PV HasAnythingChanged

Exploring identity, inclusion and citizenship 46 The Critical Thinking Consortium
Required Resources
Activity sheets
Evidence of continuity and change Blackline Master #62
Key indicators of continuity and change Blackline Master #80
Summary of continuity and change Blackline Master #81
Progress on inclusion Blackline Master #82
Brieng sheets
Glossary Blackline Master #1
Understanding continuity and change Blackline Master #61
Aboriginal indicators:
Social-cultural inclusion Blackline Master #64
Political-legal inclusion Blackline Master #65
Economic-class inclusion Blackline Master #66
Chinese indicators:
Chinese indicators:
Chinese indicators:
European indicators:
Japanese indicators:
South Asian indicators:
Citizenship and identity in Canada Blackline Master #79
Assessment rubrics
Assessing individual contributions Blackline Master #15
Assessing student assessments Blackline Master #16
Assessing continuity and change Blackline Master #63
Assessing progress Blackline Master #83
Suggested Activities
criteria met by an
inclusive society
Review understanding
of inclusion
Pre-planning
1. This lesson presupposes that students have completed Critical Challenge
#1, in which they assessed the degree of social, political, and economic
inclusion of the fve featured groups in mainstream society at the turn of
the twentieth century. It will help if students have also completed Critical
Challenges #2 and #4.
2. Review the comments in the pre-planning section of Critical Challenge
#1 regarding assigning students to teams, involving students in peer- and
self-assessment, and making use of the glossary.
Session One: Examine inclusion in contemporary Canada
1. As a class, review the term inclusion (see Glossary, Blackline Master
#1AB) and draw out three key elements of an inclusive society:
ensures that people have access to rights,
benefits, and opportunities, including
property ownership, citizenship rights,
equality of economic opportunities, and
political and religious freedom;
welcomes diversity, respects individu-
als and groups who are different from
the mainstream, and does not require
them to integrate or assimilatethey
can choose to be different;
removes barriers to equality and
works proactively to remove
systemic barriers to the effec-
tive participation of individuals
or groups and, in so doing,
promotes equality of oppor-
tunity.
Discuss the implications of
each of these criteria in the context
of what an inclusive and non-inclusive classroom
would look like. Remind students of the activities they com-
pleted in the opening session of Critical Challenge #1 to explore the
inclusive nature of contemporary Canada. Discuss what inclusion looks
like in social-cultural, political-legal, and economic-class terms.
2. Explain that the class will now look more closely at a range of contempo-
rary social, political, and economic indicators for fve groups: Aboriginal,
Chinese, European, Japanese, and South Asian. The objective is to deter-
mine to what extent (if at all) and in what ways Canada has become a more
inclusive society for each of these groups in the past one hundred years.
In making assessments of this kind it is important to avoid accentuating
either the differences or the similarities between the two periods. Use the
Ensure necessary
background knowledge
Review earlier pre-
planning comments
Introduce the task
continuity
and change
Exploring identity, inclusion and citizenship
66
The Critical Thinking Consortium
1
A
G
lo
ssary
Aboriginal
Aboriginal describes people who lived in a place prior
to colonial occupation; in Canada, Aboriginal is used to
refer to First Nations, Inuit, and Mtis.
agency
Exerting power or inf uence to achieve an end. A means
of control over one`s actions and/or surroundings to effect
change.
assimilation In the case of cultural groups, the process whereby a
minority group takes on the practices, customs, and
attitudes of the majority culture. Assimilation may be
voluntary, or it may be imposed upon groups wishing to
maintain their own ways of life. citizenship
A person is a citizen of a country with political boundaries
and as such has certain rights, powers, and privileges as
well as obligations, duties, and liabilities.
Continuous Journey Order-in-Council
To stop immigration from India, the Canadian government
created a regulation that required immigrants to purchase
a single ticket for travel. At that time, no shipping line
sailed directly from India to Canada without stopping
along the way in the Far East (at places such as Hong
Kong). The government also told shipping companies
not to issue through tickets (tickets for one continuous
journey in two stages). This, in effect, stif ed South Asian
immigration to Canada.
discrimination Any action or behaviour that causes a person to be treated
in an unfair, hurtful, or in a way that is different from the
way others are treated. People may discriminate because
they have a prejudice against someone or because they
hold stereotypical ideas about a group.
genocide
The deliberate and systematic destruction of an ethnic,
racial, religious, or national group. Cultural genocide
refers to the destruction of the cultural life of a group,
but not necessarily the death of its people.
identity
How persons or groups come to def ne themselves as
unique entities and also in relation to others. This may
also include collective aspects-characteristics by which
an individual is recognizable as a member of a group.
immigrant
Someone who leaves their homeland to come to a new
place or country to settle. Immigrants may be motivated
by push factors -negative conditions that cause them to
want to leave their original home,or pull factors-positive
features that attract them to their new homeland.
inclusive society An inclusive society is one where various groups are
respected and accepted by each other, and share relatively
equal access to rights and opportunities, including
property ownership, citizenship rights, equality, and
economic, political, and religious freedom. An inclusive
society welcomes various groups but does not require
integration-individuals and groups are allowed to be
different. Inclusive societies work proactively to remove
systemic barriers to the effective participation of an
individual or group and, in so doing, promote equality
of opportunity.
ideas on Understanding continuity and change (Blackline Master #61) as
speaking notes to encourage students to attend to both what has changed
and what has remained the same when making their comparisons.
3. Assign students to teams representing the fve featured groups. We recom-
mend assigning students to different cultural groups than those they have
previously adopted. If you re-assign student teams, allow the teams time
to get together to discuss the most important things they learned about
their respective groups in the previous challenges.
4. Refer students to the conclusions reached in Critical Challenge #1 about
the level of inclusion of their newly assigned featured group around the
turn of the twentieth century. Direct students to confer with the appropriate
team and to consult their own notes particularly on the completed copies
of the following charts:
Evidence of inclusion (Blackline Master #10)
Summary of evidence (Blackline Master #12)
Report card on inclusion (Blackline Master #14).
Other useful pieces of historical information may be found on Overview
of government responses (Blackline Master #49). In addition, if students
have not already examined the timeline and backgrounder for each fea-
tured group found on Blackline Masters #1928, it may be worthwhile
providing relevant copies of these to each team member.
5. Distribute a copy of Evidence of continuity and change (Blackline Mas-
ter #62) and Assessing continuity and change
(Blackline Master #63). Explain that students
will be given briefng sheets containing a
sampling of indicators of inclusion and non-
inclusion of their assigned group in contem-
porary Canada (within the last twenty-fve
years or so). They are to select an event
or piece of information from these con-
temporary briefng sheets, for example,
the formal apology in 1988 to the
Japanese people for loss of property
arising from their internment during
World War II. Students would record
this information in column one of
Blackline Master # 62, and then
review the historical information
they have on the Japanese in the
early 1900s looking for a parallel
example. Perhaps the compensa-
tion in 1908 offered by the King
Commission for damages from
the Vancouver riots could be se-
lected and recorded in column
2. Students would then indicate
whether these two events were evidence of
relative continuity or a change in the level of inclusion.
138
6
2

E
vid
en
ce o
f co
n
tin
u
ity an
d
ch
an
ge
Social-cultural
Political-legal
Economic-class

++
+
+/-
-
- -

Much more
A little more
Mixed impact
A little more
Much more

inclusive
inclusive

non-inclusive
non-inclusive

Contemporary
Comparable historical
Implications and explanation

examples/evidence
examples/evidence
for continuity or change

indicates continuity

indicates change

++ + +/-


indicates change

++ + +/-


indicates change

++ + +/-


indicates change

++ + +/-


indicates change

++ + +/-
Review historical
assessments
of inclusion
knowledge of
historical inclusion
Explain the procedure
comparison chart
139
Outstanding
Well developed
Competent
Underdeveloped
Accurately identi es important contemporary
examples
Accurately identi es
the most important
examples of contemporary inclusion
and non-inclusion.
some of the important
examples of inclusion
and non-inclusion.
some examples
of inclusion and
non-inclusion, but
important examples are
missing or inaccurate.
Identi es very few
examples accurately
of inclusion and non-
inclusion that are
important
Comments/explanation for rating
Accurately identi es comparable historical examples
a highly relevant
historical example for
each contemporary
instance of inclusion
and non-inclusion.
Almost always
accurately identi es
a relevant historical
example for each
contemporary instance
inclusion.
In many cases,
identi es a relevant
each contemporary
and non-inclusion, but
important parallels are
Identi es very few
relevant historical
examples for any
contemporary instances
inclusion.
Correctly classi es indicators of
continuity and
change
Correctly classi es
examples/ evidence as
indicators of continuity
or change between the
two time periods.
Correctly classi es most
two time periods.
Correctly classi es many
two time periods, but
important errors are
evident.
Incorrectly classi es
most examples/
evidence as indicators
of continuity or change
between the two time
periods.
Offers
plausible explanations
for the ratings
Offers very plausible
explanations for all of
the assigned ratings on
the extent of change.
Offers plausible
explanations for most
of the assigned ratings
on the extent of
change.
Offers plausible
explanations for many
on the extent of
change.
Offers no plausible
on the extent of
change.
6
3

A
ssessin
g co
n
tin
u
ity an
d
ch
an
ge
Name: ________________________________________________________________________________
Student assessor: ___________________________________________________________________
Organize the
student teams
If a change, students would rate the difference on a scale from much
more inclusion (++) to much less inclusion (--). Illustrate the procedure
for completing Blackline Master #62 with the following examples. As
well, review the criteria that will be used to assess this assignment using
the rubric on Blackline Master #63.
Contemporary Comparable historical Implications and
examples/evidence examples/evidence explanation for
continuity or change
In 1988, Prime Minister King Commission awards o indicates continuity
Mulroney awards compensation in 1908 o indicates change
$21,000 to each to Japanese ($9,000) ++ + +/-
eligible Japanese and Chinese ($26,000) Minority groups in both
Canadian who suffered victims of the riots in periods that were
losses during Vancouver. unfairly treated are
internment. given compensation for
the damages caused.
According to the 2006 In 1909, the Immigration o indicates continuity
census, recent immi- Act is changed to o indicates change
grants born in Asia prevent immigration by ++ + +/-
make up the largest people belonging to any The signicant
proportion (58%) of race deemed unsuited to percentage of current
newcomers to Canada. the climate or require- immigration from Asia
Newcomers born in ments of Canada. relative to Europe
Europe make up the suggests that ofcial
second largest group policy has changed
(16%). greatly.
6. Distribute the appropriate copies of the indicators of inclusion to the re-
spective teams (Backline Masters #6478). Each team should receive a set
of three briefng sheets, addressing contemporary
indicators for social-cultural, political-legal,
and economic-class inclusion of its assigned
cultural group. Direct students within each
team to work on one of these areas or ask the
team to work collectively on all three areas.
Suggest to students that they select at least
fve important examples of contemporary
inclusion (these need not be taken solely
from the supplied briefng sheets) that
they can match with a parallel histori-
cal example. Encourage students to go
beyond the historical information they
have already collected and conduct
their own research on the internet
for additional historical evidence
of inclusion and non-inclusion.
Provide additional copies of
Blackline Master #62 if you
want students to provide more
than fve paired contemporary and
historical examples of inclusion.
Analyze the
contemporary examples
knowledge of the
current situation
140
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4

A
b
o
rigin
al in
d
icato
rs:

