Gwyneth Howell Thesis PDF

Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content i
Description of the Relationship between the Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media
Content
Gwyneth Veronica James Howell
School of Advertising, Marketing and Public Relations
Faculty of Business
Queensland University of Technology

Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content ii

ABSTRACT
Crises are unpredictable events which impact on organisational issues such as
viability, credibility and reputation. In recent years, few topics have generated more
interest within the discipline of public relations. Today, crises are a prominent feature
of the business environment, and every organisation has the potential to experience
one. The manner in which mass media frame crises can alter an organisations
reputation, affect organisational profitability, and ultimately the survival of the
organisation.
This thesis explores the application of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model to
mass media content. Further, it recommends the implementation crisis public
relations strategies that address each stage of the model. The study demonstrated the
relevance and importance of the extension of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle
theoretical model to understanding mass media content during a crisis. The extended
model provides a model to better understand a crisis and its life cycle from a public
relations perspective. Further this expanded model provides the framework for public
relations professionals to identify and comprehend the dynamic and multi-
dimensional set of relationships that occur during the Crisis Life Cycle in a rapidly
changing and challenging operational environment.

Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Undertaking the Research Masters has proved to be a challenging and rewarding
experience. Crises can occur in anyones life, often without warning, and its not
what happens to you that matters, but how you handle it that counts!.
I would to thank Rohan for finally convincing me that sometimes it is better to
go round than through. Redweon, for always being available for theoretical
discussions and Tim Tams and Maria, for taking in a stray and for being such a
wonderful friend. Finally, I would not be who I am without my parents. Bandicoot
and Papa Bear, my sincere thanks, ongoing love and utmost respect.
My supervisor, Associate Professor James Everett, I thank you for your
unfailing enthusiasm for my research, your professionalism and above all your ability
to manage the Texan in me!
Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content iv

TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter One 1
Crises 3
Crisis Life Cycle 5
Crisis Public Relations 7
Role of Mass Media 8
Research Purpose and Design 10
Overview of Research Design 11
Research Outline 12
Chapter Two 15
Public Relations 15
Public Opinion 16
Publics 16
Theories of Mass Media Influence 18
News Framing 27
Mass Media Themes and Focusing Events 30
Crises 32
Crisis Typologies 33
Crisis Public Relations 35
Crisis Life Cycle 43
Crisis Management 52
Crisis Management Models 55

Chapter Three 63
Propositions 68
Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content v

Prodromal Crisis 68
Proposition One 68
Indicator 71
Acute Crisis 72
Proposition Two 72
Indicator 73
Chronic Crisis 73
Proposition Three 73
Indicator 74
Crisis Resolution 75
Proposition Four 75
Indicator 75
Indicator 75
Conclusion 79
Chapter Four 81
Case Studies 82
Ansett Airlines 85
History 87
Ansett Airlines 2001 88
Research Methodology 94
Content Analysis 94
Types of Content Analysis 95
Sample 101
Data Collection 104
Results 105
Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content vi

Chapter Five 115
Discussion 116
Proposition One 117
Proposition Two 119
Proposition Three 121
Proposition Four 123
Study Limitations and Strengths 125
Conclusion 130
References 133
Appendix A 151
Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content vii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 The sequence of the four stages of a crisis as identified in Finks (1986)
Crisis Life Cycle Model.
47
Figure 2 The proactive side of the Pauchant & Mitroffs (1992) Crisis Management
Model with strategic thinking added (Bronn & Olson, 1999). 61
Figure 3 Empirical Bridges between Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle Model and Mass
Media Content. 68
Figure 4 Flow Chart of mass media contents trigger theme movement during the four
stages of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model. 79
Figure 5 Frequency of trigger themes during case study 109
Figure 6 Frequency of Explanation, Responsibility and Blame and Resolution theme
utilising Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model to define the time scale periods. 114
Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content viii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Typology of seven models of framing applicable to public relations, Hallahan
(1999) 26

Crisis Life Cycle and Mass Media Content 1
Chapter One

This chapter provides an overview of the research problem explored in this study.
Further, the research question is posed and initial discussion of the research design is
undertaken. Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model is presented and is described in terms
of crisis public relations and mass media content. An overview of the literature on crisis
public relations is provided. The chapter concludes with a detailed reporting framework
for the empirical study with a synopsis of each of the following four chapters.
Crises are unpredictable events which impact on organisational issues such as
viability, credibility and reputation (Mitroff, Shrivastava, & Udwadia, 1987). Crises also
have important implications for organisational stakeholders. In recent years, few topics
have generated more interest within the discipline of public relations (Marra, 1992).
Today, crises are a prominent feature of the business environment, and every organisation
has the potential to experience one. How mass media frame crises can alter an
organisations reputation, affect organisational profitability, and ultimately the survival of
the organisation (Pauchant & Mitroff, 1992). There are many examples of organisational
crises that have received extensive mass media coverage. Internationally, there have
been the nuclear accidents at Chernobyl and Three Mile Island, the Exxon Valdez oil
spill, the Tylenol tampering incident, the Dow Corning breast implant litigation, the
Clinton/Lewinsky scandal, and 9/11. In Australia, recent examples of crises include the
Herron and Arnotts tampering incidents, the HMAS Tampa refugee stand off, and the
corporate collapses of HIH, OneTel and Ansett Airlines. Organisations use mass media

