e
s

/
S
p
o
r
t

P
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
s
t
s

P
e
r
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e
s

o
n

M
e
n
t
a
l

T
o
u
g
h
n
e
s
s

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

a
n
d

M
a
i
n
t
e
n
a
n
c
e
D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n

a
n
d

S
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
U
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
g

t
h
e
m
e
s
A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
M
i
n
d
s
e
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

C
h
a
l
l
e
n
g
e
s

i
n

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

F
o
c
u
s

E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n

r
e
g
a
r
d
i
n
g

h
o
w

f
o
c
u
s

i
m
p
r
o
v
e
d

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

A
c
h
i
e
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
e
s

a
n
d

g
o
a
l
s

i
n

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

e
n
h
a
n
c
e
d

A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
m
i
n
d
s
e
t

s
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s
,

b
e
l
i
e
f

a
n
d

f
o
c
u
s

T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

U
s
i
n
g

l
o
n
g
-
t
e
r
m

g
o
a
l
s

a
s

t
h
e

s
o
u
r
c
e

o
f

m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n

G
o
o
d

c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

P
u
s
h
i
n
g

y
o
u
r
s
e
l
f

t
o

t
h
e

l
i
m
i
t

E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n

r
e
g
a
r
d
i
n
g

e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

g
o
a
l

s
e
t
t
i
n
g

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

E
n
a
b
l
i
n
g

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
e
r

o
w
n
e
r
s
h
i
p

o
f

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

p
r
o
g
r
a
m

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

o
f

a

p
o
s
i
t
i
v
e

g
r
o
u
p

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

a
t
m
o
s
p
h
e
r
e

F
o
s
t
e
r
i
n
g

p
r
i
d
e

i
n

a
c
h
i
e
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

d
i
f
f
c
u
l
t

s
e
t
s

F
o
s
t
e
r
i
n
g

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e
n
e
s
s

a
n
d

c
h
a
l
l
e
n
g
i
n
g

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
e
r
s

P
o
s
i
t
i
v
e

i
m
a
g
e
r
y
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

A
d
a
p
t
i
o
n

o
f

A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
m
i
n
d
s
e
t

a
n
d

T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

s
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

t
o

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e

s
e
t
t
i
n
g
s
.

B
e
l
i
e
f

A
c
q
u
i
r
i
n
g

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

w
i
t
h

r
e
g
a
r
d

t
o

s
p
o
r
t

a
n
d

l
i
f
e

R
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n

o
n

h
o
w

t
o

h
a
n
d
l
e

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

S
t
a
y
i
n
g

f
o
c
u
s
e
d

S
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s

a
n
d

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

o
f

t
h
o
u
g
h
t
s

a
n
d

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
P
o
s
t
-
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

f
a
i
l
u
r
e

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e

S
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

s
u
c
c
e
s
s

R
e
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e

(
w
h
y

a
n
d

h
o
w

t
h
i
n
g
s

o
c
c
u
r
r
e
d
)

I
m
a
g
e
r
y
:

r
e
c
r
e
a
t
i
n
g

a
n
d

r
e
e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
i
n
g

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
e
s

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

o
f

p
r
e
r
a
c
e

o
r

p
r
e
g
a
m
e

r
o
u
t
i
n
e
s
(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
185
M
a
i
n
t
e
n
a
n
c
e
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n

a
n
d

S
u
b
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
U
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
g

t
h
e
m
e
s
A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
M
i
n
d
s
e
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

P
r
e
s
e
r
v
i
n
g

B
e
l
i
e
f

a
n
d

F
o
c
u
s

(
A
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
/
m
i
n
d
s
e
t

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
)

