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A material or device that is capable of converting the

energy contained in photons of light into an electrical


voltage and current is said to be photovoltaic.

A photon with short enough wavelength and high enough
energy can cause an electron in a photovoltaic material to
break free of the atom that holds it.

If a nearby electric field is provided, those electrons can be
swept toward a metallic contact where they can emerge as
an electric current.

The driving force to power photovoltaics comes from the
sun, and it is interesting to note that the surface of the
earth receives something like 6000 times as much solar
energy as our total energy demand.
Spurred on by the emerging energy crises of the 1970s, the
development work supported by the space program began to
pay off back on the ground.

By the late 1980s, higher efficiencies (Fig. 8.1) and lower
costs (Fig. 8.2) brought PVs closer to reality, and they began
to find application in many offgrid terrestrial applications
such as pocket calculators, off-shore buoys, highway lights,
signs and emergency call boxes, rural water pumping, and
small home systems.

While the amortized cost of
photovoltaic power did drop
dramatically in the 1990s, a
decade later it is still about
double what it needs to be to
compete without subsidies in
more general situations.
Figure 8.1 Best laboratory PV cell efficiencies for various technologies.
(From National Center for Photovoltaics, www.nrel.gov/ncpv 2003
By 2002, worldwide
production of
photovoltaics had
approached 600 MW
per year and was
increasing by over 40%
per year (by
comparison, global
wind power sales were
10 times greater).
Figure 8.3 World production of photovoltaics is
growing rapidly, but the U.S. share of the market is
decreasing. Based on data from Maycock (2004).
Critics of this decline point to the
governments lack of enthusiasm to fund PV
R&D. By comparison, Japans R&D budget is
almost an order of magnitude greater.
Figure 8.2 Possible evolution of turn-key PV system
prices
Before we can talk about solar power, we need
to talk about the sun
Need to know how much sunlight is available
Can predict where the sun is at any time
Insolation : incident solar radiation
Want to determine the average daily insolation
at a site
Want to be able to chose effective locations and
panel tilts of solar panels

The sun
1.4 million km in diameter
3.8 x 10
20
MW of radiated electromagnetic energy

Blackbodies
Both a perfect emitter and a perfect absorber
Perfect emitter radiates more energy per unit of
surface area than a real object of the same
temperature
Perfect absorber absorbs all radiation, none is
reflected

Planks law wavelengths emitted by a
blackbody depend on temperature
8
5
3.74 10
(7.1)
14400
exp 1
E
T

=
(
| |

|
(
\ .

= wavelength (m)
E

= emissive power per unit area of


blackbody (W/m
2
-m)
T = absolute temperature (K)
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation
Visible light has a wavelength of between 0.4 and 0.7 m, with
ultraviolet values immediately shorter, and infrared immediately longer
The earth as a blackbody
Figure 7.1
Area under curve is the total radiant power emitted
Total radiant power emitted is given by the
Stefan Boltzman law of radiation
4
(7.2) E A T o =
E = total blackbody emission rate (W)
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67x10
-8

W/m
2
-K
4
T = absolute temperature (K)
A = surface area of blackbody (m
2
)
The wavelength at which the emissive power
per unit area reaches its maximum point
max
2898
(7.3)
T
=
T = absolute temperature (K)
= wavelength (m)

max
=0.5 m for the sun , T = 5800 K

max
= 10.1 m for the earth (as a blackbody), T = 288 K
Figure 7.2
h
1
= path length through atmosphere with sun
directly overhead
h
2
= path length through atmosphere to spot on
surface
= altitude angle of the sun
Figure 7.3
As sunlight passes through the
atmosphere, less energy arrives at the
earths surface
Air mass ratio of 1 (AM1) means sun is directly
overhead
AM0 means no atmosphere
AM1.5 is assumed average at the earths surface
2
1
1
air mass ratio = (7.4)
sin
h
m
h |
=
Figure 7.3
m increases as the sun
appearslower in
the sky.

Notice there is a large
loss towards the blue end
for higher m, which is why
the sun appears reddish at
sun rise and sun set
One revolution every 365.25 days
Distance of the earth from the sun



n = day number (Jan. 1 is day 1)
d (km) varies from 147x10
6
km on Jan. 2 to
152x10
6
km on July 3 (closer in winter, further
in summer)
Note that the angles in this chapter are in
degrees

8
360( 93)
1.5 10 1 0.017sin km (7.5)
365
n
d

(
= +
`
(

)
In one day, the earth rotates 360.99
The earth sweeps out what is called the ecliptic
plane
Earths spin axis is currently 23.45
Equinox equal day and night, on March 21
and September 21
Winter solstice North Pole is tilted furthest
from the sun
Summer solstice North Pole is tilted closest to
the sun
Figure 7.5
For solar energy applications, well consider the characteristics of
the earths orbit to be unchanging
Solar declination the angle formed between
the plane of the equator and the line from the
center of the sun to the center of the earth
varies between +/- 23.45
Assuming a sinusoidal relationship, a 365 day
year, and n=81 is the spring equinox, the
approximation of for any day n can be found
from
( )
360
23.45sin 81 (7.6)
365
n o
(
=
(

Predict where the sun will be in the sky at any time
Pick the best tilt angles for photovoltaic (PV) panels

Figure 7.6
Another perspective-
Solar declination
Solar noon sun is
directly over the
local line of
longitude

Rule of thumb for
the Northern
Hemisphere - a
south facing
collector tilted at an
angle equal to the
local latitude
During solar noon, the suns rays are perpendicular to
the collector face

Figure 7.8
Find the optimum tilt angle for a south-facing
PV module located at in Tucson (latitude 32.1)
at solar noon on March 1
From Table 7.1, March 1 is day n = 60
The solar declination is


The altitude angle is

To make the suns rays perpendicular to the
panel, we need to tilt the panel by
( ) ( )
360 360
23.45sin 81 = 23.45sin 60 81 = -8.3
365 365
n o
( (
=
( (

90 = 90 32.1 8.3 49.6
N
L | o = + =
90 = 40.4
N
tilt | =
Altitude angle at solar noon
N
angle between
the sun and the local horizon

Zenith perpendicular axis at a site

90 (7.7)
N
L | o = +
Figure 7.9
Find the optimum tilt angle for a south-facing
PV module located at in Tucson (latitude 32.1)
at solar noon on March 1
From Table 7.1, March 1 is day n = 60
Described in terms of altitude angle

and
azimuth angle of the sun
S
and
S
depend on latitude, day number, and
time of day
Azimuth angle (
S
) convention
positive in the morning when sun is in the east
negative in the evening when sun is in the west
reference in the Northern Hemisphere (for us) is true
south
Hours are referenced to solar noon
Figure 7.10
Azimuth Angle
Altitude Angle
Hour angle H- the number of degrees the earth
must rotate before sun will be over your line of
longitude
If we consider the earth to rotate at 15/hr,
then



At 11 AM solar time, H = +15 (the earth
needs to rotate 1 more hour)
At 2 PM solar time, H = -30

( )
15
hour angle hours before solar noon (7.10)
hour
H

| |
=
|
\ .
sin cos cos cos sin sin (7.8) L H L | o o = +
cos sin
sin (7.9)
cos
S
H o
|
|
=
H = hour angle
L = latitude (degrees)
Test to determine if the angle magnitude is less than
or greater than 90 with respect to true south-

tan
if cos , then 90 , else 90 (7.11)
tan
S S
H
L
o
| | > s >
Find altitude angle and azimuth angle
S
at 3 PM
solar time in Boulder, CO (L = 40) on the summer
solstice

At the solstice, we know the solar declination =
23.45
Hour angle H is found from (7.10)


The altitude angle is found from (7.8)


( )
15
-3 h 45
h
H

| |
= =
|
\ .
( )
sin cos 40cos 23.45cos 45 sin40sin23.45 0.7527 | = + =
( )
1
sin 0.7527 48.8 |

= =
The sin of the azimuth angle is found from (7.9)


Two possible azimuth angles exist



Apply the test (7.11)



( )
cos 23.45 sin 45
sin = -0.9848
cos 48.8
S
|

=

( )
1
= sin -0.9848 80
S
|

=
( )
1
= 180 -sin -0.9848 260 or 100
S
|

=
( )
cos cos 45 0.707 H = =
tan tan 23.45
0.517
tan tan 40 L
o
= =

>
= 80 (80 west of south)
S
|
Now we know how to locate the sun in the sky
at any time
This can also help determine what sites will be
in the shade at any time
Sketch the azimuth and altitude angles of trees,
buildings, and other obstructions
Sections of the sun path diagram that are
covered indicate times when the site will be in
the shade
Trees to the southeast, small building to the
southwest
Can estimate the amount of energy lost to
shading
Figure 7.15
The shading of solar collectors has been an area of
legal and legislative concern (e.g., a neighbors tree
is blocking a solar panel)
California has the Solar Shade Control Act (1979) to
address this issue
No new trees and shrubs can be placed on neighboring
property that would cast a shadow greater than 10 percent of
a collector absorption area between the hours of 10 am and 2
pm.
Exceptions are made if the tree is on designated timberland,
or the tree provides passive cooling with net energy savings
exceeding that of the shaded collector
First people were convicted in 2008 because of their
redwoods
Source: NYTimes, 4/7/08
Most solar work deals only in solar time (ST)
Solar time is measured relative to solar noon
Two adjustments
For a longitudinal adjustment related to time zones
For the uneven movement of the earth around the sun
Problem with solar time two places can only
have the same solar time is if they are directly
north-south of each other
Solar time differs 4 minutes for 1 of longitude
Clock time has 24 1-hour time zones, each
spanning 15 of longitude
Source: http://aa.usno.navy.mil/graphics/TimeZoneMap0802.pdf
Time Zone Local Time Meridian
Eastern 75
Central 90
Mountain 105
Pacific 120
Eastern Alaska 135
Alaska and
Hawaii
150
The earths elliptical orbit causes the length of
a solar day to vary throughout the year
Difference between a 24-h day and a solar day
is given by the Equation of Time E




n is the day number

( )
9.87sin2 7.53 1.5sin minutes (7.12) E B B B =
( )
360
-81 (degrees) (7.13)
364
B n =
Combining longitude correction and the
Equation of Time we get the following:




CT clock time
ST solar time
LT Meridian Local Time Meridian
During Daylight Savings, add one hour to the
local time
Solar Time (ST) Clock Time (CT) + =
( )
4 min
LT Meridian Local Longitude + (min)
degree
E
(7.14)
Find Eastern Daylight Time for solar noon in
Boston (longitude 71.1 W) on July 1

July 1 corresponds to n = 182
From the Equation of Time (7.12) and (7.13) we
obtain

360 360
= ( 81) (182 81) 99.89
364 364
B n = =
( ) ( ) ( )
= 9.87sin 2 7.53cos 1.5sin = 3.5 min E B B B
The local time meridian for Boston is 75, so
the difference is 75 -71.7 , and we know that
each degree corresponds to 4 minutes
Using (7.14)



But we need to adjust it for Daylight Savings, so
add 1 hour
( )( )
= 4 min/ 75 71.1 ( 3.5min) CT ST
= 12: 00 12.1min 11: 49.9 AM EST CT =
= 12: 49.9 AM EDT CT
Can approximate the sunrise and sunset times
Solve (7.8) for where the altitude angle is zero






+ sign on H
SR
indicates sunrise, - indicates
sunset


sin cos cos cos sin sin (7.8) L H L | o o = +
sin cos cos cos sin sin 0 (7.15) L H L | o o = + =
sin sin
cos = tan tan (7.16)
cos cos
L
H L
L
o
o
o
=
1
cos ( tan tan ) (7.17)
SR
H L o

=
Hour angle of sunrise
Sunrise (geometric) 12: 00 (7.18)
15 /
SR
H
h
=

Weather service definition is the time at which


the upper limb (top) of the sun crosses the
horizon, but the geometric sunrise is based on
the center
There is also atmospheric refraction
Adjustment factor Q


Subtract this from the geometric sunrise
3.467
Q (min) (7.19)
cos cos sin
SR
L H o
=
Direct beam radiation I
BC
passes in a straight
line through the atmosphere to the receiver
Diffuse radiation I
DC
scattered by molecules in
the atmosphere

Reflected
radiation I
RC

bounced off a
surface near the
reflector

Figure 7.18
Starting point for clear sky radiation calculations
I
0
passes perpendicularly through an imaginary
surface outside of the earths atmosphere
I
0
depends on distance between earth and sun and
on intensity of the sun which is fairly predictable
Ignoring sunspots, I
0
can be written as


SC = solar constant = 1.377 kW/m
2
n = day number
2
0
360
SC 1 0.034cos (W/m ) (7.20)
365
n
I
(
| |
= +
|
(
\ .

These changes are due to the variation in
earths distance from the sun
In one year, less than half of I
0
reaches earths
surface as a direct beam
On a sunny, clear day, beam radiation may
exceed 70% of I
0

Figure 7.19
Can treat attenuation as an exponential decay
function
(7.21)
km
B
I Ae

=
I
B
= beam portion of the radiation that
reaches the earths surface
A = apparent extraterrestrial flux
k = optical depth
m = air mass ratio from (7.4)

(7.21)
km
B
I Ae

=
From curve fits of the table data, A and k are
approximately

( )
2
360
1160 75sin 275 (W/m ) (7.22)
365
A n
(
= +
(

( )
360
0.174 0.035sin 100 (7.23)
365
k n
(
= +
(

Direct-beam radiation is just a function of the angle
between the sun and the collecting surface (i.e., the
incident angle u):


Diffuse radiation is assumed to be coming from
essentially all directions to the angle doesnt matter; it
is typically between 6% and 14% of the direct value.

