Chapter 7 Economic Geology

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

7.1 Introduction

Geological explorations are basically concern with the hunting of new economic
minerals and natural resources present within the earth. Minerals and rocks have
a role in the economic uplift of a country and Pakistan is no exception in this
regard. The basic purpose of our work is lithostructural mapping, structural
analysis and microfacies analysis, but it is necessary to describe economic
geology of minerals and rocks present in the mapped area. Their geological
investigation, evaluation and reserve estimation would be helpful for the user
industry. In addition, the possibility of discovering petroleum in commercial
quantities from the Potwar Plateau cannot be ruled out.

The east central fraction of the Salt Range (project area) is important due to its
diverse economic potential. The area is prosperous in varieties of industrial raw
materials, construction materials and economic industrial minerals. The exposed
stratigraphic sequence suggests important petroleum system elements including
potential source, seal and reservoir rocks for oil and gas generation and
accumulation.

7.2 Energy Resources

7.2.1 Petroleum Play

There are several individual petroleum systems in this area. Each element of
petroleum play is described separately. Table 7.1 shows the source, reservoir
and seal rocks distribution in the stratigraphic column of the project area along with
the possible timing of hydrocarbon generation and formation of traps.

Table 7.1 Petroleum system and events chart for the east central Salt
Range (Project Area).
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

The stratigraphy of Salt Range has its subcrop extension under the Potwar
Plateau. Therefore, the study of outcrop units in Salt Range is very important and
helpful to define the subsurface petroleum plays in Potwar which is one of the
onshore oil-prone areas in the world.

7.2.1.1 Source Rocks

There are several potential source rocks exposed in the mapped area. Among
these are the well known late Proterozoic Salt Range Formation and late
Paleocene Patala Formation.

The oldest potential source rocks are in the Salt Range Formation with a Total
Organic Carbon (TOC) of upto 36% (Bender and Raza, 1995) and oil yields of
more than 20% (Kadri, 1995). The oil shales are present in the upper part of the
formation and are associated with dolomite and gypsum. Silled and reducing
basin conditions were favourable for the preservation of organic matter at that
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

time. The oil shales of Salt Range are equivalent to the Precambrian oil source
rocks of India, Oman and North Africa. The oil shales were observed and
sampled from Khewra Gorge (Plate 7.1), Dandot Gorge and Gandhala Nala
during current survey.

Kadri (1995) described the presence of coal in Cambrian rocks in these words:

“Shales of Khewra, Kussak and Jutana Formations are of lacustrine to marine

origin and contain woody, coaly to variously amorphous kerogene which are
capable of generating paraffinic to normal crude and gas. The maturity level for
these strata is very high for their present depth, indicating their original deep
burial and then removal of the overburden by up thrusting along the boundary
faults of Salt Range. There are indications that hydrocarbons were generated in
Cambrian source rocks”.

Baqri and Baloch (1991) also reported lenticular, deltaic coal beds in upper part
of Khewra Sandstone at Nilawahan Gorge.

The International Committee for Coal Petrology (1963) defines coal as, “a
combustible sedimentary rock formed from plant remains in various stages of
preservation---temperature and Pressure”. Vascular land plants only appeared
during Middle Silurian (Stewart, 1983 and Taylor and Smoot, 1984). Therefore,
the presence of woody and coaly beds in Cambrian strata is not sound. Starting
in the Precambrian till the Devonian, the sole primary producer of organic matter
was marine phytoplankton (algae and fungi) that made black, organic matter rich,
open marine shales (Tissot and Welte, 1984). Therefore, only algal-matter
derived organic matter may be present in the Cambrian rocks (Yasin, A.R.,
1993).

Rocks of lower Permian sequence (Tobra, Dandot and Warchha Formations) are
the possible source of gas discovered in the Punjab Platform. Organic richness
varies from 0.3 to 4.75%. The hydrogen index ranges from 29 to 165
mgHC/gTOC. On the average it is fair to good. The organic petrography and
limited rock-eval data suggest that source is a mixture of Kerogene type II, type
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

III and type IV (Ahmad et al., 2007). Shales of Dandot Formation with some coaly
partings are good source rocks (Kadri, 1995).

Paleocene presents and overall low energy and anoxic environment favoring the
abundance and preservation of organic matter. Upper Paleocene Patala
Formation is considered to be the major source rock of this region (Plate 4.23).
TOC ranges from 0.5% to more than 3.5%, with an average of 1.4 percent, and
are type-II and -III kerogens (Wandrey et al., 2004). It has EOM/TOC ratio partly
more than 150 and HI mostly more than 200. The formation was deposited in
shallow marine to deltaic environment accounting for the interpretation of both
terrestrial and marine organic material. The latter gives rise to the generation of
normal crude oil while the former generates gas and paraffinic crude.

