Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Duke University
Henri P. Gavin
Spring, 2012

This document describes the free and forced response of single degree of
freedom (SDOF) systems. A single degree of freedom system is a spring-massdamper system in which the spring has no damping or mass, the mass has no
stiffness or damping, the damper has no stiffness or mass. Furthermore, the
mass is allowed to move in only one direction. The horizontal vibrations of a
single-story building can be conveniently modeled as a single degree of freedom
system. In part 1 of this document we examine some useful trigonometric
identities. In part 2 of this document we determine how damped SDOF
systems vibrate freely after being released from an initial displacement with
some initial velocity. In part 3 of this document we determine how damped
SDOF systems respond to a persistent sinusoidal forcing.
Consider the structural system shown in Figure 1, where:
f (t) = external excitation force
x(t) = displacement of the center of mass of the moving object
m = mass of the moving object, fI = dtd (mx(t))

= m
x(t)
c = linear viscous damping coefficient, fD = cx(t)

k = linear elastic stiffness coefficient, fS = kx(t)

x(t)
m
k, c

11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111

f(t)

11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11

Figure 1. The proto-typical single degree of freedom oscillator.

k
m
c

f(t)
x(t)

CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

The kinetic energy T (x, x),

the potential energy, V (x), and the external
forcing and dissipative forces, p(x, x),
are
1
mx(t)
2
2
1
V (x) = kx(t)2
2
p(x, x)
= cx(t)
f (t)

T (x, x)
=

(1)
(2)
(3)

The general form of the differential equations describing a SDOF oscillator

follows directly from Lagranges equation,
d T (x, x)

T (x, x)

V (x)

+
+ p(x, x)
=0,
dt x
x
x

(4)

or from simply balancing the forces on the mass,

X

F = 0 : fI + fD + fS = f (t) .

(5)

Either way,
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = f (t),

x(0) = do , x(0)

= vo

(6)

where the initial displacement is do , and the initial velocity is vo .

The solution to equation (6) is the sum of a homogeneous part (free
response) and a particular part (forced response). This document describes
free responses of all types and forced responses to simple-harmonic forcing.
1 Trigonometric and Exponential Forms for Oscillations
We expect the free vibrational response of lightly damped systems to
decay over time. Note that damping may be introduced into a structure
through diverse mechanisms, including linear viscous damping, nonlinear viscous damping, visco-elastic damping, friction damping, and plastic deformation. All but linear viscous damping are somewhat complicated to analyze
with closed-form expressions, so we will restrict our attention to linear viscous damping, in which the damping force fD is proportional to the velocity,
fD = cx.

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

1.1 Constant Amplitude

In general a constant-amplitude oscillation, x(t), of frequency can be

described by sinusoidal functions. These sinusoidal functions may be equivalently written in terms of complex exponentials eit with complex coefficients,
X = A + iB and X = A iB. The complex constant X is the complex
conjugate of X.
x(t) = a cos(t) + b sin(t)
= X eit + X eit

(7)
(8)

Proof:
X eit + X eit = (A + iB) (cos(t) + i sin(t)) +
(A iB) (cos(t) i sin(t))

(9)

= A cos(t) + iA sin(t) + iB cos(t) B sin(t) +

A cos(t) iA sin(t) iB cos(t) B sin(t) (10)
= 2A cos(t) 2B sin(t)

(11)

= a cos(t) + b sin(t)

(12)

Comparing these forms, we see that a = 2A and b = 2B. Note that all of
the above expressions are exactly equivalent. Equation (7), is exactly the same
as equation (8). Equation (7) is easier to interpret as describing a sinusoidal
oscillation, however equation (8) is much easier to work with, mathematically.
We will endeavor to use both forms in this document, just to emphasize how
the two forms are one and the same.
Equations (7) and (8) describe a sinusoidal oscillation with a constant
of the oscillation x(t) can be found by adding
amplitude. The amplitude, X,
the magnitudes of the complex amplitudes X and X , or by solving x(
t) = 0
for t, and substituting into equation (7). Either way, the amplitude of the
oscillation is

= |X| + |X | = 2|X| = a2 + b2 ,
X
(13)
The oscillation attains its maximum and minimum values at times t, where
tan( t) = b/a. The oscillation attains a value of zero at times t where
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CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin
period, T
amplitude, |X|

response, x(t)

4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0

10

time, t, sec

Figure 2. A constant-amplitude oscillation.