F
o
c
u
s

A
c
q
u
i
r
i
n
g

b
a
l
a
n
c
e

w
i
t
h

r
e
g
a
r
d

t
o

s
p
o
r
t

a
n
d

l
i
f
e

E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

a
n
d

e
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n

r
e
g
a
r
d
i
n
g

g
o
a
l
s

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

o
f

g
o
a
l

m
a
p
s

A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d

p
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

s
k
i
l
l

u
s
a
g
e

R
e
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

p
r
a
c
t
i
c
e

(
w
h
y

a
n
d

h
o
w

t
h
i
n
g
s

o
c
c
u
r
r
e
d
)

I
m
a
g
e
r
y

E
n
c
o
u
r
a
g
i
n
g

c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
v
e
n
e
s
s

a
n
d

p
r
i
d
e

i
n

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

S
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

o
f

p
r
e
r
a
c
e

o
r

p
r
e
g
a
m
e

r
o
u
t
i
n
e
s
T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

U
s
i
n
g

l
o
n
g
-
t
e
r
m

g
o
a
l
s

a
s

t
h
e

s
o
u
r
c
e

o
f

m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n

P
u
s
h
i
n
g

y
o
u
r
s
e
l
f

t
o

t
h
e

l
i
m
i
t

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
i
n
g

t
h
e

e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

B
e
l
i
e
f

R
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
n
g

p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

S
t
a
y
i
n
g

f
o
c
u
s
e
d

A
w
a
r
e
n
e
s
s

a
n
d

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

o
f

t
h
o
u
g
h
t
s

a
n
d

f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
P
o
s
t
-
C
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