to communicate with publics during crises (Grunig & Hunt, 1984). How mass media
select to frame coverage can adversely impact on organisations during crises (Pan &
Kosicki, 1993).
Until recently, crisis public relations has been overlooked as a tool to assist in the
successful management of an organisational crisis (Fearn-Banks, 1996). Indeed, crisis
public relations has typically been relegated to a defensive role (Coombs, 1999).
However, the premise of crisis public relations is to offset potential negative
consequences (Mitroff, 1996). Negative consequences usually occur when organisations
fail to respond to warning signs of the impending crisis (Fink, 1986). Many of these
signs appear as trigger themes in mass media content prior to the actual onset of the
crisis (Sturges, 1994).
Both researchers and public relations practitioners have struggled to operationalize
the role of public relations in crisis situations (Coombs, 1999). The result are public
relations strategies which generally are defined either by lists of quantitative variables
that are expensive to measure and difficult to integrate, or qualitative models, often
restricted to procedural devices and context-specific applications (Cornelissen, 2000).
These reactive crisis public relations strategies are the least effective, yet the most
common crisis strategies used today (Marra, 1992).
Most public relations literature focuses on communicating to relevant publics
during the turmoil generated by a crisis. Marra (1992) asserts that crisis public relations
is essential during a crisis. The implication for this study is to reinforce the view that
proactive strategies can better manage crises. That is, effective monitoring and

management in the initial or warning stage of a crisis can reduce the consequences of a
crisis on an organisation (Marra, 1992).
Ultimately, the central claim of this study is the proposition that the nature of mass
media content relates to the stages of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model. During
each stage of the crisis, mass media content focuses on particular identifiable themes.
The goal of this study is to describe and explore this relationship between the Crisis Life
Cycle and mass media content. This extension of Finks (1986) model and its
relationship with mass media content during a crisis can inform crisis public relations
strategy.
The Tylenol tampering crisis is widely considered the original best practice
example of crisis public relations strategy (Fishman, 1999). The resultant damage to
Tylenol was minimal due to the provision of accurate and timely information to the mass
media during the Acute Crisis stage of the crisis. Tylenols communication strategy to its
publics continued throughout the three final stages of the Crisis Life Cycle. Analysis of
this behaviour indicates limited organisational damage due to the public relations strategy
implemented (Benson, 1988).
Crisis public relations professionals advocate the necessity to define, and then
practise reactive crisis public relations (for example, Quarantelli, 1988). Practitioner-
oriented journals emphasize that crisis public relations should contain information that is
accurate and complete in describing the event and its consequences (Barton, 1993;
Burson, 1985; Dilenschneider & Hyde, 1985; Fink, 1986). These observations of crisis
public relations suggest that all crisis public relations occur with the same communication
objective (Marra, 1998). Among the implications for this study is the view that the
dominant practitioner paradigm for crises management is incomplete and can be
improved by understanding the relationships between Finks (1986) multi-stage Crisis
Life Cycle model and mass media content.
In general, the crisis management literature acknowledges the need to approach
each of the four stages with an individual management strategy to best manage the
different dynamics and dimensions in each stage of the crisis (Barton, 1993; Mitroff,
1996). The general framework for crisis public relations presented in the body of
literature makes the assumption that mass media content is important as it influences
opinions of publics during a crisis (Egelhoff, 1992). However, crisis management
literature does not acknowledge changes in mass media content during the crisis (Fink,
1986; Mitroff, 1996).
This thesis explores the application of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model to
mass media content. Further, it recommends the implementation of crisis public relations
strategies that address each stage of the model. A review of the literature presents the
context for the principle research question of this study and the methods employed to
provide the empirical foundation for exploring the research question. The concepts of
crises, Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model, crisis public relations and mass media
content will be defined.
CRISES
Crises are defined as highly ambiguous situations where the causes and effects are
unknown (Dutton, 1986; Quarantelli, 1988). Historically most organisations believe that
a crisis wont happen to us (Coombs, 1999). This general assumption and the failure to
anticipate and prepare for crises cause organisations to suffer emotional, financial and
perceptual damage (Pauchant, 1988). Pauchant (1988) proposes that while crises have a
low probability of occurring, crises are rarely independent, random events. Crises can
threaten the survival of the organisation (Jackson & Dutton, 1987; Mitroff, Pauchant, &
Shrivastava, 1988). Hermann (1963) explained that when a crisis occurred, organisations
and publics experience surprise and these situations create the need for decisions that will
result in change for the organisation (Aguilera, 1990; Slaikeu, 1990). For public relations
professionals once crises reach the Acute Stage of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle, a
short time frame for response is available (Quarantelli, 1988). Seeger, Sellnow, and
Ulmer, (1998) define a crisis as a specific, unexpected and non-routine event or series of
events that create high levels of uncertainty and threaten or are perceived to threaten an
organisations high priority goals (p. 233).
In the new millennium, organisations operate in a global environment.
Environmental developments are occurring at a rapid rate, and the increased reliance on