tan( t) = b/a. The oscillation can be expressed with a single sine term
with a phase-shift.
sin(t s )
x(t) = X
sin(t) cos(s ) X
cos(t) sin(s )
= X

(14)
(15)

Setting x(t) = 0 results in tan( t) = tan(s ), and,

b
(16)
a
The oscillation can also be expressed as a single cosine term, with a different
phase-shift.
tan(s ) =

cos(t c )
x(t) = X
cos(t) cos(c ) X
sin(t) sin(c )
= X
Setting x(t) = 0 results in tan( t) = cot(c ), and,
a
tan(c ) =
b

(17)
(18)

(19)

Note, again, that equations (7) and (8) are equivalent to one-another and
s ,
are also equivalent to equations (14) and (17) using the definitions for X,
and c given above.
1.2 Decaying Amplitude

To describe an oscillation which decays with time, we can multiply the

expression for a constant amplitude oscillation by a positive-valued function
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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

which decays with time. Here we will use a real exponential, et , where < 0.
Multiplying equations (7) through (8) by et ,
x(t) = et (a cos(t) + b sin(t))

(20)

= et (Xeit + X eit )

(21)

= Xe(+i)t + X e(i)t

(22)

= Xet + X e

(23)

Again, note that all of the above equations are exactly equivalent. The exponent is complex, = + i and = i. If is negative, then these
equations describe an oscillation with exponentially decreasing amplitudes.
Note that in equation (20) the unknown constants are , , a, and b. Angular frequencies, , have units of radians per second. Circular frequencies,
f = /(2) have units of cycles per second, or Hertz. Periods, T = 2/,
have units of seconds.
In the next section we will find that for an un-forced vibration, and
are determined from the mass, damping, and stiffness of the system. We
will see that the constant a equals the initial displacement do , but that the
constant b depends on the initial displacement and velocity, as well mass,
damping, and stiffness.
6

response, x(t)

|X| e

period, T

2
0
-2
-4
-6
0

10

time, t, sec

Figure 3. A decaying oscillation.

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CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

2 Free response of systems with mass, stiffness and damping

Using equation (23) to describe the free response of a single degree of
freedom system, we will set f (t) = 0 and will substitute x(t) = Xet into
equation (6).
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = 0 ,

x(0) = do , x(0)

= vo ,

(24)

m2 Xet + cXet + kXet = 0 ,

(25)

(m2 + c + k)Xet = 0 ,

(26)

Note that m, c, k, and X do not depend on time. For equation (26) to be

true for all time,
(m2 + c + k)X = 0 .
(27)
Equation (27) is trivially satisfied if X = 0. The non-trivial solution is m2 +
c + k = 0. This is a quadratic equation in which has the roots,
v
u

1,2

u
c
c
=
t
2m
2m

!2

k
.
m

(28)

The solution to a homogeneous second order ordinary differential equation

requires two independent initial conditions: an initial displacement and an
initial velocity. These two independent initial conditions are used to determine
the coefficients, X and X (or A and B, or a and b) of the two linearly
independent solutions corresponding to 1 and 2 .
The amount of damping, c, qualitatively affects the quadratic roots, 1,2 ,
and the free response solutions.
Case 1 c = 0 undamped
If the system has no damping, c = 0, and
q

1,2 = i k/m = in .

(29)

This is called the natural frequency of the system. Undamped systems

oscillate freely at their natural frequency, n . The solution in this case
is
x(t) = Xein t + X ein t = a cos n t + b sin n t ,
(30)
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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

which is a real-valued function. The amplitudes depend on the initial

displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo .
Case 2 c = cc critically damped

If (c/(2m))2 = k/m, or, equivalently, if c = 2 mk, then the discriminant

of equation (28) is zero, This special value of damping is called the critical
damping rate, cc ,

(31)
cc = 2 mk .
The ratio of the actual damping rate to the critical damping rate is called
the damping ratio, .
c
=
.
(32)
cc
The two roots of the quadratic equation are real and are repeated at

(33)
1 = 2 = c/(2m) = cc /(2m) = 2 mk/(2m) = n ,
and the two basic solutions are equal to each other, e1 t = e2 t . In order
to admit solutions for arbitrary initial displacements and velocities, the
solution in this case is
x(t) = x1 en t + x2 t en t .

