SUBCOURSE EDITION

EN 5466 A
US ARMY ENGINEER CENTER AND SCHOOL
CONCRETE ENGINEERING
CONCRETE ENGINEERING
Subcourse Number EN 5466
EDITION A
United States Army Engineer School
Fort Leonard Wood, M 654!"
# $redit %ours
Edition &ate' Se(tember )##*
SUBCOURSE OVERVIEW
+his subcourse is designed to teach you ho, to identi-y, (lan, and su(er.ise in general and s(eci-ic terms -or the
-ollo,ing items' characteristic and (ro(erties o- the com(onents o- concrete/ ,ays to design concrete mi0es/
determination o- 1uantities o- concrete needed -or s(eci-ic construction (ro2ects/ -orm,or3 design/ mi0ing,
(lacing and curing o- concrete/ and (hysical (lants em(loyed in the (roduction o- concrete4
+here are no (rere1uisites -or this subcourse4
+his subcourse re-lects current doctrine ,hen this subcourse ,as (re(ared4 5n your o,n ,or3, al,ays re-er to the
latest (ublications4
Unless other,ise stated, the masculine gender o- singular (ronouns is used to re-er to both men and ,omen4
+E6M5NAL LEA6N5N7 89E$+5:E
A$+5N' ;ou ,ill identi-y concrete and concrete com(onents/ identi-y, (lan, and use methods -or (ro(ortioning
concrete mi0tures/ identi-y and (lan the design o- -orms and their construction4 ;ou ,ill also identi-y and (lan
construction (rocedures -or concreting o(erations4
$N&5+5N' 7i.en this subcourse, a number <No= * (encil, (a(er, and an Army $orres(ondence $ourse
>rogram <A$$>= e0amination res(onse sheet4 A calculator is recommended4
S+AN&A6&' +o demonstrate com(etency o- this tas3, you must achie.e a minimum o- !? (ercent on this
subcourse e0amination4
i EN5466
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Subcourse .er.ie,4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 i
Lesson )' $oncrete $om(onents444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@)
.er.ie,444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444)@)
5ntroduction44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444)@)
>art A @ &esirable $oncrete >ro(erties44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444)@)
8asic $onsideration444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@)
$oncrete >ro(erties4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@"
>art 8 @ &esirable $oncrete $om(onent44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@4
>ortland $ements4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@4
Water44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@6
Aggregates444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444)@6
Admi0tures44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@)5
>art $ @ Slum( +est44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444)@*?
Method and E1ui(ment4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@*?
+esting and >rocedures4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@*)
>ractice E0ercise444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444)@*"
Ans,er Aey and Feedbac344444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 )@*4
Lesson *' >ro(ortioning $oncrete Mi0tures4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@)
.er.ie,444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@)
5ntroduction44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@)
>art A @ Method o- $onsiderations44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@*
Selecting Mi0 >ro(ortions444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@*
Factors444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@*
>art 8 @ +rial 8atch Method444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@6
&etermining WaterB$ement 6atio444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@6
Using +rial 8atch Method <E0am(le=444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@6
EN5466 ii
>art $ @ Absolute :olume Method44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@)"
8asic 7uidelines444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@)"
Using Absolute :olume Method4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@)6
:ariation in Mi0tures4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@)C
>art & @Ad2ustments to the riginal &esign444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@)#
Ad2ustments -or Moisture on Aggregate44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@)#
Field +est -or Moisture &etermination on Sand44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@)#
Lesson * >ractical >roblem4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@*5
Ans,ers to >ractical >roblem4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@*#
>ractice E0ercise444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444*@""
Ans,er Aey and Feedbac344444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 *@"4
Lesson "' Form &esign and $onstruction44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444"@)
.er.ie,444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444"@)
5ntroduction44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444"@)
>art A @ Form &esign44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444"@)
>rinci(les44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444"@)
Forming4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 "@*
>art 8 @ Using Form &esign >rinci(les4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 "@4
8asis o- Form &esign4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444"@4
>anel Wall Form &esign44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 "@4
8racing -or Wall Forms444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 "@)5
.erhead Slab Form &esign44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 "@)#
Lesson " >ractical >roblems444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 "@*6
>ractice E0ercise444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444"@""
Ans,er Aey and Feedbac344444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 "@"6
Lesson 4' $onstruction >rocedures4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@)
.er.ie,4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@)
5ntroduction444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@)
>art A @ 6econnaissance, Site >re(aration, and E0ca.ation >rocedures44444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@)
6econnaissance4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@)
Site >re(aration4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@*
Stoc3(iling $onstruction Materials44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@*
iii EN5466
>art 8 @ >lan Form,or3 Used in $onstruction >ro2ects444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@"
Management As(ects4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@"
E1ui(ment444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@"
+echni1ues44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@"
+ime Element4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@4
>art $ @ Mi0ing, %andling +rans(ortation, >lacement, Finishing, and $uring o- $oncrete44444444444 4@4
Mi0ing444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@4
Mi0ing Methods444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@!
Mi0er +y(es444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@!
%andling and +rans(ortation444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@)?
>lacement4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@)*
>reliminary >re(aration444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@)*
>lacing $oncrete44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@)"
$onsolidating $oncrete4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@)5
Finishing4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@)!
Finishing (erations44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@)!
$uring44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@*?
$uring Factors444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@*)
>art & @ +em(erature E--ects on $oncrete44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@**
%ot@Weather $oncreting44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@**
E--ects on %igh $oncrete +em(eratures44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@*"
$old@Weather $oncreting444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@*6
$old@Weather +echni1ues4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@*C
Form 6emo.al and Stri((ing4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@")
>ractice E0ercise4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444@""
Ans,er Aey and Feedbac344444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4@"6
E0amination44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 E@)
A((endi0 A @ List o- $ommon Acronyms444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 A@)
A((endi0 8 @ List o- Symbols4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 8@)
A((endi0 $ @ >ublication E0tracts444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444 $@)
FM 5@!4* $oncrete and Masonry, )4 March )#C54
Use the abo.e (ublication e0tracts to ta3e this subcourse4 At the time ,e ,rote this subcourse,
these ,ere the current (ublications4 5n your o,n ,or3 situation, al,ays re-er to the latest
(ublications4
EN5466 iv
LESSON
CONCRETE CO!PONENTS
OVERVIEW
LESSN &ES$65>+5N'
5n this lesson you ,ill learn to identi-y desirable concrete (ro(erties and com(onents and the use o- -actors
in.ol.ed in (roducing concrete and the methods em(loyed4
+E6M5NAL LEA6N5N7 89E$+5:E'
A$+5N' 5denti-y desirable concrete (ro(erties and com(onents4 %a.e the ability to use the -actors in.ol.ed in
(roducing a desirable concrete mi0 and the methods em(loyed to o.ercome limitations in.ol.ed in concrete
(roduction4
$N&5+5N' ;ou are gi.en the materials contained in this lesson4
S+AN&A6&' $orrectly ans,er all (ractice e0ercise 1uestions at the end o- each lesson4
6EFE6EN$E' +he material contained in this lesson ,as deri.ed -rom the -ollo,ing (ublication' FM 5@!4*, ,ith
change )4
INTRODUCTION
$oncrete is one o- the most .ersatile, economical, and uni.ersally used construction material4 5t is among the -e,
building materials (roduced directly on the 2ob by the user4 +o 3no, (ro(er mi0, it is im(ortant -or the user to
identi-y desirable (ro(erties and com(onents and to be able to use -actors in.ol.ed in (roducing concrete and the
methods em(loyed in concrete (roduction4 +his lesson ,ill hel( su(er.isors gain 3no,ledge o- the (roduction
and use o- concrete materials4
PART A " DESIRABLE CONCRETE PROPERTIES
BASIC CONSIDERATION
Conc#ete Co$%o&ition
$oncrete is a mi0ture o- aggregate and o-ten controlled amounts o- entrained air held together by a hardened (aste
made -rom cement and ,ater4 Although there are other 3inds o- cement, the ,ord cement, in common usage,
re-ers to (ortland cement4 A chemical reaction bet,een the (ortland cement and ,ater, not drying o- the mi0ture,
causes concrete to harden to a stoneli3e condition4 +his reaction is called hydration4 %ydration gi.es o-- heat,
3no,n as the heat of hydration4 8ecause hydration, not air drying, hardens concrete, -reshly (laced concrete
submerged under,ater ,ill harden4 When correctly (ro(ortioned, concrete is at -irst a (lastic mass that can be
cast or molded into nearly any siDe or sha(e4 U(on hydration o- the cement by the ,ater, concrete becomes
stoneli3e in strength, durability, and hardness4
" EN5466
Po#t'an( Ce$ent) +his is the most commonly used o- modern hydraulic cements4 5n this case, the ,ord
hydraulic means that the cementEs characteristic o- holding aggregate together is caused by ,ater or other lo,@
.iscosity -luids4 >ortland cement is a care-ully (ro(ortioned and s(ecially (rocessed chemical combination o-
lime, silica, iron o0ide, and alumina4
!i*ing Wate#) Unless tests or e0(erience indicates that a (articular ,ater source is satis-actory, mi0ing ,ater
should be -ree -rom acids, al3alies, oils, and organic (urities4 +he basic ratio o- ,ater to cement determines the
strength o- concrete4 +he less ,ater in the mi0, as long as it is ,or3able and not too sti--, the stronger, more
durable, and ,atertight the concrete4 +oo much ,ater dilutes cement (aste <binder=, resulting in ,ea3 and (orous
concrete4 $oncrete 1uality .aries ,idely, de(ending on the characteristics o- its ingredients and the (ro(ortion o-
the mi04
Agg#egate&) 5nert -iller material <usually sand and stone or gra.el= ma3e u( bet,een 6? to C? (ercent o- the
.olume o- normal concrete4 Aggregate is o-ten ,ashed ,hen im(urities or e0cess -ines that can retard cement
hydration or other,ise deteriorate concrete 1uality are -ound4 All aggregate is screened to ensure (ro(er siDe
gradation because concrete di--ers -rom other cement@,ater@aggregate mi0tures in the siDe o- its aggregate4 For
e0am(le, ,hen cement is mi0ed ,ith ,ater and an aggregate (assing the No 4 sie.e, it is called mortar, stucco, or
cement plaster4 When cement is mi0ed ,ith coarse aggregate o- more than )B4@inch, (lus -ine aggregate and
,ater, the (roduct is concrete4 +he (hysical and chemical (ro(erties o- the aggregate also a--ect concrete
(ro(erties4 Aggregate siDe, sha(e, and grade in-luence the amount o- ,ater re1uired4 Aggregate sur-ace te0ture
in-luences the bond bet,een the aggregate and the cement (aste4 5n (ro(erly mi0ed concrete, the (aste
com(letely surrounds each aggregate (article and -ills all s(aces bet,een the (articles4 +he elastic (ro(erties o-
the aggregate in-luence the elastic (ro(erties o- the concrete and the (astes resistance to shrin3age4 6eactions
bet,een the cement (aste and the aggregate can either im(ro.e or harm the bond bet,een the t,o and,
conse1uently, the concrete 1uality4
Ai#) All concrete contains some air4 5- air is chemically induced into the mi0, it is called entrained air4
Entrained air adds bene-icial 1ualities to the concrete such as increased -reeDe@tha, ca(abilities, durability, and
,atertightness4 Entrained air can range -rom )45 to !45 (ercent4 Air that is added to the mi0 as a result o- the
mi0ing (rocess is called entrapped air4 Entra((ed air adds nothing to the mi0/ ho,e.er, this air can range -rom
?45 to " (ercent4
A($i*t+#e&) When mi0ing concrete, these substances are added to accelerate or retard the initial set, im(ro.e
,or3ability, reduce mi0ing ,ater re1uirements, increase strength, or other,ise alter concrete (ro(erties4 +hey
usually cause a chemical reaction ,ithin the concrete4 Admi0tures are normally classi-ied into accelerators,
retarders, air@entraining agents, ,ater reducers, and (oDDolans4 Many admi0tures -all into more than one
classi-ication4
Conc#ete a& a B+i'(ing !ate#ia'
$oncrete has a great .ariety o- a((lications because it not only meets structural demands but also lends itsel-
readily to architectural treatment4 5n buildings, concrete is used -or -ootings, -oundations, columns, beams,
girders, ,all slabs, and roo- units@@in short, all im(ortant building elements4 ther im(ortant concrete
a((lications are in road (a.ements, air(ort run,ays, bridges, dams, irrigation canals, ,ater@di.ersion structures,
se,age@treatment (lants, and ,ater@distribution (i(elines4 A great deal o- concrete is used in manu-acturing
masonry units, such as concrete bloc3s and concrete bric3s4
EN5466 ",
A(vantage&) $oncrete and cement are among the most im(ortant construction materials4 $oncrete is -ire(roo-,
,atertight, com(arati.ely economical, and easy to ma3e4 5t o--ers sur-ace continuity <absence o- 2oints= and
solidity and bond ,ith other materials4
Li$itation&) $ertain limitations o- concrete cause crac3ing and other structural ,ea3nesses that detract -rom the
a((earance, ser.iceability, and use-ul li-e o- concrete structures4 Listed belo, are some (rinci(al limitations and
disad.antages o- concrete'
Low tensile strength. $oncrete members sub2ect to tensile stress must be rein-orced ,ith steel <rebar= to
(re.ent e0cess crac3ing and -ailure4
Thermal movements. &uring setting and hardening, the heat o- hydration raises the concrete tem(erature,
and then gradually cools4 +hese tem(erature changes can cause se.ere thermal strains and early crac3ing4
5n addition, hardened concrete e0(ands and contracts ,ith changes in tem(erature <at roughly the same
rate as steel=/ there-ore, e0(ansion and contraction 2oints must be (ro.ided in many ty(es o- concrete
structures to (re.ent -ailures4
Drying shrinkage and moisture movements. $oncrete shrin3s as it dries out and, e.en ,hen hardened,
e0(ands and contracts ,ith ,etting and drying4 +hese mo.ements re1uire that control 2oints be (ro.ided
at inter.als to a.oid unsightly crac3s4 +o (re.ent drying shrin3age in ne,ly (laced concrete, its sur-ace is
3e(t moist continuously during the curing (rocess4 Moisture is a((lied as soon as the concrete is hard
enough to (re.ent damage to the concreteEs sur-ace4
Creep. $oncrete de-orms cree(s gradually under load, and this de-ormation does reco.er com(letely
,hen the load is remo.ed4
Permeability. E.en the best 1uality concrete is not entirely im(er.ious to moisture4 5t contains soluble
com(ounds that are leached out in .arying amounts by ,ater4 Unless (ro(erly constructed, 2oints allo,
,ater to enter the mass4 >ermeability is (articularly im(ortant in rein-orced concrete because the
concrete must (re.ent ,ater -rom reaching the steel rein-orcement4
De&c#i-ing an( !ea&+#ing Ing#e(ient&) +he unit o- measure -or cement is the cubic -oot <c-=4 +hus, a standard
sac3 o- (ortland cement ,eighs #4 (ounds and e1uals one loose cubic -oot4 Fine and coarse aggregate is
measured by loose .olume, ,hereas ,ater is measured by the gallon4 $oncrete is usually re-erred to by cubic
yards <cy=4
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
P'a&tic Conc#ete
>lastic concrete in a relati.ely -luid state can be readily molded by hand li3e a clum( o- modeling clay4 A (lastic
mi0 3ee(s all grains o- sand and (ieces o- gra.el or stones encased and held in (lace <homogeneous=4 +he degree
o- (lasicity in-luences the 1uality and character o- the -inished (roduct Signi-icant changes in the mi0 (ro(ortions
a--ect (lasticity4 &esirable (ro(erties o- (lastic concrete are listed belo,4
Wo#.a-i'it/) +his (ro(erty describes the relati.e ease or di--iculty o- (lacing and consolidating
concrete in the -orm4 Wor3ability is largely determined by the (ro(ortions o- -ine and coarse
aggregate added to a gi.en 1uantity o- (aste4 ne characteristic o- ,or3ability is consistency,
,hich is measured by the slum( test <see >art $ on (age )@*?=4 A s(eci-ic amount o- slum( is
necessary to obtain the ,or3ability re1uired by the intended conditions and method o-
"0 EN5466
(lacement4 A .ery sti-- mi0 has a lo, slum( and, although di--icult to (lace in hea.ily rein-orced sections, is
desirable -or many uses4 A more -luid mi0 is necessary ,hen (lacing concrete around rein-orcing steel4
Non&eg#egation) >lastic concrete must be homogeneous and care-ully handled to 3ee( segregation to a
minimum4 For e0am(le, (lastic concrete should not dro( <-ree@-all= more than " to 5 -eet nor be trans(orted o.er
long distances ,ithout (ro(er agitation4
Uni1o#$it/) +he uni-ormity o- (lastic concrete a--ects both its economy and strength4 Uni-ormity is determined
by ho, accurately the ingredients are (ro(ortioned and mi0ed according to s(eci-ications4 Each se(arate batch o-
concrete must be (ro(ortioned and mi0ed e0actly the same to ensure that the total structural mass has uni-orm
structural (ro(erties4
2a#(ene( Conc#ete
+his is the end (roduct o- any concrete design4 +he essential (ro(erties it must ha.e are strength, durability, and
,atertightness4
St#engt3) +he ability o- concrete to resist a load in com(ression, -le0ure, or shear is a measure o- its strength4
$oncrete strength is largely determined by the ratio o- ,ater to cement in the mi0ture <(ounds o- ,ater and
(ounds o- cement=4 A sac3 o- cement re1uires about * )B* gallons o- ,ater -or hydration4 More ,ater is added to
allo, -or ,or3ability, but too much ,ater <a high ,ater and cement <,Bc= ratio= reduces concrete strength4 +he
amount o- ,ater in economical concrete mi0es ranges -rom 4 gallons minimum to ! gallons ma0imum (er sac34
D+#a-i'it/) $limate and ,eather e0(osure a--ect durability4 $oncreteEs ability to resist the e--ects o- ,ind, -rost,
sno,, ice, abrasion, and the chemical reaction o- soils or salts is a measure o- its durability4 As the ,Bc ratio
increases, durability decreases corres(ondingly4 &urability should be a strong consideration -or concrete
structures e0(ected to last longer than -i.e years4 Air@entrained concrete has im(ro.ed -reeDe@tha, durability4
Wate#tig3tne&&) +ests sho, that the ,atertightness o- a cement (aste de(ends on the ,Bc ratio and the e0tent o-
the chemical reaction (rogress bet,een the cement and ,ater4 $or(s o- Engineers s(eci-ications -or
,atertightness limit the ma0imum amount o- ,ater in concrete mi0tures to 545 gallons (er sac3 o- cement <,Bc F
?44C= -or concrete e0(osed to -resh ,ater and 54? gallons (er sac3 <,Bc F ?444= -or concrete e0(osed to salt ,ater4
+he ,atertightness o- air@entrained concrete is su(erior to that o- non@air@entrained concrete4 <See Lesson *,
+able *@) on (age *@"4=
PART B " DESIRABLE CONCRETE CO!PONENTS
PORTLAND CE!ENTS
Co$%o&ition
>ortland cements contain lime and day minerals <such as limestone, oyster shells, co1uina shells, marl, clay, and
shale=, silica, sand, iron ore, and aluminum4
!an+1act+#e
+he ra, materials are -inely ground care-ully (ro(ortioned, and then heated <calcined= to the -usion
tem(erature <*,6?? to ",??? Fahrenheit <F== to -orm hard (ellets called clin3ers4 +he clin3ers are
ground to a -ine (o,der4 +he cement (o,der is so -ine that nearly all o- it ,ill (ass
EN5466 "4
through a No *?? sie.e <*?? meshes to the linear inch, or 4?,??? o(enings (er s1uare inch=4 6egardless o- the
manu-acturer, (ortland cement is the standard -or the trade4
A$e#ican Societ/ 1o# Te&ting an( !ate#ia'& 4AST!5 T/%e&
AS+M s(eci-ications co.er -i.e ty(es o- (ortland cements in AS+M $55?, GStandard S(eci-ications -or >ortland
$ement4H
Type I. +his is a general@(ur(ose cement o- concrete that does not re1uire any s(ecial (ro(erties o- the
other ty(es4 5n general, it is intended -or concrete that is not sub2ected to sul-ate attac3 or ,hen the heat
o- hydration ,ill not cause too much o- a tem(erature rise4 +y(e 5 (ortland cement is used in (a.ement
and side,al3 construction, rein-orced@concrete buildings and bridges, rail,ays, tan3s, reser.oirs, se,ers,
cul.erts, ,ater (i(es, masonry units, and soil and cement mi0tures4 5t is more a.ailable than the other
ty(es4 +y(e 5 cement ,ill reach its design strength in *C days4
Type II. +his is modi-ied to resist a moderate sul-ate attac34 5t usually generates less heat o- hydration
and at a slo,er rate than +y(e 54 +y(ical a((lications are drainage structures, ,here the sul-ate
concentrations in either the soil or ground,ater are higher than normal but are not se.ere, and large
structures in ,hich its moderate heat o- hydration (roduces only a slight tem(erature rise in the concrete4
%o,e.er, tem(erature rise can be a (roblem ,hen concrete is (laced in ,arm ,eather4 +y(e 5 cement
,ill reach its design strength in 45 days4
Type III. +his is a high, early strength cement that (roduces strengths at an early age, usually se.en days
or less4 5t has a higher heat o- hydration and is more -inely ground than +y(e 54 +y(e 555 (ermits -ast
-orm remo.al and, in cold ,eather construction, reduces the (eriod o- (rotection against lo,
tem(eratures4 Although richer mi0tures o- +y(e 5 can obtain high early strength, +y(e 555 (roduces it
more satis-actorily and more economically4 Use it cautiously in concrete structures ha.ing a minimum
dimension o- * )B* -eet or more because the high heat o- hydration can cause shrin3age crac3ing4
Type IV. +his cement is a .ery s(ecial cement4 5t has a lo, heat o- hydration intended -or a((lications
re1uiring a minimal rate and amount o- heat o- hydration4 5ts strength also de.elo(s at a slo,er rate than
the other ty(es4 +y(e 5: is used (rimarily in large concrete structures, such as gra.ity dams, ,here the
tem(erature rise -rom the heat o- hydration could damage the structure4 +y(e 5: cement ,ill reach its
design strength in #? days4
Type V. +his concrete is sul-ate@resistant and is used mainly ,here the concrete is sub2ect to se.ere
sul-ate action, such as ,hen the soil or ground,ater contacting the concrete has a high sul-ate content4
+y(e : cement ,ill reach its design strength in 6? days4
Ot3e# AST! Ce$ent&
Se(arate AS+M s(eci-ications co.er the -ollo,ing ty(es o- (ortland cements'
ir!entrained portland cement. +y(es 5A, 55A, and 555A corres(ond in com(osition to +y(es 5, 55, and 555,
,ith the addition o- small 1uantities o- air@entrained materials interground ,ith the clin3er during
manu-acturing4 Air@entrained (ortland cements (roduce concrete that ha.e im(ro.ed resistance to -reeDe@
tha, action and to scaling caused by sno, and ice remo.al chemicals4 Such concrete contains e0tremely
small <as many as "?? billion (er cubic yard=, ,ell@distributed, and com(letely se(arate air bubbles4
"5 EN 6466
"asonry cements. Sometimes called mortar cements, these are, ty(ically, mi0tures o- (ortland cement
and hydrated lime and other materials that im(ro.e ,or3ability, (lasticity, and ,ater retention4
Pac.aging an( S3i%%ing
$ement is shi((ed by railroad, truc3, or barge either in standard sac3s ,eighing #4 (ounds or in bul34 $ement
1uantities -or large (ro2ects maybe stated in tons4
Sto#age
>ortland cement that is 3e(t dry retains its 1uality inde-initely4 Store sac3ed cement in a ,arehouse or shed that is
as airtight as (ossible4 5- no shed is a.ailable, (lace the sac3s on raised ,ooden (lat-orms4 >lace the sac3s close
together <to reduce air circulation= and a,ay -rom e0terior ,alls4 $o.er sac3s to be stored outside -or long
(eriods ,ith tar(aulins or other ,ater(roo- co.erings so that rain cannot reach either the cement or the (lat-orms4
6ain@soa3ed (lat-orms can damage the bottom layers o- sac3s4
$ement should be -ree@-lo,ing and -ree -rom lum(s at the time o- use4 Sometimes sac3ed cement that is stored
de.elo(s ,hat is called ,arehouse (ac34 +his is a slightly hardened condition caused by (ac3ing sac3s too tightly
or too high4 Such cement still retains its 1uality and is usually restored to -ree@-lo,ing by rolling the sac3s on the
-loor4 %o,e.er, i- the cement contains lum(s that are di--icult to brea3 u(, test the cement to determine its
1uality4 %ard lum(s indicate (artial hydration that reduces both the strength and durability o- the -inished
concrete4 >artially hydrated cement must not be used in structures ,here strength is a critical -actor4 Store bul3
cement in ,eather(roo- bins4
WATER
P+#%o&e
Water has t,o -unctions in the concrete mi0, to e--ect hydration and to im(ro.e ,or3ability4
I$%+#itie&
Mi0ing ,ater should be clean and -ree -rom organic materials, al3alies, acids, and oil4 As a general rule, (otable
,ater is usually suitable -or mi0ing ,ith cement4 %o,e.er, ,ater containing many sul-ates may be drin3able, but
it ma3es a ,ea3 (aste that leads to concrete deterioration or -ailure4 Water o- un3no,n 1uality can be used i-
mortar cubes made ,ith it ha.e !@ and *C@day strengths, e1ualing at least #? (ercent o- the control cubes made
,ith (otable ,ater4 +est batches can also determine ,hether or not the cementEs setting time is un-a.orably
a--ected by ,ater im(urities4 +oo many im(urities in mi0ing ,ater can a--ect not only setting time but can cause
sur-ace e--lorescence and corrosion o- the steel rein-orcement4 5n some cases you can increase the concreteEs
cement content to o--set the im(urities4
AGGREGATES
C3a#acte#i&tic&
Aggregates ma3e u( -rom 6? to C? (ercent o- concrete .olume4 +heir characteristics in-luence
the mi0 (ro(ortions and economy o- the concrete considerably4 For e0am(le, .ery rough@te0tured
or -lat and elongated (articles re1uire more ,ater to (roduce ,or3able concrete than do
EN5466 "6
rounded or cubed (articles4 Angular (articles re1uire more cement (aste to coat them, ma3ing the concrete more
e0(ensi.e4 For most (ur(oses, aggregates should be clean, hard, strong, durable, and -ree -rom chemicals or
coatings o- clay or other -ine materials that a--ect the bond o- the cement (aste4 +he most common contaminating
materials are dirt, silt, clay, mica, salts, and humus or other organic matter that a((ears as a coating or as loose,
-ine material4 ;ou can remo.e many contaminants sim(ly by ,ashing the aggregate4 %o,e.er, test coarse
aggregate containing easily crumbled or laminated (articles4 +he most commonly used aggregates are sand,
gra.el, crushed stone, and blast@-urnace slag4 +hey (roduce normal ,eight concrete <concrete that ,eighs )"5 to
)6? (ounds (er cubic -oot=4 Normal ,eight aggregates should meet IS(eci-ications -or $oncrete Aggregates,I
,hich restricts contaminating substances and (ro.ide standards -or gradation, abrasion resistance, and soundness4
Aggregate characteristics, signi-icance, and standard tests -or e.aluating these characteristics are gi.en in +able
)@) and discussed belo,4
Ta-'e ") Agg#egate c3a#acte#i&tic& an( &tan(a#(& te&t&)
Agg#egate Si7e8 Di&t#i-+tion8 an( G#a(ing
+hese a--ect the concreteEs ,or3ability, economy, (orosity, and shrin3age4 For e0am(le, e0(erience sho,s
that .ery -ine sands are uneconomical, ,hereas .ery coarse sands (roduce harsh, un,or3able mi0es4
+he (ro(ortioning o- the di--erent (article siDes is called grading an aggregate4 7rading is controlled
by the aggregate (roducer4 +he (article siDe distribution o- aggregate is determined by se(aration ,ith a series
o- standard sie.es4 +he si0 standard sie.es -or -ine@aggregate are Nos 4, C, )6, "?, 5?, and )??4 Sie.es -or
coarse aggregate are ", ) )B*, "B4, and "BC inch, and No 44 +he number o- a -ine@aggregate sie.e corres(onds
to the number o- meshes <s1uare o(enings= to the linear inch that the sie.e contains4 +he higher the
number, the -iner the sie.e4 Any material retained in the No 4 sie.e is considered coarse aggregate,
and any material that (asses the No *?? sie.e is too -ine -or concrete4 +he -inest coarse@aggregate
"9 EN5466
sie.e is the same No 4 used as the coarsest -ine@aggregate sie.e4 With this e0ce(tion, a coarse@aggregate sie.e is
designated by the siDe o- one o- its mesh o(enings4 +he siDe o- the mesh o(enings in consecuti.e sie.es is related
by a constant ratio4 SiDe distribution gra(hs sho, the (ercent o- material (assing each sie.e <see Figure )@)=4
Figure )@) also gi.es the grade limits -or -ine@aggregates and -or one designated siDe o- coarse aggregate4 Normal
coarse aggregate consists o- gra.el or crushed stone, ,hereas normal -ine aggregate is sand4
Fig+#e ") Li$it& &%eci1ie( in AST! C00 1o# 1ine"agg#egate&
an( 1o# one &i7e o1 coa#&e"agg#egate)
#ineness modulus $#"%. +his is a number that indicates the -ineness o- a -ine aggregate but is not the
same as its grade4 Many -ine@aggregate gradings can ha.e an identical FM4 +o obtain the FM o- a -ine
aggregate <see Figure )@*=, 1uarter a sam(le o- at least 5?? grams o- sand and sie.e it through the Nos 4,
C, )6, "?, 5?, and )?? sie.es4 6ecord the indi.idual ,eights o- the materials retained on each sie.e and
the cumulati.e retained ,eights4 Add the cumulati.e (ercents and di.ide by )??4 +he result is the FM o-
the sam(le4 A sand ,ith an FM -alling bet,een *4" and "4) is suitable -or concrete <see +able )@*=4 5n
general, -ine aggregate ha.ing either a .ery high or a .ery lo, FM is not as good a concrete aggregate as
medium sand4 $oarse sand is not as ,or3able, and -ine sands are uneconomical4 +a3e care to obtain
re(resentati.e sam(les4 +he FM o- the aggregate ta3en -rom one source should not .ary more than ?4*?