technology has amplified the propensity for organisations to experience crises (Barton,
1993; Ogrizek & Guillery, 1999; Perrow, 1984; Seeger, Sellnow, & Ulmer, 2001; Ulmer
& Sellnow, 1997). These changing and competitive climates in which organisations
operate force all organisations to deal with rapid and turbulent change. The increased
complexity and ambiguity of operation enhances the turbulence experienced by
organisations as crises move through the four stages of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle.
The primary cause of this turbulence is the lack of preparation by organisations to
manage crises. A survey of 114 of Fortune 1000 companies in 1992 found that on
average large companies experience 10 major crises each year (Elwood, 1995). Yet,
research shows that while organisations are experiencing crises, they are not prepared to
manage or respond to them (Coombs, 1999). Fink (1986) estimated that only 50 percent
of the United Statess 500 leading organisations had any type of strategy in place to
manage crises. Pauchant (1988) asserts that that only four in every 10 organisations have
a crisis plan. The current Australian business environment is very similar to the United
States with the landscape littered with organisations which failed to manage crises and
suffered the resulting loss of reputation and financial downfall for example Ansett
Airlines, HIH and OneTel. Regardless of the industry, language or location, crisis
activity creates a unique set of challenges for public relations professionals (Cutlip,
Center, & Broom, 2000).
Crisis Life Cycle
To gain a greater understanding of and advance best practices in the management of
crises, Fink (1986) developed the Crisis Life Cycle model. As marketing researchers
used the product lifecycle to interpret product and market dynamics, Fink (1986) sought
to apply the Crisis Life Cycle model to better understand crisis behaviours. Finks (1986)
model presents four distinct phases whose titles are grounded in medical terminology
these being Prodromal Crisis, Acute Crisis, Chronic Crisis and Crisis Resolution.
The first stage of Finks (1986) model is the Prodromal Crisis or build-up stage.
During this stage clues or hints begin to appear in mass media coverage about a potential
crisis. These hints or warning signs appear as themes (Kelly, 1989). These themes
describing symptoms or precursors to a crisis are for the purposes of this study termed
trigger themes. Trigger themes represent repeated messages or pointers that if recognized,
may help the organisation to implement activities intended to anticipate a crisis and
exploit its benefit or reduce its negative impact. Organisations that are sensitive to their
environment, actively monitor mass media content and explore relevant trends in mass
media coverage are better positioned to recognize crises (Seeger et al., 2001; Heath,
1997) .
The second stage is the Acute Crisis or the impact stage. This is often the shortest
but most damaging stage when one of the trigger themes develops and the crisis occurs.
The resulting physical, fiscal and emotional damage to an organisation and its relevant
publics can be significant. Mass media content during this stage of Finks (1986) Crisis
Life Cycle contain themes of explanation where mass media content presents an
explanation of the crisis, typically in a chronological order of events.
The third or Chronic Crisis stage is so termed because the effects of a crisis may
linger for years, as physical restoration, legal action, and public activism ensures
continuing mass media coverage. These actions and activities prolong the effects of a
crisis (Barton, 1993). During this stage mass media content contains themes of blame
and responsibility. Mass media frame content describing the reasons for the events that
have occurred, seeking to answer the questions of why and allocate blame and
responsibility to organisations and/or individuals for the crisis (Fearn-Banks, 1996).
The final or Resolution Stage is reached when the crisis no longer impacts on the
organisation's operational environment or its publics (Fink, 1986; Mitroff, 1996). During
this stage, crisis public relations professionals seek to develop themes of resolution in
mass media content. Failure to achieve resolution will ensure that the theme becomes
latent with the potential to be even more damaging to the organisation should it become
active again (Fink, 1986). Crises can damage and destroy companies and individuals
alike, and while mass media coverage during the Acute Crisis stage may only last a few
days, the reverberations and subsequent mass media coverage can persist for years
(Barton, 1993).
Due to the reactive nature of crisis management literature, a key objective of crisis
strategy is damage control for the organisation (Burson, 1985). It is generally accepted
by academic researchers that the prime objective of crisis management is to prevent the
drastic negative effects from the crisis, including negative mass media coverage (e.g.
(Barton, 1993; Fink, 1986; Mitroff, 1996). However, this reactive strategy limits the
organisations opportunity to maintain positive relationships with its publics after the
Acute Crisis stage of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle. One of the important implications
of this study is that the focus of crisis public relations strategy should be on the trigger
themes while the themes are in the theme pool. By utilising proactive crisis public
relations strategies to manage the trigger theme during the Prodromal Crisis stage of
Finks (1986) model an organisation may prevent or at least limit negative mass media
content.
Crisis Public Relations
Crises tend to be high profile events, where public relations activities can play a
crucial role in the successful management of a crisis (Seymour & Moore, 2000). Yet,
crisis public relations has enjoyed only a brief history within the discipline. Prior to
1982, organisations generally chose to close off channels of communication with publics,
especially mass media during crises and elected to follow legal advice maintaining the
position of no comment (Cutlip et al, 2000). For more than 15 years, this was the
standard crisis public relations strategy (Marra, 1992). The expansion of mass media and