(34)

where the real constants x1 and x2 are determined from the initial displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo . Details regarding this special
case are in the next section.
Case 3 c > cc over-damped
If the damping is greater than the critical damping, then the roots, 1
and 2 are distinct and real. If the system is over-damped it will not
oscillate freely. The solution is
x(t) = x1 e1 t + x2 e2 t ,

(35)

which can also be expressed using hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine
functions. The real constants x1 and x2 are determined from the initial
displacement, do , and the initial velocity, vo .
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CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

Case 4 0 < c < cc under-damped

If the damping rate is positive, but less than the critical damping rate, the
system will oscillate freely from some initial displacement and velocity.
The roots are complex conjugates, 1 = 2 , and the solution is

x(t) = X et + X e t ,

(36)

where the complex amplitude depends on the initial displacement, do ,

and the initial velocity, vo .

We can re-write the dynamic equations of motion using the new dynamic
variables for natural frequency, n , and damping ratio, . Note that
v

u
c
k
1
c
k
c u
k
= c = = 2 t = 2n .
m
k m m
k m m
2 km m

m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = f (t),
c
k
1
x(t) + x(t)
+ x(t) =
f (t),
m
m
m
1
x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n2 x(t) =
f (t),
m

(37)

(38)
(39)
(40)

The expression for the roots 1,2 , can also be written in terms of n and .
v
u

1,2

u
c
c
=
t
2m r 2m

!2

k
,
m

= n (n )2 n2 ,
q

= n n 2 1 .

(41)
(42)
(43)

Some useful facts about the roots 1 and 2 are:

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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

= Im
1 x

1 + 2 = 2n

1 2 = 2 n 2 1
n2 = 14 (1 + 2 )2 14 (1 2 )2

n = 1 2
= (1 + 2 )/(2n )

2 x

= Re

2.1 Free response of critically-damped systems

The solution to a homogeneous second order ordinary differential equation requires two independent initial conditions: an initial displacement and
an initial velocity. These two initial conditions are used to determine the
coefficients of the two linearly independent solutions corresponding to 1 and
2 . If 1 = 2 , then the solutions e1 t and e2 t are not independent. In fact,
they are identical. In such a case, a new trial solution can be determined as
follows. Assume a new solution of the form
x(t) = u(t)x1 e1 t ,

(44)

1 t
x(t)

= u(t)x

+ u(t)1 x1 e1 t ,
1e

(45)

1 t
x(t) = u(t)x1 e1 t + 2u(t)

+ u(t)21 x1 e1 t
1 x1 e

(46)

substitute these expressions into

x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n2 x(t) = 0 ,
collect terms, and divide by x1 e1 t , to get
u(t) + (2n + 2(n ))u(t)

=0
which is a first order ordinary differential equation for u(t).

The solution of
this ordinary differential equation is
u(t)

=C ,
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CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

from which the new trial solution is found.

u(t) = x2 t
So, using the trial solution x(t) = x1 et + x2 tet , and incorporating initial
conditions x(0) = do and x(0)

= vo , the free response of a critically-damped

system is:
x(t) = do en t + (vo + n do ) t en t .
(47)
2.2 Free response of underdamped systems

If the system is under-damped, then < 1,

2 1 is imaginary, and

1,2 = n in | 2 1| = i.

(48)

The frequency n | 2 1| is called the damped natural frequency, d ,

q

d = n | 2 1| .

(49)

It is the frequency at which under-damped SDOF systems oscillate freely,

With these new dynamic variables (, n , and d ) we can re-write the solution
to the damped free response,
x(t) = en t (a cos d t + b sin d t),

(50)

= Xet + X e t .

(51)

Now we can solve for X, (or, equivalently, A and B) in terms of the initial
conditions. At the initial point in time, t = 0, the position of the mass is
x(0) = do and the velocity of the mass is x(0)

= vo .

x(0) = do = Xe0 + X e

(52)

= X + X

(53)

= (A + iB) + (A iB) = 2A = a.

(54)

x(0)

= vo = Xe0 + X e 0 ,

(55)

= X + X ,

(56)

= ( + id )(A + iB) + ( id )(A iB),

(57)

= A + id A + iB d B +
A id A iB d B,

(58)

= 2A 2B

(59)

= n do 2 d B,

(60)
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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

from which we can solve for B or b.

B =
b

vo + n do
2d
vo + n do
d

(61)
(62)

Putting this all together, the free response of an underdamped system to an

arbitrary initial condition, x(0) = do , x(0)

= vo is
x(t) = e

n t

vo + n do
do cos d t +
sin d t .
d
!

(63)

vo
6
do
response, x(t)

|X| e

- n t

damped natural period, Td

2
0
-2
-4
-6
0

10

time, t, sec

Figure 4. Under-damped response.