Reflected radiation comes from a nearby surface, and
depends on the surface reflectance, , ranging down
from 0.8 for clean snow to 0.1 for a shingle roof.






cos
BC B
I I u =
( )
1 cos
2
RC BH DH
I I I
E
| |
= +
|
\ .
Most residential solar systems have a fixed
mount, but sometimes tracking systems are
cost effective
Tracking systems are either single axis (usually
with a rotating polar mount [parallel to earths
axis of rotation), or two axis (horizontal
[altitude, up-down] and vertical [azimuth, east-
west]
Ballpark figures for tracking system benefits
are about 20% more for a single axis, and 25 to
30% more for a two axis
For a fixed system the total annual output is
somewhat insensitive to the tilt angle, but there is a
substantial variation in when the most energy is
generated
In 2007 worldwide PV peak was about 7800 MW, with almost half
(3860 MW) in Germany, 1919 MW in Japan, 830 in USA and
655 in Spain
Photovoltaic definition- a material or device that is capable
of converting the energy contained in photons of light into
an electrical voltage and current
Rooftop PV
modules on a
village health
center in West
Bengal, India
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_use.html
"Sojourner"
exploring Mars,
1997
University of Illinois 2009
Solar Decathalon House 2
nd

place overall
http://www.solardecathlon.uiuc.edu/gallery.html#
Edmund Becquerel
(1839)
Adams and Day (1876)
Albert Einstein (1904)
Czochralski (1940s)
Vanguard I satellite
(1958)

Today

http://www.nrel.gov/pv/pv_manufacturing/cost_capacity.html
Cost/Capacity Analysis
(Wp is peak Watt)
Shadows
Solar cell is a diode
Photopower coverted to DC
Shadows & defects convert
generating areas to loads
DC is converted to AC by an
inverter
Loads are unpredictable
Storage helps match
generation to load
When Prof. Chapman built a new house in
Urbana in 2007 he added some solar PV.
His system has 14 modules
with 205 W each, for a
total of 2870W. He has
a 3300 W inverter.
Total cost was about $27,000,
but tax credits reduced it
to $16,900.
He should be getting about 3700 kWh per year
Source: www.patrickchapman.com/solar.htm
Solar Intensity: Atmospheric Effects
Sun photosphere
AM means air mass
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

Extraterestrial
sunlight (AM0)
Sunlight at sea level
at 40 N Lattitude at
noon (AM1.5)
The device
Efficiency, cost, manufacturability
automation, testing
Encapsulation
Cost, weight, strength,
yellowing, etc.
Accelerated lifetime testing
30 year outdoor test is difficult
Damp heat, light soak, etc.
Inverter & system design
Micro-inverters, blocking diodes, reliability
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

Voltage
Open-circuit
voltage
Short-circuit
current
Maximum
Power Point
n
-
t
y
p
e

p
-
t
y
p
e

-
+
Load
Solar cells are diodes
Light (photons) generate
free carriers (electrons
and holes) which are
collected by the electric
field of the diode junction
The output current is a
fraction of this
photocurrent
The output voltage is a
fraction of the diode
built-in voltage

Standard Equivalent Circuit Model
P
h
o
t
o
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

s
o
u
r
c
e

D
i
o
d
e

S
h
u
n
t

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

L
o
a
d

Series
resistance
Where does the power go?
(minimize)
(
m
a
x
i
m
i
z
e
)

Electrons in solids fill states until you run out of them

Conduction band top band, here electrons contribute
to current flow, empty at absolute zero for
semiconductors

Valence band highest energy band where electrons are
normally present at absolute zero

An electron must acquire the band gap energy to jump
across to the conduction band, measured in electron-
volts eV

Silicon band gap energy is 1.12 eV

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Isolator-
metal.svg
The probability of finding an electron in a
state is the Fermi distribution
The Fermi energy is the energy at which the
probability of finding an electron is 0.5


Electrons create holes when they jump to the conduction band
Electrons can move in the conduction band
Can talk about holes moving also (the way electrical engineers
are used to thinking like how current moves from + to -)
Photons with enough energy create hole-electron pairs in a
semiconductor
Energy bands for (a) metals and (b) semiconductors. Metals have partially filled conduction bands,
which allows them to carry electric current easily. Semiconductors at absolute zero temperature have
no electrons in the conduction band, which makes them insulators.
Photons are characterized by their wavelength
(frequency) and their energy
(8.1) c v =
(8.2)
hc
E hv
v
= =
Quantity Si GaAs CdTe InP
Band gap (eV) 1.12 1.42 1.5 1.35
Cut-off wavelength
(m)
1.11 0.87 0.83 0.92
Table 8.2 Band Gap and Cut-off Wavelength Above Which Electron
Excitation Doesnt Occur
The gaps between allowable energy bands are called forbidden
bands, the most important of which is the gap separating the
conduction band from the highest filled band below it.

The energy that an electron must acquire to jump across the
forbidden band to the conduction band is called the band-gap
energy, designated Eg.

The units for band-gap energy are usually electron-volts (eV),
where one electron-volt is the energy that an electron acquires
when its voltage is increased by 1 V (1 eV = 1.6 1019 J).

The band-gap Eg for silicon is 1.12 eV, which means an electron
needs to acquire that much energy to free itself from the
electrostatic force that ties it to its own nucleusthat is, to jump
into the conduction band.
When a photon with more than 1.12 eV of energy is absorbed by a solar cell, a single
electron may jump to the conduction band.

When it does so, it leaves behind a nucleus with a +4 charge that now
has only three electrons attached to it.

That is, there is a net positive charge, called a hole, associated with that nucleus as
shown in Fig. 8.7a. Unless there is some way to sweep the electrons away from the
holes, they will eventually recombine, obliterating both the hole and electron as in
Fig. 8.7b.
When recombination occurs, the energy that had been associated with the electron
in the conduction band is released as a photon, which is the basis for light-emitting
diodes (LEDs).
Figure 8.7 A photon with sufficient energy can create
a holeelectron pair as in (a).The electron can
recombine with the hole, releasing a photon of energy
(b).
Figure 8.8 When a hole is filled by a nearby valence
electron, the hole appears to move
Example 8.1 Photons to Create HoleElectron Pairs in Silicon . What maximum
wavelength can a photon have to create holeelectron pairs in silicon? What
minimum frequency is that? Silicon has a band gap of 1.12 eV and 1 eV = 1.6
10
19
J.
Solution. From (8.2) the wavelength must be less than
hc/ E= = [6.626 1034 J s 3 108 m/s]/ [1.12 eV 1.6 1019J/eV]
= 1.11 106 m = 1.11 m
and from (8.1) the frequency must be at least c = 3 10
8
m/s /1.11 10
6
m
= 2.7 10
14
Hz
For a silicon photovoltaic cell, photons with wavelength greater than 1.11 m
have energy h less than the 1.12-eV band-gap energy needed to excite an
electron. None of those photons create holeelectron pairs capable of carrying
current, so all of their energy is wasted. It just heats the cell. On the other
hand, photons with wavelengths shorter than 1.11 m have more than enough
energy to excite an electron. Since one photon can excite only one electron, any
extra energy above the 1.12 eV needed is also dissipated as waste heat in the
cell. Figure 8.9 uses a plot of (8.2) to illustrate this important concept. The band
gaps for other photovoltaic materialsgallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium telluride
(CdTe), and indium phosphide (InP), in addition to siliconare shown in
Table 8.2.
Figure 8.9 Photons with
wavelengths above 1.11 m
dont have the 1.12 eV needed
to excite an electron, and this
energy is lost. Photons with
shorter wavelengths have more
than enough energy, but any
energy above 1.12 eV is wasted
as well
Upper bound on the efficiency of a silicon solar
cell:
Band gap: 1.12 eV, Wavelength: 1.11 m

This means that photons with wavelengths
longer than 1.11 m cannot send an electron to
the conduction band.

Photons with a shorter wavelength but more
energy than 1.12 eV dissipate the extra energy
as heat
For an Air Mass
Ratio of 1.5, 49.6%
is the maximum
possible fraction
of the suns
energy that can be
collected with a
silicon solar cell

Air mass ratio of 1 (designated AM1) means that the sun is directly overhead. By convention, AM0
means no atmosphere; that is, it is the extraterrestrial solar spectrum. For most photovoltaic work, an air
mass ratio of 1.5, corresponding to the sun being 42 degrees above the horizon, is assumed to be the
standard.
The solar spectrum at AM 1.5 is shown in Fig. 8.10. For an AM 1.5 spectrum, 2% of the incoming solar
energy is in the UV portion of the spectrum, 54% is in the visible, and 44% is in the infrared.

8.2.3 Band-Gap Impact on Photovoltaic
Efficiency
Solar spectrum at AM 1.5.
Photons with wavelengths
longer than 1.11 m dont have
enough energy to excite
electrons (20.2% of the
incoming solar energy); those
with shorter wavelengths cant
use all of their energy, which
accounts for another 30.2%
unavailable to a silicon
photovoltaic cell. Spectrum is
based on ERDA/NASA (1977).
If we know the solar spectrum, we can calculate the energy loss due
to these two fundamental constraints. Figure 8.10 shows the results
of this analysis, assuming a standard air mass ratio AM 1.5.

As is presented there, 20.2% of the energy in the spectrum is lost
due to photons having less energy than the band gap of silicon (h
< Eg), and another 30.2% is lost due to photons with h > Eg.

The remaining 49.6% represents the maximum possible fraction of
the suns energy that could be collected with a silicon solar cell.

That is, the constraints imposed by silicons band gap limit the
efficiency of silicon to just under 50%.
Even this simple discussion gives some insight into the trade-off between choosing a photovoltaic
material that has a small band gap versus one with a large band gap.

With a smaller band gap, more solar photons have the energy needed to excite electrons, which is
good since it creates the charges that will enable current to flow.

However, a small band gap means that more photons have surplus energy above the threshold needed
to create holeelectron pairs, which wastes their potential.

High band-gap materials have the opposite combination. A high band gap means that fewer photons
have enough energy to create the current carrying electrons and holes, which limits the current that can
be generated.

On the other hand, a high band gap gives those charges a higher voltage with less leftover surplus
energy.

In other words, low band gap gives more current with less voltage while high band gap results in less
current and higher voltage.

Since power is the product of current and voltage, there must be some middle-ground band gap,
usually estimated to be between 1.2 eV and 1.8 eV, which will result in the highest power and
efficiency.
Notice that the efficiencies in Fig. 8.11 are roughly in the 2025% rangewell
below the 49.6% we found when we considered only the losses caused by

(a) photons with insufficient energy to push electrons into the conduction band
and
(b) photons with energy in excess of what is needed to do so.

(c) Other factors that contribute to the drop in theoretical efficiency include:

1. Only about half to two-thirds of the full band-gap voltage across the terminals
of the solar cell.
2. Recombination of holes and electrons before they can contribute to current
flow.
3. Photons that are not absorbed in the cell either because they are reflected off
the face of the cell, or because they pass right through the cell, or because they are
blocked by the metal conductors that collect current from the top of the cell.
4. Internal resistance within the cell, which dissipates power.
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
m
W
/
m
2
-

m
)

Photons used
Maximum energy
collected = E
gap

Usable
power 24%
Unused
Photons 19%
31% Loss for
Energy
above E
gap

V
oc
< E
gap
16%
Fill Factor 5%
Other Losses 5%
Limitations to Solar Cell Performance
Other losses:
Absorption
Collection
Reflection
Series R
Shunts
Analysis for a 24%-efficient Si solar cell
All photon energy above V
oc
is lost.
Energy (eV)
Two regions: n-type which
donate electrons and p-type
which accept electrons

p-n junction- diffusion of
electrons and holes, current
will flow readily in one
direction (forward biased) but
not in the other (reverse
biased), this is the diode
Making a connection from an n-type semiconductor
(doped with impurities with extra electrons) to a p-
type material (extra holes) induces an electric field
This field is what separates charges generated by light
The depletion width is the region where carriers have
diffused
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pn-junction-equilibrium.png
Voltage-Current (VI) characteristics for a diode




/
0
( -1) (8.3)
d
qV kT
d
I I e =
38.9
0
( -1) (at 25 C)
d
V
d
I I e =
Figure 8.15
where :

Id is the diode current in the direction of the arrow (A),
Vd is the voltage across the diode terminals from the p-side to
the n-side (V),
Io is the reverse saturation current (A),
q is the electron charge (1.602 1019C),
k is Boltzmanns constant (1.381 1023 J/K), and
T is the junction temperature (K).
Example 8.2 A p n Junction Diode. Consider a pn junction diode at 25C
with a reverse saturation current of 109 A. Find the voltage drop across the
diode when it is carrying the following:
a. no current (open-circuit voltage)
b. 1 A
c. 10 A
Solution
Current in the Device:
J
0
: Reverse saturation current
V: Junction voltage
k: Boltzmann constant
T: Temperature (K)
a: Ideality factor
1: ideal
2: non-ideal
Photocurrent: Diode (dark) current:
Voltage (V)
Calculating Cell Parameters:
Open circuit voltage from current equation at
zero current:
Solving for V
oc
gives:
Notes:
This is for an ideal diode!!
g
op
is proportional to light flux
V
oc
increases logarithmically with light flux.
L
p
, L
n
: Minority carrier diffusion lengths
p
n
, n
p
: Minority carrier concentrations
The previous equations in terms of the books
notation are (just use the book equations and
notation when working your problems)

Setting I to zero, the open circuit voltage is
/
0
( -1) (8.8)
qV kT
SC
I I I e =
0
ln 1 (8.9)
SC
OC
I kT
V
q I
| |
= +
|
\ .
+
-
I
V
+
-
Load
PV
Figure 8.19 Two important parameters for photovoltaics are the short-circuit current
ISC and the open-circuit voltage VOC
Two important parameters for photovoltaics are the short-
circuit current ISC and the open-circuit voltage VOC
Add impact of parallel leakage resistance R
P
(want
R
P
to be high)








Add impact of series resistance R
S
(want R
S
to be
small) due to contact between cell and wires and
some from resistance of semiconductor


( ) (8.12)
SC d
P
V
I I I
R
=
(8.14)
d S
V V I R = +
Figure 8.22. PV Cell with parallel resistance
V
d
Considering both R
S
and R
P

( )
0
exp 1 - (8.17)
S
S
SC
P
q V I R
V I R
I I I
kT R

+ ( | |
+

=
`
| (

\ .
)
Figure 8.26. Equivalent circuit for a PV Cell including series and parallel resistance
Series and Shunt Resistance Effects:
Algebraically:


J = J
L
+ J
0
e
qV+JR
series
( )
/ akT
1
| |

V
R
shunt
Series resistance drops
some voltage (reduces
output voltage)
Shunt resistance drops
some current (reduces
output current)
Voltage & Current are coupled
P
h
o
t
o
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

s
o
u
r
c
e

D
i
o
d
e

S
h
u
n
t

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

L
o
a
d

Series
resistance
(minimize)
(
m
a
x
i
m
i
z
e
)

Equivalent Circuit
Parallel (R
P
)
current drops by
I=V/R
P




Series (R
S
)
voltage drops by
V=IR
S
Figure 8.23
Figure 8.25
Fill Factor and
Cell Efficiency
Fill Factor
(FF) =
J
max
V
max

P
abs
= J
sc
V
oc

Cell
Efficiency
(q) =
J
sc
V
oc
FF
Incident
Power
J
max
V
max

Incident
Power
=
AM 1.5 Incident
Solar Power
~100 mW/cm
2

J
SC
Absorption coefficient:
Thicker is better.
You need at least 2
absorption lengths even
with a back surface
reflector.
Carrier diffusion length:
Thinner is better.
Need to be able to diffuse
to the contacts.
Optimal performance:
10 nm for organics
1-2 microns for CdTe,
CIS, a-Si:H
2-10 microns for GaAs
20-100 microns for Si, Ge
Material Lifetime (usec) Mobility (cm
2
/V-sec) L
n
L
p
(um)
x-Si ~ 100 1350 480 590 340
CdTe ~ 0.001 3 500 0.12 1.6
GaAs ~ 0.1 8500 400 50 10
CuInSe
2
~ 0.01 800 200 3 1
a-Si ~ 0.001 1 0.05
organics ~ 0.001 10
-3
0.002
Absorption of Light in the Solar Cell
Light trapping can be used to extend the
path length of the light in the absorber,
allowing a thinner layer to be used.
No light trapping
absorption or
reflection at
back surface
Back surface
patterned to
reflect & scatter
light
Front & back
surface patterned
to refract &
scatter light
Figure 8.20 Photovoltaic currentvoltage relationship for
dark (no sunlight) and light (an illuminated cell). The
dark curve is just the diode curve turned upside-down. The
light curve is the dark curve plus ISC
Example 8.3 The I V Curve for a Photovoltaic
Cell. Consider a 100-cm2 photovoltaic cell
with reverse saturation current Io = 10
12
A/cm2. In full sun, it produces a short-circuit
current of 40 mA/cm2 at 25C. Find the
open-circuit voltage at full sun and again for
50% sunlight. Plot the results.
Figure 8.21 The simple equivalent circuit of a
string of cells in series suggests no current can
flow to the load if any cell is in the dark
(shaded).
Figure 8.22 The simple PV equivalent circuit
with an added parallel resistance
Figure 8.23 Modifying the idealized PV equivalent
circuit by adding parallel resistance causes the current
at any given voltage to drop by V/RP
Figure 8.24 A PV equivalent circuit with series resistance
For a large cell, ISC
might be around 7 A and
VOC might be about 0.6
V, which says its parallel
resistance should be
greater than about 9
ohms.
PV Shading Phenomenon
For a cell to have less than 1% losses due to the
series resistance, RS will need to be less than about
RS < 0.01 VOC/ISC
which, for a large cell with ISC = 7 A and VOC = 0.6 V,
would be less than 0.0009 ohms.
Equation for current and voltage:

Figure 8.25 Adding series resistance to
the PV equivalent circuit causes the
voltage at any given current to shift to
the left by V = IRS
Figure 8.26 A more complex equivalent circuit for a
PV cell includes both parallel and series resistances.
The shaded diode reminds us that this is a real
diode rather than an ideal one.
Under the standard assumption of a 25C cell
temperature, (8.17) becomes
Figure 8.27 Series and parallel resistances in the PV equivalent circuit
decrease both voltage and current delivered. To improve cell performance, high
RP and low RS are needed.
Since an individual cell produces only about 0.5 V, it is a rare
application for which just a single cell is of any use. Instead, the basic
building block for PV applications is a module consisting of a number
of pre-wired cells in series, all encased in tough, weather-resistant
packages.