f
a
i
l
u
r
e

H
a
n
d
l
i
n
g

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
T
a
b
l
e

3

(
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
186 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
Developing Mental Toughness. A combination of many factors (e.g., trial
and error, successes and failures, expert instruction, and social support) was
believed to develop mental toughness over a number of years. Development
began in the attitude/mindset dimension followed by the training, competition,
and postcompetition dimensions, respectively. Coaches and sport psychologists
suggested that the frst step was to develop the two subcomponents, belief and
focus in the attitude/mindset dimension. Creating challenges in training and
educating performers regarding how focus contributed to acquiring, the right
physical and mental shape to achieve specifc goals, and also achieving successes
in training were attributed to developing focus, commitment, and belief:
They would ideally come to me with the talent and some sort of belief and
focus. We would build on this in training . . . if you have a session, you have
to fnish the session. This makes them face challenges . . . they can see things
happening, and this builds the belief in the program, me (the coach), and
themselves. (Coach 2)
Effective communication, goal setting, and involving the performer in the planning
was reported to provide the commitment and motivation necessary to achieve spe-
cifc aims in training, and develop the subcomponent, using long-term goals as the
source of motivation (training dimension). One coach suggested that involving the
performer in the planning gave them, ownership in some form, helps them feel in
control and take charge of their sport. Education regarding how the achievement
of short-term goals equated to long-term goals (in training and competition) pro-
vided knowledge on how long each training phase would take, thereby increasing
motivation, focus, patience, and perception of control:
You need to help them realize what they can achieve with the training . . .
physique they have . . . communication . . . you need to sit down with them
and set goals . . . you cant progress to the next step unless you reach the goals
that are in front of you. We discuss how doing something in training relates
to reaching that aim. I bombard them with reminders of why they are here . .
. what they need to do . . . to motivate them. (Coach 1)
Developing a positive training atmosphere, challenging performers, the use of
positive imagery, encouraging competitiveness in training (e.g., head-to-head races
and partnering performers with other elite performers or possibly competitors),
fostering pride in achieving diffcult training sets, and emphasizing the acceptance
that training, has to hurt were reported to contribute to the development of the
subcomponents, controlling the environment and pushing yourself to the limit
(training dimension):
We try to develop pride in training hard . . . head-to-head races . . . push them-
selves hard . . . be involved and committed to the team . . . this pride develops
into a feeling of achievement every session and they learn to love the hard
bits. They imagine beating their competitors in training sets . . . It makes them
aware of what they need to do. (Coach 2)
The next step, according to the coaches and sport psychologists, was to use the
already acquired subcomponents within the attitude/mindset and training dimen-
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 187
sions to assist in the development and enhancement of four of the six competition
subcomponents. Specifcally, belief, focus, using long-term goals as a source
of motivation, controlling the environment, and pushing yourself to the limit
(attitude/mindset and training dimensions) were all perceived to transfer or adapt
to the subcomponents in the competition dimension, namely, belief, controlling
the environment, regulating performance, and handling pressure:
We break things down, certain things must be practiced in competitions and
this may mean sacrifcing an outcome to achieve a specifc aim . . . its like a
jigsaw . . . every piece must be in place and sometimes you have to be able to
see that sections must be practiced separately, and perfected separately, and
then put together. (Sport Psychologist 1)
Balance and education were reported as important factors in developing the ffth
subcomponent, staying focused (competition dimension). Balance was described
as, other interests and priorities in life hobbies or education and allowed
performers to switch off from sporting pressure. Education regarding how others
handled pressure situations, and simulating such experiences assisted in developing
the on/off focus switch, and the ability to enjoy and love the pressure:
Switching off is key, its easy to switch on but switching off is diffcult. If you
can not get away from your sport, you are too desperate to succeed . . . you
need balance . . . to step away from pressure . . . to switch off . . . it gives you
a break in order to recharge. Once they can switch off, they can switch on at
higher levels when it is required. (Sport Psychologist 2)
Development of the sixth subcomponent, awareness and control of thoughts
and feelings (competition dimension) and the two subcomponents, handling
success and handling failure (postcompetition dimension) were infuenced by
competitive experience and engaging in postrace or game analysis. Successful
achievements were formally analyzed, to understand why they occurred and
then recreated, via imagery. Associating positive emotions to experiences assisted
in creating routines and greater awareness of optimal precompetition thoughts