-rom all test sam(les ta3en at that source4
EN5466 ":
Fig+#e ",) T/%ica' F! ca'c+'ation)
Ta-'e ",) F! #ange& 1o# 1ine agg#egate)
#ine!aggregate grading. +he selection o- the best -ine@aggregate grading de(ends on the a((lication,
richness o- the mi0, and the ma0imum siDe o- coarse aggregate used4 5n leaner mi0es, or ,hen small
coarse aggregate is used, a -ine@aggregate grading near the ma0imum recommended (ercentage (assing
each sie.e is desirable -or ,or3ability4 5n richer mi0es, coarser -ine@aggregate gradings are desirable -or
economy4 5n general, i- the ,ater and cement ratio is 3e(t constant and the ratio o- -ine@to@coarse
aggregate is chosen correctly, you can use a ,ide range o- -ine@aggregate gradings ,ithout much e--ect
on strength4 7rading is e0(ressed as the (ercentages by ,eight (assing through the .arious standard
sie.es4 +he amount o- -ine aggregate (assing the No 5? and )?? sie.es a--ects ,or3ability, -inished
sur-ace te0ture, and ,ater gain or bleeding4 For thin ,alls, hard@-inished concrete -loors, and smooth
concrete sur-aces cast against -orms, the -ine aggregate should contain not less than )5 (ercent (assing
the No 5? sie.e and at least " or 4 (ercent, but not more than )? (ercent, (assing the No )?? sie.e4 +hese
minimum amounts o- -ines gi.e the concrete better ,or3ability, ma3e it more cohesi.e, and (roduce less
,ater gain or bleeding than lo,er (ercentages o- -ines4 5n no case should the (ercent (assing a No *??
sie.e e0ceed 5 (ercent and only " (ercent i- the structure is e0(osed to abrasi.e ,ear4 Aggregate
gradings -alling ,ithin the limits are generally satis-actory -or most concretes4
"; EN5466
Coarse!aggregate grading. +he grading o- coarse aggregate o- a gi.en ma0imum siDe can .ary o.er a
,ide range ,ithout much e--ect on cement and ,ater re1uirements i- the (ro(ortion o- -ine aggregate
(roduces concrete ha.ing good ,or3ability4 +able )@" gi.es the grading re1uirements -or coarse
aggregate4 5- coarse@aggregate grading .aries too much, you may need to .ary the mi0 (ro(ortions to
(roduce ,or3able concrete or, more economically, re1uest the (roducer to ad2ust his o(eration to meet
the grading re1uirements4
Ta-'e "0) G#a(ing #e<+i#e$ent& 1o# coa#&e agg#egate)
EN5466 "=
$oarse aggregate should be graded u( to the largest (racticable siDe -or the 2ob conditions4 According to the
American $oncrete 5nstitute <A$5= ")C@C", nominal ma0imum siDe o- coarse aggregate cannot be larger than one@
-i-th the narro,est dimension bet,een the sides o- -orms, nor one@third the de(th o- slabs, nor three@-ourth the
minimum clear s(acing bet,een indi.idual rein-orcing bars or ,ires, bundles o- bars, or (restressing tendons or
ducts4 +he ty(e o- e1ui(ment also limits the aggregate siDe4 +he )6S mi0er can handle u( to " inches o-
aggregate, ,hile the ma0imum siDe aggregate -or the M#)# concrete mobile is )45 inches4 +hese limitations may
be ,ai.ed i-, in the 2udgment o- the engineer, ,or3ability and methods o- consolidation are such that concrete can
be (laced ,ithout honeycomb or .oids4 +he larger the ma0imum siDe o- the coarse aggregate, the less (aste
<,ater and cement= re1uired to (roduce a gi.en 1uality4 Field e0(erience sho,s that the amount o- ,ater re1uired
(er unit .olume o- concrete -or a gi.en consistency and gi.en aggregates is nearly constant, regardless o- the
cement content or relati.e (ro(ortions o- ,ater to cement4 Further, the amount o- ,ater re1uired decreases ,ith
increases in the ma0imum siDe o- the aggregate4 +he ,ater re1uired (er cubic yard o- concrete ,ith a slum( o- "
to 4 inches is sho,n in Figure )@" -or a ,ide range o- coarse@aggregate siDes4 +he -igure demonstrates that -or a
gi.en ,Bc ratio, the amount o- cement re1uired decreases as the ma0imum siDe o- coarse aggregate increases4
%o,e.er, in some instances, es(ecially in higher strength ranges, concrete containing smaller ma0imum@siDe
aggregate has a higher com(ressi.e strength than concrete ,ith larger ma0imum@siDe aggregate at the same ,Bc
ratio4
Fig+#e "0) Wate# #e<+i#e$ent 1o# conc#ete o1 a given con&i&tenc/
a& a 1+nction o1 coa#&e"agg#egate &i7e)
B+'. Unit Weig3t
+he ,eight o- the aggregate that -ills a )@cubic@-oot container4 +his term is used because the .olume contains
both aggregate and .oids air s(aces4
" EN5466
S%eci1ic G#avit/
+he ratio o- the density o- an aggregate to the density o- ,ater4 Normal ,eight aggregates ha.e s(eci-ic gra.ities
ranging -rom *44 to *4#4 +he internal structure o- an aggregate (article is made u( o- both solid matter and (ores
or .oids that may or may not contain ,ater4 +he s(eci-ic gra.ities used in concrete calculations are generally -or
saturated, sur-ace@dry aggregates, that is, ,hen all (ores are -illed ,ith ,ater but no e0cess moisture is (resent on
the sur-ace4
A-&o#%tion an( S+#1ace !oi&t+#e
8oth must be 3no,n to control the net ,ater content o- the concrete and determine correct batch ,eights4 +he
-our moisture conditions o- aggregates are illustrated in Figure )@44
Fig+#e "4) !oi&t+#e con(ition& o1 agg#egate&)
&ven!dry. Sur-ace and (ores are bone@dry and -ully absorbent4
ir!dry. Sur-ace is dry but contains some interior moisture and is there-ore some,hat absorbent4
'aturate surface!dry $''D%. Sur-ace is dry but (ores are saturated@@neither absorbing ,ater -rom nor
contributing ,ater to the concrete mi04 +he design is based on aggregate in the SS& condition4
Damp or wet. Sur-ace contains an e0cess o- moisture <-ree sur-ace moisture <FSM==4
B+'.ing
8ul3ing is the increase in .olume caused by sur-ace moisture holding the (articles a(art4 +his occurs ,hen dam(
-ine aggregate is handled4 Figure )@5 sho,s the .ariation in the amount o- bul3ing ,ith moisture content and
grading4 Sand is usually deli.ered in batch 1uantities in a dam( condition4 &ue to bul3ing actual sand content
can .ary ,idely in a batch .olume, o-ten not in (ro(ortion to the moisture content o- the sand4 +here-ore, be .ery
care-ul ,hen (ro(ortioning by .olume4 +oo much moisture on the aggregate sur-aces also adds to the concrete
mi0ing ,ater4 +he amount can be considerable, es(ecially the e0cess ,ater in -ine aggregate4
EN5466 ",
Fig+#e "5) Va#iation in 1ine"agg#egate -+'.ing >it3
$oi&t+#e an( agg#egate g#a(ing)
I$%+#itie&
Aggregates can contain such im(ure substances as organic matter, silt, clay, coal, lignite, and certain light,eight
and so-t (articles4 +able )@4 summariDes the e--ects o- these substances on concrete4
Ta-'e "4) I$%+#itie& in agg#egate&)
2an('ing an( Sto#ing
Figure )@6 on (ages )@)4 and )@)5 sho,s both the correct and incorrect methods o-
handling and storing aggregate4 ;ou must handle and store aggregates to minimiDe segregation
and (re.ent contamination by im(ure substances4 Aggregate is normally stored in stoc3(iles built
"0 EN5466
u( in layers o- uni-orm thic3ness4 &o not build u( the stoc3(iles in high cones or allo, them to run do,n slo(es
because this causes segregation4 &o not allo, aggregate to -all -reely -rom the end o- a con.eyor belt either4 +o
minimiDe segregation, remo.e aggregates -rom stoc3(iles in horiDontal layers4 When you are using batching
e1ui(ment and storing some aggregate in bins, load the bins by allo,ing the aggregate to -all .ertically o.er the
outlet4 $huting the materials at an angle against the side o- the bin causes (article segregation4
Fig+#e "6) Co##ect an( inco##ect agg#egate 3an('ing an( &to#age)
EN5466 "4
Fig+#e "6) Co##ect an( inco##ect agg#egate& 3an('ing an( &to#age) 4contin+e(5
AD!I?TURES
De1inition an( P+#%o&e
An admi0ture is any material other than cement, ,ater, or aggregate that is added to concrete
in small 1uantities, either immediately be-ore or during mi0ing, to modi-y such (ro(erties
as ,or3ability, strength, durability, ,atertightness, or ,ear resistance4 Admi0tures can also
reduce segregation and the heat o- hydration and entrained air and either accelerate or
retard setting and hardening4 ;ou can o-ten obtain similar results by changing the concrete mi0
"5 EN5466
(ro(ortions instead o- using admi0tures <e0ce(t air@entrained ones=4 When (ossible, e0amine all alternati.es
be-ore using an admi0ture to determine ,hich is more economical and con.enient
Ai#"Ent#aine( Conc#ete
A ma2or ad.ance in concrete technology in recent years is the introduction o- tiny disconnected air bubbles into
concrete called air!entrainment4 Air@entrainment concrete results -rom using either an air@entrained cement or an
air@entrained admi0ture during mi0ing4 Adding entrained air to concrete is recommended -or most (ur(oses
because it (ro.ides im(ortant bene-its in both (lastic and hardened concrete, such as resistance to -reeDing and
tha,ing in a saturated en.ironment4 Air entra((ed in non@air@entrained concrete -ills relati.ely large .oids that
are not uni-ormly distributed throughout the mi04 %o,e.er, entrained air is ,ell@distributed throughout the mass
as sho,n in Figure )@!4 Note that the micro(hotogra(h is scaled in hundredths, not thousandths o- an inch,
although the bubble diameters actually ha.e siDes o- less than ?4??4 o- an inch4 Air@entrained concrete im(ro.es
its ,or3ability, ,atertightness, and resistance to deicers and sul-ates4
EN5466 "6
Fig+#e "9) Po'i&3e( &ection o1 ai#"ent#aine( conc#ete $agni1ie( $an/ ti$e&)
Air@entrained materials4 Air can be entrained in concrete by using air@entrained cement, by using an air@entrained
admi0ture at the mi0er, or by combining both methods4 Use ade1uate controls to ensure the (ro(er air content at
all times4
Facto#& A11ecting Ai# Content
'lump and vibration. +his a--ects the air content o- air@entrained concrete because the greater the slum(,
the larger the (ercent reduction in air content during .ibration4 At all slum(s, e.en )5@second .ibration
causes reduced air content4 %o,e.er, (ro(erly a((lied .ibration mainly eliminates large air bubbles and
little o- the intentionally entrained air bubbles4
Concrete temperature. +he e--ects o- concrete tem(erature becomes more (ronounced as the slum(
increases4 Less air is entrained as concrete tem(erature increases4
"9 EN5466
"i(ing action. +his is the most im(ortant -actor in (roducing air@entrained concrete4 +he amount o-
entrained air .aries ,ith the mi0er ty(e and condition, the amount o- concrete mi0ed, and the mi0ing rate4
Stationary and transit mi0ers may (roduce concrete ha.ing .ery di--erent amounts o- entrained air4
Mi0ers not loaded to ca(acity can increase air content, ,hereas o.erloading can decrease air content4
7enerally, more air is entrained as the mi0ing s(eed increases4
Premature finishing operations. +his can cause e0cess ,ater to ,or3 to the concrete sur-ace4 5- this
occurs, the sur-ace Done may not contain enough entrained air and be susce(tible to scaling4
Reco$$en(e( Ai# Content&
Air contents -or -rost@resistant concrete are sho,n in +able )@54 Such concrete must be used ,hen there is a
danger o- concrete -reeDing ,hile saturated or nearly saturated ,ith ,ater4
Ta-'e "5) A%%#o*i$ate $i*ing >ate# an( ai# content #e<+i#e$ent& 1o# (i11e#ent &'+$%& an( $a*i$+$
&i7e& o1 agg#egate&)
EN5466 ":
Te&t& 1o# Ai# Content
+ests that determine air@entrainment in -reshly mi0ed concrete measure only air .olume, not air .oid
characteristics4 Ma3e tests regularly during construction, using (lastic sam(les ta3en immediately a-ter discharge
-rom the mi0er and also -rom already (laced and consolidated concrete4 Standard methods to determine the air
content o- (lastic concrete include (ressure <air@entrained meter=, .olumetric, and gra.imetric method4 $hec3
,ith your battalion as to ,hich method is normally used4
Wate#"Re(+cing A($i*t+#e&
+hese reduce the 1uantity o- mi0ing ,ater re1uired to (roduce concrete o- a gi.en consistency4 +hey increase the
slum( -or a gi.en ,ater content4
Reta#(ing A($i*t+#e&
+hese are sometime used to reduce the rate o- hydration to (ermit (lacing and consolidating concrete be-ore the
initial set4 +hey also o--set the accelerating e--ect o- hot ,eather on the set4 +hese admi0tures generally consist
o- -atty acids, sugars, and starches4
Acce'e#ating A($i*t+#e&
+hese accelerate the set and strength de.elo(ment4 $alcium chloride is the most common4 Add it in solution
-orm as (art o- the mi0ing ,ater but not e0ceeding * (ercent by ,eight o- cement4 &o not use calcium chloride or
other admi0tures containing soluble chlorides in (restressed concrete, concrete containing embedded aluminum
,hich has (ermanent contact ,ith gal.aniDed steel <sub2ect to al3ali@aggregate reaction=, or e0(osed soils or ,ater
containing sul-ates4 +able )@6 sho,s the limitations4
Ta-'e "6) !a*i$+$ c3'o#i(e ion content 1o# co##o&ion %#otection)
Po77o'an&
+hese materials contain silica or silica and alumina4 +hey combine ,ith calcium hydro0ide to -orm com(ounds
ha.ing cementitious (ro(erties4 8ecause the (ro(erties o- (oDDolans and their e--ects on concrete .ary
considerably, test them -irst to determine their suitability4
"; EN5466
PART C " SLU!P TEST
!ET2OD AND E@UIP!ENT
!et3o(
+his test method co.ers the (rocedure to use both in the laboratory and in the -ield to determine (ortland cement
concrete consistency4 Although not a (recise method, it gi.es su--iciently accurate results4 +he slum( test does
not a((ly i- the concrete contains aggregate much larger than * inches in siDe4
A%%a#at+&
+he metal mold and tam(ing rod are a.ailable in the mobile laboratory4
!eta' !o'(
+his is a No )6@gauge gal.aniDed, metal mold sha(ed li3e a )*@inch@high truncated <cut o--= cone ha.ing an C@
inch@diameter base and a 4@inch@diameter to( <see Figure )@C=4 8oth the base and to( are o(en (arallel to each
other and (er(endicular to the a0is o- the cone4
Fig+#e ":) !ea&+#ing &'+$%)
Ta$%ing Ro(
+he tam(ing rod is 5BC inch in diameter and *4 inches long and has a )@inch ta(er at one end terminating in a
rounded ti( bullet nose ha.ing a radius o- about )B4 inch4
EN5466 ",=
TESTING AND PROCEDURES
P#oce(+#e
+he mold should be dam(ened and (laced on a -lat, moist, nonabsorbent, -irm sur-ace4 Fill the mold immediately
,ith three e1ual layers o- a concrete s(ecimen4 As you -ill the mold, rotate each scoo(-ul o- the concrete around
the to( edge o- the mold as the concrete slides -rom it4 +his ensures a symmetrical concrete distribution ,ithin
the mold4 +am( each layer *5 stro3es ,ith the tam(ing rod, distributing the stro3es uni-ormly o.er the cross
section o- the mold and (enetrating the underlaying layer4 +am( the bottom layer throughout its de(th4 A-ter
tam(ing the to( layer, stri3e o-- the sur-ace ,ith a tro,el so that the concrete -ills the mold e0actly4 Without
delay, care-ully li-t the mold straight u( -rom the concrete and (lace it beside the s(ecimen4
S'+$% !ea&+#e$ent
+he tam(ing rod should be (laced across the to( o- the mold4 Measure the distance bet,een the bottom o- the rod
and the dis(laced original center o- the to( sur-ace o- the s(ecimen4 5- a decided -alling a,ay or shearing o-- o-
concrete -rom one side or (ortion o- the mass occurs, disregard the test and ma3e a ne, test on another (ortion o-
the sam(le4
NOTEA 5- t,o consecuti.e tests on a sam(le o- concrete sho, a -alling a,ay or shearing o-- o- a (ortion o- the
concrete -rom the mass o- the s(ecimen, the concrete (robably lac3s necessary (lasticity and cohesi.eness -or the
slum( test to be a((licable4
S+%%'e$enta#/ Te&t P#oce(+#e
A-ter com(leting the slum( measurement, ta( the side o- the s(ecimen gently ,ith the tam(ing rod4 %o, the
concrete mi0 beha.es under this treatment is a .aluable indication o- its cohesi.eness, ,or3ability, and
(lacability4 A ,ell@(ro(ortioned ,or3able mi0 ,ill gradually slum( <-all or -latten out= but still retain its original
consistency, ,hereas a (oor mi0 ,ill crumble, segregate, and -all a(art4
", EN5466
T2IS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLB LEFT BLANC)
EN5466 ",,
LESSN )
PRACTICE E?ERCISE
$hec3 your understanding o- Lesson ) by com(leting the (ractice e0ercise4 +here is only one correct ans,er to
each 1uestion4 +ry to ans,er all o- the 1uestions ,ithout re-erring to the lesson materials4
When you ha.e com(leted all o- the 1uestions, turn the (age and chec3 your ans,ers against the correct res(onse4
Each correct res(onse is re-erenced to s(eci-ic (ortions o- the lesson material so you can re.ie, any 1uestions
you ha.e missed or do not understand be-ore continuing to the ne0t lesson4
)4 What (ercent <in .olume= o- inert -iller material is used in normal concreteJ
A4 6? to !?
84 6? to !5
$4 6? to C?
&4 6? to C5
*4 When air is chemically induced into the mi0, ,hat is the air calledJ
A4 Entrained
84 Entra((ed
$4 5nduced
&4 5ndra-ted
"4 Which one o- the -ollo,ing is not a limitation o- concreteJ
A4 Lo, tensile strength
84 +hermal mo.ements
$4 >ermeability
&4 Watertightness
44 Water has t,o -unctions in concrete mi0, to e--ect hydration and to im(ro.e ,or3ability4
A4 +rue
84 False
54 When ,ould a slum( test not be usedJ
A4 When (ortland cement is used
84 When the concrete contains admi0tures
$4 When the concrete contains aggregate much larger than * inches in siDe
&4 When the concrete contains aggregates much smaller than * inches in siDe
64 A-ter com(leting the slum( test, ta( the sides o- the s(ecimen gently to chec3 its cohesi.eness,
,or3ability, and (lacability4
A4 +rue
84 False
",0 EN5466
LESSN )
PRACTICE E?ERCISE
ANSWER CEB AND FEEDBACC
5tem $orrect Ans,er and Feedbac3
)4 $4 6? to C?