S
o
cial-cu
ltu
ral in
clu
sio
n
In 1993, the First Nations House of Learning opened a
new longhouse and a library as part of the continuing
development of First Nations education at the University
of British Columbia. In 2005, the Xwi7xwa (pronounced
whei-wha) Library became a new branch of the UBC
Library.
In 1998, an Indian and Northern Affairs Canada study
reported that First Nations living conditions or quality of
life ranks 63rd among Third World conditions. Primarily
due to housing and health conditions in First Nations
communities, Canada dropped from f rst to eighth as the
best country in the world to live.
In 2001, the Aboriginal population of about 1,066,500
represented 3.4% of Canada`s total population. However,
previous censuses show that the Aboriginal population
is growing much faster than the total population. The
Aboriginal population is expected to grow at an average
annual rate of more than twice the rate of for the general
population. Forecasts predict that by 2017 Aboriginals will
represent 4% of the total population.
In 2003, Health Canada stated that as of May of that year,
12% of First Nations communities in Canada had to boil
their drinking water and approximately 25% of water
treatment systems on-reserve pose a high risk to human
health.
In 2004, Health Canada reported that the First Nations
suicide rate is more than twice the overall Canadian rate.
Suicide is now among the leading causes of death among
First Nations youths between the ages of 10 and 24, a rate
estimated to be f ve to six times higher than that among
non-Aboriginal youths. In 2004, the Auditor General reported that there had been
literally no progress over the last four years in closing the
gap in high school graduation rates between First Nations
students and other Canadians. At the current rate, it will
take 28 years before First Nations catch up to the non-
Aboriginal population. It was also reported that about
27% of the First Nations population between 15 and 44
years of age hold a post-secondary certif cate, diploma,
or degree, compared with 46% of the non-aboriginal
Canadian population within the same age group. First
Nations people were not attaining education levels equal
to other Canadians-about 70% of First Nations students
living on-reserve would never complete high school.
In 2006, an Assembly of First Nations Health Bulletin
stated that First Nations women and children are more
at risk of poverty and violence than those in the general
population.
In 2007, Canadian Aboriginal groups held countrywide
protests aimed at ending First Nations poverty.
Demonstrations, known as the Aboriginal Day of Action,
were largely peaceful. However, some groups disrupted
transportation with blockades or bonf res. In Ontario,
demonstrators shut down a section of Highway 401 and
blocked the Canadian National Railway line between
Toronto and Montreal.
In 2007, The Honourable Steven L. Point was sworn-in
as the 28th Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia. He
previously served as an elected Chief of the Skowkale First
Nation and the tribal chair of the St:lo Nation Government
and was honoured as the Grand Chief by the Chiefs of the
St:lo Tribal Council. In 2009, a UNICEF Canada report noted that, although
there have been improvements in the health of Aboriginal
children in recent years, inequalities persist, shown by
higher infant mortality rates, lower child immunization
rates, poorer nutritional status, and endemic rates of
obesity, diabetes, and other chronic diseases. As an
example, the report noted that in Nunavut, where more
than 80% of the population is Inuit, the infant mortality
rate is over three times the national rate and almost equal
to the rate in Sri Lanka and Fiji.
4
4
Assemble evidence
7. OPTIONAL: If you want to extend students
examination of the history of political and
legal inclusion, particularly regarding the
ideas of citizenship and national identity,
distribute a copy of Citizenship and identity
in Canada (Blackline Master #79AC) to
every student. This briefng sheet explores
the shifting legal understandings of these
concepts over the last one hundred
years. Provide students with a copy of
Blackline Master #62. Ask them to look
through the document for indicators
of changes and differences regarding
inclusiveness in the conception of
who citizens are and what it means
to be a Canadian.
Session Two: Assess progress towards an inclusive society
1. Provide class time for students to compile evidence of changes and
similarities in the state of inclusion between early twentieth- and early
twenty-frst-century Canada. When each team has fnished this task, pro-
vide every student with a copy of Key indicators of continuity and change
(Blackline Master #80). Direct each team to assemble the completed
copies of Blackline Master #62 for all three areas (social, political, and
economic) and summarize the most important
examples of change and continuity on this
master sheet. Encourage students to consider
various pieces of evidence to corroborate or
refne their conclusions. Reassure students
that they may not fnd an equal number
of examples of change and continuity in
all dimensions. Invite students to use the
rubric on Blackline Master #63 to assess
other team members charts. If desired,
arrange for team members to assess each
others contributions using Blackline
Master #17. Collect and assess each
teams completed copies of Blackline
Masters #62 and 80, prior to sharing
their fndings with the rest of the
class.
Explore citizenship
and identity
158
7
9
A
C
itizen
sh
ip
an
d
id
en
tity in
C
an
ad
a
What gives Canadians a sense of national identity? Do we
have a sense of identity? Some writers claim that Canada did
not begin to develop a collective sense of identity as Canadians
until Canada`s pivotal battle at Vimy Ridge in World War I.
For the f rst time, Canadian forces fought together under
Canadian command rather than British command as before.
For the f rst time internationally, Canada was viewed
separately from Great Britain. Still, this growing sense of
identity was mostly Anglo-centric, that is, based on the British
heritage that many Canadians at the time had. It wasn`t until
the 1960s that Canada`s sense of identity began to expand to
include French-Canadians more openly and with a greater
sense of acceptance and equality as a 'founding people,
along with First Nations and British Canadians. Some First
Nations might argue that their sense of identity has little or
nothing to do with the developing English/French identities
at this time. Canadian identity became more inclusive when
it adopted multiculturalism as an off cial policy in 1971 and
brought in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982,
adopting the slogan 'Unity in Diversity.
What brings Canadians together? Where do Canadians f nd
unity? Some respond in the negative, saying we are not
Americans but that`s an easy way out and not very helpful.
Some say hockey and the Canadian f ag are the symbols we
can rally around, and some point to Canada`s natural beauty.
What about the arts? Others might say unity is found in the
fundamental fairness we try to achieve in society through
multiculturalism, healthcare, and education. Still others might
claim it is the economic opportunity found in Canada. In
some ways, it may be all of these things together in dynamic
relationships that are constantly shifting. In fact, Canadians
have multiple identities, but perhaps trying to achieve mutual
understanding and respect is most fundamental to what it
means to be Canadian. Identity, very much a social construction, is about how
we see ourselves and how we see others, formed by our
life experiences in relation to others in our families and
communities but also in response to images perceived
at a distance. In addition to nationality as determined by
citizenship, identity is inf uenced by culture, class, and gender
as well as by our interests and intentions. We are not trapped
by our identities since our interests and intentions can lead us
to reinvent ourselves and we can do that as a nation.
But what about race? While culture (or ethnicity) is about
groups sharing common ways of living, race is perceived as
sharing a set of common physical characteristics. Yet current
DNA research shows all people have common physical
characteristics. Now we are asking, 'Is race something
that humans have constructed as opposed to a natural`
occurrence?
How we see racial groups is a matter of social construction and
can potentially lead to stereotyping and discrimination by race.
Thus a racial minority may be stereotyped and discriminated
against on the basis of expected or misunderstood behaviour
perceived from a distance. Ongoing marginalization of this
sort, complete with negative stereotypical media images,
may then affect the behaviour of the marginalized group over
time as it struggles for recognition, acceptance, and fairness.
Members of the group might be seen as troublemakers but
they may really be trying to enter mainstream society, seeking
equality without having to abandon their identities. Rather
than abandoning their own identities, they want to expand
the notion of Canadian identity.
There was a time in Canada`s past when non-European
racial minorities, whether they were born in Canada or not,
could not exercise full rights of citizenship. They did not
have the right to have rights. Race no longer determines
citizenship in Canada, but it once did. Members of racial
minorities might have felt Canadian but could not legally be
fully Canadian in the eyes of mainstream society. That is not
the case today, at least in a legal sense. It is one of Canada`s
greatest accomplishments and yet is still one of its greatest
challenges: to protect the right to be different and yet treat
people with respect, acceptance, and equality under the
law as citizens. This makes Canada a rights-based country
rather than a country based on race, ethnicity, and religion.
Perhaps this is what Canada`s collective national identity is
becoming. It is not just a mosaic but also includes relations
between the tiles.
Who is a Canadian citizen today?
What does it mean to be a citizen? In a technical sense, a
person is a citizen of a country with political boundaries and
as a citizen has the rights, powers, and privileges of citizenship
as well as the obligations, duties, and liabilities of citizenship.
Canadian citizens are persons born in Canada or on Canadian
161
8
0

K
ey in
d
icato
rs o
f co
n
tin
u
ity

an
d
ch
an
ge Names: ________________________________________________________________________________
Featured group: ________________________________________________________________________________

E
x
a
m
p
l e
s
o
f
c
h
a
n
g
e

E
x
a
m
p
l e
s
o
f
c
o
n
t
i n
u
i t
y
Economic or class
Political or legal
Social or cultural
162
8
1

S
u
m
m
ary o
f co
n
tin
u
ity an
d
ch
an
ge
Names: ________________________________________________________________________________

F
e
a
t
u
r
e
d
g
r
o
u
p

C
u
l t
u
r
a
l -
s
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c
i a
l c
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n
t
i n
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i t
y

P
o
l i t
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l -
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l c
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y

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c
o
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m
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l a
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a
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a
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a
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Session Three: Share each teams ndings
1. Arrange for each team to share its fndings with other class members
through an informal presentation that explains key evidence recorded on
Blackline Master #80. Suggest that students:
take about fve minutes to present;
describe only the most important examples of change and continuity
in the state of inclusion for each of the three areas (social-cultural,
political-legal, and economic-class);
clearly articulate and speak at a reasonable pace so other students can
record information during the presentation.
Direct students to make notes about examples
of continuity and change for each vfeatured
group as they listen to the four other student
teams presentations. Distribute a copy of
Summary of continuity and change (Black-
line Master #81) to each student for this
purpose.
2. Before moving to the fnal task, invite
students to use the frst criterion on
Assessing the progress (Blackline
Master #83) to peer-assess the sum-
maries they recorded on Blackline
Master #12. Collect the activity
sheets and scored assessment ru-
brics for review.
3. As a culminating task, perhaps
for homework, ask students
to create a report card on the
progress made by each of the
fve featured groups. Distribute
a copy of Progress on inclusion
(Blackline Master #82). Direct
students to use the information
recorded on Blackline Masters #80
and #81 to assist them in rating the
extent, if any, of greater inclusion
for each group in the three areas
(social-cultural, political-legal, and
economic-class). Direct students
to use the rating scale to assign their letter
grades. A high grade (A) would indicate a high level of
progress, while a low grade (D) would suggest no progress or even
a worsening of levels of inclusion. Review the second and third criteria
on the rubric found on Blackline Master #83 prior to completing the
task. Remind students that groups may experience different levels of
inclusion in various dimensions. After assigning specifc grades and an
Present ndings
to the class
Peer-assess
the ndings
164
Outstanding
Well developed
Competent
Underdeveloped
Identi es examples of
continuity and
change
For each group,
identi es several key
examples of continuity
and change for each of
the three dimensions.
For most groups,
identi es a few key
For most groups,
identi es only obvious
and change for the
three dimensions.
For most groups,
identi es very few
and change for any of
the dimensions.
Provides plausible ratings
All the ratings are
provided and each
rating is highly
plausible.
Almost all the ratings
are provided, and each
rating is plausible.
Most ratings are
provided and are
somewhat plausible.
Many ratings are
missing or implausible.
Justi es overall ratings
Provides several
convincing examples
to support the overall
rating for each group.
Provides a few
generally convincing
examples to support
the overall rating for
most groups.
Provides one or two
relevant, but not
always convincing
examples to support
each group.
Provides almost no
relevant examples to
support the overall
8
3

A
ssessin
g p
ro
gress
Name: ________________________________________________________________________________
163
8
2

P
ro
gress o
n
in
clu
sio
n
Names: ________________________________________________________________________________