newsgathering developments have forced organisations to alter these closed strategies
and explore better practices for crisis public relations (Pinsdorf, 1999).
The ever-changing structure of the mass media is a product of the information
revolution and has dramatically altered the public relations discipline (Seymour &
Moore, 2000). As a result the need for strong crisis public relations and the impact of
message mismanagement has escalated (Pearson & Clair, 1998). Although largely
reactionary, the goal of crisis public relations is to manage relationships with various
publics during crises (Marra, 1998).
Information technologies such as web casting, email, and the Internet have changed
the communication landscape (Hearn, Mandeville, & Anthony, 1998). This expanded
media arena has ensured any event or action can be scrutinized by mass media (Hawkins,
2001). Today, mass media ensures that information about crises is available
instantaneously (Henry, 2000). For example, the graphic images of 9-11 were broadcast
via video and Internet links throughout the world with a vast array of mass media outlets
framing the content as America Under Attack (Jackson, 2002).
Role of Mass Media
Mass media plays a pivotal role in the discipline of public relations, primarily as the
main vehicle of communication between an organisation and its publics (Fortunato,
2000). Mass media encompasses newspapers, magazines, trade publications, AM and
FM radio, television both free to air and Pay TV, Web TV and books (Cutlip et al.,
2000).
For the purposes of this study the term coverage refers to all print broadcast
media, while content specifies mass media analysis of one aspect of coverage.
Therefore, coverage is a product of the mass media system while content is an aspect of
mass media coverage.
The inclusion of mass media theory in this study contributes to the understanding of
the degree of power that mass media enjoys in its ability to select and frame messages
(Gunther, 1998; McCoombs & Shaw, 1993). Cohen (1963) sought to expand on agenda
setting theories presented by Lippmann (1922) and Bernays (1923), by stating that the
mass media may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but
the mass media are stunningly successful in telling their audience what to think about.
(p. 13) Cohen (1963) identified that by mass media raising the salience of one set of
considerations at the expense of another, the framing of news stories encourages publics
to employ one standard of judgment rather than another, sometimes with dramatic results
(Gamson & Modigham, 1989; Iyengar, 1991; Iyengar & Kinder, 1986).
Framing analysis uses the principle that the news in general, and in particular the
case under observation, is not simply made up by the random coverage of events, but is
rather a specific process of selection and construction. This process is social in origin,
and in the sense that news coverage is socially constructed. News coverage is established
by a combination of routines at the news organisational level, while news norms are
preserved and reproduced by the journalists themselves (Tuchman, 1978). Journalists
follow a number of set processes in the selection, gathering, and production of news
stories (Gamson & Modigham, 1989; Tuchman, 1978).
In the relationship between crisis public relations, mass media and publics, mass
media is deemed to hold the greatest power due to its potential ability to influence public
opinion (Birkland, 1997). The agenda-setting theoretical framework operates on the
premise that mass media has the ability to transfer the salience of an issue to publics
(McCoombs & Shaw, 1972). Fortunato (2000) argues that mass media has too much
power in terms of selecting and framing messages designed to influence publics and
questions the effect that public relations practitioners have on mass media content.
Fortunatos (2000) assertion is substantiated in current literature and provides an
important focus of proactive crisis public relations strategy.
For the purposes of this study, the identification and description of themes in mass
media content during the Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle is the principal focus, not the
effect framing has on public opinion. Content analysis has been limited to print media
content for this study. Data is drawn from four major Australian newspapers, The
Australian, The Financial Review, The Age and The Sydney Morning Herald.
RESEARCH PURPOSE AND DESIGN
King, Keohane and Verba (1994) assert that the most important way to contribute to
theory is to show that theories or evidence designed for some purpose in one literature
could be applied in another literature to solve an existing but apparently unrelated
problem (p. 17).
This study describes the relationship between the types of themes present in mass
media content and Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model. This extension of Finks
(1986) model and its relationship with broad themes present in mass media content
during a crisis can contribute to the development of crisis public relations strategy.
This study suggests that Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model should be part of the
larger issues of crisis public relations strategy and its inclusion may lead to more
effective and efficient management of crises. The study builds a case for the need to
consider the model in a larger context. This extension of the model to include general
themes present in mass media content serves as the framework to evaluate the
effectiveness of public relations strategy during crises. Thereby, making an explicit
contribution to current crisis public relations literature.
This study differs from the previous descriptive research of crisis public relations in
its exploration of how mass media content is organized into the four stages of Finks
(1986) model. The identification of these themes allow for the construction of a model
that predicts broad thematic categories during the four stages of the Crisis Life Cycle.
The development of the model should help enable practitioners to predict what type
of content will appear and when. This type of predication is not possible through the
main body of research, as it is descriptive in nature. A theoretically based model would
allow public relations practitioners to identify themes and facilitate implementation of
crisis public relations strategy in the Prodromal phase, thereby improving the likelihood
of avoiding the Acute and most damaging stage of the crisis.
The study has two primary purposes:
To demonstrate the relevance and importance of the extension of Finks (1986)
Crisis Life Cycle theoretical model to the understanding of mass media content during a
crisis.
Based on this extension of the Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model, the study will
describe its implications for the development and evaluation of public relations strategy.
Based on these purposes the primary research question is:
How does the relationship between mass media content and the Crisis Life Cycle model
inform public relations theory?
Overview of Research Design
To address the proposed research question of this study, qualitative methodology is
employed. Case study method is well established in the qualitative research tradition and
is especially responsive to research questions of why and how. Yin (1993) asserts that
this methodology provides a flexible yet integrated framework for the holistic
examination that this study has employed for Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model and
mass media content. Content analysis enables researchers to systematically review large
quantities of data to identify specific characteristics of messages (Holsti, 1969) or
examine trends or patterns in documents (Stemler, 2001). In this study content analysis
has enabled the researcher to describe mass media content during the four stages of
Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle.
This research methodology and content analysis has been employed for purposes of
the study to examine a specific crisis. The unit of analysis selected is print mass media
content of the Ansett Airlines 767-200 Easter 2001 groundings. An exhaustive data
collection was undertaken of print media content in four national newspapers from
January 1, 2001 to June 1, 2001. This data has been evaluated using content analysis and
provides the researcher with frequency counts and trends of the content themes.
Research Outline
Chapter One explores the limited theoretical grounding for crises, crisis public
relations and mass media content. The chapter also provides details regarding the
purpose of the thesis and poses the research question.
Chapter Two presents the theoretical perspectives of major public relations
concepts further, the refinement and expansion of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle, crisis
management and the component of public relations strategy that relates to the mass
medias treatment of crises. The issues relating to crisis research within the discipline of
public relations are contextualized. The disciplines reliance on prescriptive actions
verses descriptive foundation on which to build strategy is discussed. The chapter
presents the theoretical rationale for the study and explores the practical implications for
refining Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model in terms of its implications for mass
media content. The review of literature examines the specific process for the analysis of
mass media content. Finally, the literature review serves as the framework for the study
by offering contrasting opinions of the literature reviewed.
Chapter Three explores the theoretical framework developed in Chapter Two.
Further, Finks (1986) model is extended in an attempt to describe mass media content.
The development and justification of the four propositions proposed for the study are
presented and indicator measures are defined.
Chapter Four describes case study methodology and identifies the appropriateness
of case study methodology for the thesis in its examination of the extension of Finks
(1986) Crisis Life Cycle model. An explanation of data collation and analysis is
presented with a discussion of the data collection and data analysis methods employed.
Chapter Five utilizes the data from Chapter Four to explore the implications in
terms of the research question posed in Chapter One. The chapter outlines the threats to
reliability and validity. Further, the implications for public relations practitioners in
terms of crisis public relations strategy is explored. Finally, opportunities for further
research to develop public relations research from the prescriptive to empirical domain
are presented.