5nert -iller material, <usually sand and stone or gra.el= 444 <(age )@*=
Aggregates ma3e u( -rom 6? to C? (ercent 444 <(age )@6=
*4 A4 Entrained
5- air is chemically induced 444 <(age )@*=
"4 &4 Watertightness
Listed belo, are some (rinci(al limitations 444 <(age )@"=
44 A4 +rue
Water has t,o -unctions in concrete mi0,444 <(age )@6=
54 $4 When the concrete contains aggregate much larger than * inches in siDe
+he slum( test does not a((ly i- concrete contains 444 <(age )@*?=
64 A4 +rue
A-ter com(leting the slum( measurement444 <(age )@*)=
EN5466 ",4
LESSON ,
PROPORTIONING CONCRETE !I?TURES
OVERVIEW
LESSN &ES$65>+5N'
5n this lesson you ,ill identi-y the use o- the trail batch and absolute .olume methods -or (ro(ortioning concrete
mi0tures4
+E6M5NAL LEA6N5N7 89E$+5:E'
A$+5N' 5denti-y, (lan, and use the trial batch and absolute .olume methods -or (ro(ortioning concrete
mi0tures4
$N&5+5N' ;ou are gi.en the materials contained in this lesson4
S+AN&A6&' $orrectly ans,er all the (ractice e0ercise 1uestions at the end o- the lesson4
6EFE6EN$E' +he material contained in this lesson ,as deri.ed -rom the -ollo,ing (ublication' FM 5@!4*, ,ith
change )4
INTRODUCTION
5n Lesson ), G$oncrete $om(onents,H you learned the desirable characteristics that ,e see3 in (ortland cement
concrete4 +his lesson discusses ho, these characteristics are obtained4 5n designing a concrete mi0, you must
ans,er the -ollo,ing 1uestions concerning your (articular 2ob4
). *hat structural +ualities do I want my hardened concrete to provide,
-. .ow do I want the plastic concrete to act,
/. re my aggregates suitable, .ow do they affect the workability of the mi(,
0. *hat is the proper mi( of ingredients,
$onsider ho, you ,ould ans,er each o- these 1uestions then continue on and see ho, your concrete instructors
ans,ered them4
). *hat structural +ualities do I want my hardened concrete to provide,
;ou ,ant your concrete to dis(lay strength, durability, and ,atertightness4 Since the ,Bc ratio
a--ects each o- these, you ,ill select a ,Bc ratio to meet each o- these re1uirements4 Also, since
," EN5466
air@entrained aids durability and ,atertightness, you may also s(eci-y air@entrained concrete at this time4
-. .ow do I want my plastic concrete to act,
;ou ,ant your (lastic concrete to ha.e ,or3ability, uni-ormity, and homogeneity4 Since the slum( test is a
measure o- ,or3ability and uni-ormity, your ne0t ste( is to select a slum(4
/. re my aggregates suitable, .ow do they affect the workability of the mi(,
;ou es(ecially ,ant your sand and gra.el to be clean <this you ,ill chec3=4 Additionally, you ,ill determine the
relati.e -ineness or coarseness o- your sand, since the -iner the sand the greater the ,or3ability4 Additionally, you
,ant to ma3e sure that the a.ailable gra.el is not so large as to induce a (lane o- ,ea3ness in your structure or to
bridge the rein-orcing steel, causing honeycombing4
0. *hat is the proper mi( of ingredients,
;ou ,ant to -ind the amounts o- cement, ,ater, sand, and gra.el re1uired to gi.e you the 1ualities in the (lastic
and hardened concrete you desire4 Using the absolute .olume mi0 design (rocedures, you ,ill determine the
(reliminary (ro(ortions -or the com(onents o- your concrete4 ;ou ,ill ha.e to ad2ust this mi0 design at the 2ob
site due to the moisture condition o- the aggregates4
PART A " !ET2OD OF CONSIDERATIONS
SELECTING !I? PROPORTIONS
$oncrete (ro(ortions -or a (articular a((lication are determined by the concreteEs end use and by antici(ated
conditions at the time o- (lacement4 ;ou must stri3e a balance bet,een reasonable economy and the
re1uirements -or (lacability, strength, durability, density, and a((earance ,hich may be in the 2ob s(eci-ications4
8e-ore (ro(ortioning a concrete mi0ture, you must ha.e certain in-ormation about a 2ob, such as the siDe and
sha(e o- structural members, the concrete strength re1uired, and the e0(osure conditions4 ther im(ortant -actors,
discussed belo,, are the ,Bc ratio, aggregate characteristics, amount o- entrained air, and slum(4
FACTORS
Wate# an( Ce$ent Ratio
+he ,Bc ratio is determined by the strength, durability, and ,atertightness re1uirements o- the hardened
concrete4 +hey are usually s(eci-ied by the structural design engineer, but you can arri.e at
tentati.e mi0 (ro(ortions -rom 3no,ledge o- a (rior 2ob4 Al,ays remember that a change in the
,Bc ratio changes the characteristics o- the hardened concrete4 Use +able *@) to select a suitable
,Bc ratio -or normal@,eight concrete that ,ill meet the antici(ated e0(osure conditions4 Note that the
,Bc ratios in +able *@* on (age *@4 are based on concrete strength under certain e0(osure conditions4
5- (ossible, (er-orm tests using 2ob materials to determine the relationshi( bet,een the ,Bc ratio you select and
strength o- the -inished concrete4 5- you cannot obtain laboratory test data or e0(erience records -or the
relationshi(, use the data in +able *@* as a guide4 Enter +able *@* at the desired -K
c
<s(eci-ied com(ressi.e
strength o- concrete in (ounds (er s1uare inch <(si== and read across to determine the ma0imum ,Bc ratio4
EN5466 ,",
;ou can estimate the .alues ,hen both e0(osure conditions and strength must be considered/ use the lo,er o- the
t,o indicated ,Bc ratios4 5- -le0ural strength rather than com(ressi.e strength is the basis -or design, such as a
(a.ement, (er-orm tests to determine the relationshi( bet,een the ,Bc ratio and -le0ural strength4 An
a((ro0imate relationshi( bet,een -le0ural and com(ressi.e strength is as -ollo,s'
Where@@
-K
c
F com(ressi.e strength, in (si
6 F -le0ural strength <modulus o- ru(ture=, in (si, third@(oint loading
A F a constant, usually bet,een C and )?
Ta-'e ," ) !a*i$+$ >Dc #atio 1o# va#io+& e*%o&+#e con(ition&)
,"0 EN5466
Ta-'e ,",) !a*i$+$ %e#$i&&i-'e >Dc #atio& 1o# conc#ete >3en &t#engt3 (ata
1#o$ t#ia' -atc3e& o# 1ie'( e*%e#ience i& not avai'a-'e)
Va#iation in !i*t+#e&
+he (ro(ortions you arri.e at in determining mi0tures ,ill .ary some,hat de(ending on ,hich method you use4
+he .ariation is due to the em(irical nature o- the methods and does not necessarily im(ly that one method is
better than another4 ;ou start each method by assuming certain needs or re1uirements and then (roceed to
determine the other .ariables4 Since the methods begin di--erently and use di--erent (rocedures, the -inal
(ro(ortions .ary slightly4 +his is to be e0(ected and (oints out -urther the necessity o- trial mi0tures in
determining the -inal mi0ture (ro(ortions4 For .ariations in a mi0ture, note that -or concrete used in slabs or other
-lat,or3, there are minimum cement re1uirements de(ending u(on the ma0imum siDe o- the aggregates4 See
+able *@"4
Ta-'e ,"0) !ini$+$ ce$ent #e<+i#e$ent& 1o# conc#ete +&e( in 1'at>o#.)
EN5466 ,"4
Agg#egate
1se fine aggregate to fill the spaces between coarse!aggregate particles and increase the workability of a
mi(. 5n general, aggregate that does not ha.e a large grading ga( nor an e0cess o- any siDe that does gi.e
a smooth grading cur.e, (roduces the best mi04 Ensure that the -ineness modules are bet,een *4" and "4)
<see (age )@C=4 Ensures that the e0cess -ines, material -iner than the No *?? sie.e, are limited to less than
" or 5 (ercent <see Lesson )=4
1se the largest practical si2e of coarse aggregate in the mi(. +he ma0imum siDe o- coarse aggregate that
(roduces concrete o- ma0imum strength -or a gi.en cement content de(ends on the aggregate source as
,ell as aggregate sha(e and grading4 +he ma0imum siDe aggregate should not e0ceed one@-i-th the
minimum dimension o- the member o- three@-ourths the s(ace bet,een rein-orcing bars4 For (a.ement or
-loor slabs, the ma0imum siDe aggregate should not e0ceed one@third the slab thic3ness4 E1ui(ment limits
the aggregate siDe also, )6S F " inches and M#)# F ) )B* inches4
Ent#aine( Ai#
Use entrained air in all concrete e0(osed to -reeDing and tha,ing and, sometimes, under mild e0(osure conditions
to im(ro.e ,or3ability4 Al,ays use entrained air in (a.ing and concrete, regardless o- climatic conditions4 +able
)@5 on (age )@)C gi.es recommended total air contents o- air@entrained concrete4 +he u((er hal- o- +able )@5
gi.es the a((ro0imate (ercent o- entra((ed air in non@air@entrained concrete, and the lo,er hal- gi.es the
recommended a.erage, total air@content (ercentages -or air@entrained concrete based on le.el o- e0(osure4
"ild e(posure4 +his includes indoor and outdoor ser.ice in a climate that does not e0(ose the concrete to
-reeDing or deicing agents4 When you ,ant air@entrainment -or a reason other than durability, such as to
im(ro.e ,or3ability or cohesion or to im(ro.e strength in lo, cement -actor concrete, you can use air
contents lo,er than those re1uired -or durability4
"oderate e(posure. +his means ser.ice in a climate ,here -reeDing is e0(ected but ,here the concrete is
not continually e0(osed to moisture or -ree ,ater -or long (eriods be-ore -reeDing, deicing agents, or
other aggressi.e chemicals4 E0am(les are e0terior beams, columns, ,alls, girders, or slabs that do not
contact ,et soil or recei.e direct a((lications o- deicing salts4
'evere e(posure. +his means ser.ice ,here the concrete is e0(osed to deicing chemicals or other
aggregate agents or ,here it continually contacts moisture or -ree ,ater be-ore -reeDing4 E0am(les are
(a.ements, bridge dec3s, curbs, gutters, side,al3s, canal linings, or e0terior ,ater tan3s or sum(s4
S'+$%
+he slum( test <see >art $ on (age )@*?= measures the ,or3ability and consistency o- concrete4 &o not use it to
com(are mi0es ha.ing com(letely di--erent (ro(ortions or mi0es containing di--erent aggregate siDes4 When
testing di--erent batches o- the same mi0ture, change in slum( indicate changes in materials, mi0 (ro(ortions, or
,ater content4 +able *@4 on (age *@6 gi.es recommended slum( ranges4
,"5 EN5466
Ta-'e ,"4) Reco$$en(e( &'+$%& 1o# va#io+& t/%e& o1 con&t#+ction 4>it3 vi-#ation5)
PART B " TRIAL BATC2 !ET2OD
DETER!INING WATERDCE!ENT RATIO
With the ,Bc amounts determined, add sand and gra.el to yield a ,or3able mi04 6ecord the data and re(eat the
(rocedure until the concrete has desirable characteristics and a minimum cement content is obtained4 +his
method should be (er-ormed ,ell in ad.ance o- a (ro2ect4 5n the trial batch method o- mi0 design, use actual 2ob
materials to obtain mi0 (ro(ortions4 +he siDe o- the trial batch de(ends on the e1ui(ment and ho, many test
s(ecimens are made4 8atches using )? to *? (ounds o- cement may be big enough, although larger batches
(roduce more accurate data4 Use machine mi0ing i- (ossible, since it nearly re(resents 2ob conditions4 Al,ays
use a machine to mi0 concrete containing entrained air4 8e sure to use re(resentati.e sam(les o- aggregate,
cement, ,ater, and air@entraining admi0ture in the trial batch4 >re,et the aggregate and allo, it to dry to a
saturated, sur-ace@dry condition4 >lace the sam(le in co.ered containers to maintain this condition until it is used4
+his sim(li-ies calculations and eliminates error caused by .ariations in aggregate moisture content4 When the
concrete 1uality is s(eci-ied in terms o- the ,Bc ratio, the trial batch (rocedure consist basically o- combining
(aste <,ater, cement, and usually entrained air= o- the correct (ro(ortions ,ith the (ro(er amounts o- -ine and
course aggregates to (roduce the re1uired slum( and ,or3ability4 $alculate the larger 1uantities (er sac3 or by
cubic yard4
USING TRIAL BATC2 !ET2OD 4E?A!PLE5
&etermine the mi0 (ro(ortions -or a concrete retaining ,all ,ith the -ooter e0(osed to -resh ,ater in a se.ere
climate4 +he re1uired com(ressi.e strength <-K
c
is ",??? (si at *C days4 +he minimum ,all thic3ness is C inches,
,ith * inches o- concrete co.ering the rein-orcement4 Enter all trial mi0 data in the a((ro(riate blan3s on the trial
data ,or3sheet in Figure *@) on (age *@C4 +able *@) on (age *@", indicates that a ma0imum ,Bc ratio o- ?45? by
,eight satis-ies the e0(osure re1uirements4 Using +y(e 5A <air@entrained= (ortland cement and a com(ressi.e
strength o- ",??? (si, +able *@* on (age *@4, sho,s that a ma0imum ,Bc ratio o- a((ro0imately
EN5466 ,"6
?446 by ,eight satis-ies the strength re1uirements4 +o meet both s(eci-ications, you ,ould select a ,Bc ratio o-
?4464 Since the ma0imum siDe o- coarse@aggregate must not e0ceed one@-i-th the minimum ,all thic3ness nor
three@-ourths o- the s(ace bet,een the rein-orcement and the sur-aces, the ma0imum siDe o- coarse@aggregate you
,ill choose is ) )B* inches4 8ecause o- the se.ere e0(osure conditions, the concrete could contain entrained air4
+able )@5, (age )@)C, sho,s that the recommended air content is 545 L ?45 (ercent4 Assuming that .ibration ,ill
consolidate the concrete, +able *@4 indicates a recommended slum( ranging -rom ) to " inches4 +he trial batch
(ro(ortions are no, determined4 $hoosing a batch containing *? (ounds o- cement -or con.enience, the mi0ing
,ater re1uired is *? 0 ?446 F #4* (ounds4 Select and ,eigh re(resentati.e sam(les o- -ine and coarse aggregates
and record their ,eights in column <*= o- Figure *@) on (age *@C4
,"9 EN5466
Fig+#e ,") Wo#.&3eet 1o# conc#ete t#ia' $i* (ata)
Use all the measured 1uantities o- cement, ,ater, and air@entrained admi0ture4
NOTEA 5t is not normal (ractice to buy air@entrained cement <+y(e 5A= and then add an air@entrained admi0ture/
ho,e.er, i- the only cement a.ailable ,as +y(e 5A and it did not gi.e the needed air content, addition o- an air@
entraining admi0ture ,ould be necessary to achie.e -rost resistance4
EN5466 ,":
Add -ine and coarse aggregate until you (roduce a ,or3able mi0ture ha.ing the (ro(er slum(4 Figure *@* <(ages
*@# through *@))= sho,s the a((earance o- -resh concrete containing both the correct and incorrect amounts o-
cement@sand mortar <(aste=4 6ecord the ,eights o- all materials in column <4= o- Figure *@)4 +hen calculate the
,eights -or both a one@bag batch and (er cubic yard and record them in columns <5= and <6=4 $alculate and record
the cement -actor in (ounds (er cubic yard as indicated in Figure *@) as ,ell as the (ercentage o- -ine aggregate
by ,eight and by .olume o- total aggregate and the yield o- concrete in cubic -eet (er bag4
Fig+#e ,",) A%%ea#ance o1 conc#ete $i*e& containing co##ect an( inco##ect a$o+nt& o1 >ate#)
,"; EN5466
Fig+#e ,",) A%%ea#ance o1 conc#ete $i*e& containing co##ect an( inco##ect a$o+nt& o1 $o#ta#)
4contin+e(5
EN5466 ,"=
Fig+#e ,",) A%%ea#ance o1 conc#ete $i*e& containing co##ect an( inco##ect a$o+nt& o1 $o#ta#)
4contin+e(5
&etermine and note the slum(, air content, ,or3ability, and unit ,eight o- the concrete as sho,n4 +o -ind the
most economical (ro(ortions, ma3e more trial batches, .arying the (ercentage o- -ine aggregate4 5n each batch
3ee( the ,Bc ratio, aggregate graduations, air content, and slum( a((ro0imately the same +able *@5 on (age *@)*
summariDes the results o- -our trial batches made in the laboratory4 Figure *@" on (age *@)" (lots the (ercentage
o- -ine aggregate used in these mi0es against the cement -actor4 +he minimum cement -actor <5"C (ounds (er
cubic yard= occurs at a -ine@aggregate content o- about "* (ercent o- the total aggregate4 Since the ,Bc ratio is
?446 by ,eight and the unit ,eight o- the concrete -or an air content o- 5 (ercent is about )44 (ounds (er cubic
-oot, the -inal 1uantities -or the mi0 (ro(ositions <(er cubic yard= are as -ollo,s'
," EN5466
$ement F 5"C lb
Water <5"C lb cement 0 ?446= F *4! lb
+otal F !C5 lb
$oncrete (er cy <)44 0 *!= F ",C#? lb
Aggregates <",C#? @ !C5= F ",)?5 lb
Fine aggregates <?4"* 0 ",)?5= F ##4 lb
$oarse aggregate <",)?5 @ ##4= F *,))) lb
Ta-'e ,"5) Re&+'t& o1 'a-o#ato#/ t#ia' $i*e&)E
EN5466 ,",
Fig+#e ,"0) Re'ation&3i% -et>een %e#centage 1ine agg#egate an(
ce$ent content 1o# a given >Dc #atio an( '+$%)
PART C " ABSOLUTE VOLU!E !ET2OD
BASIC GUIDELINES
+his method can be used ,ithout any (re.ious data or e0(erience to design a concrete mi04 ;ou can also
(ro(ortion concrete mi0tures using absolute .olumes4 +he A$5 re(ort, G6ecommended >ractice -or Selecting
>ro(ortions -or Normal and %ea.y@Weight $oncrete,H A$5 *))4)@C), details this method4 For this (rocedure,
select the ,Bc ratio, slum(, air content, and ma0imum aggregate siDe as you did in the trial batch method4 5n
addition, estimate the ,ater re1uirement -rom +able *@* on (age *@44 ;ou must get this in-ormation be-ore
ma3ing calculations, such as the s(eci-ic gra.ities o- -ine and coarse aggregate, the dry@rodded unit ,eight o-
coarse aggregate, and the FM o- the -ine aggregate4 5- the ma0imum aggregate siDe and the FM other -ine
aggregate are 3no,n, you can estimate the .olume o- dry@rodded coarse aggregate (er cubic yard -rom +able *@6
on (age *@)44 $alculate the .olume occu(ied (er cubic yard o- ,ater, cement, coarse aggregate, and air4 Subtract
the sum o- the absolute .olumes o- these materials in cubic -eet -rom *! cubic -eetBcubic yard to gi.e the s(eci-ic
.olume o- -ine aggregate4
,"0 EN5466
Ta-'e ,"6) Vo'+$e o1 coa#&e agg#egate %e# c+-ic /a#( o1 conc#ete)
+he absolute .olume o- a material is the .olume occu(ied by the solid (articles4 For e0am(le, consider a )??@
(ound bo0 o- gra.el4 ne ,ay to -ind the absolute .olume o- gra.el ,ould be to actually measure the .olume o-
,ater dis(laced by )?? (ounds o- gra.el4 Figure *@4 sho,s a container o- ,ater be-ore and a-ter gra.el is added4
5- the column is ) -oot by ) -oot and the )?? (ounds o- gra.el dis(laces ! inches o- ,ater, then the absolute
.olume o- the gra.el is ) -oot by ) -oot by !B)* -oot F 45C" -t
"
4
EN5466 ,"4
Fig+#e ,"4) A-&o'+te vo'+$e)
Another method o- determining the absolute .olume is to use the conce(t o- s(eci-ic ,eight, ,hich is the ,eight
o- a solid cubic -oot o- a material4 +he s(eci-ic ,eight o- a cubic -oot o- material is -ound by multi(lying the
s(eci-ic gra.ity o- the material times the unit ,eight o- ,ater4 Su((ose your gra.el has a s(eci-ic gra.ity o- *4!54
+he s(eci-ic ,eight o- the gra.el ,ould be *4!5 0 6*44 lbB-t
"
F )!)45 lbB-t
"
4 +hus the absolute .olume o- that )??
(ounds o- gra.el is@@
,"5 EN5466
USING ABSOLUTE VOLU!E !ET2OD 4E?A!PLE5
For a retaining ,all, determine the mi0 (ro(ortions using the -ollo,ing s(eci-ications and conditions'
6e1uired *C@day com(ressi.e strength <-E
c
= F ",??? (si
Ma0imum siDe aggregate F "B4@inch
E0(osure condition F moderate -reeDe@tha, e0(osure/
e0(osed to air
FM o- -ine aggregate F *4!?
S(eci-ic gra.ity o- (ortland cement F "4)5
S(eci-ic gra.ity o- -ine aggregate F *466
S(eci-ic gra.ity o- coarse aggregate F *46)
&ry@rodded unit ,eight <&6UW= o- coarse aggregate F )?4 lbBc-
&6UW o- -ine aggregate F )?" lbBc-
Slum( F " inches
$ement F +y(e 5A
E&ti$ate Ai# Content
6e-er to +able )@5, (age )@)C4
Aggregate siDe F "B4
Air@entrained concrete
Moderate e0(osure
Air content F 5 (ercent
E&ti$ate !i*ing"Wate# Content
6e-er to +able )@54
Slum( F " inches
Aggregate siDe F "B4
Air@entrained concrete
Mi0ing ,ater F "?5 lbBcy
Dete#$ine Wate#DCe$ent Ratio
$hec3 ,Bc ratios -or strength, durability, and ,atertightness4
Strength.
Mi0 design strength F ",??? (si
S(eci-ied com(ressi.e strength
&esign strength <(si= F ",???/ ,Bc ratio <+able *@*, (age *@4= F ?446
EN5466 ,"6
Durability <re-er to +able *@), (age *@"=4
Frost@resistant concrete
All other structures, ,Bc F ?45?
Weathertightness.
Fresh,ater e0(osure, ,Bc F ?45?
Se'ect Lo>e&t >Dc Ratio
,Bc F ?446
Ca'c+'ate Ce$ent Content
Ca'c+'ate Coa#&e"Agg#egate 4CA5 Content
6e-er to +able *@6, (age *@)44
$A siDe F "B4
FM o- -ine aggregate <FA= F *46? <gi.en=
&etermine .olume o- $A by inter(olation o- +able *@6'
FM *44? *46? *4C?
:olume o- $A <c-Bcy= )!4C )!4" )64!
<"B4@inch=
Weight o- $A <7 F .olume -rom +able *@6 0 &6UW=
7 F )!4" 0 )?4 lbBc-s F ),!## )bBcy
Ca'c+'ate FA Content -/ A-&o'+te Vo'+$e !et3o(
+he absolute .olume -or any material can be described as -or any material4
,"9 EN5466
:olume o- air F <air content= <! c-Bcy= F <?4?5= <*! c-Bcy= F ) "5 c-Bcy
Summing
$ement F "4"! c-Bcy
Water F 44C# c-Bcy
$A F )?4C6 c-Bcy
Air F ) 4"5 c-Bcy
>artial .olume <>:= F *?44! c-Bcy
Absolute .olume o- FA F *! c-@ >: F *! c- @ *?44! c-Bcy F 645" c-Bcy
Weight o- FA F lb .ol o- FA 0 S7FA 0 6*44 lbBc- F 645" c-Bcy 0 *466 0 6*44 lbBc- F ),?C"4C lbBcy
Dete#$ine P#o%o#tion& 1o# Fi#&t T#ia' Batc3 41o# c/5 -/ Conve#ting A-&o'+te Vo'+$e& to D#/ Vo'+$e&
Weight :olume
$ement +y(e 5A F 66"4? lbBcy ' #44? lbBsac3 F !4?5 sac3s
Water F "?5 lbBcy ' C4"" lbBgal F "646 gallons
$oarse@aggregate F ),!6C lbBcy ' )?44? lbBc- F )!4? c-
Fine@aggregate F ),?C" lbBcy ' )?"4? lbBc- F )?45 c-
Air content F 5 (ercent
Slum( F " inches
5- needed, mi0 more trial batches to obtain the desired slum( and air content ,hile 3ee(ing the ,Bc ratio constant4
VARIATION IN !I?TURES
+he (ro(ortions you arri.e at in determining mi0tures ,ill .ary some,hat de(ending on ,hich method you use4
+he .ariation is due to the em(irical nature o- methods and does not necessarily im(ly that one method is better
than another4 Start each method by assuming certain needs or re1uirements and then (roceed to determine the
other .ariables4 Since the methods begin di--erently and use di--erent (rocedures, the -inal (ro(ortions .ary
slightly4 +his is to be e0(ected and (oints out the necessity o- trial mi0tures in determining the -inal mi0ture
(ro(ortions4 For .ariations in a mi0ture, note that -or concrete used in slabs or other -lat,or3, there are minimum
cement re1uirements, de(ending on the ma0imum siDe o- the aggregates4 See +able *@!4 +his re1uirement is
normally met in the design (rocedure but must be chec3ed to ensure com(liance4
EN5466 ,":
Ta-'e ,"9) !ini$+$ ce$ent #e<+i#e$ent& 1o# conc#ete +&e( in 1'at>o#.)
PART D " ADFUST!ENTS TO T2E ORIGINAL DESIGN
ADFUST!ENTS FOR !OISTURE ON AGGREGATES
+he initial mi0 design assumes that the aggregates are saturated and sur-ace@dry <SS&=/ that is, neither the -ine nor
the coarse aggregates ha.e any -ee ,ater on the sur-ace ,hich ,ould be a.ailable as mi0ing ,ater4 +his is a
laboratory condition and seldom occurs in the -ield4 +he actual amount o- ,ater on the sand and gra.el can only
be determined -rom the material at the mi0ing site4 Furthermore, the moisture content o- the aggregates ,ill
change o.er a short (eriod o- time/ there-ore, their condition must be monitored and a((ro(riate ad2ustments
made, as re1uired4 A good -ield test -or estimating the -ree sur-ace moisture <FSM= on -ine aggregates -ollo,s4
$oarse aggregates are -ree draining and rarely hold more than * (ercent <by ,eight= FSM e.en a-ter hea.y rains4
FIELD TEST FOR !OISTURE DETER!INATION ON SAND
Sands used as -ine aggregate in concrete may contribute a signi-icant amount o- moisture to the concrete mi04
+his moisture must be accounted -or by decreasing the mi0ing ,ater added to the dry materials at the mi0er, to
maintain the ,Bc ratio the concrete design calls -or4 +he -ollo,ing (rocedure can be used as a -ield test -or
estimating the amount o- moisture on the sand4 +his (rocedure allo,s -or some .ariation in estimating there-ore,
the (ercentage o- moisture determined is some,hat 2udgmental4
P#oce(+#e
+he sam(les used -or this test should be ta3en -rom a de(th o- 6 to C inches belo, the sur-ace o- the (iled sand4
+his negates the e--ect o- e.a(oration at the sur-ace o- the (ile4
A sam(le o- sand is s1ueeDed in the hand4 (en the hand and obser.e the sam(le4 +he amount o- FSM can be
estimated -rom the criteria belo,4
Damp sand $3 to - percent #'"%. +he sam(le ,ill tend to -all a(art4 +he dam(er the sand, the more it
,ill cling together4 <See Figure *@5 on (age *@*?4=
,"; EN5466
Fig+#e ,"5) Da$% &an()
*et sand $/ to 0 percent #'"%. +his sam(le clings together ,ithout e0cess ,ater being -orced out4 <See
Figure *@64=
Fig+#e ,"6) Wet &an()
Very wet sand $4 to 5 percent #'"%. +he ball ,ill glisten or s(ar3le ,ith ,ater4 +he hand ,ill ha.e
moisture on it and may e.en dri(4 <See Figure *@!4=
EN5466 ,",=
Fig+#e ,"9) Ve#/ >et &an()
+he (ercentage o- FSM determined by this method a((ro0imates the amount o- ,ater by the ,eight o- the sand4
Use these estimates to ad2ust the mi0 design4
Fine aggregates ha.e a tendency to bul3 <e0(and in .olume= ,hen ,etted and ,hen the mass is disturbed4 +his
-actor becomes .ery im(ortant i- the concrete is being batched at a mi0er by .olume/ the initial mi0 design must
be ad2usted4 +he (rocedure -or ad2usting the mi0ing ,ater and sand bul3ing due to -ree sur-ace moisture is as
-ollo,s'
Determine the appro(imate #'" of the fine aggregate by the s+uee2e test.