A typical module has 36 cells in series and is often designated as a
12-V module even though it is capable of delivering much higher
voltages than that. Some 12-V modules have only 33 cells, which, as
will be seen later may, be desirable in certain very simple battery
charging systems.

Large 72-cell modules are now quite common, some of which have all
of the cells wired in series, in which case they are referred to as 24-V
modules.

Some 72-cell modules can be field-wired to act either as 24-V
modules with all 72 cells in series or as 12-V modules with two
parallel strings having 36 series cells in each.
Figure 8.28 Photovoltaic cells,
modules, and arrays.
Figure 8.29 For cells wired in series,
their voltages at any given current add.
A typical module will have 36 cells
Example 8.4 Voltage and Current from a PV Module. A PV
module is made up of 36 identical cells, all wired in series.
With 1-sun insolation (1 kW/m2), each cell has short-circuit
current ISC = 3.4 A and at 25C its reverse saturation
current is Io = 6 10
10
A. Parallel resistance RP = 6.6 and
series resistance RS = 0.005 .
a. Find the voltage, current, and power delivered when the
junction voltage of each cell is 0.50 V.
b. Set up a spreadsheet for I and V and present a few lines of
output to show how it works.
Figure 8.32 Two ways to wire an
array with three modules in series
and two modules in parallel.
Although the I V curves for
arrays are the same, two strings of
three modules each (a) is
preferred. The total I V curve of
the array is shown in (c).
The maximum power point (MPP) is that spot near the knee of the I V curve at
which the product of current and voltage reaches its maximum.

The voltage and current at the MPP are sometimes designated as Vm and Im for
the general case and designated VR and IR (for rated voltage and rated current)
under the special circumstances that correspond to idealized test conditions.
Figure 8.34 The I V curve and power output
for a PV module. At the maximum power point
(MPP) the module delivers the most power that
it can under the conditions of sunlight and
temperature for which the I V curve has been
drawn
Figure 8.35 The maximum power point
(MPP) corresponds to the biggest rectangle
that can fit beneath the I V curve. The fill
factor (FF) is the ratio of the area (power) at
MPP to the area formed by a rectangle with
sides VOC and ISC.
Fill factors around 7075% for crystalline silicon solar modules
are typical, while for multijunction amorphous-Si modules, it is
closer to 5060%.
Fill factor (FF) = Power at the maximum power point/VOC ISC=
VR IR /VOCISC
Figure 8.36 Current-voltage
characteristic curves under various cell
temperatures and irradiance levels for
the Kyocera KC120-1 PV module
As can be seen in Fig. 8.36, as cell temperature
increases, the open-circuit voltage decreases
substantially while the short-circuit current increases
only slightly.
Photovoltaics, perhaps surprisingly, therefore
perform better on cold, clear days than hot ones.
For crystalline silicon cells, VOC drops by about
0.37% for each degree Celsius increase in
temperature and ISC increases by approximately
0.05%.
The net result when cells heat up is the MPP slides
slightly upward and toward the left with a decrease in
maximum power available of about 0.5%/C. Given
this significant shift in performance as cell
temperature changes, it should be quite apparent that
temperature needs to be included in any estimate of
module performance.
Cells vary in temperature not only because ambient
temperatures change, but also because insolation on
the cells changes.
To help system designers account for changes in cell performance
with temperature, manufacturers often provide an indicator
called the NOCT, which stands for nominal operating cell
temperature.
The NOCT is cell temperature in a module when ambient is 20C,
solar irradiation is 0.8 kW/m2, and windspeed is 1 m/s.

To account for other ambient conditions, the following expression
may be used:
where Tcell is cell temperature (C), Tamb is ambient
temperature, and S is solar insolation (kW/m2).
Example 8.5 Impact of Cell Temperature on Power
for a PV Module.
Estimate cell temperature, open-circuit voltage,
and maximum power output for the 150-W
BP2150S module under conditions of 1-sun
insolation and ambient temperature 30C. The
module has a NOCT of 47C.
When the NOCT is not given, another approach to
estimating cell temperature is based on the
following:

Tcell = Tamb + ( Insolation/1 kW/m2)

where is a proportionality factor that depends
somewhat on windspeed and how well ventilated
the modules are when installed.

Typical values of range between 25C and 35C;
that is, in 1 sun of insolation, cells tend to be 25
35C hotter than their environment.
Figure 8.37 A module with n cells in which the
top cell is in the sun (a) or in the shade (b).
Consider the case when the bottom n 1 cells still have full sun and still some
how carry their original current I so they will still produce their original voltage
Vn1. This means that the output voltage of the entire module VSH with one
cell shaded will drop to

With all n cells in the sun and carrying I , the output voltage was V so the
voltage of the bottom n 1 cells will be

Combining (8.26) and (8.27) gives

The drop in voltage V at any given current I , caused by the shaded cell, is
given by



Since the parallel resistance RP is so much greater than the series resistance RS
, (8.30) simplifies to

At any given current, the I V curve for the module with one shaded cell drops
by V.
Figure 8.38 Effect of shading one cell in an n-cell module. At
any given current, module voltage drops from V to V V
Example 8.6 Impacts of Shading on a PV Module. The 36-cell PV
module described in Example 8.4 had a parallel resistance per
cell of RP = 6.6 . In full sun and at current I = 2.14 A the
output voltage was found there to be V = 19.41 V. If one cell
is shaded and this current somehow stays the same, then:
a. What would be the new module output voltage and power?
b. What would be the voltage drop across the shaded cell?
c. How much power would be dissipated in the shaded cell?

Solution
Figure 8.39 shows such curves for the example module under full-sun
conditions and with one cell 50% shaded, one cell completely
shaded, and two cells completely shaded.
Also shown on the graph is a dashed vertical line at 13 V, which is a
typical operating voltage for a module charging a 12-V battery.

Figure 8.39 Effects of shading on the I V curves for a PV
module. The dashed line shows a typical voltage that the
module would operate at when charging a 12-V battery; the
impact on charging current is obviously severe
The reduction in charging
current for even modest
amounts of shading is
severe.

With just one cell shaded
out of 36 in the module, the
power delivered to the
battery is decreased by
about two-thirds!
Figure 8.40 In full sun a cell may
contribute around 0.5 V to the
module output; but when a cell is
shaded, it can have a large voltage
drop across it.
Figure 8.41 Mitigating the shade
problem with a bypass diode. In the
sun (a), the bypass diode is cut off
and all the normal current goes
through the solar cell. In shade (b),
the bypass diode conducts current
around the shaded cell, allowing just
the diode drop of about 0.6 V to
occur.
To see how bypass diodes wired in parallel with modules can help mitigate
shading problems, consider Fig. 8.42, which shows I V curves for a string of
five modules (the same modules that were used to derive Fig. 8.39).

The graph shows the modules in full sun as well as the I V curve that results
when one module has two cells completely shaded. Imagine the PVs delivering
charging current at about 65 V to a 60-V battery bank. As can be seen, in full
sun about 3.3 A are delivered to the batteries. However, when just two cells in
one module are shaded, the current drops by one-third to about 2.2 A. With a
bypass diode across the shaded module, however, the I V curve is improved
considerably as shown in the figure.
Figure 8.42 Impact of bypass
diodes. Drawn for five modules in
series delivering 65 V to a battery
bank. With one module having two
shaded cells, charging current
drops byalmost one-third when
there are no bypass diodes. With
the module bypass diodes there
is very little drop.
Figure 8.43 helps explain how the bypass diodes do their job.
Imagine five modules, wired in series, connected to a battery that
forces the modules to operate at 65 V. In full sun the modules
deliver 3.3 A at 65 V.

When any of the cells are shaded, they cease to produce voltage and
instead begin to act like resistors (6.6 per cell in this example)
that cause voltage to drop as the other modules continue to try to
push current through the string.

Without a bypass diode to divert the current, the shaded module
loses voltage and the other modules try to compensate by increasing
voltage, but the net effect is that current in the whole string drops.
If, however, bypass diodes are provided, as shown in Fig. 8.43c,
then current will go around the shaded module and the charging
current bounces back to nearly the same level that it was before
shading occurred.
Figure 8.43 Showing the ability of bypass diodes to mitigate shading
when modules are charging a 65 V battery. Without bypass diodes, a
partially shaded module constricts the current delivered to the load
(b). With bypass diodes, current is diverted around the shaded
module.
Figure 8.44 Blocking
diodes prevent reverse
current from flowing
down malfunctioning
or shaded strings.
8.7.3 Blocking Diodes
On Monday US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) said that greenhouse gases are a
danger to public health and welfare
This is a necessary first step to allow the EPA
to regulate greenhouse gas emissions
Some industries are concerned these regulations
may be more restrictive than a legislative approach
Some in Congress have called on EPA to
withdraw its proposal because of recent email
releases that question the underlying science
Grid-connected systems

Stand-alone systems which charge batteries
Stand-alone systems with directly-connected
loads
PV panels have I-V curves and so do loads
Use a combination of the two curves to tell
where the system is actually operating
Operating point the intersection point at
which the PV and the load I-V curves are
satisfied
Straight line with slope 1/R
As R increases, operating point moves to the right
V IR =
1
(9.1) I V
R
| |
=
|
\ .
Can use a potentiometer
to plot the PV modules
IV curve
Resistance value that
results in maximum
power

(9.2)
m
m
m
V
R
I
=
Figure 9.5
Maximum
power point
(MPP) should
occur when
the load
resistance R =
V
R
/I
R
under 1-
sun 25C, AM
1.5 conditions
A MPP tracker maintains PV systems highest
efficiency as the amount of insolation
changes
Linear Current
Booster (LCB) helps
the motor be able to
start in low sunlight
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
DC motors have an I-V curve similar to a
resistor

e = k is back emf, R
a
is armature resistance

(9.3)
a
V IR ke = +
Energy is stored in batteries for most off-grid
applications
An ideal battery is a voltage source V
B






A real battery has internal resistance R
i
(9.4)
B i
V V RI = +
Charging I-V line tilts right with a slope of
1/R
i
, applied voltage must be greater than V
B
Discharging battery- I-V line tilts to the left
with slope 1/R
i
, terminal voltage is less than V
B
Figure 9.12
Maximum Power Point Trackers (MPPTs) are often
a standard part of PV systems, especially grid-
connected
Idea is to keep the operating point near the knee
of the PV systems I-V curve
Buck-boost converter DC to DC converter, can
either buck (lower) or boost (raise) the voltage
Varying the duty cycle of a buck-boost converter
can be done such that the PV system will deliver
the maximum power to the load
A buck-boost converter used as a the heart of a
maximum power tracker
The duty cycle D is the fraction of the time the switch is closed
(a). Examples: (b) 50% duty cycle; (c) D < 0.5; (d) D > 0.5.
While the switch is closed, from time t = 0 to t = DT, the voltage across the inductor
is a constant Vi . The average power put into the magnetic field of the inductor
during one complete cycle is given by
Under the assumption that inductor current is constant, the average power into the
inductor is
When the switch opens, the inductors magnetic field begins to collapse, returning
the energy it just acquired. The diode conducts, which means that the voltage
across the inductor VL is the same as the voltage across the load V0. The average
power delivered by the inductor is therefore
With good design, both V0 and IL are essentially constant, so
average power from the inductor is
Over a complete cycle, average power into the inductor equals
average powerout of the inductor.
(*)
Equation (*) is pretty interesting. It tells us we can bump
dc voltages up or down (there is a sign change) just by
varying the duty cycle of the buck-boost converter.
Longer duty cycles allow more time for the capacitor to
charge up and less time for it to discharge, so the output
voltage increases as D increases.
For a duty cycle of 1/2, the output voltage is the same as
the input voltage.
A duty cycle of 2/3 results in a doubling of voltage,
while D = 1/3 cuts voltage in half.
A PV module has its maximum power point at
V
m
= 17 V and I
m
= 6A.
What duty cycle should its MPPT have if the
module is delivering power to a 10
resistance?

Max power delivered by the PVs is 17V*6A =
102W
2
31.9
R
R
V
P V V
R
= =
The converter must boost the 17 V PV voltage to the
desired 31.9 V

Solving gives
0
(9.9)
1
i
V D
V D
| |
=
|

\ .
31.9
1.88
17 1
D
D
| |
= =
|

\ .
0.65 D =
Redrawing the PV I V curves with
an MPPT
Current at any
voltage is
proportional
to insolation
V
OC
drops as
insolation
decreases
Can just
adjust the 1-
sun I-V curve
by shifting it
up or down
Hour-by-hour PV I V curves with examples of three different load
types: dc motor, 12-V battery, MPPT
the dc motor has been well matched to the 1-sun I V curve, but does
poorly in the early morning and late afternoon.

the 12-V battery is consistently somewhat below the maximum
power point.