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Rate the levels
of progress
rating scale
overall grade for each group, ask students to justify their overall grades
in the space provided. Encourage students to provide specifc evidence
and examples in their rationale.
4. Ask various students to share their fndings from Backline Master #82 with
the rest of the class. Determine whether or not there is consensus about
the progress made for each cultural group. Discuss three questions:
What areas and groups have seen the biggest advances in the inclusive
nature of Canada?
What areas and groups have seen the smallest advances, and perhaps
even diminished inclusion?
What should individuals, agencies, and branches of government do to
make Canada a more inclusive society for all its members?
Evaluation
1. Assess students knowledge of change and continuity in the state of
inclusion of their assigned group as recorded in Evidence of continuity
and change (Blackline Master #62) using the rubric found on Assessing
continuity and change (Blackline Master #63). According to the rubric,
students are assessed on four criteria. A student:
accurately identifes important contemporary examples of inclusion;
accurately identifes comparable historical examples;
correctly classifes indicators of continuity and change;
offers plausible explanations for the ratings.
2. Assess students ability to identify examples of continuity and change
and to assess the degree of progress for other featured groups as recorded
on the Summary of continuity and change (Blackline Master #81) and
Progress on inclusion (Blackline Master #82) using the rubric found on
Assessing the progress (Blackline Master #83). According to the rubric,
the frst assignment is assessed on students ability to accurately identify
key examples of continuity and change for the four groups they did not
research. The second assignment is assessed on two criteria. Students:
provide plausible dimension-specifc and overall ratings for each
featured group;
support the overall rating for each group with specifc evidence and
examples.
3. Assess students ability to work effectively within their teams using the
rubric found in Assessing individual contributions (Blackline Master
#15). According to the rubric, team work is assessed on two criteria. Each
student:
contributes to successful completion of the assigned tasks;
interacts co-operatively to support other team members.
Draw out
lessons learned
Assess knowledge of
the assigned group
Assess understanding of
progress for all groups
Assess individual
student contributions
4. Assess students ability to assess their own work and that of their col-
leagues as recorded on any of the assessment rubrics used in these lessons
using the rubric found on Assessing student assessments (Blackline Master
#16). According to the rubric, student assessments are assessed on three
criteria. Each student:
offers careful and fair assessments;
offers reasonable ratings;
provides thoughtful explanations of all ratings.
Assess peer- and
self- assessments
1A Glossary
Aboriginal
Aboriginal describes people who lived in a place prior
to colonial occupation; in Canada, Aboriginal is used to
refer to First Nations, Inuit, and Mtis.
agency
Exerting power or infuence to achieve an end. A means
of control over ones actions and/or surroundings to effect
change.
assimilation
In the case of cultural groups, the process whereby a
minority group takes on the practices, customs, and
attitudes of the majority culture. Assimilation may be
voluntary, or it may be imposed upon groups wishing to
maintain their own ways of life.
citizenship
A person is a citizen of a country with political boundaries
and as such has certain rights, powers, and privileges as
well as obligations, duties, and liabilities.
Continuous Journey Order-in-Council
To stop immigration from India, the Canadian government
created a regulation that required immigrants to purchase
a single ticket for travel. At that time, no shipping line
sailed directly from India to Canada without stopping
along the way in the Far East (at places such as Hong
Kong). The government also told shipping companies
not to issue through tickets (tickets for one continuous
journey in two stages). This, in effect, stifed South Asian
immigration to Canada.
discrimination
Any action or behaviour that causes a person to be treated
in an unfair, hurtful, or in a way that is different from the
way others are treated. People may discriminate because
they have a prejudice against someone or because they
hold stereotypical ideas about a group.
genocide
The deliberate and systematic destruction of an ethnic,
racial, religious, or national group. Cultural genocide
refers to the destruction of the cultural life of a group,
but not necessarily the death of its people.
identity
How persons or groups come to defne themselves as
unique entities and also in relation to others. This may
also include collective aspectscharacteristics by which
an individual is recognizable as a member of a group.
immigrant
Someone who leaves their homeland to come to a new
place or country to settle. Immigrants may be motivated
by push factors negative conditions that cause them to
want to leave their original home,or pull factorspositive
features that attract them to their new homeland.
inclusive society
An inclusive society is one where various groups are
respected and accepted by each other, and share relatively
equal access to rights and opportunities, including
property ownership, citizenship rights, equality, and
economic, political, and religious freedom. An inclusive
society welcomes various groups but does not require
integrationindividuals and groups are allowed to be
different. Inclusive societies work proactively to remove
systemic barriers to the effective participation of an
individual or group and, in so doing, promote equality
of opportunity.
internalized racism
Occurs when people who are the target of a particular
form of prejudice are socialized to become victims. People
or communities that confront racism on a daily basis are
under constant stress and attack.
Komagata Maru
This ship arrived in Vancouver harbour on May 23, 1914.
On board were 376 South Asians who wished to immigrate
to Canada. Passengers were refused entry into Canada
because of the Continuous Journey Order-in-Council
(see above). After two months of legal debate, the order
was upheld and the South Asian passengers were forced
to return to India.
migrant workers
These are workers who temporarily but quite regularly
leave their home, whether foreign or domestic, to work
in another geographic region.
Order-in-Council
Order created by Cabinet or a committee of Cabinet and
formally approved by the Governor General. These orders
can be enforced by the courts.
pivotal voices
In the context of this resource, refers to individuals or
groups who are central or key to historical events, and
whose perspective on an event shapes the sense they
make of the event. In this respect the stories or accounts
of events pivot according to the experiences, values
and perceptions of those who are involved. The fve
featured groups examined in this resource (Aboriginal,
Chinese, European, Japanese, South Asian) had differing
perspectives on Canadian society in 1907 because of their
unique points of views and experiences.
prejudice
A set of negative attitudes or beliefs about a group of
people. These preconceived notions are used to justify the
idea that some groups of people, because of their common
traits and characteristics (such as skin colour, economic
class, gender, age, sexual orientation, or religion) are less
worthy than other groups.
racism
A belief, a set of values, an attitude, and/or a group of
assumptions that cause people to construct a negative
stereotype of a group of people based on their racial
background. Race is a social and political construct that
is used to describe not only physical differences, but
differences based on ethnic and cultural background,
place of origin, religion, and other traits. Racism creates
a hierarchy of worthiness, wherein some groups are less
valued or seen to be less important than others and thus less
empowered to direct their lives and infuence society.
non-inclusive society
A society where some groups are excluded from
participating equally in societysometimes physically
separated but also set apart through laws, customs,
opportunities, and other forms of social controland thus
denied the advantages available to others. Non-inclusion
actions can range from forced assimilation to cultural
genocide and from apartheid to ethnic cleansing.
stereotype
A trait or characteristic that we believe most or all members
of a group of people possess. Even positive stereotypes are
harmful in that they cause us to see and judge people not on
their individual merits, but by their group membership.
1B
2 Inclusive society role cards
Young Canadian-born
woman of Asian descent in
wheelchair
Middle-aged woman who
adheres strictly to her
religious beliefs
Immigrant child with no
knowledge of English
Immigrant mother of three
with no job or family support
in Canada
Housebound senior citizen
male with some family
support in Canada
Mother of two from South
America with abusive hus-
band and no family support
New immigrant who does not
speak English, has no family
support
Older Canadian-born man of
European descent
Immigrant father of three
with no job or family support
in Canada
New immigrant with family
support in Canada
Older woman of colour born
in Canada
Senior citizen living in assisted
care home, second-generation
Canadian
Female teenaged employee,
born in Canada, working to
help family nancially
Unemployed young female
born in Canada living on
streets with no family support
Young man from New
Zealand, migrant worker at
Whistler
New immigrant with no
family support in Canada
Filipino nanny working in
Canadian familys home
Male employer, not born in
Canada, trying to build up
family business
Lesbian born in Canada of
European descent
Young First Nations female
with high school education
Young woman from Ghana
with HIV and little family
support
Older gay man not born in
Canada but has lived here
most his life
Young physically disabled
male with some job skills
Young First Nations male with
university education
Young Inuit female attending
college in southern Canada
with no family support
Latin American migrant
worker employed on tempo-
rary construction project
Refugee who ed a civil war
to come to Canada and had
little opportunity for educa-
tion
3 Inclusive society indicators
1. You have the ability to travel easily and
anywhere in your community.