2.3 Free response of over-damped systems

If the system is over-damped, then > 1, and

roots are both real and negative
q

2 1 is real, and the

1,2 = n n 2 1 = d .

(64)

Substituting the initial conditions x(0) = do and x(0)

= vo into the
solution (equation (35)), and solving for the coefficients results in
vo + do (n + d )
,
2d
= do x1 .

x1 =

(65)

x2

(66)
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CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

Substituting the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine expressions for the
exponentials results in
n t

x(t) = e

vo + n do
do cosh d t +
sinh d t
d

(67)

The undamped free response can be found as a special case of the underdamped free response. While special solutions exist for the critically damped
response, this response can also be found as limiting cases of the underdamped or over-damped responses.
vo

7
6
do
response, x(t)

5
4
3
=5.0

2
over damped
=1.5

=2.0

critically damped
0
-1
0

0.5

1.5

2
time, t, sec

2.5

3.5

Figure 5. Critically-damped (dashed) and over-damped (solid) responses.

2.4 Finding the natural frequency from self-weight displacement

Consider a spring-mass system in which the mass is loaded by gravity,

g. The static displacement Dst is related to the natural frequency by the
constant of gravitational acceleration.
Dst = mg/k = g/n2

(68)

2.5 Finding the damping ratio from free response

Consider the value of two peaks of the free response of an under-damped

system, separated by n cycles of motion
x1 = x(t1 ) = en t1 (A)
x1+n = x(t1+n ) = en t1+n (A) = en (t1 +2n/d ) (A)

(69)
(70)
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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

The ratio of these amplitudes is

x1
en t1
en t1
2n/ 1 2
= (t +2n/ ) = t 2n / = e
,
d
n
d
x1+n
e n 1
e n 1e
which is independent of n and d .
log(x1 /x1+n )/n,

(71)

Defining the log decrement () as

() =

2
1 2

(72)

and, inversely,

(73)
2
4 2 + 2
where the approximation is accurate to within 3% for < 0.2 and is accurate
to within 1.5% for < 0.1.
() =

2.6 Summary

To review, some of the important expressions relating to the free response

of a single degree of freedom oscillator are:
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = 0
x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n2 x(t) = 0
v
u
u
t

k
m
c
c
= =
cc
2 mk
n =

d = n | 2 1|
= log(x1 /x1+n )/n

() = 2

2
4 + 2

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CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

3 Response of systems with mass, stiffness, and damping to sinusoidal forcing

When subject to simple harmonic forcing with a forcing frequency ,
dynamic systems initially respond with a combination of a transient response
at a frequency d and a steady-state response at a frequency . The transient
response at frequency d decays with time, leaving the steady state response
at a frequency equal to the forcing frequency, . This section examines three
types of forcing, forcing applied directly to the mass, inertial forcing applied
through motion of the base, and forcing from a rotating eccentric mass.
3.1 Direct Force Excitation

If the SDOF system is dynamically forced with a sinusoidal forcing function, then f (t) = F cos(t), where is the frequency of the forcing, in radians
per second. If f (t) is persistent, then after several cycles the system will respond only at the frequency of the external forcing, . Lets suppose that
this steady-state response is described by the function
x(t) = a cos t + b sin t,

(74)

x(t)

= (a sin t + b cos t),

(75)

x(t) = 2 (a cos t b sin t).

(76)

then

and

Substituting this trial solution into equation (6), we obtain

m 2 (a cos t b sin t) +
c
k

(a sin t + b cos t) +
(a cos t + b sin t) = F cos t.

(77)

Equating the sine terms and the cosine terms

(m 2 a + cb + ka) cos t = F cos t

(78)

(m 2 b ca + kb) sin t = 0,

(79)
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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

which is a set of two equations for the two unknown constants, a and b,

a
F
k

m
c

=
,

(80)
2
b
0
c
k m
for which the solution is
c
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2
k m 2
b() =
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2

a() =

(81)

F .