Table 9.1 provides a compilation of the hourly performance of each of these
loads. The dc motor loses about 15% of the available daily energy because
it doesnt operate at the maximum power point while the 12-V battery loses
17%.
Can have a combiner box and a single
inverter or small inverters for each panel
Individual inverters make the system modular
Inverter sends AC power to utility service
panel
Power conditioning unit (PCU) may include
MPPT
Ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)
Circuitry to disconnect from grid if utility loses
power
Battery bank to provide back-up power


Easily allow expansion
Connections to house distribution panel are
simple
Less need for expensive DC cabling
Net metering customer only pays for the amount
of energy that the PV system is unable to supply
In the event of an outage, the PV system must
quickly and automatically disconnect from the grid
A battery backup
system can help
provide power to the
systems owners during
an outage
Good grid-connect
inverters have
efficiencies above 90%
http://www.pasolar.ncat.org/lesson05.php
The power conditioning unit absolutely must be designed to quickly and automatically
drop the PV system from the grid in the event of a utility power outage. When there is an
outage, breakers automatically isolate a section of the utility lines in which the fault has
occurred, creating what is referred to as an island.

A number of very serious problems may occur if, during such an outage, a self-
generator, such as a grid-connected PV system, supplies power to that island.

Most faults are transient in nature, such as a tree branch brushing against the lines, and
so utilities have automatic procedures that are designed to limit the amount of time the
outage lasts.

When there is a fault, breakers trip to isolate the affected lines, and then they are
automatically reclosed a few tenths of a second later. It is hoped that in the interim the
fault clears and customers are without power for just a brief moment.

If that doesnt work, the procedure is repeated with somewhat longer intervals until
finally, if the fault doesnt clear, workers are dispatched to the site to take care of the
problem. If a self-generator is still on the line during such an incident, even for less than
one second, it may interfere with the automatic reclosing procedure, leading to a longer-
than necessary outage.

And if a worker attempts to fix a line that has supposedly been disconnected from all
energy sources, but it is not, then a serious hazard has been created.
Estimate the AC output power under varying
conditions


P
dc,STC
- DC power of array from adding module
ratings under standard test conditions (STC) (1-sun,
AM 1.5, 25C)
Conversion efficiency includes losses from inverter,
dirty collectors, mismatched modules, and differences
in ambient conditions
These losses can derate power output by 20-40%,
even in full sun
,
(Conversion Efficiency) (9.10)
ac dc STC
P P =
Illustrates the impact of slight variations in
module I-V curves
Only 330 W is possible instead of 360 W
As temperature increases, power decreases
PVUSA test conditions (PTC) 1-sun
insolation in plane of array, 20C ambient
temperature, wind-speed of 1 m/s
P
ac(PTC)
AC output of an array under PTC test
conditions is a better indicator of actual
power delivered in full sun than the more
commonly used P
dc(STC)

Describing a system based on P
dc(STC)
without
correcting for temperature and the inverter is
misleading
V
OC
decreases by
~0.37% per C for
crystalline silicon cells
I
SC
increases by about
0.05% per C
NOCT Normal
Operating
Temperature

20
S (8.24)
0.8
cell amb
NOCT C
T T

| |
= +
|
\ .
Figure 8.36
S= insolation
A PV array has rating of 1 kW under standard test
condtions (STC). Nominal operating temperature
(NOCT) from Chapter 8 is 47C
DC power output drops by 0.5%/ C above the
STC temperature of 25C
Mismatched module loss= 3%
Dirt loss = 4%
Inverter efficiency = 90%

Estimate P
ac(PTC)
, the AC output power under
PVUSA test conditions (PTC)
Monitoring program called PVUSA: the PVUSA test conditions
(PTC) are defined as 1-sun irradiance in the plane of the array, 20C
ambient temperature, and a wind-speed of 1 m/s.
The estimated cell temperature is





With DC losses at 0.5%/ C above 25C,


Including inefficiencies, estimated AC rated power
at PTC is
20
S (8.24)
0.8
cell amb
NOCT C
T T

| |
= +
|
\ .
47 20
20 1 = 53.8
0.8
cell
C
T C

| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
,( )
1 kW 1 0.005(53.8 25) = 0.856 kW
dc PTC
P =
,( )
8.56 kW 0.97 0.96 0.90 = 0.72 kW
ac PTC
P =
1-sun is 1 kW/m
2
We can say that 5.6 kWh/(m
2
-day) is 5.6
hours of peak sun
If we know P
ac
, computed for 1-sun, just
multiply by hours of peak sun to get kWh
If we assume the average PV system efficiency
over a day is the same as the efficiency at 1-
sun, then
( )
Energy (kWh/day) kW h/day of "peak sun" (9.14)
ac
P =
| | | |
Energy kWh/yr kW CF 8760 h/yr (9.15)
ac
P =
( )
h/day of "peak sun"
CF (9.16)
24 h/day
=
Figure 9.28
PV Capacity
Factors for
US cities
When the grid isnt nearby, the extra cost and
complexity of a stand-alone power system
can be worth the benefits
System may include batteries and a backup
generator

PV System design begins with an estimate of the loads that
need to be served by the PV system

Tradeoffs between more expensive, efficient appliances
and size of PVs and battery system needed

Should you use more DC loads to avoid inverter
inefficiencies or use more AC loads for convenience?

What fraction of the full load should the backup generator
supply?

Power consumed while devices are off

Inrush current used to start major appliances

Table 9.10 Power Requirements of some typical loads
Note that these tables are useful for getting an idea of the average
values, but the best data comes from actual measurements!
Consider the power when the device is
actively used
Also consider the power consumed when
device is in standby
Table 9.10 Power requirements of some consumer electronics
Batteries in PV systems provide storage, help meet
surge current requirements, and provide a constant
output voltage

Lead-acid batteries are still
the most commonly-used
batteries for PV systems
The lead-acid battery is an
electrical storage device that
uses a reversible chemical
reaction to store energy.
Lead-acid batteries date
back to the 1860s

http://img.alibaba.com/photo/11244127/Lead_Acid_Batteries.jpg
+ 2
2 4 4 2
Positive Plate: PbO + 4H + SO + 2 PbSO 2H O (9.21) e

+
2
2 4 4
Negative Plate: PbO + SO PbSO 2e (9.22)

+
During discharge, voltage drops and specific gravity
drops
Sulfate adheres to the plates during discharge and
comes back off when charging, but some of it becomes
permanently attached
Most common battery for larger-scale storage
applications
Invented in 1859
There are three main types: 1) SLI (Starting,
Lighting and Ignition) : optimized for starting
cars in which they are practically always close to
fully charged, 2) golf cart : used for running golf
carts with fuller discharge, and 3) deep-cycle,
allow much more repeated charge/discharge
such as in a solar application

178
Battery capacity has tended to be specified in
amp-hours (Ah) as opposed to an energy value;
multiply by average voltage to get watt-hours
Value tells how many amps battery can deliver over a
specified period of time.
Amount of Ah a battery can delivery depends on its
discharge rate; slower is better
179
Figure shows
how capacity
degrades with
temperature
and rate
Type Density,
Wh/kG
Cost
$/kWh
Cycles Charge
time,
hours
Power
W/kg
Lead-acid,
deep cycle
35 50-100 1000 12 180
Nickel-metal
hydride
50 350 800 3 625
Lithium Ion 170 500-100 2000 2 2500
The above values are just approximate; battery technology is rapidly changing,
and there are many different types within each category. For stationary
applications lead-acid is hard to beat because of its low cost. It has about a 75%
efficiency. For electric cars lithium ion batteries appear to be the current front
runner
Analysis of load
Determine daily demands for power and energy
What fraction of the worst month design month should
you cover with the PV system? How much should you
cover with a backup generator?
What PV system voltage should you have?
Convert total DC load to amp hours @ system voltage
PV sizing
Pick a PV module based on insolation data for the site
for the design month
Determine how many parallel strings of modules and
how many modules in each string

Battery Sizing How many days of storage
needed?
Generator Sizing
System Costs
http://www.ecosolarenergy.com.au/How_a_Standalone_System_Works-28.htm
3. Stand-alone systems which charge
batteries
As the name implies a microgrid can be thought of as a
small electric grid with several generation sources
The microgrid can be configured to operate either connected
to the main grid or standalone
The military is a key proponent of microgrids, since
they would like the ability to operate bases independent
of any grid system for long periods of time
Renewable generation by be quite attractive because it
decreases the need to store large amounts of fossil fuel
Time magazine reported in Nov 2009 that average US solider
in Afghanistan requires 22 gallons of fuel per day at an
average costs of $45 per gallon

185
Dr. William J.
Makofske
August 2004
Solid state device that converts incident solar
energy directly into electrical energy
Efficiencies from a few percent up to 20-30%
No moving parts
No noise
Lifetimes of 20-30 years or more
The junction of dissimilar materials (n and p
type silicon) creates a voltage
Energy from sunlight knocks out electrons,
creating a electron and a hole in the junction
Connecting both sides to an external circuit
causes current to flow
In essence, sunlight on a solar cell creates a
small battery with voltages typically 0.5 v. DC
Solar cells can be electrically connected in
series (voltages add) or in parallel (currents
add) to give any desired voltage and current
(or power) output since P = I x V
Photovoltaic cells are typically sold in
modules (or panels) of 12 volts with power
outputs of 50 to 100+ watts. These are then
combined into arrays to give the desired
power or watts.
While a major component and cost of a PV
system is the array, several other components
are typically needed. These include:
The inverter DC to AC electricity
DC and AC safety switches
Batteries (optional depending on design)
Monitor (optional but a good idea)
Ordinary electrical meters work as net meters
Solar Calculators
REMOTE POWER
Lighting
Buoys
Communications
Signs
Water Pumping
Mountain Cabins
As prices dropped, PV began to be used for
stand-alone home power. If you didnt have
an existing electrical line close to your
property, it was cheaper to have a PV system
(including batteries and a backup generator)
than to connect to the grid. As technology
advanced, grid-connected PV with net
metering became possible.
In net metering, when the PV system
produces excess electricity, it is sent to the
grid system, turning the meter backwards. If
you are using more power than is being
produced, or it is at night, the electricity is
received from the grid system and the meter
turns forwards. Depending on PV size and
electrical consumption, you may produce
more or less than you actually use. Individual
houses may become power producers.
Batteries can be used to provide long-term or
short-term electrical supply in case of grid
failure. Many grid-connected houses choose
to have a small electrical battery system to
provide loads with power for half a day in
case of outage. Larger number of batteries
are typically used for remote grid-
independent systems.
If your load is 10 kw-hr per day, and you want
to battery to provide 2.5 days of storage,
then it needs to store 25 kw-hr of extractable
electrical energy. Since deep cycle batteries
can be discharged up to 80% of capacity
without harm, you need a battery with a
storage of 25/0.8 = 31.25 kw-hr. A typical
battery at 12 volts and 200 amp-hour
capacity stores 2.4 kw-hr of electrical energy.
The relationship between energy in kw-hr and
battery capacity is
E(kw-hr) =capacity(amp-hr) x voltage/1000
E = 200 amp-hr x 12 volts/1000= 2.4 kw-hr
So for 31.25 kw-hr of storage we need
31.25 kw-hr/2.4 kw-hr/battery = 13
batteries
If we are happy with one half day, we need only
2 or 3 batteries

PV can be added to existing roofs. While
south tilted exposure is best, flat roofs do
very well. Even east or west facing roofs that
do not have steep slopes can work fairly well
if you are doing net metering since the
summer sun is so much higher and more
intense than the winter sun. The exact
performance of any PV system in any
orientation is easily predictable.
If it is impossible or you dont want to put a
PV system on your existing roof, it is possible
to pole mount the arrays somewhere near the
house as long as the solar exposure is good.
Pole mounted solar arrays also have the
potential to rotate to follow the sun over the
day. This provides a 30% or more boost to the
performance.
If you are doing new construction or a
reroofing job, it is possible to make the roof
itself a solar PV collector. This saves the cost
of the roof itself, and offers a more aesthetic
design. The new roof can be shingled or look
like metal roofing. A few examples follow.
Solar modules are typically sold by the peak watt.
That means that when the sun is at its peak
intensity (clear day around midday) of 1000 watts
per m2, a solar module rates at say 100 Wp (peak
watts) would put out 100 watts of power. The
climate data at a given site summarizes the solar
intensity data in terms of peak sun hours, the
effective number of hours that the sun is at that
peak intensity on an average day. If the average
peak sun hours is 4.1, it also means that a kw of PV
panels will provide 4.1 kw-hr a day.
When the sky is clear and it is around midday,
the solar intensity is about 1000 watts per
m2 or 1 kw/m2
In one hour, 1 square meter of the earths
surface facing the sun will intercept about 1
kw-hr of solar energy.
What you collect depends upon surface
orientation and collector efficiency
A PV system can be sized to provide part or
all of your electrical consumption. If you
wanted to produce 3600 kw-hr a year at a
site that had an average of 4.1 peak sun
hours per day,
PV Size in KWp = 3600 kw-hr
4.1 kw-hr/day x 365 days/yr x 0.9 x0.98
= 2.7 KWp
Note: the 0.9 is the inverter efficiency and the
0.98 represents the loss in the wiring.
1 kW = 1000 watts = 1.34 hp (presumably
the maximum sustained output of a horse)
1 kW-hr = 3413 Btu is the consumption of a
1 kW device operated for an hour (E=Pxt)
Now think about a Sherpa mountain guide
carrying a 90 lb pack up Mount Everest, about
29,000 ft or 8,839 meters high, over a week,
the typical time for such a trip
Since we know that the energy in lifting is given by
mgh or 40.8 kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 8839m = 3,539,000
joules or about 1 kw-hr, we can say that roughly
1 kw-hr = 1 Sherpa-week. Typical U.S.
household consumption is 600 kw-hr per month or
20 kw-hr per day, or every day it is like hiring 20
Sherpa to carry the 90 lb packs up Mt. Everest. At
the end of the week, we have 140 Sherpa climbing
the slopes so the equivalent power that we
consume is like having 140 Sherpa climbing Mt
Everest continually. We might want to consider
reducing this number before adding PV to our roof.
The actual area that you need depends on
the efficiency of the solar cells that you use.
Typical polycrystalline silicon with around
12% efficiency will require about 100 ft2 of
area to provide a peak kilowatt. Less efficient
amorphous silicon may need 200 ft2 to
provide the same output. Modules are sold in
terms of peak wattage and their areas are
given so you can easily determine the total
roof area that is needed for a given size array.
Assume it is a 100 Wp module and its area is
0.8 m2. Remember that the peak power
rating is based on an intensity of 1000
watts/m2. So the maximum output with 100%
efficiency is P = I x A = 1000 w/m2 x 0.8 m2
= 800 watts
The actual efficiency = Pactual peak/Pmaximum
peak
= 100 watts/800 watts = 0.125 or 12.5%
Of course you dont have to stop with home
based PV systems. They make equally good
sense for businesses and corporations who
want to reduce their cost of electricity by
reducing their peak power consumption, or
who want to emphasize their greenness as
part of their image, or who need to operate in
a grid failure.
PV systems as an alternative energy resource
Complementary Energy-resource in hybrid
systems
Necessary:
high reliability
reasonable cost
user-friendly design


The standards
EN61000-3-2, IEEE1547,
U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC) 690
IEC61727

power quality, detection of islanding
operation, grounding
structure and the features of the present and
future PV modules.



