ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
I. Overview-The
Endocrine System
The endocrine system is composed of
severa
ductless glands!
cluster of cells within certain
or"ans! and
isoated endocrine cells! so-
caed di#$se ne$roendocrine
system ces %DNES&! in the
epitheia inin" of the
gastrointestinal and
respiratory systems.
'ands of the endocrine system
inc$de the pituitary! thyroid!
parathyroid! adrenal! and pineal
glands
Function. The endocrine system
secretes hormones into near(y
capiaries and interacts with the
nervo$s system
- to mod$ate and
- contro the (ody)s meta(oic
activities.
II. *ormones
*ormones are chemical
messengers that are carried via the
(oodstream to distant target cells.
*ormones inc$de +
ow-moec$ar-wei"ht water-soluble
proteins and poypeptides ,e.".!
ins$in! "$ca"on! foice-stim$atin"
hormone %-S*&. and
lipid-soluble s$(stances! principay
the steroids hormones %e.".!
pro"esterone! estradio! testosterone&.
A. Water-soluble hormones interact
with speci/c ce s$rface receptors on
tar"et ces! which comm$nicate a
messa"e that "enerates a (ioo"ica
response (y the ce.
G protein-linked receptors
$sed (y some hormones %e.".!
epinephrine, thyroid stimulating
hormone [T!", serotonin&.
0indin" of the hormone to the ' protein-
in1ed receptors eads to a prod$ction of
a second messenger that evo1es a
tar"et ce response.
2. Cataytic receptors
are $sed (y ins$in and "rowth
hormone.
0indin" of the hormone to the
cataytic receptors activates protein
1inases that phosphoryate tar"et
proteins.
0. 3ipid-so$(e hormones
di#$se across the pasma mem(rane of
tar"et ces and
(ind to speci/c receptors in the cytoso
or n$ce$s!
formin" hormone-receptor compe4es
that re"$ate transcription of
deo4yri(on$ceic acid %DN5&.
N$cear receptors 6for thyroid hormones
ony .
III. Overview 6 7it$itary 'and
%*ypophysis&8
The pit$itary "and ies (eow the
hypothaam$s! to which it is
str$ct$ray and f$nctionay
connected
It is divided into two ma9or
s$(divisions!
the adenohypophysis and
the neurohypophysis.
Each s$(division is derived from a
distinct em(ryonic anao"! which is
re:ected in its $ni;$e ce$ar
constit$ents and f$nctions.
A. The adenohypophysis
aso caed the anterior pituitary gland.
ori"inates from an ectoderma
divertic$$m of the stomode$m %#athke
pouch&.
< parts of
adenohypophysis
pars tuberalis- along infundibulum
pars intermedia- intermediate lobe
(remanant of rathkes pouch)
pars distalis- lower part
7it$tary deveopment
ectoderma divertic$$m of the
stomode$m %#athke pouch& appears =
"rows $pwards anteriory
Inf$ndi($$m from the hypothaam$s
%diencephaon& "rows downwards
posteriory.
Diencephaon and rath1e>s po$ch meet
and remain connected! str$ct$ray and
f$nctionay .
Connection from pharyn"ea epithei$m is
(ro1en and pit$tary "and han"s on the
inf$ndi($$m
0ood S$ppy
0ood S$ppy
7ars distais
?. The pars distais %ower part of ant
pit$tary& is s$pported (y
connective tiss$e caps$e and
framewor1.
It consists of irre"$ar cords of
parenchyma ces yin" ad9acent to
fenestrated capiaries.
It Has 3 types of the cells:
?&. Chromophis- coor ovin"
5&-red @ acidophis
0&-($e @ (asophi
2& Chromopho(es- do not stain
<& -oic$osteate ces-3ie (etween
a(ove 2 ces
Chromophis
Overview. Chromophis are parenchyma
ces that stain intensey (eca$se of their
hormone-containin" secretory "ran$es.
They synthesiAe! store! and reease
severa hormones.