(82)

The forced vibration solution (equation (74)) may be written

x(t) = a() cos t + b() sin t = X()

cos(t + c ).
(83)

X
= a2 + b2 . The angle c is the
The amplitude of this oscillation is X,
b sin t

X
t
a cos t
Figure 6. The amplitude of the sum of two oscillations in quadrature.

phase between the force f (t) and the response x(t), and
cw
a
(84)
tan c = =
b
k m 2
Note that c is negative, regardless of frequency, meaning that the response
to the forcing
always lags the force. The ratio of the response amplitude X
amplitude F is



X 
X
1


 = q

.
(85)
=
F 
F
(k m 2 ) + (c)2
depends on the amplitude
This equation shows how the response amplitude X
of the forcing F and the frequency of the forcing , and has units of flexibility.
Lets re-derive this expression using complex exponential notation. The
equations of motion are
1
1
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = F cos t = F eit + F eit .
(86)
2
2
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CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

In a solution of the form, x(t) = Xeit + X eit , the coefficient X corresponds to the positive exponents (positive frequencies), and X corresponds
to negative exponents (negative frequencies). Positive exponent coefficients
and negative exponent coefficients may be found separately. Considering the
positive exponent solution, the forcing is expressed as F eit and the partial
solution Xeit is substituted into the forced equations of motion, resulting in
(m 2 + ci + k) X eit = F eit ,

(87)

from which

X
1
=
,
F
(k m 2 ) + i(c)
which is complex-valued. This complex function has a magnitude


X 




F 

1
,
(k m 2 )2 + (c)2

(88)

(89)

which is the same as equation (85).

Equation (88) may be written in terms of the dynamic variables, n and
. Dividing the numerator and the denominator of equation (85) by k, we
obtain
X
=
F

1
1

=
=
X

X
=
xst

1/k


,
+ i kc
1/k

m 2
k

2 !

+i

(90)

2 n

1/k
,
(1 2 ) + i (2)
F /k
q

(1 2 )2 + (2)2
1

(1 2 )2 + (2)2

,

(91)

(92)
,

(93)

(94)

where the frequency ratio is the ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural
frequency, = /n , and the static deflection xst is the response to a static
load F , F = kxst . This equation is called the dynamic amplification factor.
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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

frequency response: F to X
10

=0.05

| X / Xst |

8
6

0.1
4

0.2

0.5

1.0

0
0

0.5

phase, degrees

1.5

2.5

2.5

=0.05

-45
-90

=1.0
-135
-180
0

0.5

1.5

frequency ratio, = / n

st , equation (94).
Figure 7. The dynamic amplification factor for external forcing X/x

It is the factor by which displacement responses are amplified due to the fact
that the external forcing is dynamic, not static. See Figure 7.
To summarize, the steady state response of a simple oscillator directly
excited by a harmonic force, f (t) = F cos t, may be expressed as
F /k
2
cos(t
+

)
,
tan

=
(95)
x(t) = q
c
c
1 2
(1 2 )2 + (2)2
or, equivalently,
x(t) =

F /k
[ (1 2 ) cos t + (2) sin t ] ,
2
2
2
(1 ) + (2)

(96)

where = /n .
3.2 Support Acceleration Excitation

When the dynamic loads are caused by motion of the supports (or the
ground) the forcing on the structure equals the mass of the structure times
the ground acceleration, f (t) = m
z (t).
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CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

x(t)

111
000
000
111
000
111

11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00 z(t)
11

m
k, c

z(t)

k
m
c
x(t)

Figure 8. The proto-typical SDOF oscillator subjected to base motions, z(t)

m( x(t) + z(t) ) + cx(t)

+ kx(t) = 0
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = m
z (t)
x(t) + 2n x(t)
+ n2 x(t) =
z (t)

(97)
(98)
(99)

If the ground displacements are sinusoidal z(t) = Z cos t, then the ground
2 cos t, and f (t) = mZ
2 cos t. Using the
accelerations are z(t) = Z
complex exponential formulation, we can find the dynamic amplification factor as a function of the frequency of the ground motion, .
1
1
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = mZ 2 cos t = mZ 2 eit + mZ 2 eit (100)
2
2
Again assuming a solution of the form x(t) = Xeit the dynamic amplification
factor is
X
m 2
=
,
Z
(k m 2 ) + i(c)
2
=
(1 2 ) + i(2)

(101)

and


X 




Z 

2
(1 2 )2 + (2)2

(102)

See Figure 9.
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Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

frequency response: Z to X
10

=0.05

|X/Z|

8
6

0.1
4

0.2

0.5
1.0

0
0

0.5

phase, degrees

1.5

2.5

2.5

=0.05

-45
-90

=1.0
-135
-180
0

0.5

1.5

frequency ratio, = / n

Z,
equation (101).
Figure 9. The dynamic amplification factor for base-excitation X/
transimissibility: Z to (X+Z)
10