Chapter Two

This chapter explains and defines public relations, crises, and the Crisis Life Cycle
model. Mass media is a highly influential stakeholder during crises, filtering and framing
perspectives, with a tendency to reinforce current public biases (Nelkin, 1987). The
chapter explores public opinion due to its relevance in terms of its influence on mass
media, further it defines mass media influence and framing perspectives, which are of
particular interest for this study, as the study will measure mass media content during a
crisis. The chapter presents the theoretical foundations of crises, crisis public relations
and explores the Crisis Life Cycle. This chapter provides a detailed synopsis of Finks
(1986) Crisis Life Cycle model and its relationship to mass media content. These
definitions and review of the literature are then used to present and justify the extension
of Finks (1986) model that serves as the foundation for analysis of the case study of print
mass media content of the crisis experienced by Ansett Airlines in April 2001.
PUBLIC RELATIONS
Public relations as a discipline commenced in the early 1900s (Marra, 1992). The
earliest definitions of the discipline emphasized two main activities, press agentry and
publicity (Cutlip et al., 2000). Today, public relations is recognized as an essential
strategic business function (Seymour & Moore, 2000). This recognition of the
relationship link between the organisation and its publics has assisted in the development
of managements view of public relations (Cutlip et al., 2000).

Cornelissen (2000) contends that public relations activity is not grounded in nor
draws upon academic knowledge. He suggests that in the field of public relations there is
a disparity between academic theories and research and the knowledge and skills required
by practitioners. Further, Cornelissen (2000) asserts that research has been driven in a
method based focus rather than big picture management particularly in crisis public
relations research.
Scholarly and professional literatures offer a wide range of definitions for public
relations. Harlow (1989) provides a definition for key elements of public relations based
on more than 470 different definitions already in circulation. Harlows (1989) definition
presented both conceptual and operational elements for the discipline.
Public relations is the distinctive management function which helps establish and
maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation
between an organisation and its publics; involves the management of problems or
issues; helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinion;
defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest;
helps management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early
warning system to help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical
communication as its principal tools. (p. 16)
As the discipline developed, organisations became more aware of the public
relations function, activities changed and new definitions were presented to incorporate
research, planning, and evaluation or measurement of results (Cutlip et al., 2000). The
majority of these definitions explained the activities of public relations, but not the
discipline. In 1988, the American governing body, the Public Relations Society of

America formally adopted the following definition, public relations helps an
organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other (Cutlip et al., 2000). Marra
(1992) defined public relations as the systematic process of communicating with multiple
publics. For the purposes of this study, the definition of public relations refined by Cutlip
et al. (2000) is used, the management function that identifies, establishes, and maintains
mutually beneficial relationships between an organisation and the publics on whom its
success or failure depends(p. 6).
Public Opinion
Rousseau (1947, original work published 1762) was the first to present the concept
of public opinion when he used the phrase l'opinion publique to describe the philosophy
of public and opinion in a political rather than a social sense. In America, the will of the
people was established as the underlying standard assumption first for political
journalism, and later public opinion research in the social sciences (Ramsden, 1996). In
the 1920s journalists Walter Lippmann and John Dewey debated the role of the press in
the public opinion process, both suggesting that the press worked as a bridge to convey
information and opinion to publics (Dewey, 1927; Lippmann, 1922). The collective
views of Cutlip et al. (2000) provide a definition of public opinion as a dynamic process
in which ideas are expressed, adjusted and compromised en route to the collective
determination of a course of action (p. 250). To measure public opinion researchers
employ various methods of study including: voting patterns, measuring media content,
and obtaining public opinion from survey research. This study undertakes to measure
mass media content to describe frequency of themes in mass media content during Finks
(1986) Crisis Life Cycle.
Publics
In public relations literature, the term public is the most common terminology
used to describe a specific group (Cutlip, 1965; Grunig, 1976; Grunig & Hunt, 1984).
The term general public refers to the entire audience; public relations literature
identifies each segment of the general public as a specific public. Dewey (1927) and
Grunig and Hunt (1984) define a public as a group of people who face a common issue
or share a mutual interest with an organisation. Fearn-Banks (1996) defines a public as
a specific audience targeted by public relations programs or strategies. The level of
awareness by the public is dependent on the relationship that particular public has with
the organisation (Grunig & Hunt, 1984).
Grunig and Repper (1992) assert that publics differ from stakeholders, markets and
audiences because publics actively endeavour to gain information, seek redress of
grievances, pressure the organisation or ask government to regulate them (p.128).
Recent research has included non active or latent publics within the pool of publics
(Cutlip et al., 2000; Grunig & Repper, 1992). Marra (1998) recommends that public
relations strategy consider latent publics in the planning process. Cutlip et al (2000)
advocates that public relations practitioners devise programs to reach specific public
segments.
Fearn-Banks (1996) categorized four publics when exploring crisis public relations,
these being;
enabling publics are those groups or individuals whom have influence and
authority within the organisation. These publics include key executives, directors,
shareholders and investors. The functional publics consist of the group of
employees and those organisations and individuals whom supply goods and
services as well as the customers. The normative publics are groups who share
similar values during the crisis, and finally the diffused publics are the audiences
who are not directly linked to the organisation, mass media is a diffused public. (p.
27)
The primary focus of this study is the relationship between the expansion of Finks
(1986) Crisis Life Cycle model and mass media content. As a consequence, mass media
or using Fearn-Bankss definition the diffused public, is a vital aspect of the study and
for crisis public relations strategy in general.
Theories of Mass Media Influence
Mass media plays a pivotal role in the discipline of public relations, primarily as the
main vehicle of communication between an organisation and its publics (Fortunato,
2000). Rogers (1995) makes the assumption that the mass media has influence over
social institutions through their social settings as the mass media is the main source of
information in society. Mass media encompasses newspapers, magazines, trade
publications, AM and FM radio, television both free to air and pay TV, Web TV and
books (Cutlip et al., 2000). For the purposes of this study, the term coverage refers to
all print broadcast media while content specifies mass media analysis of one aspect of
coverage. Therefore, coverage is a product of the mass media system and content is an
aspect of coverage.
The inclusion of mass media theory contributes to the understanding of this thesis
because of the degree of power that mass media enjoys, in its ability to select and frame
messages (McCoombs & Shaw, 1993). Mass media is a highly influential stakeholder
during crises, filtering and framing perspectives, with a tendency to reinforce current
public biases (Nelkin, 1987). Framing perspectives are of particular interest for this
study, as the study will measure mass media content during a crisis.
Gunther (1998) citing Katz (1981) explained mass media as the major source of
reference for information about the distribution of opinion (p. 89). Bar-Hillel (1980)
cautioned that public opinion can be influenced by the manner in which the information
is presented by mass media. Brosius and Bathelt (1994); Zillmann, Perkins and Sundar
(1992) support this view, claiming anecdotes and human interest themes used to present
objective information can alter public opinion due to the framing used by mass media.
For several decades, measuring public opinion has proven problematic for
researchers, one of the most widely studied aspects of which is framing effects.
Lippmann (1922) was the first to propose that the media could control public opinion by
focusing attention on selected issues while ignoring others. Bernays (1923) provided the
first handbook to manage this phenomena, known as the agenda-setting hypothesis.
Cohen (1963) sought to expand on agenda setting theories presented by Lippmann
(1922) and Bernays (1923) by stating that the mass media may not be successful much
of the time in telling people what to think, but the mass media are stunningly successful
in telling their audience what to think about (p. 16). Cohen (1963) identified that by
mass media raising the salience of one set of considerations at the expense of another, the
framing of news stories encourages publics to employ one standard of judgment rather
than another, sometimes with dramatic results (Gamson & Modigham, 1989; Iyengar,
1991; Iyengar & Kinder, 1986; Pan & Kosicki, 1993). A further development of the
perspective offered by McCoombs and Shaw (1972), and Iyengar and Kinder (1986)