They are re"$ated (y speci/c stim$atory
and inhi(itory hormones prod$ced (y
ne$rosecretory ces in the hypothaam$s
These ne$rosecretions are conveyed to
the pars distais via a system of porta
(ood vesses ori"inatin" in the median
eminence caed long portal $essels
Types+Chromophis are cassi/ed into two
types, dependin" on the dyes they (ind
$sin" specia histoo"ica stains.Bith
hemato4yin-eosin stain! the distinction
(etween the two ce types is m$ch ess
o(vio$s.
acidophils
-(ind acids dyes and often stain
oran"e or red.
-They are sma ces of two s$(types
%&omatrophs
-prod$ce somatotropin %"rowth
hormone&!
-are stim$ated (y somatotropin-
reeasin" hormone %SR*&
- are inhi(ited (y somatostatin.
'& (ammotrophs
-prod$ce proactin! which is stored in
sma secretory "ran$es.
-They are stim$ated (y proactin-
reeasin" hormone %7R*&
-inhi(ited (y proactin-inhi(itin"
hormone %7I*&.
)*& *asophils
(ind (asic dyes and typicay stained ($e.
They inc$de three s$( types+
)i& +orticotrophs
prod$ce adrenocorticotrophic hormone
)A+T!& = ipotropic hormone %,-!&! a
prec$rsor of 0-endorphin.
They are stim$ated (y corticotropin-
reeasin" hormone %CR*&.
)ii& Thyrotrophs
prod$ce TS*
are stim$ated (y thyrotropin reeasin"
hormone %TR*&.
)iii& Gonadotrophs
prod$ce -S* and $teiniAin" hormone %3*&
in (oth se4es! atho$"h in men the atter
%3*& is sometimes referred to as interstitia
ce-stim$atin" hormone %ICS*&
are stim$ated (y gonadotropin-
releasing hormone )Gn#!&! aso 1nown
as luteini.ing hormone-releasing
hormone ),!#!&/
(. Chromopho(es
%?& 5re parenchyma ces that do
not stain intensey
%2& 5ppear as sma ces $nder the
microscopeC the ces ac1 %or have
ony a few& secretory "ran$es and
are arran"ed cose to one another in
c$sters
%<& Sometimes resem(e
de"ran$ated chromophis in the
eectron microscope! s$""estin"
that they may represent di#erent
sta"es in the ife cyce of vario$s
acidophi and (asophi pop$ations
%D& May aso represent
$ndi#erentiated ces that are
capa(e of di#erentiatin" into
vario$s types of chromophis.
c. -oic$osteate ces
%?& 5re n$mero$s in the pars distais
and ie (etween the chromophis and
chromopho(es.
%2& 7ossess on" processes that form
"ap 9$nctions with processes of
other foic$osteate ces
%<& 7rod$ce many peptides that are
tho$"ht to re"$ate the prod$ction
of pars distais hormones via a
paracrine e#ect.
2. The pars intermedia ies (etween
the pars distais and pars nervosa.
a. It is characteriAed (y the
presence of many cooid-
containin" cysts %Rath1e cysts&
that are ined (y c$(oida ces.
(. It posseses (asophiic ces!
which sometimes e4tend into the
pars nervosa.
These ces secrete prohormone
proopiomeanocortin %7OMC&!
which is ceaved to form
meanocyte-stim$atin"
hormone %MS*&.
In h$mans! MS* acts in vario$s
ways to mod$ate in:ammatory
responses thro$"ho$t the (ody!
and it may pay a roe in
controin" stores of (ody fat.
<. The pars t$(erais s$rro$nds the
crania part of the inf$ndi($$m
%hypophysea sta1&.
a. It is composed of c$(oida
(asophiic ces! arran"ed in cords
aon" an a($ndant capiary
networ1.
(. Its ces may secrete -S* and
3*! ($t this has not yet
con/rmed.
0. The ne$rohypophysis
is aso caed the posterior pit$itary
"and.