PV Generator Converter AC-DC Local Loads
Grid
Solar-electric-energy growth consistently
20%25% per annum over the past 20 years



1) an increasing efficiency of solar cells
2) manufacturing-technology improvements
3) economies of scale


2001, 350 MW of solar equipment was sold
2003, 574 MW of PV was installed.
In 2004 increased to 927 MW
Significant financial incentives in Japan,
Germany, Italy and France
triggered a huge growth in demand
In 2008, Spain installed 45% of all
photovoltaics, 2500 MW in 2008 to an drop
to 375 MW in 2009

World solar photovoltaic (PV) installations
were 2.826 gigawatts peak (GWp) in 2007,
and 5.95 gigawatts in 2008

The three leading countries (Germany, Japan
and the US) represent nearly 89% of the total
worldwide PV installed capacity.
2012 are and 12.3GW- 18.8GW expected
Market leader in solar panel efficiency
(measured by energy conversion ratio) is
SunPower, (San Jose USA) - 23.4%
market average of 12-18%.
Efficiency of 42% achieved at the University of
Delaware in conjunction with DuPont
(concentration) in 2007.
The highest efficiency achieved without
concentration is by Sharp Corporation at
35.8% using a proprietary triple-junction
manufacturing technology in 2009.
IGBT technology
Inverters must be able to detect an islanding
situation and take appropriate measures in
order to protect persons and equipment

PV cells - connected to the grid
PV cells - isolated power supplies


Central inverters
Module-oriented or module-integrated
inverters
String inverters

Integration of PV strings of different
technologies and orientations

S. B. Kjaer, J. K. Pedersen, F.Blaabjerg A Review of Single-Phase
Grid-Connected Inverters for Photovoltaic Modules, IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 5,
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2005

Demands Defined by the Grid
- standards (slide 37) EN standard (applied in
Europe) allows higher current harmonics
the corresponding IEEE and IEC standards.


Islanding is the continued operation of the
inverter when the grid has been removed on
purpose, by accident, or by damage
Detection schemes - active and passive.
1. The passive methods -monitor grid
parameters.
2. The active schemes introduce a disturbance
into the grid and monitor the effect.

The NEC 690 standard - system grounded
and monitored for ground faults
Other Electricity Boards only demand
equipment ground of the PV modules in the
case of absent galvanic isolation
Equipment ground is the case when frames
and other metallic parts are connected to
ground.

Decoupling is necessary
p instantaneous
P - average
Voltage in the range from 23 to 38 V at a power generation of
approximate 160 W, and their open-circuit voltage is below 45
V.
New technolgies - voltage range around 0.5 -1.0 V at several
hundred amperes per square meter cell
EX.: ripple voltage should
be below 8.5% of the MPP
voltage in order to reach a
utilization ratio of 98%
Cost effectiveness

using similar circuits as in single-phase
power-factor-correction (PFC) circuits
variable-speed drives (VSDs)


wide range of input voltage and input power
very wide ranges as functions
of solar irradiation and ambient
temperature.


.
(a) Irradiation distribution for
a reference year.
(b) Solar energy distribution
for a reference year.

Total time of
irradiation equals 4686 h per
year.
Total potential energy is equal
to 1150 kWh=(m2 year) 130
W/m2
long operational lifetime
most PV module manufacturer offer a
warranty of 25 years on 80% of initial
efficiency
The main limiting components inside the
inverters are the electrolytic capacitors used
for power decoupling between the PV module
and the single-phase grid

Centralized Inverters
String Inverters
Multi-string Inverters
AC modules & AC cell technology
PV modules as series connections
(a string)
series connections then connected
in parallel, through string diodes

Disadvantages !
Reduced version of the centralized
inverter
single string of PV modules is
connected to the inverter

no losses on string diodes
separate MPPTs
increases the overall efficiency

inverter and PV module as
one electrical device

No mismatch losses
between PV modules
Optimal adjustment of
MPPT
high voltage-amplification
necessary


Multi-String Inverters
AC Modules
AC Cells


Flexible
Every string can be controlled
individually.

One large PV cell
connected to a dc
ac inverter
Very low voltage
New converter
concepts


Single-stage inverter


Dual stage inverter

Multi-string inverter
Capacitors
Component to avoid (line transformers= high
size, weight, price)
High-frequency transformers
Grounding,

Inverters operating in current-source mode

Line-commutated CSI
switching at twice the line
frequency
standard full-bridge three-level VSI
Half-bridge diode-clamped three-level VSI
1. 100-W single-transistor flyback-type HF-
link inverter
100 W, out 230 V, in 48 V, 96%, pf=0,955
2. 105-W combined flyback and buckboost
inverter
105 W, out 85V, in 35V, THD <5%

3. Modified Shimizu Inverter (160W, 230, 28V,
87%)
4. 160-W buckboost inverter
in 100V out 160V
5. 150-W flyback dcdc converter with a line-
frequency dcac unfolding inverter
in 44V, out 120V
6. 100-W flyback dcdc converter with a PWM
dcac inverter
30V 210 V
110-W series-resonant dcdc converter with
an HF inverter toward the grid
30-230V , 87%
dual-stage topology Mastervolt Soladin 120
in 24-40V, out 230V, 91%, pf=0,99
Single-stage
Dual-stage
a transformerless half-bridge diode-clamped
three-level inverter
two-level VSI, interfacing two PV strings
three PV strings, each of 2200 W at 125-750
V, with own MPPT
three PV strings, each 200-500 V, 1500 W
component ratings
relative cost
lifetime
efficiency
Dual-stage CSI = large electrolytic decoupling
capacitor


VSI = small decoupling electrolytic capacitor.
Low efficiency=87%
C=68 F 160V




High efficiency=93%
C=2,2 mF 45V

The dual-grounded multilevel inverters p.82
good solution but quite large capacitors
2x640F 810V -> half-period loading
bipolar PWM switching toward the grid p.83 &
84 (no grounding possible, large ground
currents) 2x1200 F 375 V
current-fed fullbridge dcdc converters with
embedded HF transformers, for each PV
string p.85 3x 310 F 400V


Large centralized single-stage inverters should
be avoided
Preferable location for the capacitor is in the dc
link where the voltage is high and a large
fluctuation can be allowed without compromising
the utilization factor
HFTs should be applied for voltage amplification
in the AC module and AC cell concepts
Line-frequency CSI are suitable for low power,
e.g., for ac module applications.
High-frequency VSI is also suitable for both low-
and high-power systems, like the ac module, the
string, and the multistring inverters
PV inverters with dc/dc converter (with or
without isolation)
PV inverters without dc/dc converter (with or
without isolation)

Isolation is acquired using a transformer that
can be placed on either the grid or low
frequency (LF) side or on the HF side
full-bridge
single-inductor pushpull
double-inductor pushpull
number of cascade power processing stages
-single-stage
-- dual-stage
-----multi-stage

There is no any standard PV inverter topology

very efficient PV cells
roofing PV systems
PV modules in high building structures
PV systems without transformers - minimize
the cost of the total system
cost reduction per inverter watt -make PV-
generated power more attractive
AC modules implement MPPT for PV modules
improving the total system efficiency
plug and play systems

MPPT control
THD improvements
reduction of current or voltage ripple


standards are becoming more and more strict



Basic Physics and
Materials Science of Solar Cells
Original Presentation by J. M. Pearce, 2006
Email: profpearce@gmail.com
Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert light
energy directly into electricity.
Commonly known as solar cells.
The simplest systems power the small
calculators we use every day. More
complicated systems will provide a large
portion of the electricity in the near future.
PV represents one of the most promising
means of maintaining our energy intensive
standard of living while not contributing to
global warming and pollution.
1839 Photovoltaic effect discovered by
Becquerel.
1870s Hertz developed solid selenium PV (2%).
1905 Photoelectric effect explained by A.
Einstein.
1930s Light meters for photography commonly
employed cells of copper oxide or selenium.
1954 Bell Laboratories developed the first
crystalline silicon cell (4%).
1958 PV cells on the space satellite U.S.
Vanguard (better than expected).
mid 1970s World energy crisis = millions spent in
research and development of cheaper more efficient
solar cells.
1976 First amorphous silicon cell developed by
Wronski and Carlson.
1980s - Steady progress towards higher efficiency
and many new types introduced
1990s - Large scale production of solar cells more
than 10% efficient with the following materials:
Ga-As and other III-Vs
CuInSe
2
and

CdTe
TiO
2
Dye-sensitized
Crystalline, Polycrystalline, and Amorphous Silicon
Today prices continue to drop and new 3
rd

generation solar cells are researched.



Silicon
Group 4 elemental
semiconductor
Silicon crystal forms the
diamond lattice
Resulting in the use of
four valence electrons
of each silicon atom.
Crystalline
Silicon
Amorphous Silicon
Advantages:
High Efficiency (14-22%)
Established technology
(The leader)
Stable
Disadvantages:
Expensive production
Low absorption coefficient
Large amount of highly
purified feedstock
Advantages:
High absorption (dont need
a lot of material)
Established technology
Ease of integration into
buildings
Excellent ecological balance
sheet
Cheaper than the glass,
metal, or plastic you deposit
it on
Disadvantages:
Only moderate stabilized
efficiency 7-10%
Instability- It degrades when light
hits it
Now degraded steady state

The physics view
There are 3 types of
materials in Band
Theory, which are
differentiated by their
electronic structure:
insulators,
conductors, and
semiconductors.

E
g
Metal Insulator Semiconductor
E
f
E
f
E
f
Conduction
Band Ec
empty
Valence
Band Ev
full of
electrons
1. Intrinsic
2. n-type
3. p-type

Types 2 and 3 are semiconductors that
conduct electricity - How?
by alloying semiconductor with an impurity, also
known as doping
carriers placed in conduction band or carriers
removed from valence band.
Note: Color Protocol
Pure semiconductor
(intrinsic): contains the
right number of
electrons to fill valence
band, therefore,
conduction band is
empty.
Because electrons in full
valence cannot move,
the pure semiconductor
acts like an insulator.
n-type: current is
carried by negatively
charged electrons -
How?
group 5 impurity atoms
added to silicon melt
from which is crystal is
grown
4/5 of outer electrons
used to fill valence band
1/5 left is then put into
conduction band. These
impurity atoms are called
donors.
Within conduction
band the electrons are
moving, therefore,
crystal becomes a
conductor
p-Type: current carried by
missing electron holes
which act as positively
charged particles. How?
group 3 added to silicon
melt
need 4 out of 5 outer
electrons but doping creates
lack of electrons in valence
band.
missing electrons, a.k.a
holes, are used to carry
current.
Prevailing charges are called the majority
carriers
prevailing charge carrier in n-type: electrons
prevailing charge carrier in p-type: holes
There are four main types of semiconductor
junctions
p-n
p-i-n
Schottcky barrier
Heterojunction
Each has a built in potential
E
f
E
f
V
bi
V
bi
All the junctions contain strong electric
field
How does the electric field occur?
When two semiconductors come into contact,
electrons near interface from n-type, transfer
over to p-type, leaving a positively charged area
Holes from p-type by interface transfer over to
n-type leaving a negatively charged area.
Because electrons and holes are swapped, a
middle potential barrier with no mobile charges,
is formed.
This potential barrier created does not let any
more electrons or holes flow through.
Electric field pulls electrons and holes in
opposite directions.
Equilibrium means there
is no net current
Reduced barrier height is
called forward bias
(positive voltage applied to
p-side)
Result- increases current
through diode
Increased barrier height is
called reverse bias.
Result- decreases current to
a very small amount..

Diode I-V Characteristics
Output current = I = I
l
-I
o
[ exp(qV/kT)-1]
I
l
=light generated current
q = electric charge
V = voltage
k = Boltzmans constant = 1.3807 10
-23
J/K
When in open circuit (I=0) all light generated
current passes through diode
When in short circuit (V=0) all current passes
through external load
2 Important points:
1) During open circuit the voltage of open
circuit,
V
oc
= (kT/q) ln( I
l
/I
o
+1)
2) No power is generated under short and open
circuit - but P
max
= V
m
I
m
=FFV
oc
I
sc

Fourth quadrant (i.e., power quadrant) of the
illuminated I-V characteristic defining fill factor (FF) and
identifying Jsc and Voc
Photovoltaic energy relies on light.
Light stream of photons carries energy
Example: On a clear day 4.4x10
17
photons
hit 1 m
2
of Earths surface every second.
Eph()=hc/ =hf
h = planks constant = 6.625 x 10
-34
J-s
= wavelength
c = speed of light =3 x 10
8
m/s
f = frequency
However, only photons with energy in
excess of bandgap can be converted into
electricity by solar cells.
The entire spectrum is
not available to single
junction solar cell
Photon enters, is
absorbed, and lets
electron from VB get
sent up to CB
Therefore a hole is left
behind in VB, creating
absorption process:
electron-hole pairs.
Because of this, only
part of solar spectrum
can be converted.
The photon flux
converted by a solar
cell is about 2/3 of
total flux.
Generation Current = light induced electrons across
bandgap as electron current
Electron current:= Ip=qNA
N = # of photons in highlighted area of spectrum
A = surface area of semiconductor thats exposed to
light
Because there is current from light, voltage can also
occur.
Electric power can occur by separating the electrons and
holes to the terminals of device.
Electrostatic energy of charges occurs after separation
only if its energy is less than the energy of the electron-
hole pair in semiconductor
Therefore Vmax=Eg/q
Vmax= bandgap of semiconductor is in EVs, therefore
this equation shows that wide bandgap semiconductors
produce higher voltage.
Everything just talked about, where all
energy in excess of bandgap of photons are
absorbed, are called direct-bandgap
semiconductors.
More complicated absorption process is the
indirect-gap series
quantum of lattice vibrations, of crystalline
silicon, are used in the conversion of a photon
into electron-hole pair to conserve momentum
there hindering the process and decreasing the
absorption of light by semiconductor.
Electric current generated in semiconductor is
extracted by contacts to the front and rear of cell.
Widely spaced thin strips (fingers) are created so that
light is allowed through.
these fingers supply current to the larger bus bar.
Antireflection
coating (ARC) is
used to cover the
cell to minimize
light reflection from
top surface.
ARC is made with
thin layer of
dielectric material.
Diffusion
Drift
Excitonic
n-type and p-type
are aligned by the
Fermi-level
When a photon
comes in n-type, it
takes the place of a
hole, the hole acts
like an air bubble and
floats up to the p-
type
When the photon
comes to the p-type,
it takes place of an
electron, the electron
acts like a steel ball
and rolls down to
the n-type
There is an
intrinsic gap
where the photon
is absorbed in
and causes the
electron hole pair
to form.
The electron rises
up to the top and
drifts downwards
(to n-type)
The hole drifts
upwards (to p-
type)
Dye molecule
electron hole pair
splits because it
hits the dye
the electron shifts
over to the
electric conductor
and the hole
shifts to the hole
conductor
Opposite of carrier generation,
where electron-hole pair is
annihilated
Most common at:
impurities
defects of crystal structure
surface of semiconductor
Reducing both voltage and current
Losses of resistance caused by
transmission of electric current
produced by the solar cell.
I-V characteristic of device:
I = I
l
-I
0
[exp(qV+IRs / mkT) 1]
m= nonideality factor
Current losses- called collection efficiency,
ratio b/w number of carriers generated by
light by number that reaches the junction.
Temperature dependence of voltage
V decreases as T increases
Other losses
light reflection from top surface
shading of cell by top contacts
incomplete absorption of light

Tandem cell-
several cells,
Top cell has
large bandgap
Middle cell mid
eV bandgap
Bottom cell
small bandgap.