6stimate the #'" of the coarse!aggregate by observation. Usually, * (ercent FSM is the ma0imum
amount gra.el ,ill hod ,ithout actually dri((ing4
"ultiply the percentages of #'" on the aggregates by their respective weights per cubic yard. +his ,ill
yield the ,eight o- the FSM on the aggregates4 5- the aggregate has an absor(tion -actor rather than FSM
the ,eight o- ,ater needs to be subtracted rather than added4
Divide the total weight of the #'" by 5.// pounds or gallons to determine the number of gallons of
water. Subtract those gallons -rom the mi0ing ,ater re1uirements in the original mi0 design4
7atch the concrete mi( by weight. Account -or the ,eight contributed by the FSM by increasing the total
,eights o- the aggregates (er cubic yard by the ,eights o- the FSM4
7atch the concrete by volume. 5ncrease the .olume o- the -ine aggregate by the bul3ing -actor determined
-rom Figure *@C on (age *@**4 +he -ormula -or .olume increase is@@
:
,et
F :
dry
0 <) M 8F=4 <: F .olume, 8F F bul3ing -actor4=
$oarse aggregates do not bul3/ there-ore, no ad2ustment is necessary4
,", EN5466
Fig+#e ,":) B+'.ing 1acto# c+#ve&)
68"PL6 P9&7L6": Using the -inal mi0 (ro(ortions, ad2ust the design mi0 to account -or 6 (ercent FSM on
the -ine aggregate <FM F *4!?= and * (ercent FSM on the coarse aggregate4 riginal mi0 design ,as@@
$ement F !4?5 sac3s <+y(e 5A=
Water F "C46 gallons
$A F )!4? - or ),!6C lbBcy
FA F )?45 c- or ),?C" lbBcy
Air content F 5 (ercent
'tep ). &etermine the amount o- ,ater <in gallons= on the aggregate4
$A ),!6C lbBcy 0 ?4?* F "54"6 lbBcy o- ,ater
FA ),?C" lbBcy 0 ?4?6 F 644#C lbBcy o- ,ater
+otal ,eight o- ,ater F )??4"4 lbBcy
'tep -. 6educe the original amount o- mi0ing ,ater by the amount contributed by the aggregates as determined
in Ste( )4 +here-ore, "C46 gallons @ )* gallons F *646 gallons o- ,ater ,hich must be added to the mi04
EN5466 ,",,
'tep /. Ad2ust the ,eights o- the aggregates by the amount contributed by the ,ater4
$A ),!6C lbBcy M "544 lbBcy F ),C?"44 lbBcy
FA ),?C"44 lbBy M 644#C lbBcy F ),)4C4"C lbBcy
'tep 0. Ad2ust the .olume o- the -ine aggregate to re-lect the ;bulking<.
=iven #" > -.?3. From Figure *@C, the FA is considered a medium sand4 Select the a((ro(riate
moisture content across the bottom o- the -igure, read u( to the a((ro(riate sand cur.e, and read the
correct bul3ing -actor on the le-t edge4 For this e0am(le, FSM e1uals 6 (ercent and the bul3ing -actor is
?4*C4
The increase in # volume is then@@:
,et
F :
dry
<) M 8F= F )?45 c- <) M 4*C= F )"444 c-
7ra.el ,ill not bul3 de to its sha(e and siDe4
'tep 4. +he ad2usted mi0 design to account -or the actual -ield conditions is no,@@
$ement F !4?5 sac3s <+y(e 5A=
Water F *646 gallons
$A F )!4? c- or ),C?4 lbBcy
FA F )"444 c -or ),)4C lbBcy
Air content F 5 (ercent
5t is im(ortant to chec3 the moisture content o- the aggregates and ma3e a((ro(riate ad2ustments as conditions
change <a-ter rains or (eriods o- dryness or ,hen the ne, material arri.es=4 +his 1uality@control ste( assures that
the desired concrete is (roduced throughout the construction (hase4
!ate#ia'& E&ti$ation
A-ter designing the mi0, it is necessary to estimate the total amounts o- material needed -or the 2ob4 +his is
sim(ly done by com(uting the total .olume o- concrete to be (oured, adding a ,ater -actor, and multi(lying this
.olume times the amount o- each com(onent in the )@cubic yard mi0 design4 +he mi0 design is the original based
on SS& aggregate condition4 +he (rocedure -ollo,s'
'tep ). &etermine the total .olume <in cubic yards= o- concrete to be (oured4
'tep -. Add an e0tra amount -or ,aste4 5- your total .olume is *?? cubic yards or less, then add )? (ercent4 5-
the total .olume is greater than *?? cubic yards, then add 5 (ercent4
'tep /. &etermine the total amount o- cement, -ine aggregate, and coarse@aggregate by multi(lying the amounts
o- these com(onents needed -or ) cubic yard by the ad2usted total .olume4 rder cement in sac3s and sand and
gra.el in tons4
'tep 0. &etermine the re1uired amount o- ,ater needed -or the 2ob4 Water is re1uired on concrete (ro2ects not
only -or mi0ing but -or ,etting the -orms, tool clean u(, and curing4 A (lanning -actor o- C gallons o- ,ater -or
each sac3 o- cement is usually su--icient4 +he reader is cautioned, ho,e.er, that not all o- this ,ater ,ill be used
-or concrete4
,",0 EN5466
68"PL6 P9&7L6": Using the mi0 design determined (re.iously in this cha(ter, determine the total amount
o- materials needed to construct the retaining ,all sho,n in Figure *@#4 +he )@cubic@yard mi0 design is reca((ed
belo,4
$ement F !4?5 sac3s <+y(e 5A=
Water F "C46 gallons
$A F )!4? c- or ),!6C lbBcy
FA F )?45 c- or ),?C" lbBcy
Air content F 5 (ercent
Fig+#e ,";) Retaining >a'')
'tep ). &etermine the total .olume o- concrete re1uired4 An easy ,ay to do this is to brea3 the (ro2ect u( into
sim(le geometric sha(es4 &i.ide the retaining ,all into t,o sections, the ,all (ortion and the -ooting4 A close
e0amination o- Figure *@# sho,s the ,all cross section is a tra(eDoid, ,hich is )4 -eet # inches high, C inches
,ide on one end, and )@-oot ,ide on the other4
EN5466 ,",4
Footing .olume' <)4*5 -t=<C45 -t=<!5 -t= FE #64# c-
+otal .olume' ),!*?46 c-@ *! c-Bcy F 6"4! cy
'tep -. Since the .olume is *?? cubic yards or less, the ,aste -actor is )? (ercent4
+otal .olume M ,aste F <6"4! cy= <)4)?= F !?4) cy
'tep /. &etermine the amounts o- cement and aggregates needed4
$ement <!4?5 sac3sBcy= <!?4) cy= F 4#44* sac3s
6ound this .alue u( to 4#5 sac3s since
you cannot order (artial sac3s4
$A <),!6C lbBcy= <!?4) cy= F )*",#"! lb or 6)4# tons
FA <),?C" lbBcy= <!?4) cy= F !5,#)C lb or "!4# tons
'tep 0. &etermine the amount o- ,ater re1uired -or clean u( and mi0ing4
Water re1uired <4#5 sac3s= <C galBsac3= F ",#6? gallons
Summary o- the amounts o- materials to be ordered -or the (ro2ect@@
$ement F 4#5 sac3s
Water F ",#6? gallons
$A F 6* tons
FA F "C tons
LESSON ,
PRACTICAL PROBLE!
btain the (reliminary (ro(ortions -or a one@cubic@yard concrete mi0 to be used in a rein-orced@concrete retaining
,all to be constructed at Fort Leonard Wood, M4 +he climate is se.ere, and a high@s(eed .ibrator ,ith a *5?@
c-m air com(ressor is a.ailable4 +he concrete ,ill be mi0ed using a M#)# concrete mobile mi0er, ,hich can
handle a ma0imum siDe aggregate o- ) )B* inches4
S%eci1ication&A
Strength at *C days F ",??? (si
$ement ty(es a.ailable @@ 5, 5A, 555
Water a.ailable -rom a (otable source
Fine aggregate FM S7N 8UWN >ercent Fines
Source A *45? *465 )*? lbBc- 4
Source 8 *4#5 *46? )*5 lbBc- 6
,"45 EN5466
$oarse
aggregate +y(e S7 8UW MSAN >ercent Fines
Source A 7ra.el *4C5 ))? lbBc- *H <@= ?45
Source 8 7ra.el *46? #5 lbBc- )H<@= )4?
Source $ 7ra.el *4!? )?" lbBc- )B*H <@= )4"
NOTEA NS7 F s(eci-ic gra.ity/ N8UW F bul3 unit ,eight NMSA F ma0imum siDe aggregates
)4 Select cement ty(e4
a4 A.ailability
b4 $limate
c4 S(eci-ications OOOOO
*4 Select aggregates4
a4 Fine aggregate
<)= Fineness modulus OOOOO
<*= S(eci-ic gra.ity OOOOO
<"= 8UW OOOOO
<4= >ercent -ines OOOOO
b4 $oarse@aggregate
<)= Ma0imum siDe aggregate allo,able -or the (ro2ect'
)B5 0 + F )B5 0 OOOOO F OOOOO
)B" 0 & F )B" 0 OOOOO F OOOOO
"B4 0 Minimum clear s(ace <M$S= F "B4 0 OOOOO F OOOOO
MSA -or mi0ing e1ui(ment F OOOOO
MSA -or the (ro2ect <smallest o- abo.e= F OOOOO
<*= $hosen aggregate'
+y(e OOOOOOOOOO
MSA OOOOOOOOOO
S(eci-ic gra.ity OOOOOOOOOO
8ul3 unit ,eight OOOOOOOOOO
>ercent -ines OOOOOOOOOO
"4 Select design slum( <see +able *@4 on (age *@6=4
Ma0imum OOOOOOOOOO
Minimum OOOOOOOOOO
44 Select ,Bc ratio4
EN5466 ,",6
a4 Strength <see +able *@) on (age *@"= OOOOOOOOOO
b4 &urability and ,atertighness <see +able *@)'
&urability OOOOOOOOOO
Watertightness OOOOOOOOOO
c4 $hoose the lo,est o- the abo.e4 &esign ,Bc ratio F OOOOO
54 Select ,ater content and (ercent o- air <sea +able *@* on (age *@4=
a4 Water content OOOOOOOOOO
b4 >ercent o- air <entra((ed or entrained= OOOOOOOOOO
64 $alculate cement content
!4 :olume o- gra.el <see +able *@6 on (age *@)4=
Weight o- gra.el F 8UW 0 loose .olume F OOOOO 0 OOOOO OOOOO
C4 :olume o- sand4
a4 $on.ert to absolute .olume'
<4= Air F (ercent o- air 0 *! F OOOOO 0 *! F OOOOO
<5= >: F summation F OOOOO
b4 Absolute .olume o- sand F *! @ >: F *! @ OOOOO F OOOOOO
c4 Weight o- sand F absolute .olume 0 S7 0 6*44 F OOOOO 0 OOOOO 0 6*44 F OOOOO
d4 Loose .olume sand F ,eight o- sand F OOOOO F OOOOO
8UW sand
#4 >reliminary mi0 (ro(ortions -or a cubic yard batch4
Summary'
$ement OOOOOOOOOOOO lbs OOOOOOOOOO sac3s
Water OOOOOOOOOOOO lbs OOOOOOOOOO gallons
,",9 EN5466
Sand OOOOOOOOOOOOO lbs OOOOOOOOO cubic -eet
7ra.el OOOOOOOOOOOOO lbs OOOOOOOOO cubic -eet
Air OOOOOOOOOOOOO >ercent <air@entrained concrete only=
Slum( OOOOOOOOOOOOO inches
NOTEA +hese (ro(ortions assume a SS& moisture condition -or the aggregate4 Ad2ustment must be made -or the
actual moisture condition o- the aggregates on the 2ob site as outlined in Lesson *, >art &4
EN5466 ,",:
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL PROBLE!
S%eci1ication&A
Strength at *C days F ",??? (si
$ement ty(es a.ailable @ 5, 5A, 555
Water a.ailable -rom a (otable source
Fine aggregate FM S7 8UW >ercent Fines
Source A *45? *465 )*? lbBc- 4
Source 8 *4#5 *46? )*5 lbBc- 6
$oarse
aggregate +y(e S7 8UW MSAN >ercent Fines
Source A 7ra.el *4C5 ))? lbBc- *H <@= ?45
Source 8 7ra.el *46? #5 lbBc- )H <@= )4?
Source $ 7ra.el *4!? )?" lbBc- )B*H <@= )4"
)4 Select cement ty(e4
a4 A.ailability
b4 $limate
c4 S(eci-ications )A
*4 Select aggregates4
a4 Fine aggregate
<)= Fineness modulus *45?
<*= S(eci-ic gra.ity *465
<"= 8UW )*? (c-
<4= >ercent -ines 4
b4 $oarse aggregate
<)= Ma0imum siDe aggregate allo,able -or the (ro2ect'
)B5 0 + F )B5 0 CH F ) "B5H
)B" 0 & F )B" 0 )5H F 5H
"B4 0 M$S F "B4 0 *H F ) )B*H
MSA -or mi0ing e1ui(ment F ) )B*H
MSA -or the (ro2ect <smallest o- abo.e= F ) )B*H
<*= $hosen aggregate
+y(e 7ra.el <Source 8=
MSA l inch
S(eci-ic gra.ity *46?
8ul3 unit ,eight #5 (c-
>ercent -ines )4?
,",; EN5466
"4 Select design slum( <see +able *@4 on (age *@6=4
Ma0imum 4 inches
Minimum ) inch
44 Select ,Bc ratio4
a4 Strength <see +able *@) on (age *@"= ?446
b4 &urability and ,atertighness <see +able *@* on (age *@4='
&urability ?45?
Watertightness ?45?
c4 $hoose the lo,est o- the abo.e4 &esign ,Bc ratio F ?446
54 Select ,ater content and (ercent o- air <see +able *@*='
a4 Water content *#5 lbs
b4 >ercent o- air <entra((ed or entrained= 64? (ercent
64 $alculate cement content4
!4 :olume o- gra.el <see +able *@6 on (age *@)4=4 )C4# c-
<FM F *45?/ MSA F ) inch=
Weight o- gra.el F 8UW 0 loose .olume F #5 0 )C4# F ),!#545 lbs
C4 :olume o- sand4
a4 $on.ert to absolute .olume'
<4= Air F (ercent o- air 0 *! F ?4?6 0 *! F )46* c-
<5= >: F summation F *?46C c-
b4 Absolute .olume o- sand F *! @ >: F *! @ *?46C F 64"* c-
c4 Weight o- sand F absolute .olume 0 S7 0 6*44 F 64"* 0 *465 0 6*44 F ),?45 lbs
EN5466 ,"0=
#4 >reliminary mi0 (ro(ortions -or a cubic yard batch4
Summary'
$ement 64)4" lbs 64C sac3s
Water *#5 lbs "544 gallons
Sand ),?45 lbs C4! cubic -eet
7ra.el ),!#545 lbs )C4# cubic -eet
Air 6 >ercent <air@entrained concrete only=
Slum( 4 inches
NOTEA +hese (ro(ortions assume a SS& moisture condition -or the aggregate4 Ad2ustments must be made -or
the actual moisture condition o- the aggregates on the 2ob site as outlined in Lesson *, >art &4
,"0 EN5466
T2IS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLB LEFT BLANC
EN5466 ,"0,
LESSN *
PRACTICE E?ERCISE
$hec3 your understanding o- Lesson * by com(leting the (ractice e0ercise4 +here is only one correct ans,er to
each 1uestions4 +ry to ans,er all o- the 1uestions ,ithout re-erring to the lesson materials4
When you ha.e com(leted all o- the 1uestions, turn the (age and chec3 your ans,ers against the correct res(onse4
Each correct res(onse is re-erenced to s(eci-ic (ortion o- the lesson material so you can re.ie, any 1uestions you
ha.e missed or do not understand be-ore continuing to the ne0t lesson4
)4 &e-ine moderate e0(osure conditions4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
*4 A change in the ,Bc ratio changes the characteristics o- the@@
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
"4 List si0 o- the basic guidelines -or em(loying the Absolute :olume Method -or (ro(ortioning concrete4
<6B))=
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
44 &e-ine se.ere e0(osure conditions4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
54 List the ste(s to be -ollo,ed in estimating the materials needed in a construction (ro2ect4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
64 List t,o main criteria -or selecting mi0 (ro(ortions4 Se.en are (resent in the test4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
!4 When testing di--erent batches o- the same mi0ture, changes in slum( indicate changes in@@
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
,"00 EN5466
LESSN *
PRACTICE E?ERCISE
ANSWER CEB AND FEEDBACC
5tem $orrect Ans,er and Feedbac3
)4 FreeDing e0(ected but concrete not continually e0(osed to moisture or -ree ,ater -or long (eriods
be-ore -reeDing4
Moderate e0(osure4 +his means 444 <(age *@5=
*4 %ardened concrete4
Al,ays remember that a change 444 <(age *@*=
"4 $ombine the (aste com(onents as in the +rial 8atch Method4
&etermine and (roduce the re1uired slum(4
Estimate the ,ater re1uirement <see +able *@* on (age *@4=4
Estimate the .olume o- dry@rodded coarse aggregate (er cubic yard <see +able *@6 on (age *@)4=4
&etermine the ma0imum siDe and FM o- the -ine aggregate4
$alculate the .olume occu(ied (er cubic yard o- concrete by the ,ater, cement, coarse aggregate,
and air4
<6B)) guidelines are (resented4=
+his method can be 444 <(age *@)"=
44 $oncrete e0(osed to deicing chemicals or other aggregate agent or continually e0(osed moisture or
,ater (rior to -reeDing4
Se.ere e0(osure4 +his means 444 <(age *@5=
54 &etermine the total .olume in cubic yards o- the concrete to be (laced4
Add an e0tra amount -or ,aste4
&etermine the total amounts o- cement, -ine and coarse aggregate by multi(lying amounts o- these
com(onents needed -or ) cubic yard the ad2usted total .olume4
&etermine the re1uired amount o- ,ater needed -or the 2ob4 <Amount o- ,ater is a((ro0imately C
gallons o- ,ater (er sac3 o- cement needed4=
Ste( ), Ste( *, and Ste( " <(ages *@*) and *@*"=
64 >ro(ortions are determined by the concreteEs end use4
>ro(ortions are determined by antici(ated conditions at the time o- (lacement4
Strength, durability, and a((earance4
>lacability and economy4
$oncrete (ro(ortions -or a444 <(age *@*=
EN5466 ,"04
5tem $orrect Ans,er and Feedbac3
!4 Materials
Mi0 (ro(ortions
Water content
When testing di--erent batches444 <(age *@5=
,"05 EN5466
T2IS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLB LEFT BLANC)
EN5466 ,"06
LESSON 0
FOR! DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
OVERVIEW
LESSN &ES$65>+5N'
5n this lesson you ,ill identi-y the im(ortance o- -orm and -orm design and their uses in construction4
+E6M5NAL LEA6N5N7 89E$+5:E'
A$+5N' 5denti-y and (lan the design o- -orms and identi-y their uses in construction4
$N&5+5N' ;ou are gi.en the materials contained in this lesson4
S+AN&A6&' $orrectly ans,er all (ractice e0ercise 1uestions at the end o- the lesson4
6EFE6EN$E' +he material contained in this lesson ,as deri.ed -rom the -ollo,ing (ublication' FM 5@!4*, ,ith
change )4
INTRODUCTION
Forms hold concrete until i se and (roduces the desired sha(es and sur-ace -inishes4 Forms also (rotect concrete
and su((ort any rein-orcing bars4 8ecause -orms re(resent u( to one@third o- a concrete structure total cost, this
lesson is .ery im(ortant4
PART A " FOR! DESIGN
PRINCIPLES
I$%o#tance o1 Fo#$ De&ign
Form,or3 holds concrete until it sets and (roduces the desired sha(es and, sometimes, sur-ace -inishes4 Forms
also (rotect concrete, aid in curing, and su((ort any rein-orcing bars or conduit embedded ,ithin it4 8ecause
-orm,or3 can re(resent u( to one@third o- a concrete structureEs total cost, this (hase o- a (ro2ect is .ery
im(ortant4 +he nature o- the structure, a.ailability o- e1ui(ment and -orm materials, antici(ated reuse o- the
-orms, and -amiliarity ,ith construction methods all in-luence the -orm,or3 design4 +o design -orms, you must
3no, the strength o- the -orming materials and the loads they must su((ort4 ;ou must also consider the concrete
-inal sha(e, dimensions, and sur-ace -inish4
0" EN5466
Fo#$ C3a#acte#i&tic&
Forms must be tight, rigid, and strong4 Loose -orms (ermit either loss o- cement, resulting in honeycomb, or loss
o- ,ater, causing sand strea3ing4 8race -orms enough to align them and ma3e them strong enough to hold the
concrete4 +a3e s(ecial care in bracing and tying do,n -orms used -or such con-igurations as retaining ,alls that
are ,ide at the bottom and that ta(er to,ard the to(4 +he concrete in this and other ty(es o- construction, such as
the -irst (our -or ,alls and columns, tends to li-t the -orm abo.e its (ro(er ele.ation4 +o reuse -orms, ma3e them
easy to remo.e and re(lace ,ithout damage4 +he easiest ,ay is to oil the -orms be-ore (lacing the concrete4
Fo#$ !ate#ia'&
Forms are generally made -rom -our di--erent materials' ,ood, metal, earth, and -iber4 Metal -orms are more
e0(ensi.e than ,ood, but are more economical i- reused enough4 +he material you ,ill use is ,ood4
FOR!ING
Wa'' Fo#$&
Figure "@) sho,s the basic (arts o- a ,ood -orm -or (anel ,al3s4
Fig+#e 0") Woo( 1o#$ 1o# a conc#ete %ane' >a'')
'heathing. Sheathing -orms the .ertical sur-aces o- a concrete ,all4 +he sheathing must be ,atertight4
Although sheathing made -rom tongue@and@groo.e lumber gi.es the smoothest and most ,atertight
concrete sur-ace, you can also use (ly,ood or -iber@based hardboard4
'tuds. :ertical studs add rigidity to the ,all -orms4 +hey are made -rom single *@ by 4@-oot or *@ by 6@
-oot lumber4
*ales $walers%. Wales rein-orce the studs ,hen they e0tend u(,ard more than 4@ or 5@-eet4
+hey should be made -rom doubled *@ by 4@inch, *@ by 6@inch, or a single 4@ by
EN5466 0",
4@inch (iece o- lumber, and are la((ed at the -orm corners to add rigidity4 &ouble ,ales not only
rein-orce the studs but also tie (re-abricated (anels together and 3ee( them aligned4
7races. Although braces are neither (art o- the -orm design nor considered as (ro.iding any additional
strength, they hel( stabiliDe the -orm4 - the many ty(es o- braces, the most common is a combination o-
a diagonal member and a horiDontal member nailed to a sta3e at one end and to a stud or ,ale on the
other4 +he diagonal member ma3es a *?@ to 6?@degree angle ,ith the horiDontal member4 +o add more
bracing you can (lace .ertical members <strongbac3s= behind the ,ales, or .ertical members in the angle
-ormed by intersecting ,ales4
'preaders. S(readers are small (ieces o- ,ood (laced bet,een the sheathing (anels to maintain the
(ro(er ,all thic3ness bet,een them4 +hey are cut to the same length as the ,all thic3ness4 8ecause
-riction, not -asteners/ holds the s(readers in (lace, you can remo.e them easily be-ore the concrete
hardens4 Attach a ,ire, o-- centered, securely through the s(readers, as sho,n in Figure "@), to (ull them
out ,hen the -resh concrete e0erts enough (ressure against the sheathing to (ermit remo.al4
Tie wires. +ie ,ires secure the -orm,or3 against the lateral (ressure o- the (lastic concrete4 +hey al,ays
ha.e double strands4
Tie rods. +ie rods are easier to ,or3 ,ith and sometimes re(lace tie ,ires in the same -unction4
Co'+$n Fo#$&
Figure "@* sho,s the basic (arts o- a ,ood -or a concrete column4
Fig+#e 0",) Fo#$ 1o# a conc#ete co'+$n an( 1ooting)
0"0 EN5466
'heathing. Sheathing runs .ertically in column -orms to reduce the number o- sa, cuts4 ;ou must nail
the corner 2oints -irmly to ensure ,atertightness4
@okes. A yo3e is a horiDontal rein-orcement in the -orm o- a rectangle that ,ra(s around a column to
(re.ent concrete -rom distorting the -orm4 5t ser.es the same (ur(ose as a stud in a ,all -orm4 ;ou can
loc3 yo3es in (lace using the sheathing@, scab@, or bolt@ty(e yo3e loc34 +he small horiDontal dimensions
o- a column do not re1uire .ertical rein-orcement4
7attens. 8attens are narro, stri(s o- boards that are (laced directly o.er the 2oints to -asten the se.eral
(ieces o- .ertical sheathing together4
PART B " USING FOR! DESIGN PRINCIPLES
BASIS OF FOR! DESIGN
8ecause concrete is in a (lastic state ,hen (laced in the -orm, it e0erts hydrostatic (ressure on the -orm4 +hus,
the basis o- -orm design is to o--set the ma0imum (ressure de.elo(ed by the concrete during (lacing4 +he
(ressure de(ends on the rate o- (lacing and the ambient tem(erature4 +he rate o- (lacing a--ects (ressure because
it determines ho, much hydrostatic head builds u( in the -orm4 +he hydrostatic head continues to increase until