claimed that pervasive cynicism in media news reports can have agenda setting effects
(p. 179).
Noelle-Neumann (1974) presented the spiral of silence hypothesis claiming that
individuals constantly observe their environment seeking signs of the prevalent opinion
and further claims for all questions outside his immediate sphere (the individual) is
almost totally dependent on mass media for his evaluation of the climate of opinion
(p. 50-51).
In the relationship between crisis public relations, the mass media and publics, mass
media is deemed to hold the greatest power due to the potential ability to influence public
opinion (Ramsden, 1996). The agenda-setting theoretical framework operates on the
premise that mass media has the ability to transfer the salience on an issue to publics
(Birkland, 1997). Mass media theory contributes to this understanding of the three-way
relationship between mass media, organisation and its publics (Webster & Phalen, 1997).
It has been proven that mass media has the power to potentially influence specific publics
and undertakes the gatekeeper role, selecting and framing issues for coverage (Birkland,
1997).
For example, Gamson (1992) examined the use of a Cold War frame in much of
late 20
th
Century American journalism on international affairs which encouraged
Americans to situate international events in a Soviet-versus-United States conflict
perspective. Sniderman, Brody, and Tetlock (1991) discussed the alternative framing of
AIDS as either a public health or a civil liberties issue. Miller and Krosnick (1997) used
the agenda-setting hypothesis to trace surges and declines in presidential popularity to

media contextualization, specifically exploring Clintons run in the New Hampshire
primarily election in 1992 (Farnsworth & Lichter, 1999).
Entman (1993) purports that journalists may follow the rules for objective
reporting and yet convey a dominant framing of the news that prevents most audience
members from making a balanced assessment of a situation ( p.57).
Goffman (1974), one of the earliest proponents of framing, drew his concepts from
ethnomethodology, and focused on the role of frames in the constitution of subjective
meaning (p. 10-11). Tuchman (1978) used frame as a mediating concept between the
social production of meaning, the producers of meaning, and the reception of meaning in
the analysis of news (p. 7). Goffman (1974) defined a frame as a schemata of
interpretation that provides a context for understanding information and assists
individuals to locate, perceive, identify and label (p. 21).
The frame in which the message is presented will limit and define its meaning
(Hallahan, 1999). The individuals who are the message creators are termed framers.
There are three main types of framing; (a) valance framing, which presents information
from either a positive or negative view point; (b) semantic framing, which is the
alternative phrasing of terms; and (c) story framing, which is the most complex due to the
selection of key themes and the inclusion of narrative techniques (Hallahan, 1999).
Pan and Kosicki (1993) suggest that framing is defined by a series of structures
within a message. Hallahan (1999) defined these as stable patterns of arranging words
and termed them syntactical structures.

Duhe and Zoch (1994) contend that the framing metaphor adopted by public
relations practitioners and researchers defines the process of inclusion and exclusion
of information and seeks to place emphasis on specific information.
Framing operates through two mechanisms, first by influencing individuals in the
cognitive process of decision making and second by priming messages. Kahneman and
Tversky (1979) first suggested the cognitive heuristic and the effects of positive versus
negative framing on decision making by an individual. They explored what guides
individuals in making decisions in situations of risk and uncertainty such as in a crisis.
Hamilton and Zanna (1972) and Pratto and John (1991) explored and expanded on the
effects of negative framing. They concluded that negative framing influences individuals
in the processing of the message. Specifically, negative framing can prompt publics to
explore the message in greater detail. This finding is supported by the research
undertaken by Maheswaran and Meyers-Levy (1990) who concluded that message
framing effects vary with the level of involvement by individuals.
Framing also operates through the mechanism of priming. This is based on the
premise that the human memory operates in cognitive structures or schemas (Hallahan,
1999). These schemas control the arrangement and interpretation of events and situations
(Bartlett, 1932). While Alba & Hasher (1983) have challenged the schematic
organisation of memory, researchers are in agreement that schematic processing
describes how individuals use association and expectation to draw inferences about
events (Hallahan, 1999). Therefore, framing can affect the cognitive processing of
message interpretation and priming affects how an individual uses the message cues to
retrieve knowledge from memory.