It ori"inates from an eva"ination of
the hypothaam$s and
is divided into the inf$ndi($$m!
which is contin$o$s with the
hypothaam$s! and the pars nervosa!
or main (ody of the ne$rohypophysis.
?.
*ypothaamohypop
hysea tract
a. Contains the $nmyeinated
a4ons of ne$rosecretory ces
whose ce (odies are ocated in
s$praoptic and paraventric$ar
n$cei of the hypothaam$s.
(.The tract Transports fowin"s
to the pars nervosa
o4ytocin!
antidi$retic hormone %5D*C
vasopressin&!
ne$rophysin %a (indin" protein
speci/c for each hormone&!
adenosine triphosphate %5T7& to
the pars nervosa

2&This *ypophysea
2&This *ypophysea
7orta System
7orta System
carries ne$rohormones that contro the carries ne$rohormones that contro the
f$nction of the ces of the f$nction of the ces of the
adenohypophysis from the adenohypophysis from the median median
eminence to the adenohypophysis. eminence to the adenohypophysis.
0eca$se of its em(ryoo"ic ori"in! the 0eca$se of its em(ryoo"ic ori"in! the
hypophysis is hypophysis is connected to the connected to the
hypothaam$s hypothaam$s at the (ase of the (rain at the (ase of the (rain
with which it has important anatomic and with which it has important anatomic and
f$nctiona reationships. f$nctiona reationships.
< 1nown sites which prod$ce and i(erate < 1nown sites which prod$ce and i(erate
< "ro$ps of hormones in the system+ < "ro$ps of hormones in the system+
-IRST 'ROE7- -IRST 'ROE7- consists of peptides consists of peptides
prod$ced (y a""re"ates %n$cei& of prod$ced (y a""re"ates %n$cei& of
secretory ne$rons in the hypothaam$sC secretory ne$rons in the hypothaam$sC
the the Supraoptic Supraoptic and the and the Paraventricular Paraventricular
Nuclei Nuclei. .
SECOND 'ROE7- SECOND 'ROE7- consists of peptides consists of peptides
prod$ced (y ne$rons of the prod$ced (y ne$rons of the dorsal medial dorsal medial! !
ventral medial ventral medial! and ! and infundibular nuclei infundibular nuclei of of
the hypothaam$s. the hypothaam$s.
T*IRD 'ROE7- T*IRD 'ROE7- consists of consists of proteins and proteins and
"ycoproteins prod$ced (y "ycoproteins prod$ced (y cells of the cells of the
Pars Distalis Pars Distalis and i(erated into (ood and i(erated into (ood
capiaries of the second stretch of the capiaries of the second stretch of the
porta system. porta system.
2. 7ars nervosa
Contains the dista ends of the
hypothaamohypophysea
a4ons
and is the site where the
ne$rosecretory "ran$es in
these a4ons are stored in
acc$m$ations 1nown as
*errin" (odies.
*errin"
(odies or ne$rosecretory
(odies are str$ct$res fo$nd in
the posterior pit$itary.They
represent the termina end of
the a4ons from
thehypothaam$s!
and hormones are temporariy
stored in these ocations.
They
are ne$rosecretory terminas!5
D* and o4ytocin are (oth
stored in *errin" (odies! ($t
are not stored sim$taneo$sy
in the same *errin" (ody.
In addition each *errin" 0ody
aso contains 5T7 and
a ne$rophysin Ne$rophysins
are (indin" proteins! of which
there are two
types+ ne$rophysin
I and ne$rophysin II which (ind
to o4ytocin and 5D*!
respectivey.
*errin" (odies Reeases
o4ytocin and 5D* into
fenestrated capiaries in
response to nerve stim$ation
<. 7it$icytes
Occ$py appro4imatey 2FG of
the vo$me of the pars nervosa
5re "ia-i1e ces that s$pport
a4ons in this re"ion
7ossess n$mero$s cytopasmic
processes and contain ipid
dropets! intermediate /aments!
and pi"ments.
C. Hasc$ariAation of the pit$itary "and
?. 5rteria s$ppy is from two pairs of
(ood vesses derived from the
interna carotid artery.