7.2.1.2 Maturation

The source rock maturity is mainly related to the geothermal gradients and the
thickness of overburden.

The geotherm of Potwar region ranges between 1.5°C and 2.6°C/100 m. Post
Eocene sediments have played a very important role in maturity of younger
source rocks in depression areas. This period accounts for rapid clastic
sedimentation at the expense of Himalayan uplift and subsequent erosion of
uplifted rocks.

The organic matter preserved in the Salt Range Formation did not get the
maturity until the Permian. Because, the thickness of Cambrian rocks was not
sufficient for the deep burial and maturation of organic matter.

Maturity level of Permian rocks also appears to be very high since they have
undergone tremendous change on account of their burial through both time and
temperature (Kadri, 1995).

The most important source rock reached the oil window during Pliocene (Bender
and Raza, 1995). A basin profile indicates vitrinite reflectance equivalent
maturities of 0.62 to 1.0 percent for Tertiary rocks in the productive part of the
Potwar Basin (Wandrey et al., 2004).
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

7.2.1.3 Generation and Migration

Petroleum generation is directly related to the scale of time and the thermal
regime, the strata is subjected to. Rapid burial of Eocene and older rocks have
placed them in petroleum generation window in the basinal areas.

Generation of hydrocarbons most likely began in Late Cretaceous time for

Infracambrian and Permian source rocks and again from Pliocene time to the
present for younger source rocks.

Even though there were probably two distinct periods of generation from two
different groups of source rocks, sufficient source-to-reservoir correlation data
were not available to clearly define separate petroleum systems. Migration is
primarily over short distances updip and vertically into adjacent reservoirs and
through faults and fractures associated with plate collision and thrusting
(Wandrey et al., 2004).

7.2.1.4 Reservoir Rocks

Reservoir rocks include Khewra Sandstone, Jutana Formation, Baghanwala

Formation, Tobra Formation and Sakesar Limestone. More than 60 percent of the
producing reservoirs (by field) are of Cenozoic age in Potwar Plateau, with the
majority of those being Eocene carbonates.

Fractured dolomite in the Salt Range Formation can form a suitable reservoir in
the right setting with a cap or seal to prevent migration. Possibility of entrapment
of hydrocarbons in the overlying formations also exists, provided the
hydrocarbons have not been destroyed during the hiatus of Ordovician to
Carboniferous times (Kadri, 1995).

Khewra Sandstone is the main potential Cambrian reservoir. The uniform grain
size of sandstone and sorting indicates its excellent reservoir character. The
upper and middle units of the formation are moderately porous and display
intergranular primary porosity which ranges from 10-15%. The sandstone also
shows fractures and jointing which may contribute to increase the effective
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

permeability. Oil is produced in Potwar area from Khewra Sandstone at Adhi,

Chak Naurang and Rajian Oil Fields.

Kussak Formation is generally tight. However, hydrocarbon shows are reported

on both ditch sample (fluorescence) and logs (Kadri, 1995).

The Jutana Formation is a good potential reservoir and hydrocarbon indications

are reported in some wells in the Potwar. It shows good porosity at outcrops, for
example, honey-comb and fenestral porosity (Plate 7.2 and 7.3). Upper part of
the formation has been proved as a good reservoir in the southeastern Potwar
area and oil is produced from Jutana formation at Rajian Oil Fields.

Baghanwala Formation also has reservoir potential. Lower part of the formation
is a very well sorted, medium grained quartz arenite which can act as an
excellent reservoir (Plate 7.4). The visual porosity found by dye injected thin
sections is upto 15% (Plate 7.5).

The reservoir potential of the Permian rocks is also good. In the wells of the
Potwar basin the Permian sequence is very compact with very low porosity and
permeability. At places Tobra formation depicts very good reservoir
characteristics with presence of primary and development of dissolution porosity
(matrix porosities between 10% and 13%). Moreover, sandstones of the
formation are fractured in vertical and horizontal directions. However, Tobra
Formation has flowed oil in Adhi Field (Kadri, 1995).

The Dandot Formation displays more shales than siltstones and sandstones. The
siltstones and sandstones are well sorted and possibly develop into local
reservoirs. The Warchha Sandstone is medium hard to friable, highly porous, and
can be reservoirs for migrated oil. The chances of source in the Warchha
Sandstone are very poor (Kadri, 1995).