2. You have access to free health care.
3. You are able to stay in Canada as long as
you like.
4. You have some control over the work that
you do each day.
5. You have the freedom to enter, stay in, and
leave Canada freely.
6. You do not fear for your safety.
7. You feel included in society.
8. You do not feel isolated in your life.
9. Canada provides you with excellent
educational opportunities.
10. You are free to join whichever group(s) you
choose.
11. You believe you have equal protection
and benefit under the law, without
discrimination.
12. You have the right to vote.
13. You have the ability to live and work
anywhere in Canada.
14. You are aware of the range of community
support programs in place to help you.
15. You believe that opportunities are available
that will help you gain employment easily
in Canada.
61 Understanding continuity
and change
The concepts of continuity and change are the
basis for exploring how lives and conditions are
alike over periods of time and how they changed
for the people and societies that come before or
after. Learning to identify signifcant changes as
well as the constants of human existence helps us
to understand our place in the continuum of time.
To a large extent, our reference points in history are
anchored in how we have changed from previous
times and how we are alike (e.g., the industrial
revolution, pre- and post-computers, the nuclear
age, the information age).
Dimensions of continuity and change
The foundations of students understanding of
historical continuity and change are usefully
summarized by the following principles.
Change and continuity are ongoing and ever
present. In every aspect of our lives, some
things are changing and in other respects they
remain constant. The form of houses and much
of the building materials used in houses in North
America has remained fairly constant over
the last century. In photographs of Vancouver
houses, for example, it is interesting that the 1994
Craftsman house is a deliberate copy of an
earlier, popular style. In many other respects
heating, plumbing and sewage, appliances,
insulating materials, and fre retardantshousing
has changed dramatically and these changes have
changed the way we live.
Change can occur at different rates. Change
can occur at a slow evolutionary pace that is
almost imperceptible or it can come about
dramatically and suddenly. Dramatic changes are
often associated with turning points (or tipping
points) in history. In this respect, continuity and
change are fundamentally linked. Understanding
the rate of change depends on assumptions of
continuity.
Change and continuity can be both positive
and negative. Change does not necessarily imply
progress nor does continuity necessarily imply
stagnation. The assumption underlying many
textbooks is one of progress and many students
seem to believe that if something is new, it must
be better. It is easy to see why such a notion is
dominant. For most people in North America,
things have improved, at least materially. And
yet there are things that have worsened (e.g.,
pollution, world hunger, AIDS, drug addiction).
The purpose in distinguishing change from
improvement is to discourage students from
making simplistic judgments about the value
or desirability of similarities and differences in
history.
Source: Adapted from M. Denos and R. Case. Teaching about Historical
Thinking, Vancouver: The Critical Thinking Consortium, 2006, pp.
2830.
62 Evidence of continuity and change
o Social-cultural o Political-legal o Economic-class
++ + +/- - - -
Much more A little more Mixed impact A little more Much more
inclusive inclusive non-inclusive non-inclusive
Contemporary Comparable historical Implications and explanation
examples/evidence examples/evidence for continuity or change
o indicates continuity
o indicates change
++ + +/-
o indicates change
++ + +/-
o indicates change
++ + +/-
o indicates change
++ + +/-
o indicates change
++ + +/-
Outstanding Well developed Competent Underdeveloped
Accurately
identies
important
contemporary
examples
Accurately identies
the most important
examples of
contemporary inclusion
and non-inclusion.
Accurately identies
some of the important
examples of inclusion
and non-inclusion.
Accurately identies
some examples
of inclusion and
non-inclusion, but
important examples are
Identies very few
examples accurately
inclusion that are
important
Accurately
identies
comparable
historical
examples
Accurately identies
a highly relevant
each contemporary
and non-inclusion.
Almost always
accurately identies
a relevant historical
example for each
contemporary instance
inclusion.
In many cases,
identies a relevant
each contemporary
and non-inclusion, but
important parallels are
Identies very few
relevant historical
examples for any
contemporary instances
inclusion.
Correctly
classies
indicators of
continuity and
change
Correctly classies
two time periods.
Correctly classies most
two time periods.
Correctly classies many
two time periods, but
important errors are
evident.
Incorrectly classies
most examples/
evidence as indicators
of continuity or change
between the two time
periods.
Offers
plausible
explanations
for the ratings
Offers very plausible
explanations for all of
the assigned ratings on
the extent of change.
Offers plausible
on the extent of
change.
Offers plausible
explanations for many
on the extent of
change.
Offers no plausible
on the extent of
change.
63 Assessing continuity and change
Name: ________________________________________________________________________________
64 Aboriginal indicators:
Social-cultural inclusion
In 1993, the First Nations House of Learning opened a
new longhouse and a library as part of the continuing
development of First Nations education at the University
of British Columbia. In 2005, the Xwi7xwa (pronounced
whei-wha) Library became a new branch of the UBC
Library.
In 1998, an Indian and Northern Affairs Canada study
reported that First Nations living conditions or quality of
life ranks 63rd among Third World conditions. Primarily
due to housing and health conditions in First Nations
communities, Canada dropped from frst to eighth as the
best country in the world to live.
In 2001, the Aboriginal population of about 1,066,500
represented 3.4% of Canadas total population. However,
previous censuses show that the Aboriginal population
is growing much faster than the total population. The
Aboriginal population is expected to grow at an average
annual rate of more than twice the rate of for the general
population. Forecasts predict that by 2017 Aboriginals will
represent 4% of the total population.
In 2003, Health Canada stated that as of May of that year,
12% of First Nations communities in Canada had to boil
their drinking water and approximately 25% of water
treatment systems on-reserve pose a high risk to human
health.
In 2004, Health Canada reported that the First Nations
suicide rate is more than twice the overall Canadian rate.
Suicide is now among the leading causes of death among
First Nations youths between the ages of 10 and 24, a rate
estimated to be fve to six times higher than that among
non-Aboriginal youths.
In 2004, the Auditor General reported that there had been
literally no progress over the last four years in closing the
gap in high school graduation rates between First Nations
students and other Canadians. At the current rate, it will
take 28 years before First Nations catch up to the non-
Aboriginal population. It was also reported that about
27% of the First Nations population between 15 and 44
years of age hold a post-secondary certifcate, diploma,
or degree, compared with 46% of the non-aboriginal
Canadian population within the same age group. First
Nations people were not attaining education levels equal
to other Canadiansabout 70% of First Nations students
living on-reserve would never complete high school.
In 2006, an Assembly of First Nations Health Bulletin
stated that First Nations women and children are more
at risk of poverty and violence than those in the general
population.
In 2007, Canadian Aboriginal groups held countrywide
protests aimed at ending First Nations poverty.
Demonstrations, known as the Aboriginal Day of Action,
were largely peaceful. However, some groups disrupted
transportation with blockades or bonfres. In Ontario,
demonstrators shut down a section of Highway 401 and
blocked the Canadian National Railway line between
Toronto and Montreal.
In 2007, The Honourable Steven L. Point was sworn-in
as the 28th Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia. He
previously served as an elected Chief of the Skowkale First
Nation and the tribal chair of the St:lo Nation Government
and was honoured as the Grand Chief by the Chiefs of the
St:lo Tribal Council.
In 2009, a UNICEF Canada report noted that, although
there have been improvements in the health of Aboriginal
children in recent years, inequalities persist, shown by
higher infant mortality rates, lower child immunization
rates, poorer nutritional status, and endemic rates of
obesity, diabetes, and other chronic diseases. As an
example, the report noted that in Nunavut, where more
than 80% of the population is Inuit, the infant mortality
rate is over three times the national rate and almost equal
to the rate in Sri Lanka and Fiji.
65A Aboriginal indicators:
Political-legal inclusion
In 1982, the Constitution Act specifcally recognized
Aboriginal rights, and the Mtis as an Aboriginal
people.
In 1985, Parliament passed Bill C-31, which made
important changes to Canadas Indian Act to bring it in line
with the provisions of the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms. The three principles guiding the amendments
were: 1) gender-based discrimination was eliminated; 2)
status and membership rights were restored to those that
applied for them; and 3) Indian bands were given increased
control over their own affairs. Although there had been a
number of amendments over the years, the basic features
of the Indian Act remained the same from 1867 to 1985.
In 1989, a Federal-Provincial Relations Directorate was
created to co-ordinate federal and provincial activities
regarding Aboriginal self-government.
In 1990, the Supreme Court of Canada in the Sparrow
decision recognized Aboriginal rights to land as traditional
British policy in Canada, and was the frst Supreme
Court ruling that interpreted section 35 of the Constitution
Act, 1982 as providing a strong measure of protection
for Aboriginal rights. It also ruled that Aboriginal and
treaty rights are capable of evolving over time and must
be interpreted in a generous, liberal manner.
In 1990, Elijah Harper, an Aboriginal member of the
Legislative Assembly in Manitoba, was instrumental in
defeating the Meech Lake Accord (a set of amendments
to the Constitution of Canada) because it neglected to
acknowledge Aboriginal Canadians signifcant role in
shaping Canadas future.
In 1995, the Canadian government established a policy to
move Aboriginal self-government policy forward.
In 1995, a group of about 30 First Nations protesters from
the Stony Point band built a barricade in the Ipperwash
Provincial Park in Ontario. The dispute went back to 1942,
when the federal government expropriated land belonging
to the band in order to build a military camp. In the years
following, the band tried to get the land back, claiming
it contained burial ground destroyed when the camp was
built. In 1993, band members began moving back onto the
land and in 1995 the military withdrew. Dudley George,
one of the protest leaders, was shot. Native groups called
for an offcial inquiry into his death, but the then-provincial
government resisted, saying it had nothing to do with
police actions on that day. In 2003, a new government
announced there would be a public inquiry into the matter.
The original land claimthe reason protesters occupied
the parkwas settled in 1998. Under the $26-million
agreement, the land occupied by the former military
installation was to be cleaned up and returned to the Kettle
and Stony Point First Nation.
In 1996, a Supreme Court decision affrmed that Aboriginal
rights existed prior to the Constitution and are not
extinguishable.
In 1996, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Report was released and recommended that a public inquiry
be held to investigate and document the abuses in Indian
residential schools. The following year, the Assembly of
First Nations (AFN) initiated negotiations with federal
government offcials for an out-of-court settlement for
residential school abuses. During that year, consultative
exploratory dialogues took place between AFN, survivors,
and federal government and church offcials to set out
the guiding principles for resolution of residential school
claims.
In 1998, the Canadian government released a document
that expressed regret for the damaging actions that have
been committed against Aboriginal peoples, and set out a
plan to fully implement treaty terms, strengthen Aboriginal
self-government, and provide resources to promote social,
cultural, and economic development for Aboriginal
communities. The government also issued a statement of
reconciliation to residential school survivors and victims
and established the Aboriginal Healing Foundation.
In the 2000s, in Regina and Saskatoon, police were accused
of racist practices. Members of police forces in the two
cities were accused of picking up Aboriginal men during
freezing winter weather in the 1990s and dropping them
outside the town limits, resulting in them freezing to death.
65B
Police denied the allegations. RCMP investigated. A public
inquiry was conducted only after pressure was exerted
by the individuals families, Aboriginal groups, and the
general public.
In 2005, the Canadian government announced plans for
a $1.9 billion compensation package to beneft tens of
thousands of survivors of abuse at Native residential
schools. In September 2007, the Indian Residential Schools
Settlement Agreement was fnalized and implemented.
The Aboriginal Healing Foundation (AHF) funding was
ended. It assisted some applicants develop projects to help
survivors deal with trauma, provide counselling and other
services to aid healing. Personal litigation, class action
suits, and Alternate Dispute Resolution were used by
some survivors. But there is no federal policy to provide
continued counselling to residential school survivors or
those suffering Intergenerational Effects of Residential
Schoolwhich was part of the AHF appproved projects.
This trauma still afficts some individuals, families, and
communities.
In 2005, twenty years after the 1985 amendments to the
Indian Act (Bill C-31), Assembly of First Nations (AFN)
National Chief Phil Fontaine called on the government
of Canada to address the systemic inequities the bill
created and to work with First Nations governments so
that they can assume control of citizenship. The AFN
claimed that the bill had not resolved any of the problems
it was intended to fx and, in fact, created new problems.
Signifcant gender discrimination still remains, control
over Aboriginal status is still held by the Crown, and the
population of status Indians is declining as a direct result
of the bill. The National Chief of the AFN stated that Bill
C-13 was an imposed government solution to problems
created by the governments own imposed legislation and
that the government of Canada was in a confict-of-interest
situation in trying to defne First Nations membership since
the number of registered First Nations people would have
fnancial implications for the government.
In 2008, the federal government offcially launched the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission to explore the past
treatment of Aboriginal people, specifcally the forced-
assimilation of Aboriginal children. The fve-year mandate
of the commission was to review the history of Canadas
residential schools. Many Canadians hoped the commission