The ri"ht and eft s$perior
hypophysea arteries
@ pars t$(erais!
inf$ndi($$m! and median
eminence.
(. The ri"ht and eft inferior
hypophysea arteries @pars
nervosa.
2. *ypophysea porta system
I s$perior hypophysea arteries@
primary capiary pe4$s
%?& This pe4$s is ocated in the
median eminence! where stored
hypothaamic ne$rosecretory
hormones enters the (ood.
%2& It is drained (y hypophysea
porta veins! which descend
thro$"h the inf$ndi($$m into the
adenohypophysis.

(. The hypophysea porta veins @
secondary capiary pe4$s
This pe4$s is ocated in the pars
distais! where ne$rosecretory
hormones eave the (ood to
stim$ate or inhi(it the parenchyma
ces.
Note JStored ne$rosecretion enter the
(ood thr$! primary capiary pe4$s
%media eminence& @ trave thr$
hypophysea porta vein@ open into
pars distais %secondary capiary
pe4$s& adenohypophysis.
D. Re"$ation of the pars distais
?. Ne$rosecretory ces in the
hypothaam$s synthesiAe speci/c
hormones that enter the
hypophysea porta system and
stim$ate or inhi(it the parenchyma
ces of the pars distais.
2. The hypothaamic ne$rosecretory
ces in t$rn are re"$ated (y the
eve of hormones in the (ood
%ne"ative feed(ac1& or (y other
physioo"ica %or psychoo"ica&
factors.
<. Some hormones %e.".! thyroid
hormones! cortiso& e4ert ne"ative
feed(ac1 on the pars distais
directy.
IH. Overview-Thyroid
'and
The thyroid "and is composed of two
o(es connected (y an isthmus.
It is s$rro$nded (y a dense re"$ar
irre"$ar coa"eno$s CT caps$e!
parathyroid glands are em(edded
posteriory.
The thyroid "and is s$(divided (y
caps$ar septa into o($es containin"
follicles..
These septa aso serve as cond$its for
(ood vesses! ymphatic vesses! and
nerves.
Thyroid follicles are spherica
str$ct$res /ed with colloid! a visco$s
"e consistin" mosty of iodinated
thyroglubin .
Thyroid foices are enveoped (y a
ayer of epitheia ces! caed foic$ar
ces or principe ces
-oic$ar ces are s$rro$nded (y
parafollicular cells0 c cell0light cell
derived from the ne$ra crest.
These two parenchyma ce types rest
on (asa amina! which separates them
from the a($ndant networ1 of
fenestrated capillaries in the
connective tiss$e.
Function. Thyroid foices synthesiAe
and store thyroid hormones.
0. -oic$ar cesKprincipe ces
?. Str$ct$re+ -oic$ar ces are
normay c$(oida
when stim$ated @ co$mnar
when inactive @s;$amo$s
(. They possess a distended
ro$"h endopasmic retic$$m
%RER& with many ri(osome-free
re"ions! a s$pran$cear 'o"i
compe4! n$mero$s ysosomes!
and rod-shaped mitochondria.
c. -oic$ar ces contain many
sma apica vesses! which are
invoved in the transport and
reease of thyro"o($in and
enAymes into the cooid.
d. They possess short! ($nt
microvii that e4tend into the
cooid.
2. Synthesis and reease of the
thyroid hormones thyro4ine
%TD& and triiodothyronine %T<&
occ$r (y the se;$ence of
events. These processes are
promoted (y TS*! which (inds
to ' protein-in1ed receptors
on the (asa s$rface of
foic$ar ces.
C. 7arafoic$ar ces are aso caed
cear %C& ces (eca$se they stain
ess intensey than thyroid foic$ar
ces.
?. 7arafoic$ar ces are
represented sin"y or in sma
c$sters of ces (etween the
foic$ar ces and (asa amina.