the concrete ta3es its initial set, usually in about #? minutes4 %o,e.er, because the initial set ta3es much more
time at lo, ambient tem(eratures, you must consider the ambient tem(erature at the time o- (lacing4 Ano,ing
these t,o -actors <rate o- (lacing and ambient tem(erature= (lus the s(eci-ied ty(e o- -orm material, you can
calculate a tentati.e design4 +he tem(erature ,ill be assumed -or the design4 5- the actual tem(erature di--ers at
the 2ob site, ad2ustment ,ill be made4
PANEL WALL FOR! DESIGN
P#oce(+#e
5t is best to design -orms -ollo,ing a ste(@by@ste( (rocedure4 Use these ste(s to design a ,ood -orm -or a
concrete ,all4
'tep ). &etermine the materials you ,ill use -or sheathing, studs, ,ales, braces, and ties4
'tep -. &etermine the mi0er out(ut by di.iding the mi0er yield by the batch time4 8atch time includes loading all
ingredients, mi0ing, and unloading4 5- you use more than one mi0er, multi(ly the mi0er out(ut by the number o-
mi0ers4
'tep /. &etermine the area enclosed by the -orm4
>lan area <s-= F Length <L= 0 Width <W=
'tep 0. &etermine the rate o- (lacing <.ertical -eet (er hour= <6= o- the concrete in the -orm by di.iding the mi0er
out(ut by the (lan area4
EN5466 0"4
NOTEA For an economical design, try to 3ee( 6 5 -tBhr4
'tep 4. Ma3e a reasonable estimate o- the (lacing tem(erature o- the concrete4 <Ambient tem(erature during the
season4=
'tep A. Use the rate o- (lacing to determine the ma0imum concrete (ressure by re-erring to Figure "@"4 First,
dra, a .ertical line -rom the rate o- (lacing until it intersects the correct concrete tem(erature line4 +hen read le-t
horiDontally -rom the (oint o- intersection to the le-t margin o- the gra(h and determine the ma0imum concrete
(ressure in )?? lbBs-4
Fig+#e 0"0) !a*i$+$ conc#ete %#e&&+#e g#a%3)
'tep ?. Use +able "@) on (age "@6 or +able "@* on (age "@! to -ind the ma0imum stud s(acing in inches4 Use
+able "@) -or board sheathing and +able "@* -or (ly,ood sheathing4 6e-er to the column headed Ma0imum
$oncrete >ressure and -ind the .alue you ha.e -or the ma0imum concrete (ressure4 5- the .alue you ha.e -alls
bet,een t,o .alues in the column, round it u( to the nearest gi.en .alue4 No, mo.e right to the column
identi-ied by the sheathing thic3ness you are using4 <Use the strong ,ay -or (ly,ood ,hen (ossible4= +his
number is the ma0imum stud s(acing in inches4
0"5 EN5466
Ta-'e 0") !a*i$+$ &t+( 4Goi&t5 &%acing 1o# -oa#( &3eat3ing)
EN5466 0"6
Ta-'e 0",) !a*i$+$ &t+( 4Goi&t5 &%acing 1o# %'/>oo( &3eat3ing8 in)
0"9 EN5466
'tep 5. &etermine the uni-orm load on a stud <ULS= by multi(lying the ma0imum concrete (ressure by the stud
s(acing4
'tep B. Use +able "@" to determine the ma0imum ,ale s(acing4 6e-er to the column headed Uni-orm Load <UL=
and -ind the .alue you ha.e -or the ULS4 5- the .alue you ha.e -alls bet,een t,o .alues in the column, round it
u( to the nearest gi.en .alue4
EN5466 0":
Ta-'e 0"0) !a*i$+$ &%acing 1o# >a'e&8 tie&8 &t#inge#&8 an( 4" -/ 4 inc3 o# 'a#ge#
&3o#e& >3e#e $e$-e# to -e &+%%o#te( i& a &ing'e $e$-e# 4in5)
0"; EN5466
No, mo.e right to the column identi-ied by the siDe o- stud you are using4 +his number is the ma0imum ,ale
s(acing in inches4
'tep )3. &etermine the uni-orm load on a ,ale <ULW= by multi(lying the ma0imum concrete (ressure by the
ma0imum ,ale s(acing4
'tep )). Use +able "@" on (age "@# or +able "@4 <de(ending on ty(e o- ,ale= to determine the tie s(acing based
on the ULW4 6e-er to the column headed Uni-orm Load and -ind the .alue you ha.e -or the ULW4 5- the .alue
you ha.e -alls bet,een t,o .alues in the column, round it u( to the nearest gi.en .alue4 No, mo.e right to the
column identi-ied by the siDe o- lumber o- ,ale you are using4 +his number is the ma0imum tie s(acing in inches,
based on ,ale siDe4 Use +able "@" i- using single ,ales <4@ by 4@inch lumber=4 Use +able "@4 i- you are using
double ,ales <*@ by 4@inch or *@ by 6@inch lumber=4
EN5466 0"=
Ta-'e 0"4) !a*i$+$ &%acing 1o# tie& an( 4 -/ 4& o# 'a#ge# &3o#e& >3e#e
$e$-e# to -e &+%%o#te( i& a (o+-'e $e$-e# 4in5)
0" EN5466
'tep )-. No, determine the tie s(acing based on the tie strength by di.iding the tie brea3ing strength by the UL
on a ,ale4 5- you do not 3no, the brea3ing strength o- the tie, +able "@5 gi.es the brea3ing loads -or a double@
strand ,ire and tie rods <-ound in the Army su((ly system=4
5- the result does not e1ual a ,hole number o- inches, round the .alue do,n to the ne0t number o- inches4
Ta-'e 0"5) Ave#age -#ea.ing 'oa( o1 tie $ate#ia' 4'-5)
'tep )/. Select the smaller o- the tie s(acings as determined in Ste(s )) and )*4
'tep )0. +ie ,ires must be installed at the intersection o- studs and ,ales4 6educe the stud s(acing <Ste( != or
the tie s(acing <Ste( )"= to con-orm ,ith this re1uirement4 +ie rods may be (laced along the ,ales at the s(acing
determined in Ste( )" ,ithout ad2usting the studs4 >lace the -irst tie at one@hal- the ma0imum tie s(acing -rom
the end o- the ,ale4
'tep )4. &etermine the number o- studs on one side o- a -orm by di.iding the -orm length by
the ma0imum stud s(acing4 Add one to this number and round u( to the ne0t integer4 +he
EN5466 0",
-irst and last studs must be (laced at the ends o- the -orm, e.en though the s(acing bet,een the last t,o studs may
be less than the ma0imum allo,able s(acing4
'tep )A. &etermine the number o- ,ales -or one side o- a -orm by di.iding the -orm height by the ma0imum ,ale
s(acing, and round u( to the ne0t integer4 >lace the -irst ,ale one@hal- o- the ma0imum s(ace u( -rom the bottom
and the remainder at the ma0imum ,ale s(acing
'tep )?. &etermine the time re1uired to (lace the concrete by di.iding the height o- the -orm by the rate o-
(lacing4
E*a$%'e P#o-'e$
&esign the -orm -or a concrete ,all 4? inches long, * -eet thic3, and )? -eet high4 An M#)# concrete mobile
mi0er is a.ailable, and the cre, can (roduce and (lace a cubic yard o- concrete e.ery )? minutes4 +he concrete
(lacing tem(erature is estimated at !?F4 +he -orm materials you ha.e are *@by 4@-oot lumber, )@inch board
sheathing, and No # steel ,ire4
So'+tion Ste%&A
'tep ). Materials a.ailable' studs, *@ by 4@-oot <single=/ ,ales, *@ by 4@-oot <doubled=/ sheathing, )@inch board/
ties, No # ,ire4
'tep /. >lan area o- -orm F 4? -t 0 * -t F C? s-
'tep 4. $oncrete (lacing tem(erature F !?F
'tep A. Ma0imum concrete (ressure <re-er to Figure "@", (age "@5= F 4?? lbBs-
'tep ?. Ma0imum stud s(acing <re-er to +able "@), (age "@6= F )C inches
'tep B. Ma0imum ,ale s(acing <re-er to +able "@", (age "@#= F *4 inches
'tep )). +ie ,ire s(acing based on ,ale siDe <re-er to +able "@4, (age "@))= F "? inches
0"0 EN5466
'tep )/. Ma0imum tie s(acing F *) inches
'tep )0. 8ecause ma0imum tie s(acing is greater than ma0imum stud s(acing <Ste( !=, reduce the tie s(acing to
)C inches and tie at the intersection o- each stud and double ,ale4
E*a$%'e P#o-'e$ ,
&esign the -orm -or a concrete ,all 4? -eet long, * -eet thic3, and )? -eet high4 An M#)# concrete mobile mi0er
is a.ailable, and the cre, can (roduce and (lace a cubic yard o- concrete e.ery se.en minutes4 +he concrete
(lacing tem(erature is estimated at !?F4 +he -orm materials you ha.e are *@ by 4@inch lumber, "B4@inch
(ly,ood, and ",???@(ound <brea3ing strength= sna( ties4
So'+tion Ste%&A
'tep ). Materials a.ailable' studs, * by 4 <single=/ ,ales, * by 4 <doubled=/ sheathing, "B4@inch (ly,ood <strong=/
ties, ",???@(ound sna( ties
'tep /. >lan area o- -orm F 4? -t 0 * -t F C? s-
'tep 4. $oncrete (lacing tem(erature F !?F
'tep A. Ma0imum concrete (ressure <re-er to Figure "@", (age "@5= F 5?? lbBs-
'tep ?. Ma0imum stud s(acing <re-er to +able "@*, (age "@!= F )5 inches
'tep B. Ma0imum ,ale s(acing <re-er to +able "@", (age "@#, using !?? lbBl- load= F ** inches
'tep )). +ie s(acing based on ,ale siDe <re-er to +able "@4, (age "@)), using ),??? lbBl- load= F *! inches
EN5466 0"4
'tep )/. +here-ore, ma0imum tie s(acing F *! inches4
'tep )0. 8ecause ,e are using tie rods, it is not necessary to ad2ust the tie or stud s(acing4 +he -irst tie rod goes
in one@hal- the s(acing -rom the end and -ull s(acing therea-ter4
BRACING FOR WALL FOR!S
Gene#a'
8races are used against ,all -orms to 3ee( the -orms in (lace and in alignment -rom misha(s due to e0ternal
-orces <,inds, (ersonnel, e1ui(ment, .ibration, and accidents=4 An e1ui.alent -orce due to all o- these -orces <the
resultant -orce= is assumed to be acting uni-ormly along the to( edge o- the -orm in a horiDontal (lane4 For most
military a((lications, this -orce is assumed to be )*45 -eet by the ,all height4 As this -orce can act in both
directions, braces to be used should be e1ually strong on tension as in com(ression, or braces should be used on
both sides o- the ,all -orms4 +he design (rocedure is based on using a single ro, o- braces, and assuming that
strong, straight, seasoned lumber ,ill be used4 +he braces are (ro(erly secured against the ,all -orms and the
ground at both ends4 Ano,ing the height o- the ,all to be built and selecting a material <* inches or greater= -or
the braces, determine the ma0imum sa-e s(acing o- these braces <center to center= that ,ill 3ee( the -orm ,or3
aligned4
No$enc'at+#e
See Figure "@4 on (age "@)64
0"5 EN5466
Fig+#e 0"4) E'e$ent& o1 (iagona' -#acing)
L
8
F +otal length <-eet= o- the brace member -rom end connection to end connection4
L
ma0
F +he ma0imum allo,able unsu((orted length o- the brace <-eet= due to buc3ling and bending4 For all *@
inch material, L
ma0
F 6 )B4 -eet/ -or all 4@inch material, L
ma0
F )4 )B* -eet4
L F +he actual unsu((orted length <-eet= o- the brace used4
EN5466 0"6
h F +he o.erall height <-eet= o- the ,all -orm4
y F +he (oint o- a((lication o- the brace on the ,all -orm, measured in -t -rom the base o- the -orm4
P F +he angle, in degrees, that the brace ma3es ,ith the horiDontal4 For best e--ect, ? should be bet,een *? and
6? degrees4
9 F A -actor to be a((lied ,hich includes all constant .alues <material (ro(erties and assumed ,ind -orce=4 5t is
measured in -t
4
4 See +able "@64
Ta-'e 0"6) F 1acto#&)
S
ma0
F +he ma0imum sa-e s(acing o- braces <-eet=, center to center, to su((ort the ,alls against e0ternal -orces4
cos F@ $osine/ the ratio o- the distance -rom the sta3e to the ,all di.ided by the length o- the brace
sin F Sine/ the ratio GyH .ided by L
8
4
P#oce(+#e
+he design (rocedure can best be e0(lained by an e0am(le (roblem4
Example Problem: &etermine the s(acing o- bracing -or a ,all )? -eet high4 Use *@ by 6@inch by )?@-oot
material attached 6 -eet -rom the bottom to the to( o- the -orm4
Select material F gi.en *@ by 6@inch by )? -oot <uncut=
9 F ",!)? -t
4
<-rom +able "@6=
L
ma0
F 6 )B4 -eet <because o- *@inch material=
L
8
F )? -eet
0"9 EN5466
h F )? -t <-rom e0am(le (roblem=
y F 6 -eet <-rom e0am(le (roblem=
'tep ). &etermine angle o- (lacement, P4
PF sin
)
<46??= F 46?? F "!
'tep -. &etermine L <actual su((orted length o- brace=4 Since the L
ma0
-or all *@inch material is 6 )B4 -eet and
the brace in this (roblem is )? -eet long, you ,ill ha.e to use something to su((ort the braces <usually )@ by 4@
inch or )@ by 6@inch material=4 +he best (osition to (ut this su((ort ,ould be in the middle o- the brace, thus
gi.en L F 6 -eet4
'tep /. &etermine S
ma0
-rom the -ormula4
+hus, using *@ by 6@inch by )?@-oot braces a((lied to the ,all -orm at y F 6 -eet, you should (lace these braces no
-urther a(art than ! -eet4 6emember also that a-ter the braces are (ro(erly installed, connect all braces to each
other at the center so de-lection does not occur4
NOTEA +his (rocedure determines the ma0imum sa-e s(acing o- braces4 +here is no doctrine that states the
braces $+&t be (laced ! -eet a(art@@they can be lessQ
Discussion. +o -ully understand the (rocedure, the -ollo,ing (oints lend insight to the -ormula'
&eri.ation o- the -ormula has a sa-ety -actor o- "4
For older or GgreenH lumber, reduce S
ma0
according to 2udgement4
For ma0imum su((ort, attach braces to the to( edge o- the -orms <or as close as (racticable=4 Also, better
su((ort ,ill be achie.ed i- P F 454
6emember to use intermediate su((orts ,hene.er the length o- the brace <L
8
= is greater than L
ma0
4
Whene.er there are choices o- material, the larger siDe ,ill al,ays carry greater loads4
+o (re.ent o.erloading o- the brace, su((ort should be (laced no closer together than * -eet -or all *@inch
material, nor 5 -eet -or all 4@inch material4 +his is necessary to (re.ent crushing o- the brace4
EN5466 0":
OVER2EAD SLAB FOR! DESIGN
Gene#a'
+here may be instances ,here a concrete slab ,ill ha.e to be (laced abo.e the ground, such as bun3er and cul.ert
roo-s4 $are-ul consideration must be gi.en to the design o- the -orm,or3 because o- the danger o- -ailure caused
by the ,eight o- (lastic concrete and the li.e load <LL= o- e1ui(ment and (ersonnel on the -orms4 +he -ollo,ing
method em(loys some o- the same (rocedures used in the ,all@-orm design'
No$enc'at+#e
See Figure "@64
Fig+#e 0"5) T/%ica' ove#3ea( &'a- 1o#$&)
'heathing. Sha(es and holds the concrete4 >ly,ood or solid sheet metal is best -or use4
Coists. Su((ort the sheathing against de-lection4 >er-orm the same -unction as studs in a ,all -orm4 Use
*@, "@, or 4@inch thic3 lumber4
'tringers. Su((ort the 2oists against de-lection4 >er-orm the same -unction as ,ales in a ,all -orm4 Use
*@inch@thic3 or larger lumber4 Stringers do not ha.e to be doubled as ,ales are4
0"; EN5466
'hores. Su((ort the stringers against de-lection4 >er-orm the same -unctions as tie in a ,all -orm and
also su((ort the concrete at the desired ele.ation abo.e ground4 Use lumber at least as large as the
stringer but ne.er smaller than 4 by 4 inches in dimension4
Lateral bracing. May be re1uired bet,een ad2acent shores to 3ee( shores -rom bending under load4 Use
)@ by 6@inch or larger material -or bracing material4 $ross or GRH bracing o- some ty(e ,ill al,ays be
re1uired to su((ort the -orm ,or3 material4
P#oce(+#e
'tep ). S(eci-y the materials you ,ill be using -or the construction o- the o.erhead roo- slab4 5t is im(ortant that
anyone using your design ,ill 3no, e0actly ,hich materials to use -or each o- the structural members4
'tep -. &etermine the ma0imum total load <+L= the -orm,or3 ,ill ha.e to su((ort4 +he LL o- materials,
(ersonnel, and e1ui(ment is estimated to be 5? lbBs- unless the -orm,or3 ,ill su((ort engine@(o,ered concrete
buggies or other (o,er e1ui(ment4 5n this case, a LL o- !5 lbBs- ,ill be used4 +he LL is added ,ith the dead load
o- the concrete to obtain the ma0imum +L4 +he concrete dead load is obtained by estimating the unit ,eight o-
concrete at )5? lbBc-4 +he -ormulas are@@
+otal load <+L= F LL M dead load <&L=
LL F 5? lbBs-, or !5 lbBs- ,ith (o,er e1ui(ment
'tep /. &etermine the ma0imum 2oist s(acing4 Use +able "@) on (age "@6, or +able "@* on (age "@!, and read the
2oist s(acing based on the sheathing material used, ,hich i the same as -or determining the ma0imum stud s(acing
-or ,all@-orm design4 Use the ma0imum +L in (lace o- the ma0imum concrete (ressure4
'tep 0. $alculate the uni-orm load on the 2oist4 +he same (rocedure is used as -or determining UL on structural
members in ,all@-orm design4
'tep 4. &etermine the ma0imum stringer s(acing4 Use +able "@" on (age "@#, and the UL on the 2oist calculated
in Ste( 44 6ound this load u( to the ne0t higher load located in the le-t column o- the table, then read right to the
column containing the lumber material used as the 2oist4 +his is the member to be su((orted by the stringer4 +he
.alue at this intersection is the on@center <$= s(acing o- the stringer4
'tep A. $alculate the uni-orm load on the stringer4
'tep ?. &etermine the ma0imum shore s(acing4 Ma0imum shore s(acing is based on the
stringer strength4 Use +able "@", -or single stringers, and use +able "@4 on (age "@)), i- stringers
are doubled and the UL on the stinger is rounded to the ne0t higher load sho,n in
EN5466 0",=
the le-t column o- the table4 +o assure the stringer is (ro(erly su((orted read right to the stringer material
column4 +his intersection is the $ s(acing o- the shore4 Ma0imum shore s(acing is also de(endent on shore
strength and end bearing o- the shore on the stringer4
Use the allo,able load -rom +able "@! and +able "@C on (age "@**, based on the shore strength and the bearing
stress strength o- the stringer4
NOTEA Unsu((orted length F height abo.e sill@@sheathing thic3ness@@2oist thic3ness@@stringer thic3ness4 +his
length is then rounded u( to the ne0t higher table .alue4
Ta-'e 0"9) A''o>a-'e 'oa(8 in %o+n(&8 on >oo( &3o#e&8 -a&e( on &3o#e &t#engt3)
0", EN5466
Ta-'e 0":) A''o>a-'e 'oa( on &%eci1ie( &3o#e8 -a&e( on -ea#ing &t#e&&e& >3e#e
t3e $a*i$+$ &3o#e a#ea i& in contact >it3 t3e &+%%o#te( $e$-e#)
llowable load based on shore strength. Select the shore material dimensions and determine the
unsu((orted length in -eet o- the shore4 Use +able "@! on (age "@*)4 6ead do,n the le-t column to the
unsu((orted length <in -eet= o- the shore/ read right to the column o- the siDe material used as the shore4
+he allo,able load -or that shore is gi.en in (ounds at the intersection o- the ro, and column4
llowable load based on end!bearing area. Select the siDe o- the shore material and the com(ression
(er(endicular to the grain o- the stringer4 5- the com(ression (er(endicular to the grain is un3no,n,
use the lo,est .alue (ro.ided on the table4 Use +able "@C4 6ead do,n the le-t column to the
com(ression (er(endicular to the grain o- the stringer material and then right to the column o- the shore
material4 +he allo,able load bet,een the stringer and the shore ,ill be in (ounds4
'elect the allowable load on the shore. $om(are the t,o loads 2ust determined and select the lo,er as the
allo,able load on the shore4 $alculate shore s(acing by the -ollo,ing -ormula'
Select the most critical shore s(acing4 $om(are the s(acing o- the shore based on the stringer strength and shore
load and select the smaller o- the t,o s(acings4
'tep 5. Shore bracing chec34 :eri-y that the unbraced length <)= o- the shore <in inches= di.ided by the last
dimension <d= o- the shore does not e0ceed 5?4 5- lBd e0ceeds 5?, the lateral and cross bracing must be (ro.ided4
+able "@) on (age "@6 indicates the lBd S 5? shore lengths and can be used i- the shore material is sound and
uns(liced4
5n any case, it is good engineering (ractice to (ro.ide both lateral and diagonal bracing all shore members i-
material is a.ailable4
EN5466 0",,
E*a$%'e P#o-'e$
&esign the -orm -or the roo- o- a concrete ,ater tan3 to be 6 inches thic3, *? -eet ,ide, and "? -eet long4 +he slab
,ill be constructed C -eet abo.e the -loor <to the bottom o- the slab=4 A.ailable materials are "B4@inch (ly,ood
and 4@ by 4@inch S4S <sur-aced on -our sides= lumber4 Mechanical buggies ,ill be used to (lace concrete4
'tep ). S(eci-y the materials -or construction4 Sheathing "B4@inch (ly,ood <strong ,ay=/ 2oists, 4@ by 4@inch
<S4S= shores, 4@ by 4@inch <S4S=/ stringers, and 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= lumber4
'tep -. &etermine the ma0imum total load4
LL@ F (ersonnel and e1ui(ment F !5 lbBs-
+L F &L M LL F !5 lbBs- M !5 lbBs- F )5? lbBs-
'tep /. &etermine the ma0imum 2oist s(acing4 Use +able "@* on (age "@!4
"B4@inch (ly,ood <strong ,ay= and +L F )5? lbBs-
9oist s(acing F ** inches
'tep 0. $alculate the UL94
'tep 4. &etermine the ma0imum stringer s(acing4 Use +able "@" on (age "@#4
Load F *!5 lbBl-
9oist material F 4@ by 4@inch
Ma0imum stringer s(acing F 55 inches
'tep A. $alculate the uni-orm load on the stringer <ULS
str
=4
'tep ?. &etermine the ma0imum shore s(acing <use +able "@"=4 S(acing is based on stringer strength4 <Use
+able "@4 on (age "@))4=
Load F 6C!45 lbBl- <round u( to !?? lbBl-=
Stringer material F 4@ by 4@inch <S4S=
Ma0imum shore s(acing F "5 inches
S(acing based on the shore strength and end bearing o- the shore on the stringer4 Use +able "@! on (age "@*) and
+able "@C4
llowable load based on shore strength $see Table /!?%.
0", EN5466
Unsu((orted length F C -eet @ "B4@inch @ " )B* inch @ " )B* inches F ! -eet 4 )B4 inches <round u( to C -eet=
+hen, -or an C@-oot 4@by 4@inch <S4S= (iece o- lumber, the allo,able load F 5,4?? lb4
llowable load based on end!bearing stresses $see Table 5 on page /!--%. Since you do not 3no, ,hat
s(ecies o- ,ood you are using you must assume the ,orst case4 +here-ore, the com(ression
(er(endicular the grain F *5?, and the allo,able load -or a 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= F ",)?? lb4
'elect the most critical load. Since the com(ression (er(endicular to the grain is less than the allo,able
load on the shore (er(endicular to the grain, ",)?? (ounds is the critical load4
Determine shore spacing based on allowable load.