would mark a turning point in the relations between the
Canadian government and Aboriginal peoples. In this
same year, offcials from the Roman Catholic, United,
Presbyterian, and Anglican churches apologized for their
role in the residential school system; the leaders made the
apology in Saskatoon at an assembly of approximately 400
Aboriginal victims.
In 2009, the newly elected National Chief of the Assembly
of First Nations stated that he intended to be an advocate
for positive change. National Chief Shawn Atleo had
campaigned on the slogan Its our time.
66A Aboriginal indicators:
Economic-class inclusion
In 1991, the Council of Elders, or Kumik, was established
to provide Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal employees
with instruction and advice in dealing with problems
arising in the work place which have developed because
of unfavourable attitudes and cultural differences. The
council is intended to stimulate among all employees
of the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs a
greater understanding and appreciation of Aboriginal
culture, philosophy, and practices. The Elders who form
the Council come from across North America. They are
selected based on their experience as mediators, their
spiritual and traditional knowledge, and their capacity
to pass on these experiences to others. There is a large
number of First Nations across the country, embracing
some 55 languages and major dialects, and comprising
eleven linguistic families. The defnition of an Elder varies
from nation to nation.
According to the DIAND Core Census Tabulations
published by Statistics Canada, in 1996, unemployment
rates for all Aboriginal groups continued to be at least
double the rate of the non-Aboriginal population.
Registered Indians had the highest unemployment rate of
any Aboriginal group, at 27%. Registered Indians have
the lowest labour force participation rate (54%) of any
Aboriginal group.
In 1999, a decision of the Supreme Court of Canada
affrmed treaty rights of the Mikmaq to fsh commercially.
Four years later, the Supreme Court established that the
provincial laws in Ontario infringed on the right of Mtis
in Ontario to hunt for food. The case arose after two Mtis
were charged with hunting out of season.
In 20002001, after the Supreme Court of Canada ruled
in 1999 that Aboriginal people have the right to establish
a modern day standard moderate livelihood through trade
and the use of resources, the Burnt Church First Nation
interpreted the judgment as meaning they could catch
lobster out of season and began to put out traps. Non-
Aboriginals claimed this would deplete lobster stocksan
important source of their income. The Mikmaq claimed
they already had conservation methods in place to ensure
the lobster stock would not be depleted off the Atlantic
coast. To deal with the ruling, the federal government
began to buy lobster licences from non-Native fshers in
order to give them to the First Nations people. Angry non-
Aboriginals damaged and seized a number of Mikmaq
fshing boats and lobster traps. Local Mikmaq retaliated by
destroyed non-Aboriginal fshing boats and buildings. The
confict led to a series of standoffs between the RCMP and
the First Nation. In the end, the Burnt Church community
and the federal government signed an Agreement-in-
Principle that allowed the Mikmaq the right to fsh for
subsistence purposes but denied them the right to catch
and sell lobster.
In 2004, a study by Indian Affairs (the Community Well-
being Index, known as the CWB index) assessed quality
of life in 4,685 Canadian communities based on education,
labour force activity, income, and housing. The CWB
index revealed that living conditions in a great many First
Nations communities were appallingly lowmuch lower
than the combined scores produced by previous studies
had ever suggested. There was only one First Nation
community in the Top 100, and 92 First Nations in the
Bottom 100. Half of all First Nations communities scored
in the lower range of the index compared with 3% of other
Canadian communities. Nearly 1 in 4 First Nations adults
lived in crowded homes.
In 2008, Aboriginal Tourism BC reported that there
were about 200 Aboriginal-owned and operated tourism
companies throughout the province and at least another 65
new tourism products were in the works. These include
museums and interpretive centres, wineries, restaurants,
and resorts.
In 2008, in British Columbiahome to the second largest
Aboriginal population in Canadathe unemployment rate
for First Nations people was almost three times that of
the non-Aboriginal population. However, between 2005
and 2007, unemployment rates within the First Nations
population dropped by 8.2%.
In 2009, the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern
Development and Federal Interlocutor for Mtis and Non-
status Indians announced a new Federal Framework for
Aboriginal Economic Development. The announcement
included a $200-million investment over four years to
implement the framework. The minister stated that the
framework refected the signifcant, real and growing
opportunities for Aboriginal people to take an unprecedented
step toward becoming full partners in the economyas
entrepreneurs, employers and employees.
66B
67 Chinese indicators:
In 1960, Peter Wing was elected as a councillor in
Kamloops, BC. Six years later, he was elected mayor
of that city. Peter Wing was the frst Chinese Canadian
elected mayor in North America and the frst person
born in Kamloops to be elected mayor. While serving as
mayor, he was also elected president of the Union of BC
Municipalities. Peter Wing was made a Freeman of the
City of Kamloops in 1972 and a Member of the Order of
Canada in 1976. He also received the Human Relations
Award of the Canadian Council of Christians and Jews in
1977.
In 1985 to 1986, the frst classical Chinese garden outside
of China was built in Vancouver, BC. The Dr. Sun Yat-Sen
Classical Chinese Garden is an authentic representation
of an age-old garden tradition that reached its peak in the
Ming Dynasty (13681644) and is characteristic of the
private spaces within a Ming scholars residence.
In 1989, BC Lieutenant-Governor Dr. David Lam and
prominent businessman Milton Wong led the creation of
the Canadian International Dragon Boat Festival. Dragon
boating frst appeared in Canada as a demonstration sport at
Expo 86. The festival was created to show off Vancouver's
growing cultural diversity and to promote racial harmony
among Canadians. Today, dragon boat racing is a global
phenomenon and is held as an annual event in over 40
countries around the world. The two most established
Dragon Boat Race Festivals in CanadaToronto (1989)
and Vancouverspearheaded the Dragon Boat Council
of Canada, the national dragon boat organizing body in
Canada.
In 2000, a study indicated that, although ethnic groups
with the highest rate of immigration, such as South Asians
and Chinese, are least likely to marry outside their ethnic
group, Canadians of British and French descent also have
low levels of ethnic out-marriage. This is probably because
their large numbers in the Canadian population make it
easier to fnd a spouse from the same ethnic group.
In 2001, the census data showed that while 85% of Chinese
Canadians could carry on a conversation in at least one
offcial language, 15% could not converse in either
English or French. Chinese (all dialects combined) was
the third largest mother tongue in Canada, after English
and French.
In 2001, according to the census that year, the Chinese
community was the largest non-European ethnic group in
Canada with just over one million people. The Chinese
community was the ffth-largest of any ethnic group
in Canada other than English or French. It represented
approximately 4% of the total Canadian population. The
majority (72%) lived in either the Toronto or Vancouver
census metropolitan areas. A substantial majority of the
Chinese population living in Canada was born outside the
country.
In 2002, over one in three (34%) Canadians of Chinese
origin reported that they had experienced discrimination
or unfair treatment based on their ethnicity, race, religion,
language, or accent in the past fve years or since they
had arrived in Canada. The majority of people who had
experienced discrimination (63%) said that they felt it was
based on their race or skin colour, while 42% said that the
discrimination took place at work or when applying for a
job or promotion.
In 2005, the Kamloops Chinese Cultural Association
(KCCA) put forward a proposal to build a Chinese
heritage museum and the idea was unanimously adopted
by the Kamloops city council. The museum project, to be
known as Heroes of Confederation, will illustrate why the
construction of the CPR line was the cause of the Chinese
Head Tax legislation and misunderstanding of the Chinese
culture. Part of the Western Canada Heritage Centre, the
project is slated for completion in 2012.
According to the 2006 census, allophonespeople whose
mother tongue is neither English nor Frenchrepresent
20% of the population of Canada. Anglophonesthose
people who reported English as their mother tongue
account for 58% of the population. Francophonespeople
who reported French as their mother tonguerepresent
23% of the population.
According to the 2006 census, recent immigrants born
in Asia (including the Middle East) made up the largest
proportion (58%) of newcomers to Canada. In contrast, in
1971, only 12% of recent immigrants for this period were
born in Asia. In 2006, newcomers born in Europe made
up the second largest group (16%) of recent immigrants.
Europe used to be the main source region of immigrants. In
1971, they accounted for 62% of newcomers to Canada.
In 1947, Chinese Canadians regained the right to votea
right that had been taken from them when they were
removed from the voters list in 1875. Chinese Canadians
fought for Canada during World War II but could not vote
in elections at the time. Many Chinese Canadians believed
it was wise to join the war effort because they felt it would
help them secure the right to vote after the war.
In 1957, Douglas Jung became the frst person of Chinese
origin to be elected in Canada. Mr. Jung represented a
Vancouver riding in the federal parliament. During World
War II, Douglas Jung had been instrumental in gathering
together 12 Chinese Canadian soldiers who volunteered
to serve overseas in the Pacifc. Their operation was so
secret that only two senior offcers at Pacifc Command
Headquarters knew of its existence. The mission was
code-named Operation Oblivion, because it was
considered to have little chance of success. Four of the
12 received military medals for bravery in the feld. No
other military formation received such a high proportion
of decorations.
In 1988, The Honourable David See-Chai Lam was
appointed British Columbias twenty-ffth Lieutenant-
Governor. David Lam was the frst Canadian of Chinese
origin to have become Lieutenant-Governor of any
province.
In 1992, the British Columbia government approved a
motion (not unanimous) calling on the federal government
to provide reasonable redress for the injustice of the
Chinese Head Tax. This is a complete reversal of BC
policy over 100 years earlier urging a stop to Chinese
immigration. As well, from 1885 to 1903, BC received
25% of the Head Tax certifcate fees and penalties, and
from 1903 to 1923, it received 50% of money collected.
In 1996, Jenny Kwan was frst elected as the MLA for
VancouverMount Pleasant, becoming one of the frst
Chinese Canadians to sit in BCs Legislative Assembly
and the frst Chinese Canadian Cabinet Minister in the
history of BC. She was re-elected in 2001, 2005, and again
in 2009.
In 1999, the Right Honourable Adrienne Clarkson was
appointed Governor General, the frst person of Chinese
origin to receive that honour.
In 2001, the Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC)
launched a class action suit against the federal government,
acting for the survivors and relatives of those who paid
the Head Tax to enter Canada. The claim was for fnancial
compensation, with compound interest, of the tax paid, as
well as for general damages for pain and suffering. The
lawsuit failed, mainly on the grounds that the Charter of
Rights and Freedoms, enacted in 1983, could not be applied
retroactively. The CCNC appealed to both the Court of
Appeal for Ontario and the Supreme Court of Canada.
The courts denied both appeals.
In 2002, MP Inky Mark introduced Bill C-333, which
called for an apology for the Head Tax, restitution to be
made, and educational materials on Chinese Canadian
history and the promotion of racial harmony to be created.
The house was prorogued before members of parliament
could act on the bill.
In 2002, 64% of Chinese Canadians who were eligible to
vote reported doing so in the 2000 federal election and
60% said they voted in the last provincial election.
In 2006, the federal government apologized for the Chinese
Head Tax and offered restitution to survivors or their
spouses. The government promised symbolic individual
payments of $20,000 to each of the approximately 300
surviving head-tax payers and their spouses, and another
$24 million for a community historical recognition
program.
In 2006, Sid Chow Tan, president of the Association of
Chinese Canadians for Equality and Solidarity Society,
met with BC Attorney General Wally Oppal to discuss the
possibility of a provincial restitution package. Tan said that
provinces where Chinese immigrants landed received half
of the head-tax fees collected by Ottawa, and he estimated
that BC collected about $9 million. In the late 1980s and
early 1990s, there were approximately 1,700 surviving
head-tax payers. In 2006, there were approximately 300.
One reason for upward economic and class movement was
the attainment of civil rights by Chinese Canadians after
World War II. This facilitated the entry of many individuals
into positions that had historically been closed to Chinese
Canadians. Even more important was the change in
Canadian immigration policy in the 1960s that resulted
in the acceptance of immigrants with professional and
educational expertise.
In 1971, 11 percent of Chinese Canadians worked in
clerical and related jobs. By 1981, the percentage had
grown to 19, and it continued at 18 per cent in 1986.
When managerial, professional, and clerical occupations
were taken into account, as many as 43 percent of Chinese
Canadians were employed in these occupations in 1981
and 42 percent fve years later. In actual numbers, the
Chinese in such jobs totaled 92,757 in 1986. The upward
mobility of the post-war Chinese has to be evaluated in
light of occupational patterns for other Canadians. The
1986 census shows that 42.5 percent of the rest of the
population was in managerial, professional, and clerical
occupations. In other words, by that year the likelihood
of Chinese Canadians being in middle-class occupations
was about the same as for other Canadians.
In 1979, CTV aired a program accusing Canadian
universities of accepting Chinese students with higher
qualifcations than white students, thereby reducing
the number of spaces available to others. The program
implied that the students, who looked Chinese, were
foreign students regardless of whether they had been
born in Canada or were naturalized citizens or visa
students. The program created a nationwide protest in
the Chinese community and led to the formation of the
Chinese Canadian National Council in 1984. The council
then launched a campaign to get redress from the Canadian
government for the head tax frst imposed in 1885.
In 1981, using census data, a study of income levels among
ethnic groups indicated that Chinese Canadians earned
about $1,300 a year less than the average Canadian in the
labour market. The same study showed that a worker of
British origin made $365 more and those of Jewish origin
$6,260 more. The census data also revealed that Chinese