and feelings which enhanced the subcomponents, belief (attitude/mindset and
competition dimensions). Perceived failures or mistakes were examined and ratio-
nalized to improve future performances and training methods. This rationalization
resulted in greater awareness and control of preperformance thoughts and feelings,
increased motivation in training, and overall focus. Finally, specifc strategies were
then developed to counteract any potential distractions, disruptions, or problems:
Mistakes that caused problems . . . you video them if possible and calculate
how much time they lost . . . I talk about what they are thinking and why . . .
the frst step is to introduce awareness . . . what effect they have, how we can
change them . . . then we work out how we would cope with different scenarios
. . . what we would do to overcome it . . . We plan for it. This way they are ready
for anything and nothing will distract them. Then they are more relaxed and
this means enjoying the moment . . . loving the pressure. (Coach 1)
While coaches and sport psychologists did not profess to understand every
circumstance that performers encountered, they did acknowledge the notion of
188 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
critical incidents. Specifcally, they reported witnessing negative incidents but had
no knowledge of exactly how they affected mental toughness development. With
regard to positive critical incidents, coaches and sport psychologists reported trying
to initiate such incidents to enhance mental toughness:
Putting them (performers) in with other world class athletes . . . their com-
petitors . . . to realize they are as good or better in training, coping with life .
. . belief increases and this has a positive effect on motivation, commitment,
focus and overall mental toughness. (Coach 2)
Maintaining Mental Toughness. Participants suggested that the maintenance
of mental toughness occurred in the dimensional order of, attitude/mindset,
training, competition, and postcompetition. Coaches and sport psychologists
stated that when strategies to maintain the subcomponents, belief and focus
(attitude/mindset dimension) were perceived to be in place, separate strategies
could be introduced to maintain subcomponents in the training, competition,
and postcompetition dimensions. Mental skills that reenforced belief and focus,
and encouraged the correct sport/life balance were highlighted as important in
maintaining the attitude/mindset dimension. Other strategies involved extracting
maximum value from successes, thereby enhancing greater awareness of the
achievement of specifc goals, to increase focus and the durability of belief . . .
to make it unshakable belief, and simulation training to increase the performers
belief that they could overcome any obstacle.
Effective communication and education regarding goals (e.g., retaining an
Olympic title) and how they could be achieved, provided a justifcation for con-
tinuing in that sport, at that level. The development of process and performance
goal maps guided the performer through each step in achieving the long-term
outcome goal and enhanced the performers internal motivation to, stick with the
training and make achievement of his goal as the number one priority in his life.
This increased focus and commitment, specifcally in what they had to do day to
day, encouraged competitiveness, and instilled pride in completing diffcult sets.
Other strategies included: developing competition routines; refective practice;
recognition of key moments in the game, and how to react to these; and simula-
tion training, to incorporate all potential problems in games/races (e.g., mistakes,
opponents game plan):
In lesser competitions we use video analysis . . . we remember why we worked
so hard to get here and stay committed to that. Communication, trying to see
the bigger picture, and using imagery and simulation training . . . visualizing
potential obstacles and breaking them down into many smaller parts so that
they could be tackled one by one, instead of all together . . . Practice gives
the performer the knowledge to select the right options in pressure situations.
(Sport psychologist 1)
Recommendations
The fnal part of all interviews probed for recommendations to assist future athletes
in developing and maintaining mental toughness. This section is combined to include
fve suggestions that were offered by performers, coaches, and sport psychologists.
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 189
First, was the need to develop mental toughness education programs for coaches and
performers. In fact, Jones et al.s (2007) framework was proposed as being valuable
for understanding the make-up and development of mental toughness as, it helps
to explain mental toughness . . . it gives direction on what to focus on . . . to see
what they have to do in training . . . in competition, etc. Second, the provision of
expert coaching to performers within a disciplined and structured training regimen
was suggested to enhance the development of subcomponents within the attitude/
mindset and training dimensions. Third, building belief in performers through suc-
cesses in training and competitions, setting challenging goals, and enabling good
communication between the athlete and coach/sport psychologist:
Performers need to know that not only are they good enough to win but that
their training program, coaches, lifestyle, are right and facilitate the achieve-
ment of their goal. You build the belief in the system and that builds the belief
in the performers. (Sport psychologist 2)
Fourth, enable access to a wide ranging social support network that includes sporting