Cutlip et al. (2000) defined public relations in terms of the practices ability to
manage the relationship between an organisations and its publics. Framing, therefore,
plays a vital role in public relations. The development of frames of reference for issues
of mutual interest between the organisation and its publics is an essential aspect in
maintaining successful relationships as asserted by Cutlip et al. (2000) and as a
consequence elevates framing to an essential aspect of the public relations function.
While framing is considered a useful theoretical concept, it suffers from a lack of
definition. Hallahan (1999) conducted an exhaustive search of literature and explored
more than 1,000 citations about framing in academic literature. He conceded that one of
concepts weaknesses is also one of its greatest strengths, in that framing provides the
context within which information is presented. Hallahan (1999) sought to utilize the
framing theory to explore public relations. He identified seven models of framing
applicable to public relations practice, these are framing of: situations, attributes, choices,
actions, issues, responsibility and news and are presented in Table 1 (Hallahan, 1999).
Table 1
Typology of seven models of framing applicable to public relations, Hallahan (1999).

What is framed Description Key Sources
Situations Relationships between individuals in
situations found in everyday living and
literature. Framing situations provides
structure for examining communication.
Applies to discourse analysis, negotiation,
and other interactions.
(Bateson, 1972;
Goffman, 1974;
Homer & Yoon,
1992; Tannen,
1993)
Attributes Characteristics of objects and people are
accentuated whereas others are ignored,
thus biasing processing of information in
terms of focal attributes.
(Ghanem, 1997;
Levin, Schneider, &
Gaeth, 1998;
McCoombs &
Ghanem, 1998; Reis
& Trout, 1981;
Wright & Lutz,
1993)
Choices Posing alternative decisions in either
negative (loss) or positive (gain) terms can
bias choices in situations involving
uncertainty. Prospect theory suggests
people will take greater risks to avoid
losses than to obtain gains.
(Bell, Raiffa, &
Tversky, 1988;
Kahneman &
Tversky, 1979;
Levin et al., 1998)
Actions In persuasive contexts, the probability that (Maheswaran &
a person will act to attain a desired goal is
influenced by whether alternatives are
stated in positive or negative terms.
Meyers-Levy, 1990;
Smith & Petty,
1996)
Issues Social problems and disputes can be
explained in alternative terms by different
parties who want their preferred definition
to a problem or situation to prevail.
(Best, 1995;
Gamson &
Modigham, 1989;
Snow & Benford,
1992)
Responsibility Individuals tend to attribute cause of events
to either internal or external factors, based
on levels of stability and control. People
portray their role in events consistent with
their self-image in ways that maximize
benefits and minimize culpability. People
attribute causes to personal actions rather
than systemic problems in society.
(Iyengar, 1991;
Iyengar & Kinder,
1986; Kelly, 1989;
Wallack, Dorfman,
Jernigan, &
Themba, 1993)
News Media reports use familiar, culturally
resonating themes to relay information
about events. Sources vie for their
preferred framing to be featured through
frame enterprise and frame sponsorship.
(Gamson, Croteau,
Hoynes, & Sasson,
1992; Ryan, 1991)

The final model is presented by Hallahan (1999), is news framing. This model is
relevant to public relations and this study because the model relates how news stories are
presented by mass media whose aim is to explain complex ideas in familiar, culturally
acceptable terms. Hallahan (1999) asserts that this model of news framing can
incorporate other models presented in Table One.
News Framing
Throughout the last decade, framing has been used extensively in public relations
research to measure and comprehend news processes and effects (Hallahan, 1999).
The frame analysis uses the principle that the news in general, and in particular the
case under observation, is not simply made up of random coverage of external events, but
is rather a specific process of selection and construction (Tuchman, 1978). This process is
social in origin, in the sense that news coverage is socially constructed, established by a
combination of news coverage routines at the news organizational level. While news
norms are preserved and reproduced by the journalists themselves, who follow a number
of set processes in the selection, gathering, and production of news stories (Gamson &
Modigham, 1989; Tuchman, 1978).
Gamson (1992), Gamson and Lasch (1983), Gamson and Modigham (1989) claim
that the ideas or themes that appear are media packages that feature a main theme with
framing devices which support the theme. Journalists typically portray the events
covered by describing them in ways familiar to the audience (Gamson, 1992). Events can
be tied to current local issues, or even to other events of which the audience might have a
better understanding. Finding news frames is important for journalists because successful

frames must be based on values that also exist as individuals personal frames of
reference.
Goffman (1974) described personal frames as ways to organize individual
experiences in a manner that assists the individual in understanding the world around
them. Snow and Benford (1992) develops this concept further with the idea of master
frames through which responsibility, both for the problem and the treatment of which, is
attributed.
Entman (1993) broadens the concept of specific event frames to the mass media. In
general news, this is defined as an investigation of the manner in which government, the
media, and the public create an understanding of the complexities of events. Entman
(1993) and Iyengar (1991) purport that there is a relationship between dominant frames
of issues presented by the media, the treatment options advocated by government and
supported by the media, and public attitude. By presenting images which link the various
parts of the topic and draw on popular culture shared by publics, journalists can present a
specific picture of a given issue (Entman, 1993; Gamson, 1992). The American press
during the Cold War elected to present many international events within the context of
the United States of America-Soviet conflict as it simplified complex issues into a
recognizable formula. After the events of 9-11 media outlets have sought to devise new
definitive frames relating to terrorism through which both domestic and international
affairs news are presented.
Winterstein (1998) examined The New York Times coverage of nuclear testing by
France and China just prior to the passage of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in
1996. The United States of American government provided information to journalists

influencing them towards a diplomatic frame. In this study, when the United States of
American government was used as a source and a stakeholder, The New York Times
relied on the frame provided by the government. However, when such a frame was not
provided by the government, the coverage was opened to permit other groups to promote
different frames.
Hanson (1995) constructed a case study of how to combine a quantitative content
analysis of a medium to gauge what type of news is covered. She used a qualitative
frame analysis of that same medium, to get at how and why of the news being covered.
This longitudinal study of The Times of India explored how news was framed in that
paper after the collapse of the Cold War narrative.
Hanson (1995) defined framing as the repetition of certain topics, ideas, and
images in association with each other [that] becomes a self-reinforcing process that in
turn shapes future decisions about the direction of news (p. 371). She presented the
analogy of a changing paradigm: "like a scientific paradigm, frames persist until an
overwhelming amount of discrepant information forces them to change. Even then, the
old frame persists as an alternative picture of reality, and the debate continues. (Hanson,
1995, p. 372)
Entman (1991) opines that nowhere is there a general statement of framing theory
that shows exactly how frames become embedded within and make themselves manifest
in a text, or how framing influences thinking ( p. 15). Entman (1991) establishes frame
analysis as a legitimate communications-inspired research paradigm.
Frame analysis illuminates the precise way in which influence over a human
consciousness is exerted by the transfer (or communication) of information from one