Select the most critical shore s(acing4 +he s(acing determined by stringer strength in Ste( ! is less than the
s(acing based on the shore strength determined in Ste( !/ there-ore, the shore s(acing to be used is "5 inches4
'tep 5. Shore de-lection chec34
l F C -eet @ "B4@inch @ " )B* inches @ " )B* inches F ! -oot 4 )B4 inches F CC4*5 inches
d F least dimension o- 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= lumber F "45 inches
Lateral bracing is not re1uired4 $ross bracing is al,ays re1uired4
'tep B. Summary4
Sheathing' )B4@inch (ly,ood <strong ,ay=
9oists' 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= lumber s(aced ** inches $
Stringers' 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= lumber s(aced 55 inches $
Shores' 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= lumber s(aced "5 inches $
Lateral braces' Not re1uired
Co'+$n Fo#$ De&ign
>rocedure4 Use these ste(s to design a ,ood -orm -or a concrete column4
'tep ). &etermine the materials you ,ill use -or sheathing, yo3es, and battens4 <Standard materials -or column
-orms are *@ by 4@inch and )@inch sheathing4=
'tep -. &etermine the column height4
'tep /. &etermine the largest cross@sectional column dimension4
EN5466 0",4
'tep 0. &etermine the ma0imum yo3e s(acings by re-erring to +able "@#4 First, -ind the column height in -eet in
the -irst column4 +hen mo.e right horiDontally to the column heading the largest cross@sectional dimension o- the
column you are constructing4 +he center@to@center s(acing bet,een the second yo3e and the base yo3e is the
lo,est .alue in the inter.al that -alls (artly in the correct column height line4 ;ou can obtain all subse1uent yo3e
s(acing by reading u( this column to the to(4 +hese are ma0imum yo3e s(acings/ you can (lace yo3es closer
together4
Ta-'e 0";) Co'+$n /o.e &%acing +&ing ," -/ 4"inc3 an( "inc3 &3eat3ing)
0",5 EN5466
'tep 4. Ad2ust the -inal s(acing to match the to( height o- the column4
E*a$%'e P#o-'e$ 0
&etermine the yo3e s(acing -or a #@-oot column ,hose largest cross@sectional dimension is "6 inches4
$onstruction materials are *@ by 4@inch and )@inch sheathing4
Solution Steps:
'tep ). Materials a.ailable F *@ by 4@inch and )@inch sheathing
'tep -. $olumn height F # -eet
'tep /. Largest cross@sectional dimension F "6 inches
'tep 0. Ma0imum yo3e s(acings <re-er to +able "@# on (age "@*5= starting -rom the base yo3e are C, C, )?, )), )*,
)5, )!, )!, and )? inches4 +he s(acing bet,een the to( t,o yo3es is reduced due to the limits o- the column
height4
LESSON 0
PRACTICAL PROBLE!S
P#o-'e$ A Conc#ete Wa'' Fo#$ De&ign
&esign the -orms -or a concrete ,ail 4 -eet high, 4? inches long and )C inches thic34 +,o )6@S mi0ers are
a.ailable, each (roducing )6 cubic -eet o- concrete e.ery 4 minutes4 Materials a.ailable are l@inch (ly,ood
sheathing used the strong ,ay, *@by 4@inch studs, double ,ales, and "???T tie rods4 +he estimated concrete
tem(erature is 6?F4
P#o-'e$ ,A Conc#ete Wa'' Fo#$ Deign
&esign the -orms -or a concrete retaining ,all that is )*? -eet long, )@-oot ,ide, and )* -eet high4 ;ou ha.e an
M#)# concrete mobile mi0er a.ailable and you ha.e estimated your (roduction rate at )* cubic yards o- concrete
(er hour4 ;ou are to construct the -orms -rom "B4@inch (ly,ood, *@ by 6@inch studs, *@ by 6@inch double ,ales,
and No C tie ,ire4 +he concrete tem(erature is estimated at 5?UF4
P#o-'e$ 0A B#ace De&ign
&etermine the ma0imum s(acing -or braces -or the ,all in >roblem No *4 +he brace material is *@ by 6@inch by
)*@-oot4 ;ou ,ill ha.e to connect the braces * -eet belo, the to( o- the -orm4 A Natural +rigonometric
Functions <+rig +able= <see +able "@)?= is (ro.ided, i- needed4
EN5466 0",6
Ta-'e 0"=) Nat+#a' t#igono$et#ic 1+nction&)
P#o-'e$ 4A Ove#3ea( S'a- Fo#$ De&ign
&esign the -orms -or the roo- o- a concrete ,ater tan3 ,hich ,ill be 6 inches thic3, *? -eet ,ide, and "? -eet long4
+he slab ,ill be constructed )? -eet abo.e the -loor o- the tan34 A.ailable materials are )@ by 6@inch boards and
4@ by 4@inch lumber, both S4S4 +he slab is to be -inished using hand tools4
P#o-'e$ 5A Co'+$n Fo#$ De&ign
&esign the -orms -or a rectangular column *4 by *C inches and )5 -eet high4 Materials are )@inch board sheathing
and *@inch by 4@-oot lumber4 <See Figure "@6 on (age "@*C4= From the in-ormation gi.en -igure the -ollo,ing'
0",9 EN5466
Materials used OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
%eight o- column OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
Largest cross@sectional dimension o- column OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
;o3e s(acing OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
Fig+#e 0"6) Co'+$n 1o#$ (e&ign)
EN5466 0",:
An&>e#A P#o-'e$
)4 Material' )@inch (ly,ood, *@ by 4@inch studs and ,ales, "???T tie rods
"4 >lan area' <4? -t=<)45 -t= F 6? s1 -t
54 $oncrete tem(erature' 6?F
64 Ma0imum concrete (ressure' #?? lbBs1 -t <see Figure "@* on (age "@"=4
!4 Ma0imum stud s(acing' )4 inches <see +able "@* on (age "@!=4
#4 Ma0imum ,ale s(acing )! inches <see +able "@4 on (age "@))=4
))4 +ie s(acing <,ale=' *" inches <see +able " on (age "@)*=4
)"4 Ma0imum tie s(acing
)44 $om(are stud@tie s(acing' NBA
Summary'
Sheathing' )@inch (ly,ood <Strong= NBA
Studs' Single *@ by 4@inch )4 inches
Wales' &ouble *@ by 4@inch )! -eet
+ies' "???T rods *" inches
Di&c+&&ionA 5n Ste( 4 ,e reduced the rate o- (lacement -rom C -eet (er hour to 5 -eet (er hour -or economy o-
design/ this should be accom(lished by reducing the siDe o- the batches during mi0ing4
An&>e#A P#o-'e$ ,
)4 Materials' "B4@inch (ly,ood <strong ,ay=, *@by 6@inch single studs, *@ by 6@inch double ,ales, and No C tie
,ire -or ties4
*4 Mi0er out(ut' )* cyBhr 0 *! c-Bcy F "*4 c-Bhr
"4 >lan area' <)*? -t= <) -t= F )*? s-
0",; EN5466
54 $oncrete tem(erature' 5?UF
64 $oncrete (ressure' 64? (s- <See Figure "@* on (age "@"4=
!4 Ma0imum stud s(acing' )" inches <See +able "@*, (age "@!4=
#4 Ma0imum ,ale s(acing' "6 inches <See +able "@", (age "@#4=
))4 +ie s(acing <,ale=' "? inches <See +able "@4 on (age "@))4=
<NOTEA ),!?? (ounds is -rom +able "@5 on (age "@)*4=
)"4 Ma0imum tie s(acing' )? inches
)44 +ie@stud ad2ustment' reduce stud s(acing to )? inches4
Summary'
Sheathing' "B4@inch (ly,ood <strong ,ay=
Studs' Single *@ by 6@inch )? inches $
Wales' &ouble *@ by 6@inch "6 inches $
+ies' No4 C tie ,ire )? inches $
An&>e#A P#o-'e$ 0
7i.en in-ormation' Materials' *@ by 6@ by )* inches
9 F ",!)? -t
4
<See +able "@! on (age "@*)4=
L
ma0
F 64*5
)
<*@inch material=
L
8
F )* -eet
% F )* -eet
;F )? -eet
? F Sine
@)
<?4C"""= ;
V
56W
*4 L F 6 -t <brace su((ort (laced at the mid (oint o- the braces=
EN5466 0"0=
An&>e#A P#o-'e$ 4
)4 A.ailable materials' )@ by 6@inch S46
4@ by 4@inch S4S
*4 &etermine loads' Assume a li.e load is 5? lbBs-4 +he dead load is )5? lbBc-4
&L F )5? <)B*@-oot= F !5 (s-
LL F 5? lbBs-
+L F &L M LL F )*5 (s-
"4 7o to +able "@) on (age "@6 -or )@ by 6@inch sheathing -or ma0imum concrete (ressure o- )*5 (s-4
Ma0imum 2oist s(acing is *6 inches4
44 Uni-orm load on the 2oists'
54 &etermine ma0imum stringer s(acing using +able "@", (age "@#' 55 inches
64 $alculate the uni-orm load on the stringer <ULS
str
=4
!4 &etermine the ma0imum shore s(acing4
From +able "@", ,ith a uni-orm load o- 5!" lbB-t to 6?? lbB-t, the s(acing is "! inches4
E.aluate the ma0imum shore s(acing based on the shore strength4 Find su((orted strength4
)?E @ "B4H @ " )B*H @ " )B*H F #K 4 )B*H to the nearest ,hole number is )? -eet
Allo,able load according to +able "@! on (age "@*) -or the unsu((orted length o- )? -eet is ",4?? <using 4@ by 4@
inch S4S=4
E.aluate the ma0imum allo,able load based on end@bearing area4 <Since the $ is un3no,n, use the lo,est
.alue (ro.ided in +able "@C on (age "@**4=
Select the allo,able load on the shore4 <$om(are and select the lo,er4=
Select the most critical s(acing ,hich ,ould be "! inches -rom using the in-ormation abo.e4
0"0 EN5466
C4 Shore bracing chec3'
F the unsu((orted length <in= ,here ) F )*?H since )*?H @ "B4H @ " )B*H @ " )B*H F ))* )B4H
d F is the least dimension o- the shore4 Since the lumber is a 4@ by 4@inch S45 member, the least dimension <d=
is d F " )B* inches
Lateral bracing is not re1uired4
#4 Summary'
Sheathing' )@inch@ boards <S4S=
9oists' 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= at *6 inches $
Stringers' 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= at 55 inches $
Shores' 4@ by 4@inch <S4S= at "! inches $
ENOTEA +he nominal thic3ness o- a )@inch by the (iece o- lumber <-or e0am(le, <)@ by *@inch, )@by "@inch, )@ by
4@inch, is "B4@inch=4 +he nominal thic3ness o- a 4@inch by (iece o- lumber <-or e0am(le, 4@ by )@inch, 4@ by *@
inch, 4@ by "@inch, is " )B* inches=4 $onsult FM 5@"4 -or the nominal or actual dimensions o- lumber4
An&>e#A P#o-'e$ 5
Materials' )@inch board sheathing
*@ by 4@inch yo3es
$olumn height' )5 -eet
Largest cross@sectional dimension' *C inches
;o3e s(acings' From the bottom u( <in inches=' C, C, C, #, #, #, )?, )*, )", )5, )C, *?, *), *?4 +he last s(acing,
*? inches, ,as determined by subtracting all the (re.ious s(acings -rom the total height o- the column, in inches
<)C? inches @ )6? inches F *? inches=4
EN5466 0"0,
LESSN "
PRACTICE E?ERCISE
$hec3 your understanding o- Lesson " by com(leting the (ractice e0ercise4 +here is only correct ans,er to each
1uestion4 +ry to ans,er all o- the 1uestions ,ithout re-erring to the lesson materials4
When you ha.e com(leted all o- the 1uestions, turn the (age and chec3 your ans,ers against the correct res(onse4
Each correct res(onse is re-erenced to s(eci-ic (ortions o- the lesson material so that you can re.ie, any
1uestions you ha.e missed or do not understand, be-ore continuing to the ne0t lesson4
)4 List -i.e reasons ,hy -orm design is .ery im(ortant in the construction (rocess4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
*4 List three characteristics that should be considered in -orm design and construction4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
"4 List -our materials -rom ,hich -orms can be made4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
44 List the basic in-ormation needed to design a ,all -orm4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
Xuestions 5 through # concern Ove#3ea( S'a- Fo#$ De&ign
54 GivenA +he ma0imum total load -or a slab is "?? (ounds (er s1uare -oot, and you are using *@ by 6@inch
lumber -or sheathing and 4@ by 4@inch lumber -or 2oists4 &etermine the ma0imum 2oist s(acing, in inches4
A4 55
84 5"
$4 "#
&4 "5
0"00 EN5466
T2IS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLB LEFT BLANC)
EN5466 0"04
64 &etermine the uni-orm load on 2oist i- the ma0imum total load is *?? (s- and the 2oists are s(aced e.ery
"45 -eet4
A4 !?? lbBs-
84 !?? lbB-t
$4 6?? lbB-t
&4 5C lbB-t
!4 Given' Ma0imum total load F )5? (s-4 Sheathing F )@inch (ly,ood in the strong direction4 9oists' *@ by
4@inch4 Stringers' single 4@ by 4@inch4 &etermine the ma0imum stringer s(acing in inches4
A4 4#
84 "*
$4 *!
&4 *5
C4 &etermine the uni-orm load on the stringers i- the ma0imum total load is *!5 (er s1uare -oot, the
sheathing is "B4@inch (ly,ood in the ,ea3 direction, the 2oists are 4@ by 4@inch at )5 inches on center, and the
stringers are 4@ by 6@inch at 4# inches on center4
A4 ),)*" lbB-t
84 ),4?5 lbB-t
$4 ),5?6 lbB-t
&4 4,)*5 lbB-t
#4 &etermine the allo,able load <in (ounds= on the shore based on end@bearing stresses bet,een the shore
and the stringer, i- you are using 4@ by 4@inch stringers and 6@ by 6@ by )?@inch shores4 +he stringers can carry
"5? (ounds (er s1uare inch in com(ression (er(endicular <$;= to their grain4 8oth members are made ,ith
rough lumber4
A4 6,!??
84 !,)??
$4 )),)??
&4 *",???
0"05 EN5466
LESSN "
PRACTICE E?ERCISE
ANSWER CEB AND FEEDBACC
5tem $orrect Ans,er and Feedbac3
)4 Form,or3 holds concrete until it sets4
Form,or3 (roduces the desired sha(e4
Form,or3 (roduces sur-ace -inished i- desired4
Form,or3 (rotects concrete -rom the elements4
Form,or3 aids curing4
Form,or3 su((orts accessories4
5m(ortance o- Form &esign4 <(age "@)=
*4 Forms must be tight, rigid, and strong4
Forms must be braced su--iciently to align them and ma3e them strong enough to hold the concrete4
Forms should be made so they can be easily remo.ed and re(laced ,ithout damage -or re-use4
Form $haracteristics4 <(age "@*=
"4 Wood
Metal
Earth
Fiber, (a(er, or (lastic
Form Materials4 <(age "@*=
44 6ate o- (lacing
E0(ected ambient tem(erature
S(eci-ied ty(e o- -orm material
Ano,ing these t,o -actors 444 <(age "@4=
54 &4 *@inch concrete (ressure F "?? (s-
+able "@)4 <(age "@6=
Ste( 44 <(age "@*?=
EN5466 0"06
5tem $orrect Ans,er and Feedbac3
!4 84 9oist s(acing F *! inches
+able "@*4
SS F "* inches <See +able "@" at "5? lbB-t, *@ by 4@inch 2oists=4
#4 8 Ma0imum contact area is 4@ by 6@inch -or this combination4
<See +able "@C on (age "@**, $) F "5?, 4@ by 6@inch <6==
+able "@C4 <(age "@**=4
0"09 EN5466
T2IS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLB LEFT BLANC)
EN5466 0"0:
LESSON 4
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
OVERVIEW
LESSN &ES$65>+5N'
5n this lesson you ,ill identi-y construction (lan (rocedures -or concreting o(erations4
+E6M5NAL +6A5N5N7 89E$+5:E'
A$+5N' 5denti-y and (lan construction (rocedures -or concreting o(erations4
$N&5+5N' ;ou are gi.en the materials contained in this lesson4
S+AN&A6&' $orrectly ans,er all (ractice e0ercise 1uestions at the end o- the lesson4
6EFE6EN$E' +he material contained in this lesson ,as deri.ed -rom the -ollo,ing (ublication' FM 5@!4*,
,ith change )4
INTRODUCTION
5n this lesson, you ,ill ,or3 your ,ay through a com(lete construction (rocedure, beginning ,ith reconnaissance
through 1uality control and ins(ection4 ;ou ,ill also in.estigate the site -or any unusual characteristics that can
cause construction (roblems, such as undesirable soil or roc3 base4 8y antici(ating and considering such
(roblems be-orehand, you can a.oid construction delay4
PART A " RECONNAISSANCE8 SITE PREPARATION8
AND E?CAVATION PROCEDURES
RECONNAISSANCE
Dete#$ining Po&&i-'e Di11ic+'tie&
Ma3e a thorough and e--icient reconnaissance o- the construction site as the -irst ste( in any construction
(rocedure4 Note (ossible (roblems in clearing and draining the site or in trans(orting and storing materials4 Also,
in.estigate the site -or any unusual characteristics that can cause construction (roblems, such as undesirable soil
or roc3 base4 8y antici(ating and considering such (roblems be-orehand, you can a.oid construction delays4
Ro+te Se'ection
Local tra--ic (atterns, the 1uality o- e0isting roads and bridges, and the e1ui(ment you ,ill use
all a--ect the selection o- the best route to the construction site4 Ma3e ma0imum use o-
4" EN5466
the e0isting road net,or3, since you can generally sa.e time and e--ort by re(airing or im(ro.ing an e0isting road
rather than constructing a ne, one4 When (ossible, select an alternate route also4
Locating Wate# an( Agg#egate
Locate the nearest or most con.enient source o- suitable mi0ing ,ater4 Note any alternate sources in case
subse1uent tests sho, that your -irst choice is unsuitable4 Whene.er (ossible, use local sand and gra.el sources4
Locate these sources and s(eci-y any necessary tests4
Ti$e E&ti$ation
Estimate the time -or site (re(aration care-ully during your reconnaissance o- the area4 A good estimate assures
that the (ro(er e1ui(ment is a.ailable at both the (lace and time o- need4
SITE PREPARATION
B+i'(ing A%%#oac3 Roa(
Most ne, construction ta3es (lace on unde.elo(ed land4 +here-ore, you must build a((roach roads to deli.er
materials t the site4 E.en though these are tem(orary roads, construct them care-ully to ,ithstand hea.y loads4
8ecause the routes may become (ermanent roads later, build enough lanes to (ermit -ree tra--ic -lo, to and -rom
the construction site4
Lan( C'ea#ing
+his consists o- remo.ing all trees, do,ned timber, brush, and other .egetation and rubbish -rom the site/ digging
u( sur-ace boulders and other material embedded in the ground/ and dis(osing o- all materials cleared4 +o clear
the site o- large timber and boulders, you may need hea.y e1ui(ment as ,ell as hand e1ui(ment, e0(losi.es, and
burning by -ire4
A(e<+ate D#ainage
5m(ortant in areas ha.ing high ground,ater tables and -or carrying o-- rain ,ater during actual construction4 ;ou
can use either a ,ell@(oint system or mechanical (um(s to ,ithdra, sur-ace and subsur-ace ,ater -rom the
building site4
Locating t3e B+i'(ing Site
Sta3e out the building site a-ter clearing and draining the land4 +he batter board layout is satis-actory in the
(reliminary construction (hases ,ith this method, (lace batter boards a((ro0imately * to 6 -eet outside o- each
corner o- the site4 +hen dri.e nails into the boards and e0tend strings bet,een them to outline the building area4
STOCCPILING CONSTRUCTION !ATERIALS
Conc#ete !ate#ia'&
Locate and stoc3(ile the 1uantities o- sand, gra.el, admi0ture, and cement re1uired4 +a3e measures <ele.ate and
co.er= to 3ee( cement dry4 5n o(erations re1uiring large 1uantities o- concrete, both aggregate and cement
batching (lants are essential4 8uild u( and maintain stoc3(iles o- aggregate both at the batching (lant and at the
crushing and screening (lant4 +he batching (lant stoc3(iles (re.ent shortages caused by tem(orary (roduction or
EN5466 4",
trans(ortation di--iculties and also allo,s the -ine aggregates to reach a -airly stable and uni-orm moisture content
and bul3ing -actor4 Large stoc3(iles are usually rectangular -or ease in com(uting .olumes4 +hey are -lat on to(
to retain gradation uni-ormity and to a.oid segregation caused by dum(ing aggregate so that it runs do,n a long
slo(e4 8e sure to maintain enough cement at the cement batching (lant4 +he amount o- concrete re1uired by the
(ro2ect and the (lacement rate determine the siDe o- the stoc3(iles4 5- you ,ill use admi0tures, ma3e sure that
enough are on hand4
L+$-e# at Con&t#+ction Site&
Stoc3(ile (lenty o- -orm,or3 and sca--olding materials at the construction site4 +he siDe and 1uantity o- lumber
you store de(ends on the ty(e o- -orms and sca--olding you (lan to use4
Batc3ing P'ant&
+he initial location o- the aggregate, cement, and ,ater/ the aggregate 1uality/ and the location o- the ,or3 can all
a--ect ,here you (osition the cement batching (lant4 &e(ending on these conditions, you can o(erate the cement
batching (lant at the same (lace as the aggregate batching (lant or closer to the mi0er4 A-ter de.elo(ing a layout,
(osition the batching (lant ,ithin crane reach o- the aggregate stoc3(iles and astride the batch truc3 routes4
Although the crushing and screening (lant is normally located at the (it, it can be o(erated at the batching (lant or
at a se(arate location4 5- the road is good, a hillside location (ermits gra.ity handling o- materials ,ithout
e0cessi.e ne, construction and may eliminate the need -or cranes or con.eyors4
Sa1et/ Faci'itie&
>lan, and in some cases construct, the sa-ety -acilities during site (re(aration4 +hey include o.erhead cano(ies
and guardrails both to (rotect (ersonnel -rom -alling debris and to (re.ent anyone -rom -alling into o(en
e0ca.ations4 $ertain sites, such as those ,here landslides may occur, re1uire additional sa-ety -acilities4
PART B " PLAN FOR!WORC USED IN CONSTRUCTION PROFECTS
!ANAGE!ENT ASPECTS
+o (er-orm a (ro(er analysis, you must ha.e a ,or3ing 3no,ledge o- the e1ui(ment necessary -or the -orm,or3
2ob and a good idea o- ho, much ,or3 the -orm builders can turn out (er unit o- time4
E@UIP!ENT
+he a.erage -orm,or3 2ob re1uires cla, hammers, (inchbars, handsa,s, a table sa,, le.els, (lumb lines, and
car(enterEs s1uares4 Ma3e sure these tools are readily a.ailable4
TEC2NI@UES
&e.elo( standardiDed methods -or constructing, erecting, and stri((ing -orms to the ma0imum e0tent (ossible4
+his sa.es time and material and sim(li-ies design (roblems4
4"0 EN5466
TI!E ELE!ENT
A car(enter o- a.erage s3ill can build and erect )? s1uare -eet o- ,ood -orms (er hour4 +his -igure increases as
the ,or3er becomes more s3illed in -orm construction4 5t also .aries ,ith the tools and materials a.ailable and
the ty(e o- -orm4 Some -orms, such as those -or stair,ays, re1uire considerable (hysical su((ort -rom
underneath4 Such -orms ta3e more man@hours and materials to build than sim(ler -orms4 For car(enters to mo.e
-rom one le.el to another -re1uently re1uires additional time4 +here-ore, increased man(o,er su((ort at the
ground le.el increases e--iciency4
PART C " !I?ING8 2ANDLING8 TRANSPORTATION8 PLACE!ENT8
FINIS2ING8 AND CURING OF CONCRETE
!I?ING
P#inci%'e&
;ou must -ollo, established and ,ell@de-ined concrete mi0ing (rocedures to (roduce good 1uality -inished
concrete4 ;ou can ne.er o.ercome o.ersights in this (hase o- concrete construction, ,hether caused by lac3 o-
com(etent and conscientious su(er.ision or inattention to detail4 Whoe.er is in charge o- construction must 3no,
the concrete mi0ing (rocedures and ma3e sure that they are -ollo,ed4 +he e0tra e--ort and care this re1uires are
small in relation to the bene-its4
!ea&+#ing !i* !ate#ia'&
$oncrete o- uni-orm 1uality re1uires measuring the ingredients accurately4 $hec3 e1ui(ment accuracy
(eriodically and ad2ust ,hen necessary4 $hec3 admi0ture dis(ensers daily because errors in admi0ture
measurements, (articularly o.erdoes, can cause serious (roblems in both -resh and hardened concrete4
Ce$ent
$oncrete mi0es normally call -or sac3ed cement as the unit o- measure4
Agg#egate
Measure aggregate -or each batch accurately, either by ,eight or by .olume4 Measurement by ,eight is the most