(e.g., coaches, senior athletes, sport psychologists, team-mates) and nonsporting
(e.g., friends, parents) individuals. This can assist in achieving the correct balance
between sporting and general life commitments. And fnally, with specifc relevance
to maintenance, participants recommended setting goals that the performer has not
already achieved (e.g., retaining an Olympic title), something that the performer
can focus on and want to achieve.
Discussion
This study addressed the underlying mechanisms accountable for mental toughness
development and maintenance. Findings are discussed in relation to the participants
experiences of development and maintenance, followed by practical implications,
and future directions.
Participants Experiences of Development and Maintenance
Development and maintenance of mental toughness evolved over four distinct
career phases, with signifcant events characterizing the transition between career
phases (e.g., changing clubs, working with a new coach, making the national team,
or winning a major event). Factors that were reported to develop mental toughness
during the initial involvement to intermediate level phase included being competi-
tive in training and engaging in activities for enjoyment, socialization, and skill
mastery (Connaughton et al., 2008; Gould et al., 2002). Performers derived a sense
of achievement from learning skills more quickly and to a higher level, than their
peers, thereby increasing focus and instilling a belief of sporting superiority. The
intermediate to elite level phase was characterized by discipline and structure in
training, learning from role models, and doing what was necessary to achieve suc-
cess in training. These fndings were consistent with studies that have attributed
role models and disciplined involvement to the development of talented individuals
and Olympic Champions (Bloom, 1985; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et
al., 2002). During the elite to Olympic/World Champion status phase, development
190 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
was infuenced by experience of international competition, an intense desire to win
and upstage world class performers, a wide ranging social support network, the
use of mental skills, attaining the correct balance in life, gaining knowledge from
respected individuals (e.g., coaches, competitors, sport psychologists), and refec-
tive practice (cf. Connaughton et al., 2008). In addition, competitive experience
allowed performers to become more familiar with and cope more positively in future
competitions, and being involved in a process of refection enabled familiarization
of competition-specifc symptoms. These experiences empowered individuals to
become self-aware, implement change, and cope more positively (e.g., Ghaye &
Ghaye, 1998; Hanton et al., 2007).
Supporting Connaughton et al.s (2008) fndings, the experience of critical
incidents were found to have a powerful infuence on mental toughness develop-
ment. Perceived critical incidents (positive and negative) acted as catalysts in cul-
tivating mental toughness throughout all three development phases. For example,
the recognition of talent by respected individuals was perceived as a positive
critical incident, which provided the encouragement and inspiration that goals and
potential were achievable, thereby enhancing belief and motivation. Interestingly,
self-confdence and motivation have been frequently attributed to development
of expertise in sport (e.g., Gould et al., 2002). Negative critical incidents, such as
parental divorce or being involved in a car accident, resulted in a reappraisal of
priorities. These incidents infuenced mental toughness in one of two ways: (a)
sport was viewed as an escape from such negative experiences and resulted in
increased focus and prioritization of training and competition goals, or (b) they
were perceived to increase control and focus on long-term goals, by enabling the
performer to develop the necessary perspective with life and sport (Botterill, Patrick,
& Sawatzky, 1996; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Orlick, 2000).
Knowledge of how to handle such negative life experiences, and what strategies
and environments are necessary to assist mental toughness development would be
of great beneft to sport psychologists and coaches. Previous research has indicated
the importance of exploring critical incidents or periodic incidents in relation to
experience (Ct et al., 2003; Hanton, Cropley, & Lee, 2009; Hanton et al., 2007),
and mental toughness (Connaughton et al., 2008). While not directly investigating
perceived critical incidents, Gould et al. (2002) found that direct (emphasizing cer-
tain psychological lessons) and indirect (unknowingly creating certain psychological
environments) affects were involved in developing Olympic Champions. It could
be argued that perceived critical incidents and what performers learn from these
incidents may assist in creating the necessary psychological environments for mental
toughness development to occur, and this process warrants future investigation.
Findings also support the contention that, once acquired, mental toughness can
fuctuate and must be maintained (cf. Connaughton et al., 2008). Maintenance was
infuenced by strong sporting (e.g., coaches, team mates, sport psychologists) and
nonsporting (e.g., friends, parents) support networks, and preserving the correct bal-
ance with life and sport (Connaughton et al., 2008). In addition, the act of winning
an Olympic or World title was found to protect high levels of mental toughness
for up to two years. Following achievement of specifc goals (i.e., Olympic title),