The Eocene carbonates exhibit excellent reservoir characteristics. They are

producers in many Oil Fields of Potwar Plateau. These limestones have very low
matrix porosity (2-4%) and fractures (along the crests of structures) provide most
of the voidage (15-25%) which provide the higher fluid flow potential. The
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

intensity and orientation of fractures are controlled by the tectonic style of the
area which is governed by Himalayan Orogeny (Bender and Raza, 1995).

7.2.1.5 Traps and Seals

The major structural deformation in the Potwar region developed during the
Neogene, more or less simultaneously with the maturity processes. The
migration of Paleogene hydrocarbons could therefore have led to accumulations
in suitable structural traps. Hydrocarbons generated earlier could have been
accumulated also in pre-Neogene traps.

Most of the fields discovered in the Potwar province to date are structural traps.
They consist of mainly doubly plunging anticlines, anticlines bounded by thrusts
on their flanks, popup structures, or fault-block traps. In this area, anticlinal
features strike generally east-northeast to west-southwest and are approximately
parallel to the plate-collision zone (Figure 7.1). Salt intrusions resulting from
halokinetic movements add to the trap possibilities. Many of the folded structures
are amplified, or they are only present above a detachment zone in Eocambrian
salts.
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

Figure 7.1 Generalized oil and (or) gas fields and structure map of Kohat-
Potwar area (from Wandrey et al., 2004).

Cap rocks are developed as shaly sequence in the Kussak Formation of early
Cambrian age and as intraformational shales within the Permian Dandot
Formation. The main sealing cover above the Eocene reservoir rocks is provided
by claystones developed in the Miocene molasse sediments (Bender and Raza,
1995).

7.2.2 Coal

Coal has been mined for several decades from the Salt Range. Numerous coal
mines are working and feeding thousands of the people in the study area (Plate
7.6).

In the project area lower part of Patala Formation of late Paleocene age is
productive horizon for coal. Only one workable coal seem ranges in thickness
from a few inches to a maximum of six feet. The average mineable thickness is 1
m. A number of normal faults traverse the area forming small escarpments and
repeating the exposure of Patala Formation which could be mined for coal (see
Cross-Sections).

The rank of the coal ranges from high volatile C to B bituminous. Chemical
analysis indicates that: hydrogen is 3.6-5.3%, carbon is 36.7-61.1% and oxygen
is 11.4-17.5% (Bender and Raza, 1995).

An average analysis of the coal from the mapped area is as such:

Moisture 5.20%

Volatile material 37.70%

Fixed carbon 44.80%

Ash 12.30%

Calorific value 10,900 calories

 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

Small Trollies get the coal out of mines. Coal is further carried by Trucks locally
called as “Guttoes”.

7.3 Economic Industrial Raw Materials and Minerals

This group includes rocks and minerals, which can be utilized as such or after
some processing in various industries. Bountiful reserves of the industrial
raw materials exist throughout the mapped area. Deposits of several
industrial raw materials of great importance have been observed that
include limestone, dolomite, rock salt, gypsum, laterite, silica sand and
sandstone.

7.3.1 Rock Salt

In eastern Salt Range, the salt bearing evaporites occur in the Eocambrian Salt
Range Formation (Billianwala Salt Member) and this unit crops out extensively
along the southern faulted escarpment of the Salt Range (see Lithostructural
Map). Salt in this area was first noticed as back as 327 B.C. by Alexander the
Great. It was also mentioned during Akbar’s time. Since 1872, the Khewra Salt
Mine has been working regularly. The salt is mined by room-and-pillar method.
The salt reserves at Khewra Salt Mine are calculated as 80 million tones proved
and 100 million tones inferred. The NaCl % at Khewra is 97.87.

Salt is a dietry necessity, a seasoning and preservative for food, and a protector
of the human body from the effects of desert heat. It is a basic raw material for
the chemical industry to produce a multitude of products such as caustic soda
and soda ash.

7.3.2 Gypsum

Economically viable gypsum deposits are present in the Bandar Kas Gypsum
Member of Salt Range Formation of Eocambrian age. The gypsum deposits were
known since a long time ago, but economic interest in them developed much
later when the mineral was required by the industries in that area. The thickness
of these deposits is greater than 80 m.
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

It is used in cement industry as a raw material. Besides, it can be used for

carving, decorations, ornamental purposes and soil conditioner.

7.3.3 Limestone

Limestone is widely exposed in the project area with clay and sand as common
impurities. A number of lime quarries are present that are mining limestone.
There are two lime stone bearing formations in the area: Nammal Formation and
Sakesar Limestone. Nammal Formation is composed of marl and nodular lime
stone of light grey color while Sakesar Limestone is fossiliferous, light color,
nodular limestone with cherty nodules.