Canadians in managerial, professional, and technical
occupations earned $1,295 a year less than the average
Canadian in similar jobs, even when taking into account
variations in schooling, occupational class, and other
factors. The data showed that in 1981, despite Chinese
Canadians occupational achievements, they had yet to
cross the barrier of racial discrimination in the labour
market.
Between 1985 and 1991, Chinese business immigrants,
although comprising only 8 percent of the total number
of business immigrants, made an immense economic
impact. In 1987, the 2,484 individuals approved as
entrepreneurial immigrants had a net worth of $2.5
billion, and their investments were to create 12,000 jobs
and retain another 2,155. Between 1987 and 1990, 11,000
Chinese entrepreneurial immigrants brought into Canada
an estimated net worth of about $14.3 billion and created
some 48,000 jobs.
In 2000, the average income from all sources for Chinese
Canadians 65 years and older was about $6,000 less
than the income for all seniors. The average income of
Canadians of Chinese origin was $5,000 lower than the
national average of $30,000.
In 2001, 27% of Canadians of Chinese origin had either a
bachelors or graduate degree from a university, compared
with 15% of the overall adult population. According to
the census of that year, adults of Chinese origin made up
3% of the overall Canadian population, but represented
9% of all those with a doctorate and 7% of those with a
masters degree. While people of Chinese origin made up
6% of all university graduates in Canada, they represented
12% of those with degrees in mathematics, physics, or
computer science, and 11% of those in engineering or
applied science.
In 2009, a University of B.C. professor reported that his
research indicates that a distinct foreign-sounding name
may be a signifcant disadvantage in the job market.
Researchers sent out 6,000 mock rsums where the
applicants Canadian educational and language skills were
identical; only the applicants names were different. The
study found applicants with English names were 40% more
likely to get a call back than those with Chinese, Indian,
and Pakistani names.
70 European indicators:
In 1976, a survey of ten ethnic groups in fve Canadian
suburban centres found that 35% of frst generation
German immigrants identifed themselves as Canadian
and 49% as German Canadian or Canadian of German
origin. Only 10% identifed themselves as German. Studies
indicate that only Scandinavian and Dutch immigrants
equal German in the proportion and speed with which they
abandon their mother tongue and ethnic identity.
In 1991, the census indicated that some 603,415 people
said that Dutch was one of their ethnic origins. However,
only 133,265 Canadians claimed Dutch as their only frst
language and 358,180 gave Dutch as their only ethnic
origin. In other words, 961,595 Canadians reported that one
or more of their ancestors was Dutch. This seemed to reveal
that, although Dutch-language speakers are declining
in numbers, genetic Dutch Canadians, including the
children and grandchildren of Dutch speakers, have been
taking their place in an increasingly pluralistic society. It
is now a matter of personal choice rather than an action
based on birth place or frst language to designate oneself
as Dutch for census purposes. As Dutch Canadians become
more assimilated, are distanced further in time from the
immigrant generation, and continue to intermarry with
other Canadians, such a designation possesses little real
meaning in relation to an identifable ethnic community.
In 1996, 60% of the overall population spoke English
as their main languagealmost the same proportion as
in 1871. The percentage of people with French as their
main language was between 27% and 31% until 1961,
but decreased to 23% by 1996. It is expected that the
percentage of English speakers will continue to rise since
descendants of immigrants usually adopt English as their
language. As well, there is a strong tendency for the French
to adopt English when they live outside of French-speaking
communities.
In 1996, a study of fve major Canadian newspapers
found that anglophone rights in Quebec were more
heavily reported upon and more extensively explained
than francophone rights outside of Quebec. In the sample
of stories studied, linguistic minority rights were defned
as relevant to Quebec only. As a result, readers in other
regions of Canada could not know about, and would
have little understanding of, the francophone minority
communities in their own provinces. As for the attitude of
the papers to minority-language issues, nearly 25 percent
of the stories suggested that rights granted to francophones
were too generous; only six percent suggested that rights
granted to anglophones were too generous. And 40 percent
of stories argued that anglophone rights had been violated
in Quebec, while only 10 per cent of stories claimed that
francophone rights outside Quebec had been violated.
Finally, 60 percent of the articles favoured the anglophone
position, while only six percent favoured the francophone
position.
In 1997, leaders of Greek-Canadian communities estimated
that there were over 250,000 people of Greek descent
from various countries living in Canada. However, Greek
Canadians are uncertain about the future of the Greek
community in Canada. Immigration from Greece fell
sharply after 1981. Many Greek Canadians marry outside
of their group, especially the second and third generations.
Membership and participation in the ethnic group are
declining, mainly because of upward mobility. The need
for an ethnic infrastructure, previously embraced because
of segregation, discrimination, and lower status, has been
reduced as Greek Canadians moved from entrance status
to the middle class.
In 2000, a study indicated that although ethnic groups
and Chinese, have the lowest rates of marriage to people
outside their ethnic group, Canadians of British and French
descent also have low levels of ethnic out-marriage. This
is probably because their large numbers in the Canadian
population make it easier to fnd a spouse from the same
ethnic group.
According to the 2006 census, recent immigrants born
in Asia (including the Middle East) made up the largest
proportion (58%) of newcomers to Canada. In contrast,
newcomers born in Europe made up the second largest
group (16%) of recent immigrants. Europe used to be the
main source region of immigrants. In 1971, they accounted
for 62% of newcomers to Canada.
According to the 2006 census, anglophonesthose people
who reported English as their mother tongueaccount
for 58% of the population. Francophonespeople who
reported French as their mother tonguerepresent 23%
of the population. Allophonespeople whose mother
tongue is neither English nor Frenchrepresent 20% of
the population of Canada.
From the 1950s into the 1970s, as fear of communism
grew, the RCMP and the immigration department viewed
immigrant workers from east-central and eastern Europe
as suspect. Those coming from western Europe were more
fortunate, although involvement with trade unions seen as
radical attracted RCMP attention.
In 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney extended a public
apology on behalf of all Canadians to Canadians of Italian
origin for the wrongs done to them during World War II. In
2005, then-prime minister Paul Martin also made a public
apology to Italian Canadians.
In 1995, residents of Quebec voted on a referendum to
decide whether or not the province should separate from
Canada and become a sovereign nation. Supporters of the
referendum believe that the current relationship between
the province and Canada does not refect Quebecs social,
political, and economic development. Also, they believe
that without recognizing that the francophone people of
Quebec are culturally distinct, the province will always be
disadvantaged in favour of the English-speaking majority.
The referendum was defeated by a very small majority:
50.6% to 49.4%. However, almost 60% of francophones
of all origins voted in favour of the referendum.
In 2004, over one hundred surviving Doukhobor victims
demanded an apology from the BC government for being
taken from their families and placed in residential schools.
Victims demanded compensation, acknowledgement, and
a public apology.
In 2005, Prime Minister Paul Martin signed an agreement
acknowledging the wrongful imprisonment of Ukrainian
Canadians during World War I.
In 2008, three representatives from the Ukrainian
Canadian community signed a document providing for
the establishment of a $10 million endowment to be used
for commemorative and educational initiatives recalling
the internment of Ukrainian Canadians during World War
I. The internment from 1914 to 1920 was Canadas frst
national internment operation.
By 1952, with the closing of the refugee camps in Europe,
Canadian employers had to look elsewhere for workers.
Immigration recruitment focused on the Netherlands,
Germany, Italy, Greece, and Portugal. During the following
decade, thousands of immigrants from these countries
sought jobs in Canada. However, unlike the previous wave
of workers, which depended upon government assistance,
these newer immigrants were independent immigrants
who selected their place of employment and chose the
metropolitan areas of central Canada rather than the
frontier work world of the displaced person.
Between 1950 and 1955, over 220,000 British, 149,000
German, 116,035 Italian, and 85,000 Dutch as well as tens
of thousands of Polish, Greek, and Portuguese immigrants
entered Canada. Their reasons were essentially economic.
In the 1970s, during a review of Canadian immigration
policy, Canadas dependence on immigrant workers for
low-paying, low-status jobs was a subject that attracted
much attention.
Prior to 1970, the overwhelming majority of immigrants
to Canada were of British or European background.
Following World War II, the Bulk Labour Program
facilitated the movement of people displaced by the war
from refugee camps to the Canadian workplace. Displaced
persons from Europe assumed an important role in the
post-war economic boom.
Between 1981 and 1991, 95,202 Polesa sixth phase of
immigrationarrived in Canada. Different from previous
Polish immigrants, these were highly qualifed, younger
people, arriving as part of complete families with children
and teenagers. Between 1982 and 1992, 10 percent of all
university teachers left Poland, and 845 of them came to
Canada.
In 1992, in a report prepared by Price Waterhouse estimated
that between 3,300 and 5,000 Ukrainian Canadians
suffered economic losses totaling anywhere from $21.6
million to $32.5 million (in 1991 dollars) while they were
interned following the outbreak of World War I. Most
Canadian government records concerning World War I
internment operations were destroyed in 1951. As a result,
Price Waterhouse relied on a report by military personnel
in charge of monitoring and caring for internees. Through
these records, it was determined that many Ukrainians
were interned due to ethnic prejudice rather than wartime
suspicions. National Archives of Canada documents
confrm that being unemployed or destitute was frequently
a reason Ukrainian Canadians were interned during this
time.
According to 2001 statistics, just under 17% of immigrants
from the United Kingdom had a university degree,
compared to over 27% of the Chinese people in Canada.
In 2001, Canadian census data showed that the median
income for people who spoke English only was higher than
for those who spoke French only$22,987 compared to
$17,659.
73 Japanese indicators:
In 1976, Ken Adachi, who was commissioned by the
National Japanese Canadian Citizens Association to write
a history of the Japanese in Canada, observed that the
Japanese will likely fade as a distinct linguistic and social
minority.
Over the last 20 years or more, many practices within
Japanese culture have been adopted by mainstream society.
These include popular acceptance of martial arts, such as
judo (it is now an Olympic sport) and tae kwan do, of fne
arts such as bonsai and ikebana, and pop art such as anime,
manga, and karaoke.
Within the Japanese Canadian community, peoples of
mixed ancestry increased from 26% in 1991 to 37.5%
in 2002. The percentages of mixed marriages (70%)
and intermarriage (95%) are the highest of all the ethnic
groups. These fgures highlight the dramatic shift that is
taking place within the community. While the number of
Japanese immigrants has remained constant, the number of
people of mixed Japanese ancestry nearly doubled between
1991 and 2001. Among the reasons are: 1) the possibility
for two Japanese Canadians to marry is limited because
of the small population; 2) the community is scattered;
and 3) Japanese Canadians are the most integrated and
assimilated group of all the ethnic communities in Canada.
[http://www.najc.ca/ downloaded August 28, 2009]
In 1996, Tamiko (Nakamura) Corbett was elected the frst
visible minority moderator of the Presbyterian Church
of Canada. In her acceptance speech, Tamiko, who had
been interned during World War II, publicly reconciled
the racism that marked her familys past and the strides
she had taken to overcome it.
In 2000, the National Nikkei Heritage Centre Society
opened in Burnaby, BC. This multi-use facility houses
both the National Nikkei Heritage Centre and the Japanese
Canadian National Museum. Through its exhibits, the
museum tells the story of Japanese integration into
Canadian society. The monetary awards granted in
the Redress Agreement allowed a number of Japanese
Canadian cultural centres to expand physically and offer
broader programs.
The NJAC, through its Redress Foundation, administers
grants that have enabled Japanese Canadians to publish
books that help restore cultural memory about wartime
events and the subsequent struggle for recognition of
the injustices done to their community. Other grants
have supported oral history projects, flms, and artistic
exhibits.
In 2002, Jap Mountain, a mountain near Cumberland, BC,
was renamed Nikkei Mountain.
In 2004, David Suzuki was voted ffth of the top ten
greatest Canadians. He was the only non-Caucasian on
the list.
In 2005, the Vancouver Public Library selected Joy
Kogawas novel, Obasan, as its One Book, One Vancouver
selection for 2005. In making the selection, the City
Librarian said that Obasan is one of the most powerful
books about the Japanese Canadian experience ever
written. One Book, One Vancouver is a Vancouver Public
Library program designed to encourage people to read and
discuss great books.
In 2009, over 50% of the 3,500 members of one Japanese
Canadian Society cultural centre in Toronto are non-
Japanese. [From Matsuo, Tracy. Green Tea, Pancakes
and Spam Sushi: Transnational Culture and Boundaries
in Torontos Japanese Canadian community, p 2.]
Many new Japanese immigrants organize their own
organizations rather than participate in established Japanese
Canadian groups. This is mainly because of barriers in
language and culture. As well, Japanese Canadians see
themselves as different from Japanese immigrants because
of their unique internment and wartime experiences.
Language, especially written, is a signifcant barrier.
In 1984, the National Association of Japanese Canadians
(NAJC), acting on a redress mandate, asked the Canadian
government for a negotiated settlement that would include
an offcial acknowledgement of the injustices inficted
upon Japanese Canadians during World War II. They
asked for compensation for the suffering of individuals
and the devastation of the Japanese Canadian community
on the west coast and a community development fund.
As well, they sought legislative changes to prevent a
recurrence of this violation of basic rights. The resulting
Redress Settlement was signifcant for a number of
reasons. For one, it would not have been possible if the
Japanese Canadians had not been granted the franchise in