Indium Tin Oxide
p-a-Si:H
Blue Cell
i-a-Si:H
n-a-Si:H
p
Green Cell
i-a-SiGe:H (~15%)
n
p
Red Cell
i-a-SiGe:H (~50%)
n
Textured Zinc Oxide

Silver
Stainless Steel Substrate

Silver Grid



Schematic diagram of state-of-
the-art a-Si:H based substrate n-
i-p triple junction cell structure.
This is the first in a series of presentations
created for the solar energy community to
assist in the dissemination of information
about solar photovoltaics.
This work was supported from a grant from
the Pennsylvania State System of Higher
Education.
The author would like to acknowledge
assistance in creation of this presentation from
Heather Zielonka, Scott Horengic and Jennifer
Rockage.
Part I
Original Presentation by J. M. Pearce, 2006
Updated by J.M. Pearce and R. Andews, 2010
Email: profpearce@gmail.com
What is a photovoltaic system
Cell, Module, and Array
BOS
Structure
Electronics
PV System Design Basics
Hybrid Systems
The BOS typically contains;
Structures for mounting the
PV arrays or modules
Power conditioning
equipment that massages
and converts the do
electricity to the proper form
and magnitude required by
an alternating current (ac)
load.
Sometimes also storage
devices, such as batteries,
for storing PV generated
electricity during cloudy days
and at night.
Stand-alone systems
Systems which use photovoltaics technology
only, and are not connected to a utility grid.
Hybrid systems
Systems which use photovoltaics and some
other form of energy, such as diesel generation
or wind.
Grid-tied systems
Systems which are connected to a utility grid.
Water pumping
PV powers stock water
pumps in remote
locations in Wyoming
. Note that battery
storage is not used in
this case, as the solar
energy is stored in the
form of pumped water.
PV panel on a
water pump in
Thailand
Communications facilities can be powered
by solar technologies: even in remote,
rugged terrain. Also, if a natural or human-
caused disaster disables the utility grid,
solar technologies can maintain power to
critical operations
This exhibit, dubbed
"Solar Independence",
is a 4-kW system
used for mobile
emergency power.
while the workhorse
batteries that can
store up to 51 kW-hrs
of electricity are
housed in a portable
trailer behind the
flag.
The system is the
largest mobile power
unit ever built
Smiling child
stands in
front of
Tibetan home
that uses 20
W PV panel
for electricity
PV panel on
rooftop of
rural
residence

Ranching the
Sun project in
Hawaii
generates
175 kW of PV
power and 50
kW of wind
power from
the five
Bergey 10 kW
wind turbines
A fleet of small
turbines;
PV panels in the
foreground

PV / diesel hybrid
power system - 12
kW PV array, 20 kW
diesel genset
This system serves
as the master site
for the "top gun"
Tactical Air Combat
Training System
(TACTS) on the U.S.
Navy's Fallon
Range.
There are two types of Grid Tied PV systems

Two-Meter Net Meter
At the moment, the boom in PV installations
is led by government subsidies, which will
pay above market rates for energy generated
using renewable energies
In areas where subsidies are available, it is
more economical to sell all the generated
electricity to the grid, and buy back
inexpensive energy to run the house
National Center
for Appropriate
Technology
Headquarters
The
world's
largest
residenti
al PV
project

These systems are designed to generate revenue,
currently subsidized by government incentives
and will have a one directional meter to sell their
electricity onto the grid.
14.2 MW PV
farm at Nellis Air
Industrial Roof top solar array

Grid-tied systems use the grid as storage,
reducing the demands of fossil fuelled
generators when the sun is shining.
Large scale storage can allow solar to act like a
dispatchable power source
Pumped water storage is one of the most
proven methods of energy storage to date
1. Determine the load (energy, not power)
You should think of the load as being supplied by the
stored energy device, usually the battery, and of the
photovoltaic system as a battery charger. Initial steps
in the process include:
2. Calculating the battery size, if one is needed
3. Calculate the number of photovoltaic modules
required
4. Assessing the need for any back-up energy of
flexibility for load growth

Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems: A
Handbook of Recommended Design Practices
details the design of complete photovoltaic
systems.
The appliances and devices (TV's, computers,
lights, water pumps etc.) that consume electrical
power are called loads.
Important : examine your power consumption
and reduce your power needs as much as
possible.
Make a list of the appliances and/or loads you
are going to run from your solar electric system.
Find out how much power each item consumes
while operating.
Most appliances have a label on the back which lists the
Wattage.
Specification sheets, local appliance dealers, and the
product manufacturers are other sources of
information.
Calculate your AC loads (and DC if
necessary)
List all AC loads, wattage and hours of use
per week (Hrs/Wk).
Multiply Watts by Hrs/Wk to get Watt-
hours per week (WH/Wk).
Add all the watt hours per week to
determine AC Watt Hours Per Week.
Divide by 1000 to get kW-hrs/week

Decide how much storage you would like your
battery bank to provide (you may need 0 if grid tied)
expressed as "days of autonomy" because it is based on the
number of days you expect your system to provide power
without receiving an input charge from the solar panels or the
grid.
Also consider usage pattern and critical nature of
your application.
If you are installing a system for a weekend home,
you might want to consider a larger battery bank
because your system will have all week to charge and
store energy.
Alternatively, if you are adding a solar panel array as
a supplement to a generator based system, your
battery bank can be slightly undersized since the
generator can be operated in needed for recharging.
Once you have determined your storage
capacity, you are ready to consider the
following key parameters:
Amp hours, temperature multiplier, battery
size and number
To get Amp hours you need:
1. daily Amp hours
2. number of days of storage capacity
( typically 5 days no input )
1 x 2 = A-hrs needed
Note: For grid tied inverter losses
Temp
o
F
80 F
70 F
60 F
50 F
40 F
30 F
20 F
Temp
o
C
26.7 C
21.2 C
15.6 C
10.0 C
4.4 C
-1.1 C
-6.7 C
Multiplier
1.00
1.04
1.11
1.19
1.30
1.40
1.59
Select the closest multiplier for the average ambient winter temperature
your batteries will experience.
Determine the discharge limit for the batteries
( between 0.2 - 0.8 )
Deep-cycle lead acid batteries should never be
completely discharged, an acceptable discharge
average is 50% or a discharge limit of 0.5
Divide A-hrs/week by discharge limit and
multiply by temperature multiplier
Then determine A-hrs of battery and # of
batteries needed - Round off to the next
highest number.
This is the number of batteries wired in parallel
needed.
Divide system voltage ( typically 12, 24 or
48, controlled by inverter selected ) by
battery voltage.
This is the number of batteries wired in series
needed.
Multiply the number of batteries in parallel
by the number in series
This is the total number of batteries
needed.
First find the Solar Irradiance in your area
Irradiance is the amount of solar power
striking a given area and is a measure of the
intensity of the sunshine.
PV engineers use units of Watts (or kiloWatts)
per square meter (W/m
2
) for irradiance.
For detailed Solar Radiation data available for
your area in the US:
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/
On any given day the solar radiation varies
continuously from sunup to sundown and
depends on cloud cover, sun position and
content and turbidity of the atmosphere.
The maximum irradiance is available at solar
noon which is defined as the midpoint, in
time, between sunrise and sunset.
Insolation (now commonly referred as
irradiation) differs from irradiance because of
the inclusion of time. Insolation is the
amount of solar energy received on a given
area over time measured in kilowatt-hours
per square meter squared (kW-hrs/m
2
) - this
value is equivalent to "peak sun hours".
Peak sun hours is defined as
the equivalent number of
hours per day, with solar
irradiance equaling 1,000
W/m
2
, that gives the same
energy received from
sunrise to sundown.
Peak sun hours only make
sense because PV panel
power output is rated with a
radiation level of
1,000W/m
2
.
Many tables of solar data
are often presented as an
average daily value of peak
sun hours (kW-hrs/m
2
) for
each month.
Determine total A-hrs/day from load analysis
and increase by 20% for battery losses then
divide by the area's peak sun hours to get
total Amps needed for array
Then divide your Amps by the Peak Amps
produced by your solar module
You can determine peak amperage if you divide the
module's wattage by the peak power point voltage
Determine the number of modules in each
series string needed to supply necessary DC
battery Voltage
Then multiply the number (for A and for V)
together to get the amount of power you
need
P=IV [W]=[A]x[V]
Charge controllers are included in most PV
systems to protect the batteries from overcharge
and/or excessive discharge.
The minimum function of the controller is to
disconnect the array when the battery is fully
charged and keep the battery fully charged
without damage.
The charging routine is not the same for all
batteries: a charge controller designed for lead-
acid batteries should not be used to control NiCd
batteries.
Size by determining total Amp max for your
array
Selecting the correct size and type of
wire will enhance the performance and
reliability of your PV system.
The size of the wire must be large
enough to carry the maximum current
expected without undue voltage losses.
All wire has a certain amount of
resistance to the flow of current.
This resistance causes a drop in the
voltage from the source to the load.
Voltage drops cause inefficiencies,
especially in low voltage systems ( 12V or
less ).
See wire size charts here:
www.solarexpert.com/Photowiring.html
For AC grid-tied systems
you do not need a battery or
charge controller if you do
not need back up power
just the inverter.
The Inverter changes the DC
current stored in the
batteries or directly from
your PV into usable AC
current.
To size increase the Watts
expected to be used by your
AC loads running
simultaneously by 20%
Steven J. Strong and
William G. Scheller, The
Solar Electric House:
Energy for the
Environmentally-
Responsive, Energy-
Independent Home, by
Chelsea Green Pub Co;
2nd edition, 1994.
This book will help with
the initial design and
contacting a certified
installer.
If you want to do
everything yourself also
consider these resources:
Richard J. Komp, and John
Perlin, Practical
Photovoltaics: Electricity
from Solar Cells, Aatec Pub.,
3.1 edition, 2002. (A
laymans treatment).
Roger Messenger and Jerry
Ventre, Photovoltaic
Systems Engineering, CRC
Press, 1999.
(Comprehensive specialized
engineering of PV systems).
Photovoltaics: Design &
Installation Manual by SEI
Solar Energy International, 2004
A manual on how to design,
install and maintain a
photovoltaic (PV) system.
This manual offers an overview of
photovoltaic electricity, and a
detailed description of PV system
components, including PV
modules, batteries, controllers
and inverters. Electrical loads are
also addressed, including lighting
systems, refrigeration, water
pumping, tools and appliances.
This is the second in a series of presentations
created for the solar energy community to
assist in the dissemination of information
about solar photovoltaics.
This work was supported from a grant from
the Pennsylvania State System of Higher
Education.
The author would like to acknowledge
assistance in creation of this presentation from
Heather Zielonka, Scott Horengic and Jennifer
Rockage.
Application Flexibility
of Solar Electricity
Original Presentation by J. M. Pearce, 2006
Email: profpearce@gmail.com
Distributed Energy Source
Roof Retrofits
BIPV
Tiles, Shingles
Facades
Parking and Sound Barriers
Centralized PV
PV Systems for Transportation
Cars, Boats, and Bikes


Located near the consumer in order to eliminate
transmission losses (which can be higher than
50% on some antiquated grids).
Panels can be placed on roofs, built into roofs,
building facades, carports, highway sound
barriers, etc.
Any surface which is exposed to sunlight is fair
game.

This house on right is
modular construction
and includes 6 kW of
PV modules.
Below retrofits to
schools
The design and integration of PV technology
into the building envelope, usually replacing
conventional building materials:

vertical facades,
replacing view glass,
spandrel glass,
or other facade material;
into semitransparent skylight systems;
into roofing systems,
replacing traditional roofing materials;
into shading "eyebrows" over windows;
or other building envelope systems.
Solar modules come in a
variety of shapes,
colors, sizes and can
be integrated into any
type of architecture.
Advantages
Aesthetics
Reduce the cost of the
system (e.g. roof,
awning, etc.)
Specifically designed
for PV.
This energy efficient
home in Oxford
generates more
electricity than it
uses.
Surplus electricity is
sold to the local utility
company and to power
an electric car
The PV shingle shown
here won Popular Science
Magazine's grand award
for What's new in
Environmental
Technology.
PV shingles can replace
common roofing
shingles.
PV shingles look much
like ordinary roofing
shingles, but they
generate electricity.
They were laid out and
nailed to the roof using
the same methods as are
used to lay conventional
shingles.
Like their non-PV
counterparts, these
shingles overlap
providing for water
shedding capability.
Bill Ball, president of the Stellar Sun Shop
in Little Rock, Arkansas, is clearly
comfortable with PV shingles on the
rooftop of his shop.
The flexible
shingles, rated at 17
watts each, are
manufactured by
United Solar
Systems Corp.
Thin film amorphous
silicon solar cells
which can be
deposited on plastic
or steel (right) are
extremely versatile
The panels on the
right can be stuck
directly to standard
standing seam metal
roofs
Buildings with standing-seam
metal roofs can use solar
module material referred to as
"thin films" that can be rolled
out inside the standing seams.
Roof-integrated PV
panels were installed on
the south-facing roof of
the BigHorn Home
Improvement Center in
Silverthorne, Colorado.
These panels have amorphous silicon
deposited on glass and are semi-
transparent they can be used both as
tinted glass but also as a project screen
backdrop.
The Boston Edison
Impact 2000 home
incorporated
a 4-kWp utility-
connected
photovoltaic array in
the original
construction
all electric
appliances,
solar electric water
heating, and
both passive and
active space heating.

Large rooftops
are ideal
locations for PV
PowerGuard sloped
tiles, 150 Wp per tile,
shown on customer's
roof
Lowes executives
determined that clean,
reliable distributed solar
generation offers many
benefits both to its retail
operations and to the
surrounding community.
Lowes is extremely
committed to reducing
greenhouse gas
emissions, while
promoting and selling
energy efficient home
improvement products.
Lowes sought a cost-
effective solution to
reduce the operating
costs associated with
providing reliable
electricity supply at its
West Hills store.
Wal-Mart McKinney
Location: TX
Operator: Wal-Mart
Configuration: 59 kWp
PV
Operation: 2005
System supplier: RWE
Schott
This pilot installation
for Wal-Mart has
5,500sqft of crystalline
and thin film PV in five
separate locations.
Hawaiis Mauna Lani
Bay Hotel
This sprawling hotel
had acres of roof
space, making it the
perfect host for a
photovoltaic
system.
They installed a
PowerGuard (R)
system of insulating
PV roofing tiles that
covers 10,000 ft
2

and generates
75kWs.
The hotel will be
spared hundreds
and thousands of
dollars in utility
bills.

The buildings most
advanced feature is
the photovoltaic skin,
a system that uses
thin-film PV panels to
replace traditional
glass cladding
material.
The PV curtain wall
extends from the
35th to the 48th floor
on the south and east
walls of the building,
making it a highly
visible part of the
midtown New York
skyline.