reliable because the accuracy o- .olume measurement de(ends on an e0act 3no,ledge o- the amount o- moisture
in the sand4 Ne.ertheless, sometimes measurement by .olume is more (ractical4
"easurement by weight. n com(arati.ely small 2obs, you can use (lat-orm scales (laced on the ground
to ,eigh aggregate4 $onstruct run,ays as sho,n in Figure 4@), so that a ,heelbarro, can be run onto
one side o- the scale and o-- the other easily4 With (ractice, you can -ill a ,heelbarro, so accurately that
adding or remo.ing material to obtain the correct ,eight is seldom necessary4 Al,ays (lace the same
,eight o- aggregate on each ,heelbarro, so that the 1uantity (er batch e1uals the same number o-
,heelbarro, loads4 ;ou need not load a ,heelbarro, to ca(acity4
EN5466 4"4
Fig+#e 4") !ea&+#ing agg#egate -/ >eig3t)
"easurement by volume. ;ou can measure aggregate by .olume using a )@cubic@-oot measurement bo0
built on@site or a ,heelbarro,4 Wheelbarro,s ha.ing the *@ to "@cubic -oot ca(acities are also a.ailable
in the engineering units4 +he M#)# measures aggregate to .olume4
Wate#
;ou must measure mi0ing ,ater accurately -or e.ery batch4 5- the aggregate contains too much moisture, be sure
to ta3e this into account ,hen adding mi0ing ,ater4 +he ,ater tan3s on the M#)# are ad2usted by means o- the
-lo,meter4
2an( !i*ing
Although a machine generally does the mi0ing, some hand mi0ing is al,ays necessary4 ;ou need a clean sur-ace
-or this (ur(ose, such as a clean, e.en, (a.ed sur-ace or a ,ood (lat-orm ha.ing tight 2oints to (re.ent (aste loss,
li3e the one sho,n at the to( o- Figure 4@* on (age 4@64 Moisten the sur-ace and le.el the (lat-orm, and s(read
the coarse aggregate o.er the cement as sho,n at the to( o- Figure 4@*4 Use either a hoe <see middle o- Figure
4@*= or a s1uare@(ointed, &@handled sho.el to mi0 the materials4 +urn the dry materials at least three times until
the color o- the mi0ture is uni-orm4 Add ,ater slo,ly ,hile you turn the mi0ture again at least three times or
until you obtain the (ro(er consistency4 Although one ,or3er can mi0 ) cubic yard o- concrete by hand in about
) hour, this is not economical -or batches o- more than ) cubic yard4 5nstead, t,o ,or3ers -acing each other
should ,or3 their ,ay through the (ile and 3ee( their sho.els close to the (lat-orm sur-ace ,hile turning the
materials4 ;ou can also mi0 in a hoe bo0, as sho,n at the bottom o- Figure 4@*4
4"5 EN5466
Fig+#e 4",) 2an( $i*ing conc#ete)
!ac3ine !i*ing an( De'ive#/
+he methods o- mi0ing and deli.ering concrete ingredients and the ty(es and siDes o- e1ui(ment a.ailable .ary
greatly4 >o,er concrete mi0ers normally (roduce one batch about e.ery " minutes, including charging and
discharging4 Actual hourly out(ut .aries -rom )? to *? batches (er hour4 A mi0erEs cubic@-oot rating usually
re-lects the number o- cubic -eet o- useable concrete that the machine mi0es in one batch, e0ce(t that most mi0ers
can handle a )? (ercent o.erload4 +he stationary )6@cubic@-oot mi0er and the M#)# concrete mobile mi0er <see
Figure 4@"= unit are table<s= o- organiDation and e1ui(ment <+E= in engineer construction battalions and are
,ell@suited -or troo( construction (ro2ects4
EN5466 4"6
Fig+#e 4"0) T/%ica' on"&ite a##ange$ent o1 $i*ing e<+i%$ent an( $ate#ia'&)
!I?ING !ET2ODS
'ite mi(ed. Method used -or deli.ering (lastic concrete by chute, (um(, truc3, con.eyor, or rail dum(
cars4
Central!plant mi(ed. Method used -or deli.ering (lastic ready@mi0 in either o(en dum( truc3s or mi0er
truc3s4
Central!plant batched $weighed and measured%. Method used -or mi0ing and deli.ering Gdry@batchedH
ready@mi0 by truc34
Portable mi(ing plants. Method used -or large building or (a.ing (ro2ects distant -rom sources o- su((ly4
!I?ER TBPES
'tationary mi(ers $including both on!site mi(ers and central mi(ers in ready!mi( plants%. +hey are
a.ailable in .arious siDes and may be tilting or nontilting, ,ith o(en to(, re.ol.ing blades, or (addles4
"obile mi(ers $including both truck! and trailer!mounted mi(ers%. A truc3 mi0er may (ic3
u( concrete -rom the stationary mi0er in a (artially or com(letely mi0ed state4 5n the latter
case, the truc3 mi0er -unctions as an agitator4 +ruc3 mi0ers generally deli.er concrete
-rom a centrally located stationary mi0er to the construction site or (ic3 u(
4"9 EN5466
materials at a batching (lant and mi0 the concrete enroute to the 2ob site4 +railer@mounted mi0ers are
commonly used to (atch concrete (a.ements and -or -illets and cur.e ,idening during (a.ement
construction4 A battery o- trailer@mounted mi0ers can ser.e either as a central mi0 (lant -or large@scale
o(erations or in con2unction ,ith a central mi0 (lant4
O%e#ating t3e 6"C+-ic"Foot !i*e#
+able 4@) gi.es the (hysical characteristics o- a ty(ical )6@cubic@-oot mi0er4 ;ou need ten soldiers and one
noncommissioned o--icer -or normal o(eration o- such a mi0er4 +he cre, handles the aggregate, sand, cement
and ,ater and also o(erates the mi0er4 +he noncommissioned o--icer su(er.ises the o.erall o(eration4 +he cre,
should (roduce about )? cubic yards o- concrete (er hour, de(ending on their e0(erience, the location o-
materials, and the mi0erEs discharge rate4 ;ou ,ould need at least one (latoon to o(erate the o.erall (ro2ect
(ictured in Figure 4@" on (age 4@!4
Ta-'e 4") P3/&ica' c3a#acte#i&tic& o1 a t/%ica' 6"c+-ic"1oot $i*e#)
Charging the mi(er. ;ou can charge mi0ers in t,o ,ays' by hand or ,ith a mechanical s3i( <see Figure
4@4=, ,hich most mi0ers ha.e4 When using the s3i(, -irst de(osit the aggregate, cement, and sand <in that
order= into the s3i(, and then dum( it into the mi0er ,hile mi0ing ,ater runs into the mi0ing drum4 ;ou
can (lace the sand on to( o- the (ile in the s3i( so that you do not lose too much cement as the batch
dum(s into the mi0er4 A storage tan3 on to( o- the mi0er measures the mi0ing ,ater into the drum a -e,
seconds be-ore the s3i( dum(s4 +his discharge also ,ashes do,n the mi0er bet,een batches4
EN5466 4":
Fig+#e 4"4) C3a#ging $i*e# >it3 $ec3anica' &.i%)
Discharging the mi(er. When the mi0 is ready -or discharge -rom the mi0er, mo.e the discharge chute
into (lace to recei.e the concrete -rom the drum4 $oncrete that is some,hat dry tends to cling to the to(
o- the drum and not dro( onto the chute in time4 :ery ,et concrete may not carry u( high enough on the
drum to dro( onto the chute4 ;ou can correct these (roblems by ad2usting the mi0er s(eed4 5ncrease the
s(eed -or .ery ,et concrete and decrease the s(eed -or dry concrete4
"i(ing time. +he mi0ing time starts ,hen ,ater runs into the dry mi0ture, ,hich should be during the
-irst 1uarter o- the mi0ing (eriod4 +he minimum mi0ing time (er batch o- concrete is ) minute, unless the
batch e0ceeds ) cubic yard4 Each additional ) cubic yard o- concrete, or -raction thereo- re1uires an
additional )5 seconds o- mi0ing time4
Cleaning and maintaining the mi(er. $lean the mi0er daily i- it o(erates continuously or -ollo,ing each
(eriod o- use i- it o(erates less than ) day4 +he e0terior cleaning (rocess goes -aster i- you coat the
outside o- the mi0er ,ith -orm oil be-ore you use it4 Anoc3 o-- all accumulated concrete on the mi0er
e0terior and ,ash it do,n ,ith a hose4 Mi0er blades that are ,orn or coated ,ith hardened concrete
(ro.ide less e--icient mi0ing action4 6e(lace badly ,orn blades, and do not allo, hardened concrete to
accumulate in the mi0er drum4 $lean it out ,hene.er you shut it do,n -or more than ) )B* hours4 +o do
this, (lace a .olume o- coarse aggregate e1ual to one@hal- the mi0er ca(acity in the drum and allo, it to
re.ol.e -or about 5 minutes4 +hen discharge the aggregate and -lush out the drum ,ith ,ater4 Ne.er
stri3e the discharge chute, drum shell, or s3i( to remo.e aggregate or hardened concrete because concrete
adheres more readily to dents and bum(s4
O%e#ating t3e !;; Conc#ete !o-i'e !i*e# Unit
+he concrete mobile mi0er unit is a combination material trans(orter and on@site mi0ing (lant4 +able 4@* on (age
4@)? gi.es its (hysical characteristics and o.erall dimensions4 +he s(ecial body is mounted on an M#?? truc3
chassis4 +he unit carries enough unmi0ed material to (roduce u( to C cubic yards o- -resh concrete4 8ecause the
unit is (recisely calibrated, you can (roduce mi0es that meet or e0ceed both the A$5 and American Association o-
State %igh,ay and +rans(ortation --icialsE <AAS%+= standards -or design strength4 +he unit o(erates on
either an intermittent or continuous basis, although continuous o(eration de(ends on ra, material a.ailability at
the site4 $ertain control settings -or the mi0 o(erations .ary -rom truc3 to truc3 and -rom site to site4
4"; EN5466
Ta-'e 4",) P3/&ica' c3a#acte#i&tic& o1 t3e !;; conc#ete $o-i'e $i*e# +nit)
2ANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION
P#inci%'e&
$oncrete consistency de(ends on the (lacing conditions, but handling and trans(orting methods can a--ect its
consistency4 +here-ore, i- (lacing conditions allo, a sti-- mi0, choose e1ui(ment that can handle and trans(ort
such a mi0 ,ithout a--ecting its consistency4 ;ou must care-ully control each handling and trans(orting ste( to
maintain concrete uni-ormity ,ithin a batch, and -rom batch to batch, so that the com(leted ,or3 is consistent
throughout4
2an('ing Tec3ni<+e&
Figure 4@5 sho,s se.eral right and ,rong ,ays to handle concrete to (re.ent segregation
o- the aggregates and (aste4 Segregation causes honeycomb concrete or roc3 (oc3ets4 Segregation
EN5466 4"=
occurs because concrete contains aggregates o- di--erent (article siDes and s(eci-ic gra.ities4 When (laced in a
buc3et, the denser (articles tend to settle to the bottom and the ,ater rises to the to(4
Fig+#e 4"5) Conc#ete 3an('ing tec3ni<+e& to %#event &eg#egation)
4" EN5466
T#an&%o#tation Re<+i#e$ent&
+he three main re1uirements -or trans(orting concrete -rom the mi0ing (lant to the 2ob site are@@
'peed. Fast trans(ortation does not allo, concrete to dry out or lose ,or3ability or (lasticity bet,een
mi0ing and (lacing4
"inimum material segregation. +o (roduce uni-orm concrete, you must ta3e ste(s to reduce segregation
o- the aggregates and (aste to a minimum and (re.ent the loss o- -ine material, cement, or ,ater4
Do delays. rganiDe the trans(ortation to eliminate delays in concrete (lacement that cause undesirable
-ill (lanes or construction 2oints4
PLACE!ENT
I$%o#tance o1 P#o%e# P#oce(+#e&
;ou cannot obtain the -ull .alue o- ,ell@designed concrete ,ithout using (ro(er (lacing and curing (rocedures4
7ood concrete (lacing and com(acting techni1ues (roduce a tight bond bet,een the (aste and coarse aggregate
and -ill the -orms com(letely, both o- ,hich contribute to the -ull strength and best a((earance4
PRELI!INARB PREPARATION
Gene#a'
>re(aration be-ore concrete (lacement includes com(acting, trimming, and moistening the subgrade/ erecting the
-orms/ and setting the rein-orcing steel4 Moistening the subgrade is es(ecially im(ortant in hot ,eather to (re.ent
,ater e0traction -rom the concrete4
P#e%a#ing Fo#$&
9ust be-ore (lacement, chec3 the -orms -or both tightness and cleanliness4 $hec3 the bracing to ma3e sure the
-orms ,ill not mo.e during (lacing4 Ma3e sure that the -orms are coated ,ith suitable -orm oil or coating
material so the concrete ,ill not stic3 to them4 6emember, in an emergency, you can moisten the -orms ,ith
,ater to (re.ent concrete -rom stic3ing4 Forms e0(osed to the sun -or some time dry out and the 2oint tend to
o(en u(4 Saturating the -orms ,ith ,ater hel(s to close the 2oints4
De%o&iting F#e&3 Conc#ete on 2a#(ene( Conc#ete
+o obtain a good bond and a ,atertight 2oint ,hen de(ositing ne, concrete on hardened concrete, ma3e sure that
the hardened concrete is nearly le.el, is clean and moist, and that some aggregate (articles are (artially e0(osed4
5- the sur-ace o- the hardened concrete is co.ered by a so-t layer o- mortar or laitance <a ,ea3 material consisting
mainly o- lime=, remo.e it4 Wet sandblasting and ,ashing is the best ,ay to (re(are old sur-aces, i- you can
remo.e the sand de(osit easily4 Al,ays moisten hardened concrete be-ore (lacing any ne, concrete/ saturate
dried@out concrete -or se.eral hours4 Ne.er lea.e (ools o- ,ater on the old sur-ace ,hen de(ositing -resh
concrete on it4
EN5466 4",
PLACING CONCRETE
P#inci%'e&
+he (rinci(les o- (ro(er concrete (lacement include@@
'egregation. A.oid segregation during all o(erations -rom the mi0er to the (oint o- (lacement, including
-inal consolidation and -inishing4
Consolidation. +horoughly consolidate the concrete, ,or3ing solidly around all embedded rein-orcement
and -illing all -orm angles and corners4
7onding. When (lacing -resh concrete against or hardened concrete, ma3e sure that a good bond
de.elo(s4 Use o- a bonding agent is usually re1uired4
Temperature Control. +a3e a((ro(riate ste(s to control the tem(erature o- -resh concrete -rom mi0ing
through -inal (lacement and (rotect the concrete -rom tem(erature e0tremes a-ter (lacement4
"a(imum Drop. +o sa.e time and e--ort, you may be tem(ted to sim(ly dro( the concrete directly -rom
its deli.ery (oint regardless o- -orm height4 %o,e.er, unless the -ree -all into the -orm is less than 5 -eet,
use .ertical (i(es, suitable dro( chutes, or ba--les4 Figure 4@6 on (age 4@)4 suggests se.eral ,ays to
control concrete -all and (re.ent honeycombing and other undesirable results4
4"0 EN5466
Fig+#e 4"6) Conc#ete %'acing tec3ni<+e&)
La/e# T3ic.ne&&
+ry to (lace concrete in e.en horiDontal layers/ do not (uddle or .ibrate it into the -orm4 >lace each layer in one
o(eration and consolidate it be-ore (lacing the ne0t one to (re.ent honeycombing or .oids, (articularly in ,all
-orms containing considerable rein-orcement4 Use a mechanical .ibrator or a hand s(ading tool -or consolidation4
+a3e care not to o.er .ibrate because segregation and a ,ea3 sur-ace can result4 &o not allo, the -irst layer to
ta3e its initial set be-ore adding the ne0t layer4 Layer thic3ness de(ends on the ty(e o- construction, the ,idth o-
the s(ace bet,een -orms, and the amount o- rein-orcement4 When de(ositing -rom buc3ets in mass concrete
,or3, the layers should be -rom )5 to *? inches thic34 For rein-orced@concrete members, the layers should be
-rom 6 to *? inches thic34
Co$%acting
First, (lace concrete into its -inal (osition as nearly as (ossible4 +hen ,or3 the concrete thoroughly around
rein-orcement and embedded -i0tures, into the corners, and against the sides o- the -orms4 8ecause (aste tends to
-lo, ahead o- aggregate, a.oid horiDontal mo.ements that result in segregation4
EN5466 4"4
P'acing Rate
+o a.oid too much (ressure on -orms -or large (ro2ects, the -illing rate should not e0ceed 5 .ertical -eet (er hour
e0ce(t -or columns4 $oordinate the (lacing and com(acting so that the concrete is not de(osited -aster than it can
be com(acted (ro(erly4 +o a.oid crac3ing during settlement, allo, an inter.al o- at least 4 hours, but (re-erably
*4 hours, bet,een (lacing columns and ,alls and (lacing the slabs, beams, and girders they su((ort4
Wa'' Con&t#+ction
When constructing ,alls, beams, or girders, (lace the -irst batches o- each layer at the ends o- the section, then
(roceed to,ard the center to (re.ent ,ater -rom collecting at the -orm ends and corners4 For ,alls, sto( o-- the
inside -orm at the construction le.el4 .er-ill the -orm -or about * inches and remo.e the e0cess 2ust be-ore the
concrete sets to ensure a rough, clean sur-ace4 8e-ore (lacing the ne0t li-t o- concrete, de(osit a )B*@ to )@inch@
thic3 layer o- sand@cement mortar4 Ma3e the mortar ,ith the same ,ater content as the concrete and ,ith a slum(
o- about 6 inches to (re.ent stone (oc3ets and hel( (roduce a ,ater girth 2oint4 See .ie, ) o- Figure 4@64 When
(lacing ,alls, be sure to remo.e the s(readers as you -ill the -orms4
S'a- Con&t#+ction
When constructing slabs, (lace the concrete at the -ar end o- the slab -irst, and then (lace subse1uent batches
against (re.iously@(laced concrete, as sho,n in .ie, " o- Figure 4@64 &o not (lace the concrete in big (iles and
then mo.e it horiDontally to its -inal (osition because these (ractices result in segregation4
P'acing Conc#ete on S'o%e&
:ie, 4 o- Figure 4@6 sho,s ho, to (lace concrete on slo(es4 Al,ays de(osit the concrete at the bottom o- the
slo(e -irst, then (roceed u( the slo(e (lacing each ne, batch against the (re.ious one4 When consolidated, the
,eight o- the ne, concrete increases the com(acting o- the (re.iously (laced concrete4
CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
P#inci%'e&
E0ce(t -or concrete (laced under,ater, you must com(act or consolidate all concrete a-ter (lacement4
$onsolidation eliminates roc3 (oc3ets and air bubbles and brings enough -ine material both to the sur-ace and
against the -orms to (roduce the desired -inish4 ;ou can use such hand tools as s(ades, (uddling stic3s, or
tam(ers, but mechanical .ibrators are best4 Any com(acting de.ice must reach the bottom o- the -orm and be
small enough to (ass bet,een rein-orcing bars4 +he (rocess in.ol.es care-ully ,or3ing around all rein-orcing
steel ,ith the com(acting de.ice to ensure (ro(er embedding o- rein-orcing steel in the concrete4 8e care-ul not
to dis(lace the rein-orcing steel because the strength o- the concrete member de(ends on (ro(er rein-orcement
location4
Vi-#ation
+he best com(acting tool is a mechanical .ibrator, as sho,n in Figure 4@! on (age 4@)64 :ibrators consolidate
concrete by (ushing the coarse aggregate do,n,ard, a,ay -rom the (oint o- .ibration4 :ibrators allo, (lacement o-
mi0tures that are to, sti-- to (lace any other ,ay, such as those ha.ing a )@ or *@inch slum(4 Sti-- mi0tures are more
economical because they re1uire less cement and (resent -e,er segregation or e0cessi.e bleeding (roblems4 %o,e.er,
4"5 EN5466
do not use a mi0 so sti-- that it re1uires too much labor to (lace it4 +he .ibrators a.ailable in engineer
construction battalions are called internal vibrators because the .ibrating element is inserted into the concrete4
An e0ternal .ibrator is a((lied to the -orm and is (o,ered by an electric motor, a gasoline engine, or com(ressed
air4 When using an internal .ibrator, insert it a((ro0imately in )C@inch inter.als into air@entrained concrete -or 5
to )? seconds and into non@air@entrained concrete -or )? to )5 seconds4 +he e0act (eriod o- time that you should
lea.e a .ibrator in the concrete de(ends on its slum(4 .erla( the .ibrated areas some,hat at each insertion4
When (ossible, lo,er the .ibrator into the concrete .ertically and allo, it to descend by gra.ity4 +he .ibrator
should not only (ass through the layer 2ust (laced but (enetrate se.eral inches into the layer underneath to ensure
a good bond bet,een the layers4 :ibration does not normally damage the lo,er layers, as long as the concrete
disturbed in these lo,er layers becomes (lastic under .ibratory action4 ;ou ,ill 3no, that you ha.e consolidated
the concrete enough ,hen a thin line o- mortar a((ears along the -orm near the .ibrator, the coarse@aggregate
disa((ears into the concrete, or the (aste a((ears near the .ibrator head4 Withdra, the .ibrator .ertically at about
the same rate that it descended4 Some hand s(ading or (uddling should accom(any all .ibration4 &o not .ibrate
mi0es that you can consolidate easily by s(ading because segregation may occur/ you should not .ibrate concrete
that has a slum( o- 5 or 6 inches4 Also, do not use .ibrators to mo.e concrete any distance in the -orm4
Fig+#e 4"9) U&ing a vi-#ato# to con&o'i(ate conc#ete)
2an( !et3o(&
Manual consolidation methods re1uire s(ades, (uddling stic3s, or .arious ty(es o- tam(ers4 +o consolidate
concrete by s(ading, insert the s(ade do,n,ard along the inside sur-ace o- the -orms, as sho,n in Figure 4@C,
through the layer 2ust (laced, on into the layer underneath se.eral inches4 $ontinue s(ading or (uddling until the
coarse aggregate disa((ears into the concrete4
EN5466 4"6
Fig+#e 4":) Con&o'i(ation -/ &%a(ing an( a &%a(ing too')
FINIS2ING
P+#%o&e
+he -inishing (rocess (ro.ides the desired -inal concrete sur-ace4 +here are many ,ays to -inish concrete
sur-aces, de(ending on the e--ect re1uired4 Sometimes you only need to correct sur-ace de-ects, -ill bolt holes, or
clean the sur-ace4 Un-ormed sur-aces may re1uire only screeding to ma3e the (ro(er contour and ele.ation or a
broomed, -loated, or tro,eled -inish may be s(eci-ied4
FINIS2ING OPERATIONS
Sc#ee(ing
+he to( sur-ace o- a -loor slab, side,al3, or (a.ement is rarely (laced at the e0act s(eci-ied ele.ation4 Screeding
brings the sur-ace to the correct ele.ation by stri3ing o- the e0cess concrete4 Use a tool called a screed, ,hich is a
tem(late ha.ing a straight lo,er edge to (rocess a -lat sur-ace or a cur.ed lo,er edge to (roduce a cur.ed sur-ace4
Mo.e it bac3 and -orth across the concrete using a sa,ing motion as sho,n in Figure 4@# on (age 4@)C4 With each
sa,ing motion, mo.e the screed -or,ard a short distance along the -orms4 <+he screed rides on either ,ood or
metal stri(s established as guides4= +his -orces the e0cess concrete built u( against the screed -ace into the lo,
s(ots4 5- the screed tends to tear the sur-ace, as it may on air@entrained concrete due to its stic3y nature, either
reduce the rate o- -or,ard mo.ement or co.er the lo,er edge o- the screed ,ith metal, ,hich ,ill sto( the tearing
action in most cases4 ;ou can hand screed sur-aces u( to "? -eet ,ide, but the e--iciency o- this method diminishes
4"9 EN5466
on sur-aces more than )? -eet ,ide4 +hree ,or3ers <e0cluding a .ibrator o(erator= can screed a((ro0imately *??