1949. This made it possible for them to negotiate with the
federal government. The National Association of Japanese
Canadians commissioning of a report by Price Waterhouse
that examined the fnancial losses of Japanese Canadians
from 1941 to 1949 played a major role in the settlement.
In their submission, the NAJC used primary sources,
mostly housed in the National Archives of Canada, to
prove that the displacement of the Japanese Canadian
community took place because of racism and political
opportunism. The documents showed that the RCMP and
military advisors did not consider the Japanese Canadian
community on the West Coast to be a security threat
and that Prime Minister Mackenzie King had admitted
to Parliament that no member of the community had
committed any act of espionage or sabotage.
In September 1988, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney
acknowledged Canadas wrongful actions against Japanese
Canadians during World War II. The Redress Agreement
also included a payment of $21,000 to each eligible
Japanese Canadian who suffered losses during internment.
As well, it awarded $12 million to the NJAC to undertake
activities that promote human rights or contribute to the
well being of the community and $12 million on behalf
of all Japanese Canadians for the establishment of the
Canadian Race Relations Foundation with a matching
federal contribution in order to promote racial harmony,
cross-cultural understanding, and help to eliminate
racism.
In 2005, an MP apologized for his inappropriate language
in describing his grandfathers experiences in fghting in
the Canadian forces with Japanese soldiers during World
War II. The National Association of Japanese Canadians
stated that the MPs remarks not only offended Canadians
of Japanese ancestry but many others in attendance.
Further, the NAJC said that although the MP had expressed
regret for his comments, his words demonstrated a lack of
enlightened leadership expected of an elected member.
From 1945 until the 1977 Japanese Canadian Centennial,
victims of the internment began rebuilding their shattered
lives. Japanese Canadians took whatever employment
available, often laborious and unfulflling jobs. Parents
sacrifced their personal welfare to ensure that their
children were well educated and had opportunities that
they had never had.
In 1986, the NAJC released a study that concluded
that, during the years of internment and restrictions, the
economic losses suffered by Japanese Canadians totaled
$443 million in 1986 dollars. This fgure included an
income loss of $333 million because they could not earn
their normal wages during the period 1942 to 1949 and
a property loss of $110 million because the value of
property rose quickly between 1942 (when the Canadian
Government seized all property belonging to Japanese
Canadians) and 1949 (when some of the Japanese
Canadians were able to re-enter the property market).
[Roberts-Moore, Judith. Establishing Recognition of Past
Injustices: Uses of Archival Records in Documenting the
Experience of Japanese Canadians During the Second
World War, p. 71.]
In 1986, 35% of Japanese Canadians were employed in
managerial, professional, or administrative capacities; 41
percent in clerical, service, or sales positions; and only
19 percent in blue collar jobs. The post-war dispersal, the
abandonment of racially based employment restrictions,
and the increasing number of Canadian-educated adults
in the community allowed Japanese to enter more diverse
occupations.
In 1993, Maryka Omatsu, a sansei, was appointed to the
Ontario Court of Justice (Provincial Division) and became
the frst Japanese Canadian woman judge. Before her
appointment to the bench, she was chair of the Ontario
Human Rights Board of Inquiry, an Ontario Law Society
referee, and a member if the womens issues working
group of the Ontario Fair Tax Commission. During the
early years of her legal career, Maryka Omatsu became a
founding member of Sodan Kai, which was established to
help educate Japanese Canadians in Toronto about redress
issues. A key fgure on the NAJC Redress negotiation team,
Judge Omatsu wrote movingly about the redress victory
in an award-winning book, Bittersweet Passage (Toronto:
Between the Lines, 1992).
In 1996, Statistics Canada reported that contemporary
Japanese Canadians were typically well-educated, having
a higher percentage with university degrees and lower
percentage without a high school diploma than the total
Canadian population. They tend to have higher incomes
than the general public and generally fll professional or
managerial positions.
In 2004, Beverley Oda was the frst Japanese Canadian
elected to Parliament. She was re-elected in 2006 and
appointed Minister of Canadian Heritage and Status of
Women. The Honorable Bev Oda was named Minister
of International Cooperation in 2007. She was again re-
elected in 2008.
By 2009, there had been 43 Japanese Canadians awarded
the Order of Canada.
76 South Asian indicators:
In 1998, fve young men linked to a skinhead, white-
supremacist group were charged with the murder of a
65-year-old Sikh man. Nirmal Singh Gill, who worked
as a caretaker at a Sikh temple, had emigrated to Canada
several years earlier to support his wife and son in India.
In 2000, a study indicated that although ethnic groups
and Chinese, have the lowest rates of marriage to people
outside their ethnic group, Canadians of British and French
descent also have low levels of ethnic out-marriage. This
is probably because their large numbers in the Canadian
population make it easier to fnd a spouse from the same
ethnic group.
In 2001, census data indicated that South Asians were the
least likely of all visible minority groups to marry someone
outside of their population group.
In 2001, the province of Ontario declared May to be South
Asian Heritage month in recognition of the contributions
that South Asians have made and continue to make to the
province.
In 2002, nine out of ten South Asians reported a strong or
very strong sense of belonging to Canada. No other visible
minority felt as strongly.
In 2002, the Sikh Temple in Abbotsford, BC was designated
as a National Historic Site. The wood-frame building was
constructed in 1911 to serve the growing Sikh population
in the Fraser Valley.
In 2005, local veterans at a branch of the Royal Canadian
Legion fercely enforced a no headgear rule, calling it a
tradition. They stated that head coverings must be removed
out of respect for the fallen. A 26-year-old Sikh man was not
allowed in the clubroom for the Remembrance Day service
because he would not remove his turban. The branch said
it was not aware that all branches across Canada had been
notifed in writing that religious headdress is an exception
to the rule.
In 2008, a total of 1,262,900 Canadians identified
themselves as South Asian. This diverse community
consists of a range of ethnic, religious, and linguistic
groups, representing one quarter of the visible minority
in Canada.
In 2009, eleven Indo-Canadians, including a former
premier, a noted flmmaker, and an RCMP sergeant, were
selected for Canadian Immigration Awards 2009 for
their outstanding contribution to Canadas culture and
economy. The nation-wide call for nominations resulted
in hundreds of submissions from which 75 semi-fnalists
were selected. The public voted online to choose the top
25.
In 2009, Masala! Mehndi! Masti!, North Americas largest
free South Asian festival was held at Torontos Exhibition
Place. This was the ninth anniversary of the event. Masala!
Mehndi! Masti! Means Spice! Henna! Fun!
In 2009, the president of Calgarys South Asian Canadian
Association, called for Calgarians to stand up against
racism. He was responding to an Aryan Guard white pride
march through Calgarys core. The white supremacist
group waved white pride fags and chanted slogans as they
made their way through the inner city.
In 2009, a Muslim journalist was attacked while riding
on a Vancouver city bus. The assailant called the man,
who was dressed in Muslim prayer attire, Bin Laden,
referring to the Al-Qaida terrorist leader. A month earlier,
four teens were arrested for attacking six South Asian men
on a tennis court in the Metro Vancouver area. The teens
were said to have used racial slurs during the attack.
77A South Asian indicators:
In 1986, a British Columbian, Moe Sihota, was the frst
Indo-Canadian to become a provincial cabinet member.
In 1991, another Indo-Canadian, Ujjal Dosanjh, was
appointed the premier of British Columbia, while a third,
Herb Dhaliwal, was the Minister of Natural Resources in
the federal government.
In 2001, Mobina Jaffer became the frst South Asian to be
appointed to the Canadian Senate.
In 2002, the Professor Mohan Singh Memorial Foundation
of Canada lobbied for a federal apology for the Komagata
Maru incident of 1914. South Asian MP Gurmant Singh
Grewal presented a petition to the Canadian Parliament
with thousands of signatures. Three years later, in 2005,
the federal government unveiled a $50-millon package
designed to rectify historic injustices towards seven
ethnic groups, including Indo-Canadians. The package
planned to provide funds for plaques and educational
activities. However, the package did not include an
outright apology for the survivors or their descendants
nor to the Indo-Canadian community. When the federal
government presented this package, it was rejected with
vocal opposition by a majority of the Indo-Canadian
community. In early 2006, the Professor Mohan Singh
Memorial Foundation of Canada further met with the
Indo-Canadian community and then with Jason Kenny,
Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister, to relay
the results of this community consultation. Several
months later, the prime minister spoke at a gathering,
acknowledging the Komagata Maru incident, but offering
no apology. In 2008, Prime Minister Harper, speaking at a
community event in a park in BC, offered an apology for
the 1914 incident. The day before offering this apology, the
Komagata Maru Heritage Foundation informed the Prime
Ministers offce that he should not attend the function
at the park unless he was also willing to apologize in
Parliament, where it would be entered into the House of
Commons records as had previous apologies to Japanese
and Chinese Canadians. Although the government had
previously promised to apologize in Parliament, the
Secretary of State for Multiculturalism and Canadian
Identity ruled out an apology in the House of Commons,
saying that an apology had been given and would not be
repeated. Many in the Indo-Canadian community rejected
the gesture made in the park.
In 2003, South Asians Harinder Takhar, Vic Dhillon, and
Kuldip Kular were elected as provincial members of the
legislature in Ontario. Harinder Takhar was appointed to
cabinet as Minister for Transportation.
In 2005, a South Asian youth falsely claimed that fve
Caucasian men jumped him, tore off his turban, and cut off
his hair. He later recanted his story when he admitted that
he had wanted to cut his hair against his familys religious
beliefs. Members of his community, who wanted police
to charge the youth and his family, voiced concerns that
the fabricated attack caused fears about hate crimes. The
RCMP did not lay charges.
In 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper stated in a
speech that the government of Canada acknowledged the
Komagata Maru ncident and announced the governments
commitment to undertake consultations with the Indo-
Canadian community on how best to recognize this sad
moment in Canadas history.
In 2008, the government of British Columbia offered a
formal apology to the Indo-Canadian community for the
Komagata Maru incident of 1914. Amid shouts of Bole So
Nihala shout of victoryfrom Indo-Canadians in the
gallery, the assembly passed the motion unanimously.
In 2008, a Toronto area Sikh, who was fned for driving a
motorcycle without a helmet, went to court to defend his
right to wear a turban. Sikhs in the provinces of British
Columbia and Manitoba are allowed to wear a turban
instead of a helmet while driving a motorcycle.
In 2009, MP Ruby Dhalla introduced a bill in Parliament
to end discrimination against Indian and other non-white
immigrants in old-age pension eligibility. Under the current
discriminatory Old Age Security Act, senior immigrants
from India and many other nations have to wait ten years to
become eligible for a pension while those from European
countries start receiving this beneft within three years.
In 2009, concern was voiced that a proposed parliamentary
bill regarding changes to immigration would lead to
racial profling. Bill C-50 would limit immigration
and give the Minister of Immigration the authority to
issue instructions to immigration offcers related to the
processing of applications, including in relation to the jobs
available in Canada, so that people with desired skills and
experience can be brought to Canada more quickly. As
well, knowledge of English would become a requirement
so those from English-using South Indian states would
stand a better chance of immigrating. Some observers
note that certain groups living in India believe they could
beneft from the immigration amendment because of their
profession. Others, such as the executive director of the
Council of Agencies Serving South Asians (CASSA), are
concerned that these amendments to current legislation
are being passed as a fnancial bill. Others are concerned
that the powers being given to the immigration minister
are arbitrary and have no precedent.
77B
78 South Asian indicators:
In 1990, the frst turbaned cadet entered the RCMP
academy. Allowing a turban rather than the traditional
Stetson hat was a very big issue. The move upset some of
the conservative members in Canadian society, especially
veterans of the RCMP, who raised a petition with a quarter
of a million signatures and sued the Commissioner of the
RCMP. The case went to federal court. The court ruled that
the government had the authority to implement changes
and a turbaned Sikh offcer could serve in the RCMP. The
decision was not well-received by those who opposed the
move.
In 2001-2002, the Province of British Columbia decided to
reduce enforcement of employment and safety regulations
regarding safety and working conditions for farm
labourers. According to the Canadian Centre for Policy
Alternatives BC, most farm workers in the province are
immigrants from India, chiefy women in their 50s and
60s who came to Canada under the family reunifcation
program. Lack of language skills and the obligation to their
families to repay money advanced for their immigration
and settlement pressure them to accept working conditions
that many Canadian workers fnd unacceptable. In 2003-
2004, the provincial government excluded farm workers
from various provisions of the Employment Standards Act,
leaving workers even more vulnerable to exploitation.
In 2004, Statistics Canada reported that current immigrants
earned less than previous cohorts and were taking longer
to catch up to average Canadian incomes. Immigrants
who came between 1995 and 1999 earned 24% less in
their frst year than the cohort that came in 1965-1969.
One contributing factor to these fgures is the discounting
of experiencea factor that affected most South Asian
immigrants.
In 2005, an immigrant Sikh with a doctorate from Germany,
two published books, and teaching experience in the US,
was unable to fnd employment in Canada. In order to fnd
work, he removed his turban and cut his hair even though
this compromised his religious beliefs. He commented
that he was frustrated and angry and had never thought it
would be like this in Canada.
In 2007, the South Asian mall in Toronto, slated to open
in 2009, will be the largest South Asian mall in North
America. The mall was designed to appeal to the growing
South Asian population in Ontario. Canadian companies
in the retail, durables, food, and banking sectors, and even