Scheidegger
Building with
photovoltaic
facade near
Bern in
Switzerland.
Courtesy of
Atlantis Solar
Systeme AG
Austria
Swtizerland
Building Facades
73 kW system and generates ~ 55 000 kW-
hrs of electricity per year in Sunderland, UK.
This 3500 m
2
solar office building at the
Doxford International Business Park near
Sunderland in the UK incorporates 646 m
2

of photovoltaic modules.
Solar cells can be made in
different colors
Glass faades on office
buildings, winter gardens or
sunroofs on automobiles
will become energy
suppliers with the
transparent solar cell.
The use of the transparent,
dark blue solar cells allows
a beautiful play of light and
shadow.
The standard product lets a
tenth of the light pass
through and has a 10 %
efficiency rate.
The 20kW cube
stands 135 feet
tall on top of the
Discovery Science
Center in Santa
Ana
The 1996 Olympic
Games in Atlanta
featured a very
unique PV system.
The Natatorium
(swimming and diving
facility) that houses a
large PV array for
powering the facility
also features a
canopy system at the
entrance to the
building.
The modules were
made especially for
the swimming facility
with a clear backing
to allow light to pass
through.
Passive solar heating
Prescott Airport
Location: AZ
Operator: Arizona Public
Service
Configuration: 1,450 kWp

SGS Solar
Location: AZ
Operator: Tucson Electric
Power Co
Configuration: 3,200 kWp
Advantages
Economy of scale
Single location for maintenance
You can put a fence around it
Disadvantages
All eggs in one basket natural/terrorist disaster
Transmission losses
Land cost
Hysperia PV Power Station.
These 20-kW Solar
Systems dishes dwarf
visitors in Alice Springs,
Australia.
The concentrators use
an array of mirrors to
focus sunlight onto
high-efficiency solar
cells.
Four supports hold the
cells in front of the
mirrors
The supports also
supply cooling water
and electrical
connections
In hybrid
energy systems
more than a
single source
of energy
supplies the
electricity.
Wind and Solar
compliment
one another

Unique to
the
project is
the
introducti
on of a
new
generatio
n of
hybrid
power
processin
g
equipmen
t.
This new
115 kW
PV/hybrid
energy
system
Located among the rolling hills of Northern California, these solar
electric sunflowers elegantly combine art and technology.
Each sunflower produces 1 kW of solar electricity and consists of four
240 Wp polycrystalline PV modules custom made with yellow back-
skins and yellow frames.
The custom PV modules are attached to a two-axis-tracking
mechanism and mounted on custom-painted green poles producing a
field of 36 kW solar electric sunflowers.
The sunflowers wake up each day and follow the sun's path from
sunrise to sunset, increasing solar harvest over a fixed array by 25%.
This system produces enough energy for approximately eight to ten
homes and was an ideal engineering solution for the steep hillside
site.
PV will be most applicable to
transportation
if it can be stored
Batteries
Electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen
Car #195, Cal
State
University/Long
Beach, at the start
line of Sunrayce
1995
Sunrayce is a biennial solar-powered car
race for colleges and universities in
North America. Students design, build
and then race their car 1,250 km from
Indianapolis, IN, to Colo. Springs, CO.
From July 15th to
the 25th, 2001,
2300 miles of
solar raycing
challenged teams
from around the
world.
High tech and
high efficiency
solar cars crossed
the Great Plains,
climbed the Rocky
Mountains, and
dashed over the
Great American
Desert to the
finish line in
Southern
California
This solar
powered race car
was built in
Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, by
students at
Drexel University
during the 1989-
1990 school year.
Car #43,
University of
Missouri/
Columbia, on the
road in Sunrayce
1995

Electric or hybrid
electric vehicles can
recharge their
batteries at PV power
stations such as this
one at the University
of S. Florida.
Covered parking in
California provides
shading and makes
electricity
Solar Panels on Sound
Barriers
This solar power, in
proposed system, could give
EVs essentially unlimited
range on freeways that
supply in-transit power.
Highway sound barrier
above planted slope, with
integrated PV panels, in
Austria.
An upcoming project in
Holland will use
PVs, installed on railway
right-of-way, to power an
entire electric rail system.
Team #2, from Green
Mountain High School
in Lakewood, CO won
the women's division
of the solar bike race

These golf carts are
powered by photovoltaic
modules from Shell Solar
300-watt system powers
on-board
communications and
lighting, an application
that has been in use for
15 years
On board, the solar modules
create a fascinating play of light,
shadow, and transparency.
The largest solar boat in the world
began operating on the Alster
River in Hamburg on May 23,
2000.
This boat can hold up to 120
passengers for excursions and charter
tours

The boat can hold up to
120 passengers for
excursions and charter
tours. The "Alster Sun"
reaches a speed of 5
kmph just from solar
power.
If it has to go faster, the
rest of the energy comes
from batteries.

Catamaran Sol 10:
direct current
powering from 550
to 1600 watts.
No drivers license
needed, unsinkable,
and easy to use.
This is the third in a series of presentations
created for the solar energy community to
assist in the dissemination of information
about solar photovoltaics.
This work was supported from a grant from
the Pennsylvania State System of Higher
Education.
The author would like to acknowledge
assistance in collecting information for this
presentation from Heather Zielonka.

Economics of
Photovoltaic Systems
Original Presentation by J. M. Pearce, 2006
Updated in 2010 by J.M. Pearce and M. Pathak
Email: profpearce@gmail.com
PV Economics Basics
Solar Photovoltaic Cells convert sunlight directly into
electricity
They are sold on a $/Wp basis or $/power
Wp is the power in Watts for Peak sun hours -- the
equivalent number of hours per day, with solar irradiance
equaling 1,000 W/m
2
, that gives the same energy received
from sunrise to sundown.
To convert power to energy simply multiply by the amount
of time that the cell is illuminated
W * hr = 1 W-hr
Electricity (energy) is normally billed $/kW-hr
PV Economics Terms
kW = kilowatt = 1 000 Watts
MW = Megawatt = 1 000 000 Watts
kW-h/kW/ *
* year or month or day
Amount of power predicted to be produced from a 1 kW
solar panel in the desired location
Payback = minimum time it takes to recover
investment costs.
Economics of a Solar Electric Home
A typical American uses ~11,000 kW-hrs/year
A well-designed U.S. home needs 4kW-5kW of PV
to provide for its energy needs averaged throughout
the year
Depends on location (solar flux)
Energy use of home
Because calculating on /Wp basis you do not need to
worry about efficiency
How much for a
Solar Electric House?
The 2
nd
presentation discussed the components of a
grid-tied solar home system
The price tag for the complete installed system
including all labor as of 2010 is between $5/Wp to
$10/Wp
For a 4kW system:
4000Wp x $5/Wp = $20,000
4000Wp x $10/Wp = $40,000
Financing PV
For new homes a PV system can be folded
into the mortgage long term low interest
loan
For retrofits of existing homes PV can be
economic with:
Financial assistance through grants, subsidies, or
other incentives
High costs of electricity in your area
Green power purchase agreements
Off-grid Applications

PV Incentives
One stop shop for financial incentives is www.dsireusa.org/
The Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) is a
comprehensive source of information on state, local, utility, and federal
incentives that promote renewable energy.
Lists includes:
Corporate Tax Incentives
Direct Equipment Sales
Grant Programs
Leasing/Lease Purchase Programs
Loan Programs
Personal Income Tax Incentives
Production Incentives
Property Tax Incentives
Rebate Programs
Sales Tax Incentives

Feed-In Tariff
Solar FIT rates for Ontario:
Rooftop
Less than 10 kW - 80.2 /kWh
10 - 100 kW - 71.2 /kWh
100-500 kW - 63.5 /kWh
Greater than 500 kW - 53.9 /kWh
Ground Systems
Less than 10 MW - 44.2 /kWh
You are guaranteed these rates for 20 years.
Where PV makes
Economic Sense Now
Remote sites that are too far from power
Or where the power is too unreliable for a given
application (e.g. internet server)
Costs for power lines range from $8000 to $75,000
per mile.
As a general rule, if you are more than mile from a
line, solar is probably the best alternative.
PV : Cheap Electricity
for Road Work
In areas that have grid
power, where the cost
of tearing up the
streets and/or other
construction are
expensive.

Portable Radio Station
The Developing
World
Stand Alone Systems
Coast Guard Stations
and Aircraft
Bus Stops and
Emergency Phones
Solar in
Space
Parking Lights
Running Trails and
Lighthouses
Solar
powered
monasteries
!
When will PV make economic
sense for me?
Economy of Scale
0 subsidies
Grid-tied
Market
$3.12/Wp to $3.56/Wp
Module Costs
Component Costs
Industry-Developed PV Roadmap
World PV Module Production (MW) Increases
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
0
100
200
300
400
Rest of world Europe Japan U.S.
33.6
40.2
46.5
55.4
57.9
60.1
69.4
77.6
88.6
125.8
154.9
201.3
287.7
390.5
2002
512.2
500
Source: PV News, March 2003
World PV installations in 2004 rose to 930MW --
growth of 62 % Consolidated world production of
PV now 1.15 GW+
World PV Module Production (MW) Increases
World PV Module Installation (MW) Increases
So Why Cant We Do It?
PV System vs. Electricity Costs
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
$0.00 $1.00 $2.00 $3.00 $4.00 $5.00 $6.00 $7.00 $8.00 $9.00
Installed PV System Cost ($/Wp)
C
o
s
t

o
f

G
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
i
t
y

(
c
e
n
t
s
/
k
W
h
)
Pennsylvania Retail Rate
Japanese Retail Rate
German Retail Rate
Additional Assumptions:
System Lifetime = 20 years
Real Interest Rate = 6%
O&M = 0.1 cent per kWh
Capactiy Factor = 0.25
(South West U.S)
Capacity Factor = 0.2
(U.S. Average)
California Retail Rate
New Technology
Could Play a Role
Heterojunction with Intrinsic
Thin-layer
Sanyo
18.5%
SANYO, plans to continue to
grow its unique solar business,
aiming to reach a production
scale of approximately 2GW for
HIT solar cells by 2020.

New Technology
Could Play a Role
Built-in Incentives
$/W Value Material avoided
by BIPV Installation
Material
Credit
$1/sq-ft

$5/sq-ft

$10/sq-ft

$20/sq-ft
Asphalt Shingle roof,
monolithic glazing
Laminated glass w/coatings
metal roofing/cladding
Roofing slates, clay tile,
high performance coatings
Stainless steel,
photochromic glass
$0.10/W

$0.50/W

$1/W

$2/W
Building Material Replacement Value
Utilizing Financial Incentives
Subsidies for Fossil Fuel
Fossil fuels and nuclear energy receive 90% of the
government money, (with PV receiving <3%).
Hidden costs that we all subsidize for the energy industry
which include:
Air pollution leads to the death of 120,000 Americans
every year and costs $40 billion in health care annually. /
Hidden Subsidies pollution, global climate change, war
Military (U.S. military spends billions/yr just defending the oil
supplies in the Persian Gulf).
The Question of Energy
Unemployment
If we switch to solar what about all the fossil fuel
jobs?
It is estimated that solar on average creates 26 total
jobs per MW in the US
Coal only produces 8.7 total jobs per MW in the US.

Ontario predicts 31.6 jobs/MW for solar PV


! PV: Net Job Producer
Jobs created with every
million dollars spent
on:
oil and gas
exploration: 1.5
on coal mining: 4.4
on producing solar
water heaters: 14
on photovoltaic
panels: 17
Jobs
Coal vs. Solar
Coal only employs 80,000
As of 2009 there are 46,000
jobs. From 2009 to 2010,
approximately 17, 000 new
jobs were created as a result
of the increased demand
through the installation of
solar systems.

People Want Solar
The Program on International Policy Attitudes
found that the American public wants the federal
budget for renewable energy research like solar PV
to increase by 1090 %.
Solar Photovoltaics
is the Future
Acknowledgements
This is the fourth in a series of presentations created
for the solar energy community to assist in the
dissemination of information about solar
photovoltaic cells.
This work was supported from a grant from the
Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education.
The author would like to acknowledge assistance in
collecting information for this presentation from
Heather Zielonka and Michael Pathak.

The Environmental Impact
of Solar Photovoltaic Cells
Original Presentation by J. M. Pearce,
2006
Updated by A. Shahed and J.M.
Pearce, 2010
Email: profpearce@gmail.com
The Energy Challenge and How to Solve it with
Solar Cells
The Energy Challenge
World population is expanding rapidly and will likely
reach over ~9 billion before stabilizing
Energy use is directly proportional to standard of
living
Energy demand is skyrocketing
Standard methods of producing energy have a
limited supply and have unacceptable impacts on the
environment
The Population Explosion
Exponential population
rise with advancements in
energy production and
technology
UN Projections to 2050 place
population level at ~9 billion
Human Development Index
HDI: longevity (life expectancy), educational attainment, and
standard of living (gross domestic product per capita)
World Energy Consumption
By Fuel Type
1980-2030
Future Energy Needs
How to Produce Electricity?
Conversion of mechanical energy into
electricity (hydro, wind)
Conversion of chemical energy into electricity
(coal, natural gas, etc.)
Conversion of nuclear energy into electricity
Conversion of photon energy into electricity
Energy Sources Global Primary
Energy Supplies
Peak Oil (U.S. Production Peak 1970)

Measured in 1000 barrels per day
World energy reserves and peak under considerable debate
U.S. and World Natural Gas Supplies
World and U.S. Coal Reserves
Even if we discover more fossil
fuels.
We can not burn what we already have.
Recent Global Atmospheric
Carbon Dioxide Concentration
From 1860 to 1990
the industrial nations
released 185 billion
tons of carbon into the
atmosphere from
burning fossil fuels.
Today 6 + billion tons
of CO
2
are released
into the air every year!
380ppm
v
Historical CO2 Concentration
Global Warming
This is the Consensus View
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

In 1995, over 2,500 scientists representing more than 80
countries analyzed over 20,000 articles from the relevant
literature

It is now quite clear that certain gases, such as carbon
dioxide, play a crucial role in determining the earth's climate
by preventing heat from escaping the atmosphere.

Temp. gains up to 14
o
F!!!
In 50 years Earth will be ~3-5 degrees hotter

Up to 14 ft rise in global sea levels. (3ft floods Florida &
NYC)

Weather patterns disrupted: droughts in some places and
torrential rain in others disturbing agricultural production.

EPA estimates that by 2050 the southern boundary of forest
ecosystems could move northward by 600km.

Massive forest death and species extinction.
Potential Consequences :
Manageable to Catastrophic
Global Temperatures for Various Growth
Scenarios
Solar Photovoltaic Energy as a
Solution to the Energy Challenge
Environmental Benefits
During use PV produces no :
atmospheric emissions
radioactive waste
During use PV produces no greenhouse gases so it
will help offset CO
2
emissions and global climate
destabilization
PV does have an embodied energy and
embodied CO
2
emissions

PV curtails air pollution, which produces acid rain,
soil damage, and human respiratory ailments.
Environmental Benefit of a 4 kWp
PV system
This solar energy array would prevent:
2.4 tons of coal from being burned
6.2 tons of CO
2
= decreasing the greenhouse effect
over 3,600 gallons of water from being used
~34 pounds each of NO
x
and SO
2
from polluting the
atmosphere
1.8 pounds of particulates from causing a health hazard
(and no nuclear waste)

EACH YEAR - FOR 30+ YEARS!
Busting PV Related Myths
Myth 1:
PV use more energy to make than
they produce over their lifetime
For cells in production now the
energy payback is between 6
months and 5 years!