2. These ces (eon" to the
pop$ation of DNES ces! aso
1nown as 57ED ces %amine
prec$rsor $pta1e and
decar(o4yation ces&! or
enteroendocrine ces.
<. They possess eon"ated
mitochondria! s$(stantia
amo$nts of RER! a we-deveoped
'o"i compe4! and many
mem(rane-(o$nd secretory
"ran$es.
D. They synthesiAe and reease
cacitonin! a poypeptide
hormone! in response to hi"h
(ood caci$m eves.
D. 7hysioo"ica e#ects of thyroid
hormones
?. TD and T< act on a variety of
tar"et ces. These hormones
increase (asa meta(oic rate and
th$s promote heat prod$ction.
They have (road e#ects on "ene
e4pression and ind$ction of
protein synthesis.
2. Cacitonin f$nctions primariy to
ower (ood caci$m eves (y
inhi(itin" (one resorption (y
osteocasts.
H. 7arathyroid 'and
A. 1$er$iew
%. The parathyroid "ands are fo$r sma
"ands that ie on the posterior s$rface of
the thyroid "and! em(edded in its
connective tiss$e caps$e.
'. They have a parenchyma composed of
two types of ces!
chief cells Kprincipe ce @
sma!(asophiic! @ 7T* @ Increased (ood
caci$m.
o2yphil cells.Jar"erKpaer!appear d$rin"
p$(erty! modi/ed cheif ce! no f4n
3. They are s$pported (y septa from the
caps$e! which penetrate each "and and
aso convey (ood vesses into its interior.
4. They (ecome in/trated with fat ces in
oder persons! and the n$m(er of o4yphi
ces aso increases.
*. +hief cells are small basophilic ces
aran"ed in c$sters.
%. Chief ces form anastomosin" cords!
s$rro$nded (y a rich! fenestrated
capiary networ1.
'. These ces possess a centra n$ce$s! a
we-deveoped 'o"i compe4! a($ndant
RER! sma mitochondria! "yco"en! and
secretory "ran$es of varia(e siAe.
<. -$nction. They synthesiAe and
secrete parathyroid hormone %7T*&.
*i"h (ood caci$m eves inhi(it
prod$ction of 7T*.
C. O4yphi ces are ar"e! eosinophiic
ces that are present sin"y or in sma
c$sters within the parenchyma of the
"and.
?. O4yphi ces posses many ar"e!
eon"ated mitochondria! a poory
deveoped 'o"i compe4! and ony a
imited amo$nt of RER.
2. Their f$ntion is not 1nown! not
fo$nd in feta parathyroid! appears
d$rin" p$(erty and increases as the
a"e! seems i1e modi/ed chief ce.
D. 7T* f$nctions primariy to increase
(ood caci$m eves (y indirecty
stim$atin" osteocasts to resor( (one.
Bith cacitonin! 7T* provides a d$a
mechanism for re"$atin" (ood
caci$m eves.
5 near a(sence of 7T*
%hypoparathyroidism& may (e ca$sed
(y accidenta s$r"ica remova of the
parathyroid "ands! which eads to
tetany! characteriAed (y
hypere4cita(iity and spastic s1eeta
m$sce contracts thro$"ho$t the (ody.
7arathyroid *ormone is the 7arathyroid *ormone is the most most
important re"$ator of (ood caci$m important re"$ator of (ood caci$m
eves eves and is essentia to ife and is essentia to ife! whereas ! whereas
cacitonin appears to provide a cacitonin appears to provide a
compementary mechanism for /ne compementary mechanism for /ne
ad9$stment and is not essentia to ife. ad9$stment and is not essentia to ife.
HI. 5drena %S$prarena&
'ands
5drena "ands ie em(edded in fat at the
s$perior poe of each 1idney.
They are derived from two em(ryonic
so$rces+
ectoderma ne$ra crest! @adrenal
medulla!
mesoderm! @adrenal corte2.
The adrena "ands are invested (y their
own coa"eno$s caps$e.
The adrenal corte2 contains
parenchyma ces that synthesiAe and
secrete ($t do not store vario$s steroid
hormones.