s1uare -eet o- concrete (er hour4 +,o o- the ,or3ers can o(erate the screed ,hile the third (ulls e0cess concrete
-rom the -ront o- the screed4
Fig+#e 4";) Sc#ee(ing o%e#ation)
F'oating
5- you re1uire a sur-ace smoother than that obtained by screeding, ,or3 the sur-ace s(aringly using either a ,ood
or aluminum magnesium -loat or a -inishing machine4 +he ,ood -loat in .ie, ) o- Figure 4@)? is sho,n in use in
.ie, * o- Figure 4@)?4 8egin -loating immediately a-ter screeding, ,hile the concrete is still (lastic and
,or3able, and be-ore any bleed ,ater a((ears on the sur-ace4 Floating has three (ur(oses' to embed aggregate
(articles 2ust beneath the sur-ace, to remo.e slight im(er-ections and high and lo, s(ots, and to com(act the
concrete at the sur-ace in (re(aration -or other -inishing o(erations4 &o not o.er,or3 the concrete ,hile it is still
(lastic or you ,ill bring an e0cess o- ,ater and (aste to the sur-ace4 +his -ine material ,ill -orm a thin, ,ea3
layer that ,ill scale or ,ear o-- under use4 +o (roduce a coarse te0ture as the -inal -inish, you usually ha.e to
-loat the sur-ace a second time a-ter it (artially hardens4 Use a long@handled ,ood -loat -or slab construction, as
sho,n in .ie, " o- Figure 4@)?4 ;ou use an aluminum magnesium -loat the same ,ay as the ,ood -loat, but it
gi.es the -inished concrete a much smoother sur-ace4 +o a.oid crac3ing and dusting o- the -inished concrete,
begin aluminum -loating ,hen the ,ater sheen disa((ears -rom the -reshly (laced concrete sur-ace4 &o not use
either cement or ,ater as an aid in -inishing the sur-ace4
EN5466 4":
Fig+#e 4"=) Woo( 1'oat& an( 1'oating o%e#ation&)
T#o>e'ing
For a dense smooth -inish, -ollo, -loating ,ith steel tro,eling <see Figure 4@)) on (age 4@*?= ,hen the moisture
-ilm or ,ater sheen disa((ears -rom the -loated sur-ace and the concrete has hardened enough to (re.ent -ine
material and ,ater -rom ,or3ing to the sur-ace4 8ut delay this o(eration as long as (ossible4 +oo much
tro,eling too soon tends to (roduce craDing and reduces durability4 %o,e.er, too long a delay in tro,eling
ma3es the sur-ace hard to -inish (ro(erly4 +ro,eling should lea.e the sur-ace smooth, e.en, and -ree -rom mar3s
and ri((les4 A.oid ,et s(ots i- (ossible4 When they do occur, do not resume -inishing o(erations until the ,ater
has been absorbed, e.a(orated, or mo((ed u(4 When a ,ear@resistant and durable sur-ace is re1uired, it is (oor
(ractice to s(read dry cement on the ,et sur-ace to absorb e0cess ,ater4 ;ou can obtain a sur-ace that is -ine@
te0tured, but not sli((ery, by a second light tro,eling o.er the sur-ace ,ith a circular motion immediately
-ollo,ing the -irst regular tro,eling, 3ee(ing the tro,el -iat against the sur-ace4 When a Ghard steel@tro,eled
-inishH is s(eci-ied, -ollo, the -irst regular tro,eling ,ith a second tro,eling only a-ter the concrete is hard
enough that no (aste adheres to the tro,el and (assing the tro,el o.er the sur-ace (roduces a ringing sound4
&uring this -inal tro,eling, tilt the tro,el slightly and e0ert hea.y (ressure to com(act the sur-ace thoroughly4
%air crac3s usually result -rom a concentration o- ,ater and -ines at the sur-ace due to o.er,or3ing the concrete
during -inishing o(erations4 +oo ra(id drying or cooling aggra.ates such crac3ing4 ;ou ,ill usually close crac3s
that de.elo( be-ore tro,eling by (ounding the concrete ,ith a hand -loat4
4"; EN5466
Fig+#e 4") Stee' 1ini&3ing too'& an( t#o>e'ing o%e#ation)
B#oo$ing
;ou can (roduce a nons3id sur-ace by -ollo,ing the -loating o(eration <a-ter ,aiting )? to )5 minutes= by
brooming the concrete be-ore it hardens thoroughly4 When se.ere scoring is not desirable, such as in some -loors
and side,al3s, you can (roduce the broomed -inish using a hairbrush a-ter tro,eling the sur-ace once to a smooth
-inish4 %o,e.er, ,hen rough scoring is s(eci-ied, use a still broom made -rom either steel or coarse -iber4 +he
direction o- scoring ,hen brooming should be at right angles to the direction o- the tra--ic4
R+--ing
+he most uni-orm and attracti.e sur-ace re1uires a rubbed -inish, although you can (roduce a sur-ace ha.ing a
satis-actory a((earance sim(ly by using (ly,ood or lined -orms4 As soon as the concrete hardens, rub the sur-ace
-irst ,ith coarse carborundum stones so that the aggregate does not (ull out4 +hen, allo, the concrete to cure
be-ore the -inal rubbing ,ith -iner carborundum stones4 Aee( the concrete dam( ,hile rubbing4 +o (ro(erly cure
any mortar used as an aid in this (rocess and le-t on the sur-ace, 3ee( it dam( -or ) to * days a-ter it sets4 6estrict
the mortar layer to a minimum because it is li3ely to scale o-- and mar the sur-ace a((earance4
CURING
2/(#ation
Adding ,ater to (ortland cement to -orm the ,ater@cement (aste that holds concrete together
starts a chemical reaction that ma3es the (aste into a bonding agent4 +his reaction, called
hydration, (roduces a stoneli3e substance@@hardened cement (aste4 8oth the rate and degree o-
hydration and the resulting strength o- the -inal concrete, de(end on the curing (rocess that
EN5466 4",=
-ollo,s (lacing and consolidating the (lastic concrete4 %ydration continues inde-initely at a decreasing rate as
long as the mi0ture contains ,ater and the tem(erature conditions are -a.orable4 nce the ,ater is remo.ed,
hydration ceases and cannot be restarted4
CURING FACTORS
I$%o#tance
Curing is the (eriod o- time -rom consolidation to the (oint ,hen the concrete reaches its design strength4 &uring
this (eriod, you must ta3e certain ste(s to 3ee( the concrete moist and as near to !"F as (racticable4 +he
(ro(erties o- concrete, such as -reeDe and tha, resistance, strength, ,atertightness, ,ear resistance, and .olume
stability, cure or im(ro.e ,ith age as long as you maintain the moisture and tem(erature conditions -a.orable to
continued hydration4
Lengt3 o1 C+#ing Pe#io(
+he length o- time that you must (rotect concrete against moisture loss de(ends on the ty(e o- cement used, mi0
(ro(ortions, re1uired strength, siDe and sha(e o- the concrete mass, ,eather, and -uture e0(osure conditions4 +he
(eriod can .ary -rom a -e, days to a month or longer4 For most structural use, the curing (eriod -or cast@in@lace
concrete is usually " days to * ,ee3s, de(ending on conditions such as tem(erature, cement ty(e, and mi0
(ro(ortions4 8ridge dec3s and other slabs e0(osed to ,eather and chemical attac3 usually re1uire more e0tended
curing (eriods4 Figure 4@)* sho,s ho, moist curing a--ects the com(ressi.e strength o- concrete4
Fig+#e 4",) !oi&t c+#ing e11ect on co$%#e&&ive &t#engt3 o1 conc#ete)
4", EN5466
C+#ing !et3o(&
Se.eral curing methods ,ill 3ee( concrete moist and, in some cases, at a -a.orable hydration tem(erature4 +hey
-all into t,o categories' those that su((ly additional moisture and those that (re.ent moisture loss4 +able 4@" list
se.eral o- these e--ecti.e curing methods and their ad.antages and disad.antages4
Ta-'e 4"0) C+#ing $et3o(&)
PART D " TE!PERATURE EFFECTS ON CONCRETE
2OT"WEAT2ER CONCRETING
$oncreting in hot ,eather (oses some s(ecial (roblems, such as strength reduction and crac3ing o- -lat sur-aces
due to too@ra(id drying4 $oncrete that sti--ens be-ore you can consolidate it is caused by too@ra(id setting o- the
cement and too much absor(tion and e.a(oration o- mi0ing ,ater4 +his leads to di--iculty in -inishing -lat
sur-aces4 +here-ore, limitations are im(osed on (lacing concrete during hot ,eather and on the ma0imum
tem(erature o- the concrete because 1uality and durability su--er ,hen concrete is mi0ed, (laced, and cured at
high tem(eratures4 &uring hot ,eather, ta3e ste(s to limit concrete tem(erature to less than #?YF, but you can
ha.e (roblems e.en ,ith concrete tem(eratures less than #?F4 +he combination o- hot, dry ,eather and high
,inds is the most se.ere condition, es(ecially ,hen (lacing large e0(osed slabs4
EN5466 4",,
EFFECTS ON 2IG2 CONCRETE TE!PERATURES
!i*ing Wate# Re<+i#e$ent&
8ecause high tem(eratures accelerate hardening, a (articular concrete consistency generally re1uires more mi0ing
,ater than normal4 Figure 4@)" sho,s a linear relationshi( bet,een an increase in concrete tem(erature and the
increase in mi0ing ,ater re1uired to maintain the same slum(4 %o,e.er, increasing ,ater content ,ithout
increasing cement content results in a higher ,Bc ratio, ,hich has a harm-ul e--ect on the strength and other
desirable (ro(erties o- hardened concrete4
Fig+#e 4"0) Re'ation&3i% -et>een conc#ete te$%e#at+#e an( $i*ing >ate#)
Co$%#e&&ive St#engt3 o1 Conc#ete
Figure 4@)4 on (age 4@*4 demonstrates the e--ects o- high concrete tem(eratures on com(ressi.e strength4 +ests
using identical concretes ha.ing the same ,Bc ratio sho, that ,hile higher concrete tem(eratures increase early
strength, the re.erse ha((ens at later ages4 5- ,ater content is increased to maintain the same slum( <,ithout
changing the cement content=, the reduction in com(ressi.e strength is e.en greater than that sho,n in Figure
4@)44
4",0 EN5466
Fig+#e 4"4) E11ect& o1 3ig3 te$%e#at+#e on conc#ete
co$%#e&&ive &t#engt3 at va#io+& &tage&)
C#ac.ing
5n hot ,eather, the tendency -or crac3s to -orm increases both be-ore and a-ter hardening4 6a(id ,ater
e.a(oration -rom hot concrete can cause (lastic shrin3age crac3s e.en be-ore the sur-ace hardens4 $rac3s can
also de.elo( in the hardened concrete because o- increased shrin3age due to a higher re1uirement and because o-
the greater di--erence bet,een the high tem(erature at the time o- hardening and the lo, tem(erature to ,hich the
concrete later dro(s4
Coo'ing Conc#ete !ate#ia'&
+he most (ractical ,ay to obtain a lo, concrete tem(erature is to cool the aggregate and ,ater as much as
(ossible be-ore mi0ing4 Mi0ing ,ater is easier to cool and is also more e--ecti.e, (ound -or (ound, in lo,ering
concrete tem(erature4 %o,e.er, because aggregate re(resents 6? to C? (ercent o- the concreteE total ,eight, the
concrete tem(erature de(ends (rimarily on the aggregate tem(erature4 Figure 4@)5 sho,s the e--ects o- the
mi0ing ,ater and aggregate tem(eratures on the tem(erature o- -resh concrete4 ;ou can lo,er the tem(erature o-
-resh concrete by@@
1sing cold mi(ing water. 5n e0treme cases, you can add slush ice to chill the ,ater4
Cooling. $ool coarse@aggregate by s(rin3ling, thereby a.oiding too much mi0ing ,ater4
Insulating. 5nsulate mi0er drums or cool them ,ith s(rays or ,et burla( co.erings4 5nsulate ,ater su((ly
lines and tan3s or (ainting them ,hite4
EN5466 4",4
'hading. Shade those materials and -acilities not other,ise (rotected -rom the heat4
*orking only at night.
1sing Type II or Type IV cement.
'prinkling4 S(rin3le -orms and rein-orcing steel and subgrade ,ith cool ,ater 2ust be-ore (lacing
concrete4
Fig+#e 4"5) !i*ing >ate# te$%e#at+#e& #e<+i#e( to %#o(+ce
conc#ete o1 #e<+i#e( te$%e#at+#e&)
S%ecia' P#eca+tion&
%igh tem(eratures increase the hardening rate, thereby shortening the length o- time a.ailable to handle
and -inish the concrete4 +his means you must trans(ort and (lace the concrete as 1uic3ly as (racticable
and ta3e e0tra care to a.oid cold 2oints ,hen (lacing it4 >ro(er curing is es(ecially im(ortant in hot
,eather due to the greater danger o- craDing and crac3ing4 8ut curing is also di--icult in hot ,eather
because ,ater e.a(orates ra(idly -rom the concrete and the e--iciency o- curing com(ounds is reduced4 Lea.ing
-orms in (lace is not a satis-actory ,ay to (re.ent moisture loss ,hen curing concrete in hot ,eather because
,ater e.a(orates ra(idly -rom the concrete and the e--iciency o- curing com(ounds is reduced4 Loosen the
-orms as soon as (ossible ,ithout damaging the concrete, and co.er the concrete ,ith ,ater4
4",5 EN5466
+hen -re1uent s(rin3ling, the use o- ,et burla(, and other similar means o- retaining moisture -or longer (eriods
are the best methods to use4
COLD"WEAT2ER CONCRETING
F#ee7e P#otection
;ou need not sus(end concreting during the ,inter months, i- you ta3e the necessary ste(s to (rotect the concrete
-rom -reeDing in tem(eratures o- 4?UF or lo,er during (lacing and the early curing (eriod4 5n your (rior (lanning,
include (ro.isions -or heating the (lastic concrete and maintaining -a.orable tem(eratures a-ter (lacement4 +he
tem(eratures o- -resh concrete should not be less than that sho,n in lines ), *, and " o- +able 4@44 Note that
lo,er tem(eratures are gi.en -or hea.ier mass sections than thinner sections, since less heat dissi(ates during the
hydration (eriod4 8ecause additional heat is lost during trans(orting and (lacing, the -reshly mi0ed concrete
tem(eratures gi.en are higher -or cold ,eather4
Ta-'e 4"4) Reco$$en(e( conc#ete te$%e#at+#e& 1o# co'(">eat3e# con&t#+ction 4ai#"ent#aine( conc#ete5)E
+o (re.ent -reeDing, the tem(erature o- the concrete should not be less than that sho,n in line 4 o- +able 4@4 at
the time o- (lacement4 +o ensure durability and strength de.elo(ment, you may need to (ro.ide -urther thermal
(rotection to ma3e sure that subse1uent concrete tem(eratures do not -all belo, the minimums sho,n in line 5 o-
+able 4@4 -or the time (eriods gi.en in +able 4@54 $oncrete tem(eratures o.er !?F are seldom necessary because
they do not gi.e (ro(ortionately longer (rotection -rom -reeDing, since the heat loss is greater4 8esides, high
concrete tem(eratures re1uire more mi0ing ,ater -or the same slum(, and this contributes to crac3ing due to
shrin3age4
EN5466 4",6
Ta-'e 4"5) Reco$$en(e( (+#ation o1 %#otection 1o# conc#ete %'ace(
in co'( >eat3e# 4ai#"ent#aine( conc#ete5E)
E11ect& on Lo> Conc#ete Te$%e#at+#e&
Figure 4@)6 demonstrates that tem(erature a--ects the hydration rate o- cement/ lo, tem(eratures retard hardening
and com(ressi.e strength gain4 +he gra(h sho,s that the strength o- concrete mi0ed, (laced, and cured at
tem(eratures belo, !"UF is lo,er than concrete cured at !"F during the -irst *C days but becomes higher ,ith
age and e.entually o.erta3es the strength o- the concrete cured at !"UF4 +here-ore, you must cure concrete (laced
at tem(eratures belo, !"F longer4 6emember that strength gain (ractically sto(s ,hen the moisture re1uired -or
hydration is remo.ed4
Fig+#e 4"6) E11ect& o1 'o> te$%e#at+#e on conc#ete
co$%#e&&ive &t#engt3 at va#io+& age&)
4",9 EN5466
Figure 4@)! sho,s that the early strengths achie.ed by +y(e 555 or higher early@strength cement are higher than
those achie.ed by +y(e 5 cement4
Fig+#e 4"9) Re'ation&3i%& -et>een ea#'/ co$%#e&&ive &t#engt3& o1
%o#t'an( ce$ent t/%e& an( 'o> c+#ing te$%e#at+#e&)
COLD"WEAT2ER TEC2NI@UES
2eating Conc#ete Ing#e(ient&
+ha,ing -roDen aggregate ma3es (ro(er batching easier and a.oids (oc3ets o- aggregate in the concrete a-ter
(lacement4 5- you tha, aggregate in the mi0er, chec3 -or too much ,ater content4 ;ou seldom need to heat
aggregate in tem(eratures abo.e -reeDing4 8ut at tem(eratures belo, -reeDing, you can (roduce concrete ha.ing
the re1uired tem(erature by heating the -ine@aggregate only4
.eating aggregate. ;ou can use any o- se.eral methods to heat aggregate4 ne -or small 2obs is to (ile it
o.er metal (i(es containing -ires4 +he a.erage tem(erature o- the aggregate should not e0ceed )5??F4
r, you can stoc3(ile aggregate o.er circulating steam (i(es4 $o.er the stoc3(iles ,ith tar(aulins to
retain and distribute the heat4 ;ou can also in2ect li.e steam directly into a (ile o- aggregate, but the
resulting .ariable in moisture content can cause (roblems in controlling the amount o- mi0ing ,ater4
.eating water. Mi0ing ,ater is easier to heat because it can store -i.e times as
much heat as solid materials ha.ing the same ,eight, although aggregate and cement
,eigh much more than ,ater4 ;ou can use the ,aterEs stored heat to heat other concrete
EN5466 4",:
ingredients4 When you heat either aggregate or ,ater abo.e )??F, combine them in the mi0er -irst be-ore adding
the cement Figure 4@)C sho,s ho, the tem(erature o- its ingredients a--ects the tem(erature o- -resh concrete4
+his gra(h is reasonably accurate -or most ordinary concrete mi0tures4 As sho,n in Figure 4@)C, mi0ing ,ater
should not be hotter than )C?F so that, in some cases, you must heat both aggregate and ,ater4 For e0am(le, i-
the ,eighted a.erage tem(erature o- aggregate is belo, "6F and the desired -resh concrete tem(erature is !?F,
you should heat the ,ater to its ma0imum tem(erature o- )C?F and also heat the aggregate to ma3e u( the
di--erence4
Fig+#e 4":) E11ect& o1 te$%e#at+#e o1 $ate#ia'& on te$%e#at+#e o1 1#e&3 conc#ete)
4",; EN5466
U&ing 2ig3 Ea#'/"St#engt3 Ce$ent
%igh early@strength, +y(e 55 cement (roduces much higher hydration tem(eratures, ,hich can o--set some o- the
cold ,eather e--ects4 ther bene-its include early reuse o- -orms and shore remo.al, cost sa.ings in heating and
(rotection, earlier -lat,or3 -inishing, and earlier use o- the structure4
U&ing Acce'e#ato#&
&o not substitute accelerators -or (ro(er curing and -rost (rotection4 Also, do not try to lo,er the -reeDing (oint
o- concrete ,ith accelerators <anti-reeDe com(ounds or similar (roducts= because the large 1uantities re1uired
seriously a--ect com(ressi.e strength and other concrete (ro(erties4 %o,e.er, you can use small amounts o-
additional cement, or such accelerators as calcium chloride, to s(eed u( concrete hardening in cold ,eather as
long as you use no more than * (ercent o- calcium chloride by ,eight o- cement4 8ut be care-ul in using
accelerators containing chlorides ,here an in@ser.ice (otential o- corrosion e0ists, such as in (restressed concrete
or ,here aluminum inserts are (lanned4 When sul-ate@resisting concrete is re1uired, use an e0tra sac3 o- cement
(er cubic yard rather than calcium chloride4
P#e%a#ing 1o# P'ace$ent
Ne.er (lace concrete on a -roDen subgrade because se.ere crac3s due to settlement usually occur ,hen the
subgrade tha,s4 5- only a -e, inches o- the subgrade is -roDen, you can tha, the sur-ace by burning stra,, by
steaming, or, i- the grade (ermits, by s(reading a layer o- hot sand or other granular material4 8e sure to tha, the
ground enough to ensure that it ,ill not re-reeDe during the curing (eriod4
C+#ing
$oncrete in -orms or co.ered by insulation seldom loses enough moisture at 4? to 5?UF to im(air curing4 Forms
distribute heat e.enly and hel( (re.ent drying and o.erheating4 Lea.e them in (lace as long as (racticable4
%o,e.er, ,hen using heated enclosures during the ,inter, you must moisten curing concrete to o--set the drying
e--ects4 Aee( the concrete at a -a.orable tem(erature until it is strong enough to ,ithstand both lo, tem(eratures
and antici(ated ser.ice loads4 $oncrete that -reeDes shortly a-ter (lacement is (ermanently damaged4 8ut i-
concrete -reeDes only once at an early age, -a.orable curing conditions can restore it to nearly normal, although it
,ill neither ,eather as ,ell nor be as ,atertight as concrete that is ne.er -roDen4 Air@entrained concrete is less
susce(tible to -reeDe damage than non@air@entrained concrete <see +M 5@"4# -or details o- cold ,eather
concreting=4 +hree methods o- maintaining (ro(er curing tem(eratures are described belo,'
Live steam. When -ed into an enclosure, li.e steam is an e0cellent and (ractical curing aid during
e0tremely cold ,eather because its moisture o--sets the ra(id drying that occurs ,hen .ery cold air is
heated4 ;ou can use a curing com(ound a-ter remo.ing the (rotection i- the air tem(erature is abo.e
-reeDing4
Insulation blankets or bats. +he manu-acturers o- these materials can usually (ro.ide in-ormation on
ho, much insulation is necessary to (rotect curing concrete at .arious tem(eratures4 8ecause the
concreteEs corners and edges are the most li3ely to -reeDe, be sure to chec3 them -re1uently to determine
the e--ecti.eness o- the (rotecti.e co.ering4
.eated enclosures. ;ou can use ,ood, can.as, building board, (lastic sheets, or
other materials to enclose and (rotect curing concrete at belo,@-reeDing tem(eratures4 ;ou
can also build a ,ood -rame,or3 and co.er it ,ith tar(aulins or (lastic sheets4 Ma3e sure
EN5466 4"0=
enclosures are sturdy and reasonably airtight and allo, -or -ree circulation o- ,arm air4 ;ou must
(ro.ide ade1uate minimum tem(eratures during the entire curing (eriod4 +he easiest ,ay to control the
tem(erature inside the enclosure is ,ith li.e steam4 Unless they are (ro(erly .ented, do not use carbon@
dio0ide@(roducing heaters <salamanders or other -uel@burning heaters= ,hen (lacing concrete -or *4 to *6
hours a-ter,ards4
FOR! RE!OVAL AND STRIPPING
Ba&ic Con&i(e#ation&
$areless ,or3ers can cancel out the .alue o- good detailing and (lanning by indiscriminate use o- the ,rec3ing
bar4 A (inch bar or another metal tool should ne.er be (laced against e0(osed concrete to ,edge -orms loose4 5-
it is necessary to ,edge bet,een the concrete and the -orms, only ,ooden ,edges should be used4
As a rule, ,all -orms should not be remo.ed until the concrete has thoroughly hardened, but s(eci-ied curing
should begin as early as (ossible in ,arm ,eather4 +ies may be remo.ed as early as *4 hours a-ter casting to
loosen -orms slightly and (ermit entry o- curing ,ater bet,een -orm and concrete4 rnamental molds must be
le-t in (lace until they can be remo.ed ,ithout damage to the concrete sur-ace4 5n cold ,eather, remo.al o-
-orm,or3 should be de-erred or -orm,or3 should be re(laced ,ith insulation blan3ets to a.oid thermal shoc3 and
conse1uent craDing o- the concrete sur-ace4
See +able 4@6 on (age 4@"* -or recommended stri((ing time4 A-ter remo.ing -orms, chec3 -or concrete de-ects
and re(air all de-iciencies4
4"0 EN5466
Ta-'e 4"6) Reco$$en(e( 1o#$ &t#i%%ing ti$e&)
EN5466 4"0,
LESSN 4
PRACTICE E?ERCISE
$hec3 your understanding o- Lesson 4 by com(leting the (ractice e0ercise4 +here is only one correct ans,er to
each 1uestion4 +ry to ans,er all o- the 1uestions ,ithout re-erring to the lesson materials4
When you ha.e com(leted all o- the 1uestions, turn the (age and chec3 your ans,ers against the correct res(onse4
Each correct res(onse s re-erenced to s(eci-ic (ortions o- the lesson material so that you can re.ie, any 1uestions
you ha.e missed or do not understand, be-ore continuing to the ne0t lesson4
When you ha.e com(leted all -our lessons and your re.ie,, you can continue to the e0amination4
)4 List three s(eci-ic considerations o- reconnaissance in construction site location4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
*4 List -i.e considerations necessary -or site (re(aration4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
"4 List t,o methods em(loyed to measure aggregates -or batching4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
44 $orrect concrete handling techni1ues must be em(loyed to (re.ent@@
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
54 List three main concrete trans(ortation re1uirements4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
64 List the (rinci(les o- (ro(er concrete (lacement4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
4"00 EN5466
T2IS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLB LEFT BLANC)
EN5466 4"04
!4 >resent t,o methods -or consolidating concrete4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
C4 List -i.e -inishing o(erations4
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OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
#4 >resent t,o categories o- assuring ade1uate moisture -or curing4
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OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
)?4 List three e--ects o- high concrete tem(eratures4
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OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
))4 >resent t,o s(ecial concerns in cold ,eather concreting4
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
4"05 EN5466
LESSN 4
PRACTICE E?ERCISE
ANSWER CEB AND FEEDBACC
5tem $orrect Ans,er and Feedbac3
)4 6oute selection
Locating ,ater and aggregate
+ime estimation
6oute Selection4 <(age 4@)=
Locating Water and Aggregate4 <(age 4@*=
+ime Estimation4 <(age 4@*=
*4 8uilding a((roach roads
$learing and draining the site
Stoc3(iling construction materials
>ositioning o- batching (lant
Location and construction o- sa-ety -acilities
Site >re(aration <(age 4@*=
"4 Measurement by ,eight
Measurement by .olume
Aggregate4 Measure aggregate 444 <(age 4@4=
44 Segregation
%andling +echni1ues <(age 4@)?=
54 S(eed
Minimum material segregation
No delays
+he three main re1uirements444 <(age 4@)*=
64 A.oid segregation
>ro(er consolidation
>ro(er bonding bet,een (lacements
$ontrol tem(erature
>rinci(les4 +he (rinci(les o- (ro(er 444 <(age 4@)"=
!4 Mechanical .ibrators
%and s(ading, (uddling, or tam(ing
+he best com(acting tool 444 <(age 4@)5=
Manual consolidation methods re1uire444 <(age 4@)6=
EN5466 4"06
5tem $orrect Ans,er and Feedbac3
C4 Screeding
Floating
+ro,eling
8rooming
6ubbing
Screeding4 <(age 4@)!=
Floating4 <(age 4@)C=
+ro,eling4 <(age 4@)#=
8rooming4 <(age 4@*?=
6ubbing4 <(age 4*?=
#4 Methods that su((ly additional moisture
Methods that (re.ent moisture loss
$uring Methods <(age 4@**=
)?4 Mi0ing ,ater re1uirements increase
$om(ressi.e strength o- concrete charge
$rac3ing occurs
Mi0ing Water 6e1uirements <(age 4@*"=
$om(ressi.e Strength o- $oncrete <(age 4@*"=
$rac3ing <(age 4@*4=
))4 FreeDe (rotection
Longer curing time
FreeDe (rotection <(age 4@*6=
+here-ore, you must444 <(age 4@*!=
4"09 EN5466
T2IS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLB LEFT BLANC)
EN5466 4"0: