DCS704: Routing and Remote Access

1.0 Scale internetworks

An internetwork is the connection of two or more different and frequently incompatible
networks, made possible by using internetworking devices, which include gateways and
routers, for exchanging of data resources.
NOTE: whereas an internetwork (internet with lowercase i) is a collection of interconnected
networks, an Internet(uppercase I) is a specific worldwide internet that is widely used to
connect universities, government offices, companies and even private individuals.


















Internetwork (internet)

CONNECTING DEVICES
1.1 Networking and internetworking devices are divided into four categories= bridges, repeaters,
routers and gateways
Each of these devices interact with protocols at different layers of the OSI model



WAN

R
R
R R
LAN LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
R R
R R
LAN

















Connecting devices and the OSI model
















1.1.1 REPEATERS
A repeaters is an electronic devices that operates on only the physical layer of the OSI
model to regenerate weak signals thus providing current to drive long cables when
information carrying signals travel over a relatively long distance on a network they usually
become alternated. Alternation of the signals endangers the integrity of the data causing the
network to deliver computed data. A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before
the weak or corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern, and puts the refreshed copy back
onto the link.

CONNECTING
DEVICES
INTERNETWORKING
DEVICES
NETWORKING
DEVICES
BRIDGES REPEATERS
ROUTERS
GATEWAY
S
7. APPLICATION
6. PRESENTATION
5. SESSION
4. TRANSPORT
3. NETWORK
2. DATA LINK
1. PHYSICAL
GATEWAY 7. APPLICATION
6. PRESENTAION
5. SESSION
4. TRANSPORT
3. NETWORK
2. DATA LINK
1. PHYSICAL


ROUTER
BRIDGE
REPEATER
A repeater helps to only extend the physical length of a network; it does not change the
functionality of the network for example, given a network of four stations (A,B,C&D) and two
sections connected by a repeater. If station A sends a frame to station B, all stations on the
network will receive the frame, the repeater will not keep stations C and D will receive a
truer copy of the frame than would otherwise have been possible.
The location of a repeater on a link is vital. A repeater must be placed so that a signal
reaches it before any noise changes the meaning of any of its bits


D
A








B C







1.1.2 BRIDGES
Bridges are data link layer devices but they operate in both the physical and data link layers
of the OSI model. Unlike repeaters, which copy 5the bits as they arrive, bridges are store
and forward devices. A bridge accepts an entire frame passes it up to data link layer where
the checksum is verified. The frame is then sent down to the physical layer for forwarding is
a different network. A bridge can divide a large network into smaller segments and also rely
frames between two originally separate LANs.

REPEATER
Bridge contain logic that allows them keep the traffic foe each segment separate, thus, they
filter traffic and so are useful for controlling congestion and bolating problem links. They also
provide security through this partohiming of traffic because a bridge operates at the data link
layers, it has access to the physical addresses of all stations connected to it. When a frame
enters a bridge, it regenerates the signal, checks the address of the destination and
forwards the new copy to the segment to which the addresses belongs.


A D






B C


E H





F G


A BRIDGE.

















BRIDGE

A D A D












F G F G


TYPES OF BRIDGES
There are three types of bridges
(i) Simple bridge
(ii) Multiport bridges
(iii) Transparent bridges

1.1.3 ROUTERS
Routers are networks layer devices but operate in the physical, data link and network layers
of the OSI model. They relay packets among multiple interconnected networks. They route
packets from one network to any of a number of potential destination networks on an
internet. In their simplest function, routers receive packets from one connected network and
pass them to a second connected network. But if a received packet is addressed to a mode
on a network of which the router is not a member, the router is able to determine which of its
connected networks is the best relay point for the packet. Once the best route for a packet
to travel is identified, the router passes the packet along the appropriate network to another
router, which checks the destination address, finds what yet the best route, and passes the
Bridge
Bridge
A-D

packet to the destination network (if it is a neighbor) or across a neighbouring network to the
next router on the chosen path.



E 4
BUS
1
A

3 D


2



BUS
B
C

Example of Routers in an interne are.
- A packet sent from a station on one network to a station on a neighboring network go first to
the jointly held router.
- Router switches the packet to the destination network.
- If no router connects to both sending and receiving networks, the sending router transfers
packet across one of its connected networks to the next router in the direction of ultimate
destination.
- Second router forwards the packet to the next router on the path, and so on, until the
destination is reached.

1.1.4 GATEWAYS
Gateways potentially operates in all seven layers of the OSI model A gateway is a protocol
converter. A router by itself transfer, accepts, and relays packets only across networks using
similar protocols (i.e. single-protocol routers). On the other hand, a gateway can accept a
RING
ROUTER
ROUTER
RING
ROUTER
ROUTER
RING
packet formatted for one protocol (e.g. AppleTalk) and convert it to a packet formatted for
another.

Generally, a gateway is software installed within a router. It understands the protocols used
by each network linked into the router and is therefore able to translate from one to another,
sometimes, the only modification necessary are the header and trailers of the packets in
other cases, the gateway must adjust the data rate, size, and format as well.



NETWARE







Example: A gateway connecting an SNA network (IBM) to a NetWare network (Novell)

1.1.5 OTHER CONNECTING DEVICES
These include:

(a) Multiprotocol Routers
At the network layer, a router by default is a single protocol device and the routing table
uses one single addressing format. e.g two LANs connected through a router, should we
same protocol either IP(the network layer protocol of the Internet) or IPX (the network layer
protocol for Novell).
Multiprotocol routers are designed to route packets belonging to two or more protocols. A
two protocol router (e,g for IP and IPX) can handle packets belonging to either of the two
protocols. it can receive, process, and send a packet using the IP protocol or the IPX
protocol. Here, the router has two tables one for IP and one for IPX.
SNA
GATEWAY

(b) BROUTERS
A brouter (bridge/router) is a single-protocol or multiprotocol router that sometimes acts as a
router and sometimes as a bridge.
When a single-protocol brouter receive a packet belonging to the protocols it is designed for,
it routes the packet based on the network layer address: otherwise, it acts as a bridge and
passes the packet using the data link layer address.
Multiprotocol brouter receives a packet belonging to one of the protocols for which it is
designed, routes the packet based on the network layer address, otherwise, it acts as bridge
and passes it using the data link layer address.

(c) SWITCHES
These are devices that provides bridging functionality with greater efficiency. The switch has
a buffer for each link (network) to which it connects. It stores received packets in the buffer
of the receiving link, checks the address (and sometimes CRC) to find the outgoing link. If
there is no chance of collision (i.e the outgoing link is free), the switch sends the frame to
that particular link.
There are two (2) types of switches
(i) Store-and forward switch: which stores the frame in the input buffer until the whole
packet has arrived.
(ii) Cut-through switch: forwards the packet to the output buffer as soon as the destination
address is received.

(d) ROUTING SWITCH
They is a combination of a router and a switch. Routing switches use the network layer
destination address to fund the output link to which the packet should be forwarded.

ROUTING OVERVIEW (Routing Strategies)
The main function of the network layer is routing packets from the source machine to the
destination. Routing allows data to get from one point on a network to another . the
destinations must be uniquely identified and the data must be at the proper network, then
the router ensures that the data is received by the current mode.
The role of routes changes as network designs change. Routers are used extensively for
connecting sites to each other and to the internet. Functions of routers include:
(i) Securing the information that is generated in predefined areas
(ii) Choosing the fastest route from one point to another, and
(iii) Providing redundant network connections so that a problem in one area will degrade
network operations in other areas.

Routing protocols must consider the Hg:
(i) Addressing
(ii) Address resolution
(iii) Message forma and
(iv) Error reporting

Most routing protocols are based on an addressing format that uses a network and a mode
number to identity each mode. When a network is powered on, each router on it records in a
table the addresses of the networks that are directly connected. At specified intervals each
router in the internetwork broadcasts a copy of its entire routing table so that, all of the routes
eventually know how to get to each of the different destination networks.

Address resolution allows a router to map the original address to a hardware address and store
the mapping in a table for future transmission.
A variety of message formats are defined by routing protocols. they allows the protocol to
perform its functions such as:
i) Finding new modes on a network,
ii) Testing to determine whether they are working
iii) Reporting error conditions,
iv) Establishing connections, and
v) Transmitting data.

Error conditions may arise during data transmission because of malfunctioning mode or
malfunctioning network. In such cases, routers and routing protocols would report the error
conditions, but would not attempt to correct the error.
Error correction to left to protocols at other levels of the networks architecture.

ROUTING IPROTOCOL
One of the most valued and sophisticated functions performed by a router is finding the best
path or route for data to take across the network. Best path refers to the most efficient route
from one mode to another. In any particular situation, the best path depends on:
i) The number of helps between nodes
ii) The current network activity
iii) The unavailable links,
iv) The network transmission speed and
v) The topology

To determine the best path, routers communicate with each other through routing protocols.
routing protocols are used only by routers to collect data about current network status and
contribute to selection of best paths. It is from this data that routers create routing tables for use
with future packet forwarding.
In addition to it ability to find the best path, a routing protocol can be characterized according to
its convergence time and its bandwidth overhead.
Convergence time refers to the time it takes for a router to regnise a best path in the event of a
change or outage
Bandwidth overhead refers to the burden placed on the underlying network to support the
routing protocol.

TYPES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS
The most commonly used routing protocols are RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, and BGP
1. Routing Information Protocol (RIP) for IP and IPX- This is the oldest routing protocol that is
still used. In RIP, selection of a path to transfer data from one network to another is based
on the number of intermediate nodes, or hops is always chosen.
This is a distance vector algorithon and to implement, but it may not be the best in modern
networking. It limitations include:
i) It does not consider factors like bandwidth, data priority, link speed, network type or
network congestion. Thus faster or more reliable paths may be selected just because
they have more hops.
ii) Routers using RIP broadcast their routing tables every 30 seconds to other routers,
whether or not changes have occurred. Thus increase internetwork traffic and negatively
affects the delivery of messages.

iii) Convergence time for RIP is poor: the routing tables propagate from router to another.
Thus, if the routing tables change, it may take several minutes before the new
information propagates to routers at the end of the internetwork.
iv) RIP does not work well in very large network environment in which data may have to
travel through more than 15 routers to reach its destination (e.g on the internet)
v) RIP is slower and less secure than other protocols.

ADVANTAGE: one advantage to RIP is its
1. Stability for example, RIP prevents routing loops from continuing indefinitely by limiting the
number of hops a packet can take between its source and its destinative to 15.4 it is
exceeded, the network destination is considered unreachable (times out).
2. Open shortest path first(OSPF) for IP- This routing protocol makes up for some of the
limitations of RIP and can coexist with RIP on a network. OSPF uses a more complex
algorithon, which is stated as, find the shortest paths from a given source to all other
destinations by proceeding in stages and developing the path in increasing path lengths.
In OSPF, selection of a transmission path is made only after the state of a network has been
determined so that if an intermediate hop is malfunctioning, it is eliminated immediately from
consideration its service have been restored. Using Dijstras algorinthon, router computes
all the different paths to get to each destination in the internetwork, creating what is known
as a topological database (i.e each router keeps a database of the other router links) thus
data structure is maintained by OSPF and is updated whenever failures occurs thus, a
router (in the event of a failure) would simply check its topological database to determine
whether a path was available, and would then we Dijstra;s algonithon to generate a
shortest-path tree to get around the failed link


ADVANTAGES
i) Network bandwidth is kept to a minimum because routing update messages are sent
only when charges in the routing environment occur, thereby reducing the number of
messages in the network and the size of the messages by not sending the entire routing
table.
ii) Provides a very fast convergence time

DISADVANTAGES
i) More memory is required because OSPF keeps track of more information than RIP.
ii) Higher CPU usage this offsets the savings in bandwidth consumption. More CPU power
is needed for the calculation of the shortest path.
3. Enhanced interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) for IP, IPX and AppleTalk by Cisco
system. It has a fast convergence time and a low network overhead, and is easier to
configure and less- CPU intensive than OSPF. EIGRP also offer the benefits of supporting
multiple protocols and limiting unnecessary network traffic between routers. It
accommodates very large and heterogeneous networks. Disadvantage: it is only supported
by Cisco routers.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) for IP- is a routing protocol of internet backbones. The
demands in routers created by internet growth necessitated the development of BGP, the
most complex of the routing protocols. the developers of BGP had to contend with not only
the prospect of 100.000 routes, but also the question of how to route traffic efficiently and
faulty through the hundreds of internet backbones.
Switching (also called packet switching nodes, intermediate system, and data switching
exchanges)-are specialized computers used to connect two or more transmission lines
TCP/IP model
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a suite of small, specialized
protocol including TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, ICMP, and others (Subprotocols)
it was developed for the U.S Department of Defenses ARPANET, TCP/IP is the basis for
internet communications and is most widely used network layer protocol in use today. It
provides reasonably efficient and error free transmission between different system, (i.e, it
has low cost and ability to communicate between a multitude of dissimilar platforms) one of
the granted advantages of TCP/IP relate to its status as a routable protocol, in that it carries
network addressing information that can be interpreted by routers. It is a flexible protocol,
running on any combination of network operating system or network media.
It is a file transfer protocol, so it enables large files to be sent across sometimes unreliable
networks with a high probability that the data will arrive error free.

COMPONENTS
The TCP/IP model organizes a communication system with three main components:
process, hods, and networks.
Processes execute on hosts, which can often support multiple simultaneous processes that
are defined as primary units that need to communicate. The processes communicate across
5the network to which hosts are connected.

TCP/IP versus the OSI model
The TCP/IP can be arranged or divided into four layers instead of OSIs seven layers.
(i) Application/Process Layer
TCP/IPs Process/Application layer provides authentication and compression
services, and is roughly equivalent to the Application, Presentation(and session)
layers of the OSI model Applications gain access to the network through the layer vis
protocols, such as File Transfer Protocols (FTP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol
(TFTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

(ii) Host-Host Layer (TCP/IPs Transport Layer)
The TCP/IPs Transport Layer roughly corresponds to the Transport layer OSI model.
It supports mechanism to transfer data between two processes on different host
computers. It holds the TCP and UDP (Transmission Control Protocol and User
Datagram Protocol), therefore the services provided I this layer also include error-
checking, flow control, and sequencing and an ability to manipulate connection
control signals, unlike the OSIs models Transport layer, the TCP/IP models
Transport layer services do not necessarily guarantee reliable data delivery.

(iii) Network Access Layer (Link Layer)
TCP/IPs Link Layer, (also called the Network Interface layer or Network Access
Layer) is roughly equivalent to the physical and Data link layers (and packet of the
Network layers of the OSI model.
Protocols at this layer provide access to a communication network and some of the
functions here are flow control, error control between hosts, security, and priority
implementation, formatting of data and transmission to the network wire.

(iv) Internet Layer (Network Layer)
TCP/IPs Internet (or Network) layer is roughly equivalent to the portion of the OSI
models Network layer that is not already included in the TCP/IPs Link Layer this
layer holds the internet Protocol (IP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP),
Internet Group Message Protocol9 (IGMP), and Address Resolution Protocol (ARP),
all of which handles routing of messages and host address resolution.

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layer 7 Layer 4
.
Layer 6

Layer 5 Layer 3

Layer 4 ..

Layer 3 Layer 2
..
Layer 2 Layer 1

Layer 1




Internetwork Protocol (IP)
IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols. IP is an unreliable and
connectionless datagram Protocol- a best-effort delivery service, in that IP provides no error
checking or tracking. It assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to
get a transmission through to its destination, but with no guarantees.
Transmission along physical networks can be destroyed for reasons such as:
(i) Noise:- which can cause bit errors during transmission across a mediums;
(ii) Congestion:- a congested router may discard a datagram if it is unable to relay it
before a time limit runs out,
(iii) Looping:- routing trends can end in looping and the ultimate destruction of a
datagram; and
(iv) Disable links:-that leaves no usable path to the destination. To achieve reliability, IP
must be paired with TCP which is a reliable protocol.

Application layer

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data link

Physical
Research/Application



Host-host Transport



Internet

Network Access Layer
(Link)
IP transports data in packets called datagrams and datagram is transported separately.
Datagrams may travel along different routes, may arrive but of sequence or duplicated. IP
does not keep track of the route and has recording facility on arrival of the datagrams.
Because IP is a connectionless service, it does not create virtual circuits for delivery. There
is not a call setup to alert the receiver to an incoming transmission.
However, IP provides a bare bones transmission function that gives the user freedom to add
only that facilities necessary for a given application and thereby allows for maximum
efficiency.
The Internet Protocol (IP) belongs to the Network layer of the OSI model and to the Internet
layer of the TCP/IP models it is the subprotocol that enables TCP/IP to internetwork-i.e, to
traverse more than one LAN segment and more the type of network through a router.

IP version 4 (IPv4)
IP provides information about how and where data should be delivered. The individual
networks joined together in an internetwork are called subnetworks, or subnets. The IP
subprotocol as it is used in IP version 4 (IPv4) is the oldest (over 20yrs) and is still being
used by most networks.
The IP portion of a data frame is called an IP datagram. The IP datagram acts as an
envelope for data and contains information necessary for routers to transfer data between
subnets.

IP Datagram
Packets in the IP layer are called datagram.
A datagram is a variable-length packet (up to 65,535 bytes) consisting of two parts; header
and data. The header can be from 20 to 60 bytes and contains information essential to
routing and delivery. The IP datagram format and a descriptive of each field follows:

IP Datagram Format


Version HLEN service type Total length
4 bits 4 bits 8 bits 16 bits
Identification Flags fragmentation offset
16 bits 3 bits 13 bits
Time to live Protocol Header Checksum
8 bits 8 bits 16 bits

Source IP address

Destination IP address

Option Padding

Data

Data


Version- The first field defines the version number of the IP, the common (and current) one
is version 4 (IP v4), with a binary value of 0100. The receiving nods checks this field to
determine whether it can read the incoming data, if it cannot, it rejects the packet.

Header Length (HLEN) defines the length of the header in multiple of four bytes. This field
indicate to the receiving node where data will begin (immediately after the header ends)

Service Type- The service type defines how the datagram should be handled or processed.
It include information that define the priority of the datagram and those that specify the type
of service the sender desires, such as the level of throughput, reliability, and delay.

Total Length- Defines the total length (in bytes) of the IP datagram, including the header and
data.

Identification-The field is used in fragmentation. A datagram, when passing through different
networks, may be divided into fragments to match the network frame size, each fragment is
then identified with a sequence number in the identification field. Thus, the message to
which a datagram belongs is identified and the receiving node is enabled to reassemble
fragment messages.

Flags= dont fragment (DF) or more fragments (MF) indicates whether a message is
fragmented and, if it is fragmented, whether the datagram is the first. Middle, or last
fragments etc.

Fragment ( or fragmentation) offset- is a pointer that identifies where the datagram fragment
belongs in the incoming set of fragments.

Time to live (TTL) defines the number of router hops a datagram can travel before it is
discarded. When the source host creates the datagram, it sets the time to live field to an
initial value. Then, as the datagram travels through the Internet, router by router, each router
decrements the value by 1. If this value becomes zero before the datagram reaches its
destination, the datagram is discarded; to prevent it from roaming back and forth forever
between routers.

Protocol-identifies the type of Transport layer protocol that will receive the datagram (for
example. TCP, UDP,I CMP, etc).

Header Checksum- is a 16 bit field used to check the integrity of routing information in the
header i.e., whether the IP header has been completed.

Source address- identifies the original source of the datagram, i.e, the full IP address of the
source node.

Destination address- identifies the final destination of the datagram i.e, indicates the full IP
address of the destination node.

Options-The options field gives more functionality to the IP datagram. It can carry fields that
control routing, timing, management, and alignment.

Padding- Contains filler information to ensure that the header is a multiple of 32 bits. The
size of the padding field may vary.
Data- includes the data originally sent by the source node, plus TCP information.

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP)
- TCP belongs to the Transport layer of both the OSI model and the TCP/IP model.
- it is a connection oriented subprotocol that provides reliable data delivery services.
- it sits on top of the IP subprotocol and compensate for IPs reliability deficiencies by
providing checksum, flow control and sequencing information.
- the fields of the TCP segment are:-
(i) Source Port- indicates the part at the source nodes. A part to the address on a most
where an application makes itself available to incoming data, eg port 60, used to
accept web page requests.
(ii) Destination Port-
(iii) Sequence number-identifies the data segments position in the stream of data
segments sent.
(iv) Acknowledgment number(ACK) - confirms receipt of the data via a return message

(v) TCP header length-
(vi) Codes- include flags that signal special conditions, eg, urgent message, connection
(vii) request or request for connection termination.
(viii) Sliding- window size- indicates how blocks of data the receiving machine can accept
(ix) Checksum- allows the receiving node to determine whether the TCP segment
become corrupted on transmission.
(x) Urgent pointer- can indicate a location in the data where urgent data resides.
(xi) Options- specifies special options
(xii) Paddy- contains filler information to ensure the TCP header size is a multiple of 32
bits.
(xiii) Data- contains data originally sent by the source node.

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
-sits in the Transport layer of the TCP/IP model
-UDP is a connectionless transport service.
- it does not guarantee that packets will be received in sequence or even received at all.
- it is useful in situations in which data must be transferred quickly, such as live audio or
video transmissions over the Internet.

UDP header contains only four fields:
- Source port, destination port, length and checksum.




IP ADDRESSING
An IP address- identifies the connection of a host to its network.
- It consist of four bytes(32) i.e. octets separated by periods
- The octets define three fields:
I) Class type
II) Netid
III) Hostid
IP addresses are assigned to interfaces such as modems, routers or internet cards and not
to the host computer.

CLASSES
An address class is a field length pattern designed to organize networks according to
sizes in order to meet the needs (for varying network sizes) of different types of
organizations
There are five classes of IP addresses:
A to E class A addresses are numerically the lowest. One byte is used to identify the class
type and netid, while three bytes remaining are for hosted numbers. These class A networks
can accommodate far more hostid than class B or class C networks, which has two- and
one byte hostid fields respectively, classes A and B are currently full. Only class C is reliable
for addresses.
Class D is reserved for multicast addresses class E addresses are reserved for future use.
Multicasting allows copies of a datagram to be passed to a select group of hosts rather than
to an individual host. On the other hand, broadcasting requires that a packet be passed to
all possible destinations on a network.

Although eight 98) bits have 256 possible combinations, some combinations cannot be used
to assign addresses to a network node. e g IP addresses 0.0.0.0 and 255, 255, 255, are
reserved for identifying the default network over which a packet should be routed and for
broadcasts, respectively.

IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRESSES CLASSES

Network class Beginning octet No of Network Host address per network
A 1-126 126 16,777.214
B 128-191 16,000 65,534
C 192-223 2,000,000 254

NOTE: 127 is not a valid first octet for an IP addresses assigned to a network node the
range of addresses that begin with 127 is reserved for loopback information the IP
addresses 127.0.0.1 is called a loopback addresses contacting the IP number will establish
a running with your own machine (useful for troubleshooting problems with a workstations
TCP/IP communications.

Example of class addresses

Class IP Addresses

A 01111011 10001111 11111100 11001111
B 10011101 10001111 11111100 11001111
C 11011101 10001111 11111100 11001111
D 11101011 10001111 11111100 11001111
E 11110101 10001111 11111100 11001111







8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
Byte 1 byte 2 byte 3 byte 4

Class A 0 Netid Hostid
Class B 10 Netid Hostid
Class C 110 Netid Hostid
Class D 1110 Multicast Address
Class E 1111 Reserved for future use

Dotted Decimal Notation
Is used to make the 32 bit addresses from shooter and easier to read. It is the decimal form of the
IP addresses, with decimal points separating the bytes

Example:

10000000 00001011 00000011 00011111
128 . 11 . 3 . 31


To convert an IP addresses to its dotted decimal rotation, convert each byte (i.e 8 bits) to a decimal
number between 0 and 255 e.g
76543210 76543210 76543210 76543210
10011101 10001111 11111100 11001111
157
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
128+0+0+16+8+4+0+1=157 (i.e., 2+0+0+2+2+2+0+2)
128+0+0+0+8+4+2+1=143
128+64+32+16+8+4+0+0=252
128+64+0+0+8+4+2+1=207

= 157.143.252.207

SUBNETTING
The total number of addresses that are available for use on a network is called the addresses
space. Subnetting to the process of splitting a network portion of an IP addresses allowing an
administrator for partition or divide a network without having to use a new addresses for each
network partition
An Ip address is 32 bits long and is divided into two portions a network portion which indicates the
network (netid) and a host portion which indicates the host (or router) on the network (hosted). To
reach a host on the internet, we must first reach the network using the netid; then use the host by
using the hosted. Classes A,B, and C in IP addressing are designed with two levels of hierarchy.

Two level hierarchical addressing implies that one physical network may exist. For example an
organization with a class B address is limited to two levels of hierarchy. As such , the host cannot
be organized into groups, and all of the host are at the same level. The organization has one
network with many host. The solution to this problem is subnetting the further division of a
network into smaller networks called subnetworks. When a network is subnetted, the rest of the
internet is oblivious of it. The subnetworks appear as a single network to the rest of the internet, but
the router connecting the subnets to the internet knows that the network with the netid 141.14 (for
example) is physically divided into smaller networks and that the last two octet define the subnetid
and hosted (e.g 2.21) where 2 is the subnetid and 21 is the hostid.

Three Levels of Hierarchy
Adding subnetworks creates an intermediate level of hierarchy in the IP addressing system. The
network now has three levels: netid, subnetid, and hosted the first level the netid, defines the site
the second- subnetid, defines the physical subnetwork. The third level- the hosted, defines the
connection of the host to the subnetwork.






Example
a. Address in a network without subnetting
141.14. 2.21

Netid Hostid


b. . . Address in a network
Netid subnetid Hostid with subnetting


Subnetwork Access Host Access


In case (b) , routing of an IP datagram. Involves three steps i.e delivery to the site, delivery to the
subnetwork and delivery to the host.

MASKING
Is a process that extracts the address of the physical network from an IP address. In a case where
there is no subnetting, masking extracts the network address from the IP address. If the network is
subnetted, masking extract the subnetwork address from an IP address.

Example of masks without subnetting and with subnetting.
(a) Masking without subnetting

141.14.2.21 141.14.0.0

IP address Network Address

(b) Masking with subnetting

141.14.2.21 141.14.2.0

IP Address Subnetwork Address

As seen above, masking applies to both networks- whether subnetworks (subnetted) or a single
network (unsubnetted)

141.14 2

2
1
Mask
255.225.0.0



255.255.0
FINDING THE SUBNEWORK ADDRESS
There are two types of masking
(a) Boundary level masking and
(b) Non-boundary level masking
Generally, to find the subnetwork address, apply the mask to the IP address.
Rules for Boundary-Level Masking
If the masking is at boundary level (the mask numbers are either 255 or 0) follow the simple rules
below:
1. The bytes in the IP address that correspond to 255 in the mask will be repeated in the
subnetwork address
2. The bytes in the IP address that correspond to 0 in the mask will change to 0 in the
subnetwork address.

Example

1. IP address 45 . 23 . 21 . 8
Mask 255 . 255 . 0 . 0
Subnetwork 45 . 23 . 0 . 0
Address

2. IP address 173 . 23 . 21 . 0
Mask 255 . 255 . 255 . 0
Subnetwork 173 . 23 . 21 . 0
Address

Non-boundary-Level Mask:
This is a mask where the mask numbers are not just 255 or 0. Finding the subnetwork address
involves using the bit-wise AND operator. Three rules are required and followed.
1. The bytes in IP address that correspond is 255 in the mask will be repeated in the
subnetwork address.

2. The bytes in the IP address that correspond to 0 in the network will change to 0 in the
subnetwork address.
3. For other bytes, use the bit wise AND operator.

Example

1. IP address 45 . 123 . 21 . 8
Mask 225 . 192 . 0 . 0
Subnetwork 45 . 64 . 9 . 0
Address

Note
In the above example, three bytes are easy to determine (following the rules); but the second byte
needs a bit-wise AND operation. The bit-wise AND operation requires that, if two bits are both 1s,
the result is 1, otherwise, the result is 0.
So, we convert the decimals (i.e. 123 and 192) to binary, then we AND them convert the result
back to decimal.

Example: Applying the bit-wise AND operation

123 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
192 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
64 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0


2. IP address 201 . 35 . 61 . 37
Mask 255 . 255 . 255 . 240
Subnetwork 201 . 35 . 61 . 32
Address

We need the bit-wise AND operation for last octet

37 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
240 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
32 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0





Exercise

1. Find the class of the IP address below and convert them from binary notation to dotted
decimal notation

a) 01111111 11110000 01100111 01111101
b) 10101111 11000000 11110000 00011101
c) 11011111 10110000 00011111 01011101
d) 11101111 11110111 11000111 00011101
e) 11110111 11110011 10000111 11011101

2. Find the netid and the hosted of the IP address below: indicate the class also
a) 129 . 14 . 6 . 8

b) 19 .34 .21. 8

c) 190 . 12 . 67 . 9

d) 220 . 34 . 8 . 12

3. Find the subnetwork address for the following

a) IP address: 125.34.12.56. mask: 255.255.0.0
b) IP address: 141.181.14.16 Mask: 255.255.224.0
c) IP address: 200.34.22.156 Mask 255.255.255.240

4. Show the bit pattern of the mask below used in class C network
255.255.192.0, 255.255.255.0

POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL (PPP) OVERVIEW

The Point0to0Point Protocol (PPP) was designed for users who need to connect to a computer
system through a telephone line PPP helps to control and manage the transfer of data.

Point to-Point physical link





The Point-to-Point overcomes the deficiencies of the Serial line Internet Protocols (SLIP) which
was the first protocol devised for point to point link. PPP supports protocols other than Internet
Protocol (IP), allows IP address to be assigned dynamically. And also supports authentication of
the users.

A PPP connection goes through fire phases: idle, establishing, authenticating, networking, and
terminating. A transition state diagram describes the various phases.
(i) Idle state- means the link is not being need there is no active carrier and the line is
quiet.


Transition state
Data Carrier



Drop Carrier




Fail








(ii) Establishing state- The connection goes into establishing state when one of the end
points starts to communicate. In the state, options are negotiated between the two
parties. If the negotiation is successful, the system goes to the authenticating state( if
required) or directly to the networking state.

(iii) Authenticating state- Is optimal, the two end points may during the establishing state,
decides not to go through authentication otherwise, they send several authenticating
packets, if authentication, is successful the connecting goes to the networking state, else
it terminates.

Idle
Establishing
(link)





Authentication
Terminating
(Link)
Networking
(Exchanging user
data and control)
(iv) Networking state- Is the heart of then transition states,. The exchange of user control
and data packets starts and remains in this state until one of the end points signals to
terminate the connection.

(v) Terminating state- When the connection is in the terminating state, several packets are
exchanged between the two ends for house cleansing and closing the link.

Point-to-Point Layers
PPP operates only at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model. At the physical layer, PPP
supports any of the protocols recognized by ANSI. The implementer chooses/uses whatever is
available.
At the data link layer, PPP employs a version of HDLC (High Level Data Control)

Format of a PPP frame.






flaf

1byte 1byte 1byte 1or2byte variable 2or4byte 1byte

Description of fields:

i. Flag field- identifies the boundaries of a PPP frame. Its value is 01111110.

ii. Address field- since PPP is used for a point-to-point connection; it uses the broadcast
address of HDLC, 11111111, to avoid a data link address in the protocol.

Flag Address Control Protocol Data & Padding FCS Flag
11111111 11100000
iii. Control field- uses the format of the u-frame in HDLC. The value is 11000000 to indicate
that the frame does not contain any sequence numbers and that there is no flow and
error control.

iv. Protocol field-defines what is being carried in the data field: user data or other
information.
v. Data field- carries the user data or other information.

vi. Frame check sequence(FCS)-the FCS field, as in HDLC, is simply a two-byte or four
byte
CRC

LINK CONTROL PROTOCOL (LCP)
The link control protocol is responsible for establishing, maintaining configurating and terminating
links and also provides negotiation mechanisms to set options between the two ends point. LCP
packets are use for this purpose. All LCP packets are carried in the payload field of the PPP frame.
The value of the protocol field (which should be set to CO21), defined a frame as carrying an LCP
packet. LCP packet encapsulated in a frame.
1byte 1byte 2bytes variable
LCP
Packet

(and



Code ID Length information for some LCP packets
Flag Address Control Protocol Pay load FCS Flag
(and padding
Co21
16

DISCRIPTION OF THE FIELDS OF THE LCP PACKET
CODE Defines the type of LCP packet.
ID FIELD - Hold a value used to match a request with the reply. One end point insert a
value in this field, which will copied in the reply packet.
LENGTH Defines the length of the LCP packet.
INFORMATION- Contains extra information needed for some LCP packets.

TYPES OF LCP PACKETS.
1. CONFIGURATION PACKETS- Used to negotiate the options between the two ends.
Four different packs are used for this purpose :-
(a) CONFIGURE -REQUEST: - A configuration request is sent with a list of zero or
more options by the end that wishes to start a connection to the other end point.
(b) CONFIGURE - ACK- If all of the option listed in the configure request packet are
accepted by receiving end, it will send a configure ACK, which repeat all the
requested options.
(c) CONFIGURATION NAK: - This packet is sent if the receiver of the configure
request, packet recognize all the option but find that some should be omitted
revised. The changes are made and totally new, configure request packet is
resent.
(d) CONFIGURE REJECT Is sent if some options of some configure request are
not recognized by the receiving part. Request sender revises the configure
request message and send a one.
2. LINK TERMINATION PACKETS:- Are used to disconnect the link between two end
points.

(a) TERMINATE REQUEST:- Can be sent by either end.
(b) TERMINATE ACK:- response sent by a party that receives the terminate
request packet.
3. LINK MONITORING AND DEBAGGING PACKETS.
(a) CODE REJECT:- Sent if the end point receives a packet with an unrecognized code.
(b) PROTOCOL REJECT:- Sent if the end point receives a packet with an unrecognized
protocol in the frame.
(c) ECHO REQUEST:- Is sent to monitor the link, to see if the link is functioning . Sender
expects an echo- reply packet from the other side.
(d) ECHO REPLY: - Response to an echo request. The information field in the echo request
is duplicated and send back to the sender as proof that link is functioning.
(e) DISCARD REQUEST: - Is a kind of loopback test packet. Used by the sender to check it
own loopback condition, Receiver of the packet just discard it.
AUTHENTICATION
Authentication means the validity of a user who needs to access a set of resources. It is important
because PPP is design for use over dial up links where user verification is very necessary. PPP
has two protocols for verification:-
I) Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
II) Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol CHAP)
PAP
Is a simple authentication procedure with a two step process:-
(i) Users who want to access a system sends an authentication identification (Usually the user
name) and a password.

(ii) System check the validity of the identification and password and either accept or denies
connection.
PAP packets are encapsulated in a PPP frame. The value of the protocol field of a PPP frame
carrying a PAP packet is CO23. There are three PAP packets:-
Authentication Request
Authentication ACK
Authentication NACK
CHAP
Is a three way handshaking authentication protocol. It provide more security than PAP because the
password is kept secret and never sent online.
- System sends a challenge packet containing a challenge value, usually a few bytes, to the
user.
- User applies a pre-defined function that takes the challenge value and the user own
password and creates a result. User sends the result in the response packet to the system.
- System applies same function to the users password (know to the system) and challenge
value to create a result. If result is same as that sent by the user, access is granted,
otherwise, it is denied.







User
Point-to-Point link


Challenge Packet


Response Packet


Success or failure Packet


CHAP PACKETS: - Are encapsulate in the PPP frame and is distinguished from other packets by
the value of the protocol field, C223. There are four CHAP packets:-
i) Challenge
ii) Response
iii) Failure
NETWORK CONTROL PROTOCOL (NCP)
After successful link establishment and authentication the connection goes to the networking state.
PPP uses network control protocol (NCP) in the networking state, NCP is a set of control protocol
to allow the encapsulation of data coming from network layer protocol (such as IP, IPX, and Apple
talk) in the PPP frame.
Internetwork Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP)
Challenge value
Response and name
Accept or reject
Is the set of packets that establish and terminate a network layer connection for IP packets. IPCP
is encapsulated in a PPP frame with the value of the protocol as 802116 distinguishing it as IPCP
packet.

NETWORK TRANSMISSION METHODS
a. INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN) Integrated Service Digital Network
(ISDN) is a set of protocols that combines digital telephony and data transport services. It
was developed by ITU-T in 1976, and the idea is to digitize the telephone network to permit
the transmission of audio, video and text over telephone lines. Thus, the goal of ISDN is to
form a wide area network that provides universal end-to-end connectivity over digital media,
by integrating all of the separate transmission services into one without adding new links or
subscriber lines it is an effort to
- Standardize subscriber service.
- Provide user/network interfaces, and
- Facilitate the internetworking capabilities of existing voice and data networks.

SERVICES
There are three categories of services by which ISDN fulfils its purpose of providing fully integrated
digital services to users:
(i) Bearer Services
(ii) Teleservices and
(iii) Supplementary services.
Bearer Services- provide the means to transfer of information (voice data and video) between
users without the network manipulating the content of that information since the network does not
need to process the information.
Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model, are well defined in the ISDN and
can be provided using circuit-switched, packet switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched
networks.
Teleservices- rely on the facilities of the bearer services and are designed to accommodate
complex user needs while shielding the user from details of the process.
These services correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model. In teleservicing, the network may
change or process the data contacts. Teleservices include telephony, teletex, telefax, videotext,
telex, and video conferencing.

Supplementary Services- are services that provide additional functionality to bearer services and
teleservices. Example is reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling.

ISDN relies on the Public switched Telephone Network (PSTN), and its connections may be dial-up
or dedicated in a dial-up connection, ISDN users dial their telecommunications providers network
from an ISDN modem (like dialing an ISPs network from a computers modem),. A dedicated
connection is one that is always available to transmit or receive data.

ISDN is distinguished from a simple telephone line by the fact that it exclusively uses digital
signaling, and can carry data and voice signals at once. ISDN lines may carry up to two voice calls
and one data connection simultaneously. Due to this ability, the need to pay for separate phone
lines to support faxes, modem, and voice calls at one location, is eliminated. When used for
telephone calls, ISDN offers the advantage of much quicker dialing and call completion.

Subscriber Access to the ISDN
ISDN connections are based on two types of channels: bearer channels and Data channels.