Net Energy for 1kW-hr invested in PV Roof in Detroit, MI
Time (Years)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
N
e
t

E
n
e
r
g
y

(
k
W
-
h
r
s
)
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
c-Si Low
c-Si High
p-Si Low
p-Si High
a-Si Low
a-Si High
14+
breeds
Built in
PV
Integrated into the roof.
Integrated into an awning over a back
porch California, generates electricity
while shading the family's outdoor
activities
Additional BIPV


Solar Shingles
Various styles of PV
shingles are available
Solar Shingles are rated at 17W
Lightweight and Flexible
20 year warranty on power output
Aesthetic Applications
A Canadian team fashioned a
window with solar electric
cells and a motif of autumn
leaves

Semi-Transparent and
Transparent PV cells

Building Integration
Myth 2:
There is Not Enough Land
Each day the sun casts more
energy on the earth than all
people would consume in 27
years

The entire worlds energy needs
could be provided by the area
of the Gobi desert covered with
PV.

What about in the USA?
100 miles by 100 miles in Nevada would provide
the equivalent of the entire US electrical demand

Distributed (to sites with less sun) it would take
less than 25% of the area covered by US roads.
6 Boxes at 3.3
TW Each
Solar Cell Land Area Requirements for
the Worlds Energy with Solar PV
Solar Cells
PV cells can provide a
substantial portion of
energy needs.
For the US, only 3% of
the land area would be
required using 1999
efficiency measures

PV technology is improving
continuously
Greater efficiencies
Lower costs
Myth 3:
We do not have Enough Raw Materials
Si - 2
nd
most abundant element in
Earths crust

The amorphous silicon cells
manufactured from one ton of sand
could produce as much electricity as
burning 500,000 tons of coal.

Philadelphia home
Solar Photovoltaics
is the Future
Photovoltaic technology provides an effective means of
supplying clean energy
The technology is ready to use and proven
There is extensive research and development providing
opportunities for higher efficiencies and new market players
Abundant silicon resource
Will play a major role in tackling our increasing energy
needs and curbing our GGH emissions

Acknowledgements
This is the fifth in a series of presentations created
for the solar energy community to assist in the
dissemination of information about solar
photovoltaics.
This work was supported from a grant from the
Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education.
The author would like to acknowledge assistance in
collecting information for this presentation from
Heather Zielonka.
The full series can be found here:
http://www.appropedia.org/Solar_Photovoltaic_Open
_Lectures

Prof. Le Chi Hiep

Director, Program on Renewable Energy &
Energy Conservation (VNU-HCM)

Berlin, October 9, 2009
519
1. GENERAL INFORMATION

2. SOLAR ENERGY and ITS APPLICATIONS
IN VIETNAM

3. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS IN VIETNAM

4. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
520
521
VIETNAM

Population 85.8
millions (2009)
Area 332,000km
2
Capital Hanoi
522
Location Latitude Longitude
Ha Giang 22
o
54N 105
o
E
Hanoi 21
o
03N 105
o
54E
Hue 16
o
29N 107
o
36E
Da nang 16
o
03N 108
o
12E
Qui Nhon 13
o
47N 109
o
15E
HoChiMinh City 10
o
45N 106
o
41E
Phu Quoc 10
o
12N 103
o
58E
Ca Mau 9
o
11N 105
o
09E
523
524
Installed electric generating capacity (9GW,
2004).

In 2004, Vietnam generated 40.1 billion
kilowatthours (Bkwh) of total electricity, of
which 52 percent was supplied by
conventional thermal sources and 48
percent came from hydroelectric sources.

Electricity demand has increased steadily in
Vietnam during the last decade, but the
countrys per capita energy consumption
remains one of the lowest in Asia.
525
526
527
528

North: 1800 2100 hours of sunshine a year,
on average.
South: 2000 2600 hours of sunshine a year,
on average.
529
January 2.2
February 1.6
March 1.4
April 2.7
May 5.3
June 5.2
July 5.9
August 5.3
September 5.4
October 5.3
November 4.2
December 3.5
530


January 4.4
February 5.1
March 3.4
April 6.9
May 8.3
June 7.9
July 8.3
August 6.7
September 5.8
October 4.7
November 4.0
December 3.6
531


January 7.9
February 8.8
March 8.8
April 7.7
May 6.3
June 5.7
July 5.8
August 5.6
September 5.4
October 5.9
November 6.7
December 7.2
532


January 2.24
February 2.40
March 2.53
April 3.46
May 5.23
June 5.31
July 5.59
August 5.10
September 4.79
October 4.18
November 3.45
December 2.97
533


Annual Mean Solar
Radiation:
3.93kWh/m
2
/day
January 3.5
February 4.3
March 5.2
April 5.8
May 6.4
June 5.9
July 6.5
August 5.7
September 5.2
October 4.2
November 3.1
December 2.5
534


Annual Mean Solar
Radiation:
4.85kWh/m
2
/day
January 4.66
February 5.29
March 5.69
April 5.91
May 5.90
June 5.66
July 5.66
August 5.51
September 4.92
October 4.42
November 4.04
December 4.15
535


Annual Mean Solar
Radiation:
5.15kWh/m
2
/day
January 5.1
February 6.3
March 6.6
April 5.7
May 5.0
June 4.9
July 5.1
August 5.0
September 4.8
October 4.5
November 4.3
December 4.6
536


Annual Mean Solar
Radiation:
5.2kWh/m
2
/day
537
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
9A M
28 Thu A pr 2005
12P M 3P M
"Average Sol ar Radi at i on" i n "10 Mi nut e Summary" of "Current " dat abase at "28-004-2005"
W
/
m
2
538
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
9A M
28 Tue Jun 2005
12P M 3P M
" A verage S ol ar R adi at i on" i n " 10 M i nut e S ummary" of " C urrent " dat abas e at " 28-06-2005"
W
/
m
2
09:00 323 10:40 255 12:20 886
09:10 494 10:50 249 12:30 725
09:20 489 11:00 650 12:40 791
09:30 638 11:10 1064 12:50 934
09:40 658 11:20 464 13:00 797
09:50 650 11:30 871 13:10 785
10:00 508 11:40 1044 13:20 773
10:10 659 11:50 1031 13:30 838
10:20 503 12:00 497 13:40 453
10:30 629 12:10 957 13:50 474
539
14:00 685 15:40 387 17:20 139
14:10 611 15:50 344 17:30 98
14:20 344 16:00 385 17:40 66
14:30 392 16:10 381 17:50 17
14:40 557 16:20 306 18:00 7
14:50 627 16:30 135 18:10 7
15:00 649 16:40 139 18:20 0
15:10 643 16:50 140 18:30 0
15:20 583 17:00 182 18:40 0
15:30 469 17:10 168 18:50 0
540
Two main applications:

- Solar hot water
- Solar photovoltaics

541
Solar hot water has been developed since
1990. At the early period, it was very difficult
to get the attention of the community.

But, since around 1998, the number of
installed solar hot water systems has
gradually increased, especially in Ho Chi Minh
city.

542
Currently, solar hot water has become one of
products at high competition. That leads to
the increase of the number of companies
doing business in this field.

But, there is so far no full industry referring
to solar hot water. The main components of
the system (solar collector,) are imported,
mainly from China.
543
544
Researches referring to solar photovoltaics
have been done from 1975.



545
1. Monocrystalline silicon
2. Polycrystalline silicon
3. Amorphous silicon

546
Determination of the light- induced degradation
rate of the solar cell sensitized N719 on
nanocrystalline TiO2 particles

Thermal degradation kinetics of solar cell dye
N719 bound to nanocrystalline TiO2 particles

Fabrication of solar cells based on N719, D520-
dyed nano-crystalline titanium dioxide and
investigation of their performances

Improvement of the Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell
Open-circuit Voltage by Electrolyte Additives and
Cell Treatment with 4-tert-butylpyridine
547
The Relationship between Electrochemical
Impedance Spectra and Photovoltaic Performance
Characteristics during the Light and Thermal
Ageing of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Effects of Electrolyte Additives on the Open-circuit
Voltage of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Decomposition and degradation of dyes in solar
cells under prolonged thermal and light ageing

Dye-sensitized solar cell based on nano-crystalline
titanium dioxide
548
Fabrication of solar cells based on titanium dioxide
and organometallic dyes

Grid connected systems

549
But, due to many difficulties, the research on
solar photovoltaics is nearly activities of
scientists in laboratory only.
It has not exercised its influence on the
society.
550
In 1990, the first 300Wp-unit was installed
at Can Gio district, Ho Chi Minh city.

From 1994, solar photovoltaics has been
expanded in the whole country.

Currently, total installed photovoltaics is
around 2MWp.
551
Installed locations:
- Rural areas (PV units were installed at
more than 3000 houses, there have been
around 8500 families who can reach PV
indirectly by using batteries charged from
stations).
- Cultural centers.
- Medical centers.
- Telecommunication units.
- Traveling boats.
552
- Post offices
- Ambulances.
- Public lighting systems.
- Traffic lighting systems.
- Battery charging stations.
- Schools.
- Islands.

553
554
Reference:
http://www.soltechvn.com/vn/
2000Wp
555
810Wp
Reference:
http://www.soltechvn.com/vn/
556
Reference: http://www.selco-
vietnam.com.vn/index.php?lang=vn
Main features of photovoltaic development
in Vietnam:

- Most budgets funded by international
organizations and several funded by
national agencies (there is so far nearly no
personal budget invested to set up the
system).
- It leads to unstable and unsustainable
development.
- All solar panels are so far imported.
557
Currently, there are only several companies
doing business on photovoltaics in Vietnam.



SELCO-VIETNAM could be considered as the
biggest company in this field (Installed
photovoltaics 262kWp)


558
Several related websites for your reference:

1. http://www.selco-
vietnam.com.vn/index.php?lang=en

2. http://www.soltechvn.com/vn/




559
Recently, a factory producing solar panels
has been installed in Long An near Ho Chi
Minh City.

By planning, its expected capacity is
3MWp/year (first step) and 5MWp/year
(next step).
560
561
562
There is high potential to exploit solar energy
in Vietnam.


There is also high demand on solar
technologies such as solar photovoltaics and
solar hot water.
(Survey: 50,000 families in southern and
central parts of the country need PV systems)
563
Current situation on solar photovoltaics:

1. Solar hot water has been developed well,
especially in the southern parts of the
country. Currently, it is easy to see solar hot
water systems on roofs of many houses in
Ho Chi Minh city.

2. In the meantime, solar photovoltaics has
been almost done by projects and has been
installed dispersedly. There have been only
a few people who want to invest the
systems by their own budget.
564
Referring to energy policy, currently there are
good enough macroscopic policies and
roadmap to promote renewable energy
activities in Vietnam.

In June 2009, the draft of the law on energy
conservation was submitted to the
consideration of the national assembly.
Hopefully, the similar draft of the law on
renewable energy could be submitted next
year.

565
According to the current energy policy,
renewable energy including solar energy is
expected to be one of main energy resources
of the country.

566
But, unfortunately, the current applications of
renewable energy, especially of installed solar
photovoltaics, are still far from our expected
targets.

Although there have been activities referring to
photovoltaics in Vietnam leading to around
2MWp installed, but Vietnam is still nearly a
blank area in terms of photovoltaics.
567



568
YES, we need solar photovoltaics.


But, like everywhere, the first main reason is
always the price.

569
To set up a photovoltaic system, we often
need:
- Solar panel (Kyocera, SolarWorld,)
- Control system
- Battery (Phoenix,)
- Converter
- Others

Current mean price in Vietnam (including
solar panel and main components):
8USD/Wp - 10USD/Wp
570

We can see:

- Rural area: very high demand on solar
photovoltaics, but because of high price
poor people can not dream of getting it.

- Urban area: good electricity supply from
the national grid. But, if the price is good
enough, solar photovoltaics can also attract
the attention of the people living in the
urban area to prevent unexpected power
shortage (It is quite often in Vietnam,
especially in the dry season).

571
572
- Currently, there is general macroscopic energy
policy. But, there are so far no concrete policies
such as tax exemption and financial supports,


- Solar panels and corresponding parts are
mainly imported. There is nearly no industry
referring to solar photovoltaics in Vietnam,
except one factory named RED SUN in Long An
near Ho Chi Minh City.
Price reduction:
1. In-country fabrication by local and
foreign investment.
2. Detailed policies focusing on tax
exemption, or tax reduction, or financial
supports .
573
Development strategy:

Two steps:

1.To promote the application of solar
photovoltaics in Vietnam, we should firstly set
up the new projects, it means we should not
wait for the personal demands paid by
personal budgets.

The new projects must be totally different
from the previous ones, which have been often
funded by international or national
organizations and have been installed mainly
for demonstration purpose.
574
The new projects should be invested by
people who are intending to do business in
this field.

Under this point of view, the new projects
should not be decentralized and should be
connected to the grid..

In order to set up the projects, it must be
repeated that we need good financial
policies, hopefully, which would be
published in the first quarter of the next
year.
575
2. Following the success of the first step, the
solar photovoltaics together with its low price
can get the attention of the community.

After this step, hopefully personal budgets
can be expended to buy solar panels.


576
SOLAR ROOF should be considered as one of
main strategic approaches parallel with the
new projects (step 1) to promote photovoltaic
application in Vietnam, especially at NEW
URBAN AREAS.

There is high potential to develop the notion
SOLAR CITY at NEW URBAN AREAS.

577
578
Nearly blank market and blank area in terms
of solar photovoltaics are awaiting you.

579
Vietnam Needs Investors To Promote Use
Of Renewable Energy Technologies.


The Government of Vietnam has been
exploring more and more the possibilities
for investment in the country as they
recognize the toll that electricity shortages
nationwide are causing.
580

The climate of Vietnam is conducive to
positive impacts from solar energy use, and
the sun is a priceless commodity in both
summer and winter. Research information
shows that sunshine is available between
1,800 hours and 2,700 hours annually.
581
Experts agree that solar energy is a great
way to fill off-grid electricity needs,
especially in areas of a higher concentration
of pollution where mini-grids are not a
good idea.


Sherry Irvin
on behalf of the
BascoTec Internet Limited
Technologie Park 13
33100 Paderborn
Germany


582
The draft of the decree on the means supporting
the development of renewable energy has just been
submitted to the government by the ministry of
industry and commerce (Tuoi Tre daily newspaper,
Sept. 8, 2009).

Main contents of the draft of the decree:
- The government commits to exempt those
who invest to develop the electric generation by
renewable energy from taxes.
- The price of electricity produced by renewable
energy would be discussed to guarantee the
investors rational benefit.
583
Its time to invest and to do business
referring to solar photovoltaics in Vietnam.

584
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION
585

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