new, challenging goals need to be set to sustain the strong desire to succeed and
the focus necessary to maintain mental toughness. Finally, reductions in mental
toughness began by negatively affecting the subcomponents belief and focus
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 191
(attitude/mindset dimension), and were attributed to a lack of new challenges,
injuries, and prioritization of relationships, family, or career over sport.
Practical Implications and Future Directions
The underlying themes of mental toughness development that were identifed in
this study provide an overview of how mental toughness training programs can be
devised. These programs should initially concentrate on skill mastery, enjoyment,
competitiveness, a disciplined and structured training regimen, and fnally, building
a belief of superiority (Feltz, Short, & Sullivan, 2008). Motivating performers to
achieve success in training and competitions can be achieved by providing expert
coaching and learning from inspirational role models. The subcomponents, belief
and focus (attitude/mindset dimension) were viewed as the foundation for mental
toughness development and maintenance, and were infuenced by performance
accomplishments, awareness in training, and an ability to control focus (see Feltz
et al., 2008). Furthermore, skill mastery, a desire to be the best, expert coaching,
and successes in training and competitions, were highlighted as key factors in the
development and maintenance of mental toughness. Csikszentmihalyi et al. (1993)
highlighted discipline as essential in acquiring the skills necessary for superior
performance, while Orlick and Partington (1988) suggested focus, commitment
to the pursuit of excellence, and setting practice goals, as variables that successful
athletes possess. Performers therefore, should be encouraged to engage in sport-
ing activities as a means of skill accomplishment, socialization, and to develop a
disciplined work ethic. In young performers, parents and coaches could assist in
creating the correct motivational environment for the attitude/mindset and training
subcomponents to develop. Indeed, Gould et al. (2002) found that coaches and
parents were the primary infuence in instilling hard work and discipline, provid-
ing encouragement and support, and teaching mental skills. Because parents and
coaches play such a crucial role, more research should focus on uncovering exactly
what it is they do to support, motivate, and guide athletes.
Coaches, sport psychologists, and older, more experienced performers facili-
tated the development of the competition dimension through advice and education
regarding strategies to achieve success, to recognize and exert control over inappro-
priate thoughts and feelings, and how to handle the pressure of competition. These
strategies highlight the importance of learning basic and advanced psychological
skills to enhance the development and maintenance of mental toughness (Con-
naughton et al., 2008). While recent investigations have suggested goal setting and
the use of imagery to enhance attentional focus, concentration, self-confdence,
and motivation (e.g., Short, Ross-Stewart, & Monsma, 2006; Wadey & Hanton,
2008), future research should address the impact of specifc mental skills on mental
toughness development and maintenance.
Finally, experience of international competition, refective practice, and a
sporting and nonsporting social support network, may afford performers the means
to extract the knowledge necessary to develop and maintain mental toughness to its
highest levels. Postcompetition analysis and refection was reported as important in
achieving peak levels of mental toughness, and coaches and performers may wish
to formally include it in their training programs. Furthermore, investigations should
include assessing the role and contribution of education, and how key individuals (e.g.,
192 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones
parents, coaches, sporting and nonsporting friends) provide support and foster the
correct life/sport balance in the development and maintenance of mental toughness.
The fact that none of the coaches or sport psychologists had worked with super-
elite performers during the frst two career phases is recognized as a limitation in
this study. However, in the world of elite sport it is not unusual for coaches and sport
psychologists to begin their relationships in the latter parts of performers careers
(i.e., when performers are at their best). Despite the challenges of fnding such indi-
viduals to sample, researchers in the future should endeavor to seek out coaches and
sport psychologists who have worked with mentally tough performers throughout
all four career phases. Nevertheless, the coaches and sport psychologists explana-
tions supported the experiences reported by performers. Indeed, both groups revealed
that development took place over a long time period, was infuenced by a variety of
individuals (parents, coaches, family, friends: Bull et al., 2005), factors (environment,
critical incidents: Bull et al., 2005; Connaughton et al., 2008; Thelwell et al., 2005),
and occurred in a specifc dimensional order (cf. Whitehead, 1929).
Finally, the authors only investigated the development and maintenance of
mental toughness in relation to Jones et al.s (2007) four dimensions and 13 sub-
components, and while recognizing this as a limitation, the authors believe that
the articulation of the underlying mechanisms for all 30 attributes was beyond the
practicalities of this study. Findings also highlight the overriding need to develop
a mental toughness measure, and while recent advancements have been made with