B-Channels
A bearer (B channel) employs circuit-switching techniques to carry digitized data (e.g video, voice,
etc) in full duplex mode over the ISDN connections and at a maximum through put (or transmission
rate) of 64kbps. Several transmission can be accommodated at once 4 the signals are first
multiplexed and destined for one recipient A B- channel carries transmission end-to-end and
cannot demultiplex a stream midway-so as to serve multiple recipients.
D Channel
A data channel uses packet switching techniques to carry contact signaling for the B channels.
Control information carried includes session initiation and termination signals, caller identity, call
forwarding, and conferencing calling signals. A single D channel has throughput (maximum) of 16
kbps or 64kbps and each ISDN connection uses only one D channel. Separating the control
signals (D channels) from the information signals (B channels) has the advantage of enabling ISDN
to transmit voice and data signals more efficiently than a regular telephone line.

User Interfaces
There are two types of commonly used ISDN connections: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary
Rate Interface (PRI)
BRI (Basic Rate Interface)
BRI uses two B channels and one 16kbps D channels as indicated by the notation= 2B+D the two
B channels are treated as separate connection by the network and can carry voice and data or two
data streams simultaneously and separate from each other. The maximum amount of data traffic a
BRI connection can accommodate is 12 kbps. This is achieved through a process called bonding
by which two B channels are combined to achieve an effective throughput of 12kbps. BRI is the
most economical ISDN connection type so most subscribers use it.


PRI (Primary Rate Interface)
Uses 23 B channels and one 64 kbps D channels as represented by the notation: 23 B+D. PRI to
more commonly used by business and organizations that need more throughput.
PRI and BRI connections may be interconnected on a single on a single network. PRI links use the
same kind of equipment as BRI lines, but require the service of an extra network termination
device, called a Network Termination 2 (NT2), to handle the multiple ISDN lines.
One disadvantage of the ISDN is that it can span a distance of only 18,000 feet before repeater
equipment is needed to boost the signal.

b. X.25 (AND FRAME RELAY)
X.25 is a set of protocols designed for long-distance data transmission and standardized by
the ITU in the mid-1970s. It describes a packet-switched, analog networking technology
designed to supply data transmission over the PSTN. The original standard for x.25
specified a maximum throughput of 64 kbps. But by 1992, he standard was updated to
include maximum throughput of 2.045Mbps. X.25 ensures data reliability over long distance
by verifying the transmission at every node.
However, thus verification renders X.25 slow and unsuitable for time-sensitive applications,
such as audio or video.

c. FRAME RELAY
WAN technologies such as T-lines or X.25 did not respond adequately to the needs of the
user. Users were looking for higher data rates, efficient handling of bursty data
transmissions, lower cost, and less overhead.
Frame relay is an updated digital version of X.25 that relies on packet switching. It supports
higher bandwidth than X .25 (because it is digital), offering a maximum of 45 Mbps
throughput.
Frame Relay provides low-level (physical and data link layer) service in response to the
following user demands.

i) Higher Data Rate Lower Cost: most organizations use high speed LANs and want to
use WANs to connect these LANs. T-lines provide only point-t-point (not many to
many) connection except to create a mesh network out of T-lines which is very
expensive. Frame Relay provides the same type of service at lower cost i.e use
WANs to connect six LANs, 15 T-lines is needed, but only six T-lines will be enough
to connect the same six LANs to a frame relay.

ii) Bursty Data:- some service offered by WAN provides assume that the user has a
fixed rate need. Frame Relay accepts bursty data. Bursty data requires bandwidth on
demand. The user needs different bandwidth allocations at different times. With
frame Relay, a user is granted an average data rate that can be exceeded during
bursty periods.

iii) Less Overhead Due to Improved Transmission Media
Frame Relay does not provide error checking or requires acknowledgement in the
data links layer, as does X.25. Instead all error checking is left to the protocols at the
network and transport layers which use the services of Frame Relay and many data
link operations are eliminated while others combined.
Instead of the extensive traffic ofX.25 and its much overhead that eats up bandwidth
due to error checking form station to station and source to receives, and the
requirement that each station keep a copy of the frame in its storage while it awaits
acknowledgement from the receiving station, Frame Relay has a simplified
transmission.

Role of Frame Relay
Frame Relay can be used as a low-cost high speed backbone wide area network to connect local
area networks that do not need real-time communication but may have bursty data to send. Also
presently, Frame Relay provides both permanent and suitable connection pays on a leased basis
while a user who needs a switched connection pays on a used basis.

Advantages
Frame Relay has some advantages over comparable WANs such as X.25 and T-lines.
i) It operates at a higher speed (1.544 Mbps to 45Mbps) and so can be easily used instead
of a mesh of T-1 or T-3 lines.
ii) It operates in only the physical and data link layers to provide services to protocols that
already have a network layer protocol, (avoiding duplication) e.g if TCP/IP wants to use
the services of Frame Relay, TCP.IP uses its own network layer and Frame Relay
provides services at the physical and data link layers. With X.25 there is a duplication in
the network layer functions.

iii) Frame Relay allows bursty data users do not have to adhere to a fixed data rate as in the
case of X.25 or T-lines.

iv) It allows a frame size of 9000 bytes, which can accommodate all local area network
frames.

v) Frame Relay is less expensive than other traditional WAN.


Disadvantages
i) Its speed or date rate is lower than some protocols like Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN)
ii) Frame Relay allows variable length frames which may create varying delays for different
users. Both large and small frames are stored in the same queue if they are going out
the same interface. Where a small frame follows a large one the small frame suffers
more delay: thus users of small frames are punished.
iii) Because of the varying delays, which are beyond users control, Frame Relay is not
suitable for sending delay sensitive data such as real-time voice or video. Example it is
unsuitable for teleconferencing