the service industry, started to do research to keep tabs
on trends within this community. The data suggested the
importance of channeling their marketing dollars towards
this segment of the population.
In 2009, a University of British Columbia professor
reported that his research indicates that a distinct foreign-
sounding name may be a signifcant disadvantage in the
job market. Researchers sent out 6,000 mock rsums
where the applicants Canadian educational and language
skills were identical; only the applicants names were
different. The study found applicants with English names
were 40% more likely to get a call back than those with
Chinese, Indian, and Pakistani names.
79A Citizenship and identity in Canada
What gives Canadians a sense of national identity? Do we
have a sense of identity? Some writers claim that Canada did
not begin to develop a collective sense of identity as Canadians
until Canadas pivotal battle at Vimy Ridge in World War I.
For the frst time, Canadian forces fought together under
Canadian command rather than British command as before.
For the frst time internationally, Canada was viewed
separately from Great Britain. Still, this growing sense of
identity was mostly Anglo-centric, that is, based on the British
heritage that many Canadians at the time had. It wasnt until
the 1960s that Canadas sense of identity began to expand to
include French-Canadians more openly and with a greater
sense of acceptance and equality as a founding people,
along with First Nations and British Canadians. Some First
Nations might argue that their sense of identity has little or
nothing to do with the developing English/French identities
at this time. Canadian identity became more inclusive when
it adopted multiculturalism as an offcial policy in 1971 and
brought in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982,
adopting the slogan Unity in Diversity.
What brings Canadians together? Where do Canadians fnd
unity? Some respond in the negative, saying we are not
Americans but thats an easy way out and not very helpful.
Some say hockey and the Canadian fag are the symbols we
can rally around, and some point to Canadas natural beauty.
What about the arts? Others might say unity is found in the
fundamental fairness we try to achieve in society through
multiculturalism, healthcare, and education. Still others might
claim it is the economic opportunity found in Canada. In
some ways, it may be all of these things together in dynamic
relationships that are constantly shifting. In fact, Canadians
have multiple identities, but perhaps trying to achieve mutual
understanding and respect is most fundamental to what it
means to be Canadian.
Identity, very much a social construction, is about how
we see ourselves and how we see others, formed by our
life experiences in relation to others in our families and
communities but also in response to images perceived
at a distance. In addition to nationality as determined by
citizenship, identity is infuenced by culture, class, and gender
as well as by our interests and intentions. We are not trapped
by our identities since our interests and intentions can lead us
to reinvent ourselves and we can do that as a nation.
But what about race? While culture (or ethnicity) is about
groups sharing common ways of living, race is perceived as
sharing a set of common physical characteristics. Yet current
DNA research shows all people have common physical
characteristics. Now we are asking, Is race something
that humans have constructed as opposed to a natural
occurrence?
How we see racial groups is a matter of social construction and
can potentially lead to stereotyping and discrimination by race.
Thus a racial minority may be stereotyped and discriminated
against on the basis of expected or misunderstood behaviour
perceived from a distance. Ongoing marginalization of this
sort, complete with negative stereotypical media images,
may then affect the behaviour of the marginalized group over
time as it struggles for recognition, acceptance, and fairness.
Members of the group might be seen as troublemakers but
they may really be trying to enter mainstream society, seeking
equality without having to abandon their identities. Rather
than abandoning their own identities, they want to expand
the notion of Canadian identity.
There was a time in Canadas past when non-European
racial minorities, whether they were born in Canada or not,
could not exercise full rights of citizenship. They did not
have the right to have rights. Race no longer determines
citizenship in Canada, but it once did. Members of racial
minorities might have felt Canadian but could not legally be
fully Canadian in the eyes of mainstream society. That is not
the case today, at least in a legal sense. It is one of Canadas
greatest accomplishments and yet is still one of its greatest
challenges: to protect the right to be different and yet treat
people with respect, acceptance, and equality under the
law as citizens. This makes Canada a rights-based country
rather than a country based on race, ethnicity, and religion.
Perhaps this is what Canadas collective national identity is
becoming. It is not just a mosaic but also includes relations
between the tiles.
Who is a Canadian citizen today?
What does it mean to be a citizen? In a technical sense, a
person is a citizen of a country with political boundaries and
as a citizen has the rights, powers, and privileges of citizenship
as well as the obligations, duties, and liabilities of citizenship.
Canadian citizens are persons born in Canada or on Canadian
registered ships or planes (with some exceptions), or born
outside of Canada to a Canadian citizen, or born outside
79B
of Canada and accepted into Canada as an adult landed
immigrant with the expectation to qualify for citizenship
after a residency period.
Canadian citizenship did not exist formally in law until 1947.
Before then Canadians were categorized as British subjects.
The term Canadian citizen was used informally by offcials
interchangeably with British subject to describe those who
were born in Canada or in another part of the British Empire
or came from someplace outside the British Empire and were
naturalized after living in Canada for a period of time. It was
necessary to be a British subject to have citizenship rights
but being a British subject did not necessarily guarantee full
citizenship rights. Non-European racial minorities did not
have full citizenship rights and thus lacked the right to have
rights.
Other meanings of citizenship
While there are technical and legal meanings of citizenship,
the concept also refers to the behaviours and attitudes of
members of Canadian society, giving a moral dimension
to the meaning of citizenship. Are we good or bad? Do we
contribute positively to society? What do we mean when
we say, That person is a good citizen? Usually we are not
talking about their legal status but rather about what kind of
person they are. Are they a good family member, neighbour,
community member, worker? Are they respectful of others,
honest and fair-minded? These are the kinds of qualities we
think of when we talk about citizenship in our everyday life.
Schools give citizenship awards to students who exhibit the
attributes of the good citizen.
We sometimes extend this sense of citizenship beyond our
borders to consider the condition of the global environment
and people around the world. Global citizenship recognizes
the interconnectedness of the world and calls on us to be
responsible for such global problems as environmental
degradation, poverty, and lack of democracy. Sometimes
people who make extraordinary contributions to understanding
and solving these problems are recognized through such
international awards as the Nobel Prize for Peace or the Nobel
Prize for the Environment. Canada has granted honorary
citizenship to four such people who have contributed to
peace and democracy. The recipients are Raoul Wallenberg
(awarded posthumously), a Swedish diplomat who rescued
Jews during the Holocaust of World War II; Nelson Mandela,
Nobel laureate who ended apartheid and brought multi-racial
democracy to South Africa; Tenzin Gyatso, the Dalai Lama,
Nobel laureate and the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people;
and Aung San Suu Kyi, Nobel laureate and Prime Minister-
elect of Burma (Myanmar) under house arrest for almost
twenty years in her fght for democracy.
Canadian citizenship in 1907
The two senses of citizenship noted above, rights-based legal
Canadian citizenship and global citizenship, are far removed
from how citizenship was thought of in the early 1900s. As
mentioned above, Canadian citizenship did not exist in law
until the Citizenship Act of 1947. Before then, people with
citizenship rights and privileges in Canada as we think of
them today had to be British subjects. Those rights existed
in English common law but there was no Charter of Rights
and Freedoms to protect rights as there is today. The charter
came into effect in 1982. In the early 1900s, citizenship was
connected to the concept of a nation defned by race, culture,
language, and religion. Some people in Canada might have
thought of themselves as Canadian, but most identifed
themselves as British subjects.
To be a British subject in 1907, a person had to be born
in Britain or in a British territory or had to apply for
naturalization after living in a British territory for at least
three years. However, simply being a British subject was
not enough to enjoy such rights as the right to vote or run for
offce. Political rights were denied on the basis of race and
gender. In 1907 British Columbia, women could not vote,
and neither could First Nations or Asian people. You could
be born a British subject as South Asians were but still not
be able to vote. You could be a naturalized British subject as
many Chinese and Japanese immigrants were, but you could
not vote. You could be born to a First Nations family who has
lived in Canada for millennia but you could not vote. Each
of these classes of people was specifcally denied the right to
vote by law. In those days, Canadians rights and freedoms
were a matter for parliament, not the Charter or a constitution,
and could be given or taken away by parliament.
Not having the right to vote led to other restrictions under
the law. For example, people not on the voters list could
not work in such professions as law, medicine, pharmacy, or
teaching. They could not work on crown land (land owned
by the government), nor could they do contract work for
79C
the government or live in certain locations in cities. Asian
immigrants could still be naturalized as British subjects but
they did not have the rights and privileges of citizenship. They
did, however, have the obligations of citizenship in terms of
having to obey the law and pay their taxes. Asian Canadians
of the time, both Canadian-born and naturalized British
subjects, were well aware of the injustice of their situation.
Some attempted to register their names on the voters list only
to be turned away. Tomekichi Homma, a Japanese immigrant
and naturalized British subject, fuent in English, challenged
discriminatory voting laws in the courts. (Adachi [1976], The
Enemy that Never Was, pp. 5255.)
The Tomekichi Homma Case
In 1900, Tomekichi Homma and other naturalized Japanese
immigrants applied to have their names placed on the British
Columbia voters list to exercise their rights as British subjects
and to challenge the provinces discriminatory voting laws
(Geiger-Adams [2005], p. 20, Writing Racial Barriers into
Law). Homma was turned down by Thomas Cunningham,
the Collector of Voters for the City of Vancouver. Homma
sued. Financial support for Hommas legal costs came from
the Japanese Canadian community.
R.W. Harris, Hommas lawyer, argued in County Court that
the naturalization of British subjects was within the exclusive
jurisdiction of the federal government under the British
North America Act (p. 24). Harris claimed that naturalized
British subjects were to have the same rights and privileges
of citizenship as British subjects by birth including the right
to vote. Charles Wilson, lawyer for Cunningham and the
BC government, argued that determining who was on the
provincial voters list was a local matter for the province
alone under the British North America Act and outside the
federal governments jurisdiction. Only the province could
decide who was on the voters list.
Chief Justice McColl of the BC Supreme Court, presiding over
this County Court case, ruled in favour of Homma, declaring
the provincial voting law ultra vires or unconstitutional,
and ordered Hommas name to be put on the voters list.
Cunningham and the BC government refused, appealing the
ruling frst to the Supreme Court of Canada and then to the
Privy Council of Great Britain (at that time, the highest court
in Canada was actually in Great Britain). The Supreme Court
of Canada agreed with the BC judge but both Canadian courts
were overruled by the Privy Council of Great Britain, which
supported the provinces right to set the voters list however it
wanted. It would take over forty years before Asian Canadians
could vote. Chinese-Canadians and Indo-Canadians got the
vote in 1947, Japanese Canadians in 1949. First Nations
people did not have full voting rights until 1961.
It is hard to believe today that British Columbia and Canada
discriminated against its own citizens according to perceived
race and by gender. Many, however, would argue that this
type of discrimination still exists today, and only the degree to
which it is obvious has changed. First Nations peoples, Asian
Canadians, and women fought for a long time to achieve full
citizenship rights. Tomekichi Homma was one of the frst but
he wasnt the only one. Do a web search to fnd out more
about Tomekichi Homma and others in the struggle for equal
rights in Canada.
Electoral History of British Columbia, 18711986
Disenfranchised Groups (frst date); Enfranchised Groups (second date)
Women -- 1917
Chinese 1874 1947
Indians 1874 1949
Japanese 1895 1949
South Asians 1907 1947
Doukhobors 1931-33 1952
Mennonites 1931-33 1948
Hutterites 1931-33 1948
Source: Electoral History of British Columbia, 18711986. Elections British Columbia. Elections BC. http://www.elections.bc.ca/index.php/resource-
centre/electoral-history-of-bc/.
80 Key indicators of continuity
and change
Names: ________________________________________________________________________________
Featured group: ________________________________________________________________________________

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81 Summary of continuity and change
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82 Progress on inclusion
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Outstanding Well developed Competent Underdeveloped
Identies
examples of
continuity and
change
For each group,
identies several key
For most groups,
identies a few key
For most groups,
identies only obvious
and change for the
three dimensions.
For most groups,
identies very few
and change for any of
the dimensions.
Provides
plausible
ratings
All the ratings are
provided and each
rating is highly
plausible.
Almost all the ratings
are provided, and each
rating is plausible.
Most ratings are
provided and are
somewhat plausible.
Many ratings are
missing or implausible.
Justies
overall ratings
Provides several
convincing examples
to support the overall
Provides a few
generally convincing
examples to support
most groups.
Provides one or two
relevant, but not
always convincing
examples to support
each group.
Provides almost no
relevant examples to
support the overall
83 Assessing progress
Name: ________________________________________________________________________________

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Exploring identity, inclusion and citizenship 46 The Critical Thinking Consortium

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