regard to a measure in Australian football (i.e., Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock,
2009), a conceptually accurate and psychometrically valid and reliable measure
of mental toughness is required to address: the identifcation of performers who
possess high or low levels of specifc attributes, subcomponents, or dimensions;
cross-sectional group comparisons, and the design, implementation, and assessment
of specifc intervention programs.
References
Bloom, B. (1985). Developing talent in young people. New York: Ballantine.
Botterill, C., Patrick, T., & Sawatzky, M. (1996). Human potential: Perspective, passion,
preparation. Winnipeg, Manitoba: Lifeskills.
Bull, S.J., Shambrook, C.J., James, W., & Brooks, J.E. (2005). Towards an understanding
of mental toughness in elite English cricketers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
17, 209227.
Connaughton, D., & Hanton, S. (2009). Mental toughness in sport: Conceptual and practical
issues. In S.D. Mellalieu & S. Hanton (Eds.), Advances in applied sport psychology:
A review (pp. 317346). London: Routledge.
Connaughton, D., Hanton, S., Jones, G., & Wadey, R. (2008). Mental toughness research:
Key issues in this area. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 39, 192204.
Connaughton, D., Wadey, R., Hanton, S., & Jones, G. (2008). The development and
maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 26, 8395.
Ct, J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). From play to practice: A developmental framework
for the acquisition of expertise in team sports. In J.L. Starkes & K.A. Ericsson (Eds.),
Expert performance in sports: Advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 89115).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., Whalen, S., & Wong, M. (1993). Talented teenagers:
The roots of success and failure. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 193
Durand-Bush, N., & Salmela, J. (2002). The development and maintenance of expert athletic
performance: Perceptions of world and Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 14, 154171.
Feltz, D.L., Short, S., & Sullivan, P. (2008). Self-effcacy in sport: Research and strategies
for working with athletes, teams, and coaches. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Ghaye, A., & Ghaye, K. (1998). Teaching and learning through critical refective practice.
London: David Fulton Publishers.
Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their
development in Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172204.
Gould, D., Hodge, K., Peterson, K., & Petlichkoff, L. (1987). Psychological foundations of
coaching: Similarities and differences among intercollegiate wrestling coaches. The
Sport Psychologist, 1, 293308.
Gucciardi, D.F., & Gordon, S. (2008). Personal construct psychology and the research
interview: The example of mental toughness in sport. Personal Construct Theory &
Practice, 5, 118129
Gucciardi, D.F., Gordon, D.F., & Dimmock, J.A. (2008). Towards an understanding of mental
toughness in Australian Football. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20, 261281.
Gucciardi, D.F., Gordon, S., & Dimmock, J.A. (2009a). Advancing mental toughness
research and theory using personal construct psychology. International Review of Sport
& Exercise Psychology, 2, 5472.
Gucciardi, D.F., Gordon, D.F., & Dimmock, J.A. (2009b). Development and preliminary
validation of a mental toughness inventory for Australian football. Psychology of Sport
and Exercise, 20, 261281.
Hanton, S., & Jones, G. (1999). The acquisition and development of cognitive skills and
strategies I. Making the butterfies fy in formation. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 121.
Hanton, S., Cropley, B., & Lee, S. (2009). Refective practice, experience, and the interpreta-
tion of anxiety symptoms. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 517533.
Hanton, S., Cropley, B., Miles, A., Mellalieu, S.D., & Neil, R. (2007). Experience in sport
and its relationship with competitive anxiety. International Journal of Sport and Exer-
cise Psychology, 5, 2853.
Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this thing called Mental Tough-
ness? An investigation with elite performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
14, 211224.
Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2007). A framework of mental toughness in the
worlds best performers. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 243264.
Kelly, G. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton.
Loehr, J.E. (1986). Mental toughness training for sports: Achieving athletic excellence.
Lexington, MS: Stephen Greene Press.
Orlick, T. (2000). In pursuit of excellence: How to win in sport and life through mental
training (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1988). Mental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2,
105130.
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Short, S., Ross-Stewart, L., & Monsma, E. (2006). Onwards with the evolution of imagery
research in sport psychology. Athletic Insight, XXX, 8.
Sparkes, A. (1998). Validity in qualitative inquiry and the problem criteria: Implications for
sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 12, 363386.
Thelwell, R., Weston, N., & Greenlees, I. (2005). Defning and understanding mental tough-
ness within soccer. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 326332.
Wadey, R., & Hanton, S. (2008). Basic psychological skills usage and competitive anxiety
responses: Perceived underlying mechanisms. Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Sport, 79, 363373.
Whitehead, A.N. (1929). The aims of education. New York: Free Press.