Analysis of Sakesar Limestone shows that it is good quality limestone with more
or less 50% CaO and very little silica. Alumina and iron oxide, magnesia content
is also less than 1%. Specific gravity of limestone varies between 2.67-2.73. The
average composition of the Sakesar Limestone in the area is as follows:

Cao 52%

MgO 0.15 – 4.40%

Al2O3 and Fe2O3 1%

Loss on ignition 41%

Sp. Gravity 2.7

Limestone is used in manufacturing of lime (CaO). Four cement factories namely

“Dandot Cement Factory”, “DG Cement”, “Bestway Cement” and “Pakistan
Cement Corporation” are present in the vicinity of the mapped area and using
Sakesar Limestone as raw material. They are providing employment
opportunities for the locals. Sakesar Limestone is also used as, building stone for
local constructions. The stones are cut into suitable slabs, which are then used
as building stones for local construction. Sakesar Limestone is also used in lime-
kilns for the preparation of lime (Plate 7.9).

Besides, limestone can also be used for construction purposes, chemical work
and in glass industry.
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

7.3.4 Dolomite

Dolomite is also of great interest because of its economic worth. Huge deposits
of dolomite have been mapped throughout the map extension. Dolomite reserves
are found mainly in the Jutana Formation and partly in the Kussak Formation of
Cambrian age. Dolomite in Jutana Formation is sandy at the basal part of the
formation, while in upper portion it changes into somewhat pure form. MgO
content ranges from 15.32% to 18.55% (Mujtaba et al., 2007).

The impure dolomite of project area is used as building stone by the locals. No
production at commercial scale is reported from the project area. It can also be
used in building, statuary, monumental and ornamental purposes as a source of
magnesia and refractory material.

7.3.5 Laterite

Laterite is a red, residual soil containing large amount of aluminum and ferric
hydroxides, formed by the decomposition of several kinds of rocks. Laterite in the
project area occurs irregularly above the uneven surface of lower Permian
Warchha Sandstone (Plate 7.8). Laterite is being mined as portland cement raw
materials. The better quality basal Tertiary laterite has been considered as a
source of iron ore.

7.3.6 Sandstone

Khewra Sandstone has been used as a building stone since long. It is also used
in the construction of Islamic Summit Minar of Lahore. For this purpose large
slabs of Khewra sandstone were being cut. Large thick slabs of Khewra
Sandstone are also used locally in the mapped area for making walls, pathways
over small streams and water courses.

Khewra sandstone is taken out for other places and finds its use as ornamental
and facing stone due to its fine grained texture, hard nature, purple color, ease of
splitting and dressing. Tiles of Khewra Sandstone made by the locals with in the
hills carried on the donkeys back on the road and then transported to the other
areas.
Chapter 7 Economic Geology
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

Plate 7.1 Facing towards east, oil shale associated with laminated gypsum and
dolomite in the Sahwal Marl Member of the Salt Range Formation, eastern limb
of the Khewra Gorge (lat. 32°40’28”N; long. 73°00’33”E).

Plate 7.2 Facing towards northeast, honey-comb porosity in the upper part of
Jutana Formation, above PMDC Tourist Resort, SE of the Khewra Gorge (lat.
32°38’46.4”N; long. 73°00’16”E).
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

Plate 7.3 Facing towards northeast, fenestral porosity (gas-bubble escape

structure) in the upper part of Jutana Formation, above PMDC Tourist Resort, SE
of Khewra Gorge (lat. 32°38’46.4”N; long. 73°00’16”E).

Plate 7.4 Facing towards east, highly porous quartz arenite in the lower of
Baghanwala Formation, along Khewra-Choa Saiden Shah Road (lat. 32°39’40”N;
long. 72°58’38”E).
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

Plate 7.5 Photomicrographs showing rounded (0.5), sub-spherical (0.7) quartz

grains (quartz arenite). Blue color is epoxy resin and show 15% porosity. Lower
part of Baghanwala Formation, along Khewra-Choa Saiden Shah Road (lat.
32°39’40”N; long. 72°58’38”E). 100x, PPL

Plate 7.6 Facing towards northwest, coal mines in Patala Formation, 4 km NW of

Dandot village (lat. 32°41’20”N; long. 72°56’10”E).
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

Plate 7.7 Facing towards SSE, Dandot Cement Factory, south of Dandot village
(lat. 32°38’40”N; long. 72°57’42”E).

Plate 7.8 Facing towards ENE, laterite at the base Tertiary unconformity, near
Chail, eastern Salt Range (lat. 32°47’30”N; long. 73°05’05”E).
 Chapter 7 Economic Geology

Plate 7.9 Facing towards north, lime-kiln, east of Pidh (lat. 32°41’15”N; long.
72°58’55”E).