It is divided into three concentric
histoo"icay reco"niAa(e re"ions+
.ona glomerulosa!
.ona fasciculata!
.ona reticularis.
5drena corte4
%. 5ona glomerulosa
SynthesiAes and secretes
mineralocortocoids! mosty
aldosterone and some
deo2ycorticosterone.
*ormone prod$ction is
stim$ated (y
an"iotensin II
and 5CT*. % act$ay
5n"iotension 2 = 1 L
stim$ates it &
Is composed of sma ces
arran"ed in arch i1e cords and
c$sters
These ces have a few sma
ipid dropets! an e4tensive
networ1 of smooth endopasmic
retic$$m %SER&! and
mitochondria with shelf-like
cristae.
2. Mona fascic$ata
SynthesiAes and secretes
"$cocorticoids! namey cortiso
and corticosterone.
*ormone prod$ction is
stim$ated (y 5CT*
Is composed of co$mns of ces
aso possess spherica and
sin$soida capiaries oriented
perpendic$ary to the caps$e.
Ces contain many ipid dropets
and appear so vac$oated that
they are caed spon"iocytes.
These ces aso possess
spherica mitochondria with
t$($ar and vesic$ar cristae!
SER! RER! ysosomes! and
ipof$scin pi"ment "ran$es.
<. Mona retic$aris
SynthesiAes and secretes wea1
andro"ens %mosty
dehydroepiandrosterone and
some androstenedione& and
perhaps sma amo$nts of
"$cocorticoids.
*ormone prod$ction is
stim$ated (y 5CT*.
Is composed of ces! arran"ed
in anastomosin" cords. Many
ar"e ipof$scin pi"ment
"ran$es are common in these
ces.
0. The adrena med$a is competey
invested (y the adrena corte4. It contains
two pop$ations of parenchyma ces! caed
chromaNn ces! which synthesiAe! store!
and secrete the catechoamines epinephrine
and norepinephrine. It aso contain scattered
sympathetic "an"ion ces.
?. ChromaNn ces are ar"e! poyhydra
ces containin" secretory "ran$es that
stain intensey with chromi$m sats
%chromaNn reaction&.
a. ChromaNn ces are arran"ed in
short! irre"$ar cords s$rro$nded (y
an e4tensive capiary networ1.
(. They are innervated (y
pre"an"onic sympathetic
%choiner"ic& /(ers! ma1in" these
ces anao"o$s in f$nction to
post"an"ionic sympathetic
ne$rons.
c. They posses a we-deveoped
'o"i compe4! isoated re"ions of
RER! and n$mero$s mitochondria.
d. They aso contain ar"e n$m(ers
of mem(rane-(o$nd "ran$es
containin" one of the
catechoamines! 5T7! en1ephains!
and chromo"ranins! which may
f$nction as (indin" proteins for
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
2. Catechoamine reease occ$rs in
response to intense emotiona stim$i
and is mediated (y the pre"an"ionic
sympathetic /(ers that innervate the
chromaNn ces.
C. 0ood s$ppy to the adrena "ands is
derived from the s$perior! midde! and
inferior adrena arteries! which form three
"ro$ps of vesses+ to the caps$e! to
parenchyma ces of the corte4! and directy
to the med$a.
?. Cortica (ood s$ppy
a. 5 fenestrated capiary networ1
(athes ces of the Aona "omer$osa.
(. Strai"ht! discontin$o$s! fenestrated
capiaries s$ppy the Aone fascic$ata
and Aona retic$aris.
2. Med$ary (ood s$ppy
a. Heno$s (ood rich in hormones
reaches the med$a via the
discontin$o$s fenestrated capiaries
that pass thro$"h the corte4.
(. 5rteria (ood from direct (ranches
of caps$ar arteries forms an e4tensive
fenestrated capiary networ1 amon"
the chromaNn ces of the med$a.
c. Med$ary veins 9oin to form the
s$prarena vein! which e4its the "and.