=0.05

| (X+Z) / Z |

8
6

0.1
4

0.2
2

0.5

=1.0

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

phase, degrees

=1.0

-45
-90
-135

=0.05
-180
0

0.5

1.5

frequency ratio, = / n

Figure 10. The transmissibility ratio |(X + Z)/Z| = Tr(, ), equation (104).
CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin

20

CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin

Finally, lets consider the total motion of the mass x(t) + z(t).
X +Z
X
(1 2 ) + i(2) + 2
=
+1 =
Z
Z
(1 2 ) + i(2)
1 + i(2)
=
(1 2 ) + i(2)
and

X




+
Z

(103)

1 + (2)2
= Tr(, ).
(1 2 )2 + (2)2

(104)

This function is called the transmissibility ratio, Tr(, ). It determines the

ratio between the total response amplitude X + Z and the base motion Z.
See figure 10.
For systems that have a longer natural period (lower natural frequency)

than the period (frequency) of the support motion, (i.e., > 2), the transmissibility ratio is less than 1. In such systems the mass is isolated from
motion of the supports.
3.3 Eccentric-Mass Excitation

A particular form of sinusoidal forcing important to machine vibration

arises from the rotation of an eccentric mass. Consider the system shown in
Figure 11 in which a mass m is attached to the primary mass m via a rigid
link of length r and rotates at an angular velocity . In this single degree of
freedom analysis, the motion of the primary mass is constrained to lie along
the x coordinate and the forcing of interest is the x-component of the reactive
centrifugal force. This component is mr 2 cos(t) where the angle t is the
counter-clockwise angle from the x coordinate. The equation of motion with
this forcing is
m
x(t) + cx(t)
+ kx(t) = mr 2 cos(t)
(105)
This expression is simply analogous to equation (86) in which F = m r 2 .
With a few substitutions, the frequency response function is found to be
2
X
=
,
r
(1 2 ) + i (2)

(106)
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21

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

x(t)

11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11

m
k, c

11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111

k
m

m
c

x(t)

Figure 11. The proto-typical SDOF oscillator subjected to eccentric-mass excitation.

which is completely analogous to equation (101). The plot of the frequency

response function of equation (106) is simply proportional to the function
plotted in Figure 9. The magnitude of the dynamic force transmitted between
a machine supported on dampened springs and the base, |fT |, is related to
the transmissibility ratio.
|fT |
= 2 Tr(, )
(107)
kr
Unlike the transmissibility ratio asymptotically approaches 0 with increasing , the vibratory force transmitted from eccentric mass excitation is 0

when = 0 but increase with for > 2. This increasing effect is significant for > 0.2, as shown in Figure 12.
3.4

Finding the damping from the peak of the frequency response function

For lightly damped systems, the frequency ratio of the resonant peak,
the amplification of the resonant peak, and the width of the resonant peak
are functions to of the damping ratio only. Consider two frequency ratios
1 and 2 such that |H(1 , )|2 = |H(2 , )|2 = |H|2peak /2 where |H(, )|
is one of the frequency response functions described in earlier sections. The
frequency ratio corresponding to the peak of these functions peak , and the
value of the peak of these functions, |H|2peak are given in Table 1. Note that
the peak coordinate depends only upon the damping ratio, .
Since 22 21 = (2 1 )(2 + 1 ) and since 2 + 1 2,

2 1
2

(108)
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22

CEE 201L. Uncertainty, Design, and Optimization Duke University Spring 2012 H.P. Gavin
2

transmission: (Z to (X+Z))

2 | (X+Z) / Z |

10

=0.05

8
6

0.1

=1.0

0.2

0.5

2
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

phase, degrees

=1.0

-45
-90
-135

=0.05
-180
0

0.5

1.5

frequency ratio, = / n

Figure 12. The transmission ratio 2 Tr(, ), equation (107).

which is called the half-power bandwidth formula for damping. For the
first, second, and fourth frequency response functions listed in Table 1 the
approximation is accurate to within 5% for < 0.20 and is accurate to within
1% for < 0.10.

CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin

23

Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

Table 1. Peak coordinates for various frequency response functions.

H(, )
peak
|H|2peak
1
(12 )+i(2)

i
(12 )+i(2)

4 2 (1 2 )

4 1 2

1
4 2

4 1 + 2

1
4 2 (1 2 )

4 1 2
18 2 (1 2 )

8 4
8 4 4 2 1+ 1+8 2

ouch.

1 2 2
1

22 21

2
(12 )+i(2)

1+i(2)
(12 )+i(2)

1
12 2

((1+8 2)1/21)
2

1/2

CC BY-NC-ND H.P. Gavin