HII. 7inea 'and
%7inea 0ody!
Epiphysis&8
A. 1$er$iew
%. The pinea "and pro6ects from the roof
of the diencephalon.
'. Its secretions vary with the i"ht and dar1
cyces of the day.
3. This "and has a caps$e formed of the
pia mater! from which septa %containin"
(ood vesses and $nmyeinated nerve
/(ers& e4tend to s$(divide it into
incompete o($es.
4. It is composed primariy of pineaocytes
and ne$ro"ia ces.
7. It aso contains caci/ed concretions
%brain sand& in its interstiti$m. The
f$nction of these concretions is $n1nown!
($t they increase d$rin" short i"ht cyces
and decrease d$rin" periods of dar1ness.
*. -inealocytes are pae-stainin" ces with
n$mero$s on" processes that end
diations near capiaries.
%. 7ineaocytes contain many secretory
"ran$es! microt$($es! micro/aments!
and $n$s$a str$ct$res caed synaptic
ribbons.
2. These ces synthesiAe and secrete
serotonin %d$rin" the day& and meatonin
%at ni"ht&. Meatonin is $sed to treat 9et
a" and seasona a#ective disorder %S5D&!
an emotiona response to shorter dayi"ht
ho$rs d$rin" the winter.
<. 7ineaocytes may aso prod$ce ar"inine
vasotocin! a peptide that appears to (e
an anta"onist of 3* and -S*.
C. Ne$ro"ia %interstitia& ces resem(e
astrocytes! with eon"ated processes and a
sma! dense n$ce$s. They contain
microt$($es and many micro/aments and
intermediate /aments.
HIII. Cinica
Considerations
A. -ituitary adenomas are common tumors
of the anterior pit$itary.
%. They enar"e and often s$ppress
secretions (y the remainin" pars distais
ces.
'. These t$mors fre;$enty destroy
s$rro$ndin" (one and ne$ra tiss$es and
are treated (y s$r"ica remova.
*. Gra$es disease is characteriAed (y a
di#$se enlargement of the thyroid
gland and protrusion of the eyeballs
%e4ophthamic "oiter&.
%. This disease is associated with the
presence of co$mn-shaped thyroid
foic$ar ces! e4cessive prod$ction of
thyroid hormones and decreased
amo$nts of foic$ar cooids.
'. It is ca$sed (y the (indin" of a$toimm$ne
imm$no"o($in ' %I"'& anti(odies to TS*
receptors! which stim$ate the thyroid
foic$ar ces.
+. imple goiter )enlargement of the
thyroid gland& is ca$sed (y ins$Ncient
iodine )8%9 ug0day& in the diet.
?. It is $s$ay not associated with either
hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism.
2. Simpe "oiter is treated (y
administration of dietary iodine.
D. *yperparathyroidism is overactivity of the
parathyroid "ands res$tin" in e4cess
secretion of 7T* and conse;$ent (one
resorption.
?. *yperparathyroidism is associated with
hi"h (ood caci$m eves! which may ead
to deposition of caci$m sats in the
1idneys and the was of the (ood
vesses.
2. It may (e ca$sed (y a (eni"n t$mor of
the parathyroid "ands.
E. 5ddison disease is characteriAed (y
secretion of inade;$ate amo$nts of
adrenocortica hormones d$e to destr$ction
of adrena corte4.
?. 5ddison disease is most often ca$sed
(y an a$toimm$ne disease or can (e a
se;$ea of t$(erc$osis.
2. This disease is ife threatenin" and
re;$ires steroid treatment.
-. Dia(etes insipid$s
Dia(etes insipid$s res$ts from
inade;$ate amo$nts of 5D*.
References:
Ce 0ioo"y and *istoo"y
'artner! *iatt and Str$m
F
th
Edition
'rays 5natomy
<O
th
Edition
Cinica Ne$roanatomy
Richard S. Sne
F
th
Edition
Te4t(oo1 of *istoo"y
3eeson 3eeson 7apar$
F
th
Edition