location such as speech, utterance, news report, or novel to that consciousness. (Entman,
1991, p. 16)
In this context, framing involves selection and salience. Entman (1991) emphasizes
that to frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient
in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition,
causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation. Entman
(1991) also notes that a frame analysis does not necessarily need to address all four of
these factors.
As a consequence, Entmans (1991) research constitutes the foundation of the mass
media and accommodates links to the Crisis Life Cycle model. Entman (1991) presents
the concept of salience as a central factor, since textual references can make certain
pieces of information more salient by placement or repetition, or by associating them
with culturally familiar symbols, to be salient, however, the reference has to match with
the existing schemata in a receivers belief system (p. 23).
Public relations practitioners assert their ability to influence agenda-setting and
framing processes in mass media (Fortunato, 2000).
Mass Media Themes and Focusing Events
Kingdon (1995) first defined focusing events as events that caused bureaucrats,
elected officials, and the general public to pay greater attention to the problems revealed
by these events. Birkland (1997) citing Cobb and Elder (1983), Baumgartner and Jones
(1993) and Light (1982) identified that the result of focusing events is the stimulation of
greater public interest in a problem.

The manner in which these focusing events are brought to the attention of publics is
typically via mass media (Kingdon, 1995). Birkland (1997) claims that the initial
reaction to a focusing event is detectable in the news media. News imperatives make
sudden, novel, and injurious events particularly attractive to news coverage (p. 30).
Birkland (1997) further claims that the drama of a focusing event is such that once the
event has occurred the issue is elevated on the media agenda.
For the purpose of this study, Birklands (1997) identification of a focusing event
is developed for the definition of a theme in mass media content. Birkland (1997)
identified categories of focusing events. The first are normal focusing events where the
term normal is used in the same manner as Perrow (1984), this being that this focusing
event can be expected to happen sometime (p.15). These normal focusing events
include natural disasters, events caused by human error such as oil spills, nuclear plant
accidents and acts of terrorism. Second are new focusing events, which are defined as
events that has never happened before or happened so long agohave faded from
memory (Birkland, 1997, p. 145). This term includes events of the loss of the space
shuttle Challenger in 1986 and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. Finally, Birkland
(1997) identifies the third type of focusing event as common events under uncommon
circumstances. This definition includes political scandals and violent crimes.
Drawing on Birklands (1997) definition, this study defines a mass media content
theme as coverage of a focusing event (p. 145). The themes attributes in mass media
content change during the Crisis Life Cycle, changing from descriptive to explanatory to
blame and responsibility themes before a resolution theme appears in mass media
content.

CRISES
The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (Onions, C.T. Ed., 1973) defines a crisis as;
A decision, judgment, event, issue, turning-point of a disease. A turning point in
the progress of anything; also, a state of affairs in which a decisive change for better or
worse is imminent (p. 457).
The online Merriam Webster Dictionary defines a crisis as:
The turning point for better or worse in an emotionally significant event; radical
change of status in a person's life; the moment in an unstable or crucial time or state of
affairs in which a decisive change is impending; one with the distinct possibility of a
highly undesirable change; a situation that has reached a critical phase(Merriam Webster
Dictionary, 2002).
Crisis research has been undertaken in various disciplines: business, management,
sociology, psychology, mass communications and most recently public relations and is
extremely fragmented. Pauchant and Mitroff (1988) and Bronn and Olson (1999) support
the view of fragmentation of research in the area. The multi-disciplinary nature of crisis
research provides a unique set of challenges for public relations research on this topic
(Mitroff, 1994). Pauchant (1988) described the field of crisis management as in its
infancy (p. 50). He also asserts that the lack of empirical findings in crisis
management increased the degree of difficulty of studying in this field (Pauchant, 1988,
p. 51).
The body of social science literature prior to 1988 provides few comprehensive
definitions of crises (Mitroff, 1996; Pinsdorf, 1999). Semantics have affected the
development of definition with various terms including: emergency (Marra, 1992),

disaster (Quarantelli, 1988), tragedy (Mitroff et al., 1987) and accident (Perrow, 1984),
all of which have been used regularly to describe crises.
Seeger, Sellnow and Ulmers (1998) definition of a crisis was derived after
extensive analysis of the current body of crisis literature a specific, unexpected and non-
routine event or series of events that create high levels of uncertainty and threaten or are
perceived to threaten an organisations high priority goals (p. 233).
This study utilizes the issue-based view from Fink (1986), Dutton (1986),
Gonzalez-Herrero (1996), and Heath (1997, 2001) who purport that a crisis can occur
from both threats and opportunities that the organisation encounters, arising from either
internal or external issues.
Crisis Typologies
A series of crisis typologies can be found in crisis literature (Coombs, 1999;
Egelhoff, 1992; Egelhoff & Sen, 1992; Mitroff, 1994; Pauchant & Mitroff, 1988; Sturges,
1994). Gottschalk (1993) grouped crises into business calamities, consumer troubles, and
human tragedies. Coombs (1999) produced a detailed master list drawn from the vast
range of crises identified in current literature.
Natural disasters have a negative impact on the organisation (Coombs, 1999;
Egelhoff & Sen, 1992; Fearn-Banks, 1996). These events are often termed acts of God
in mass media content. Recent examples include the January 2002 bush fires in New
South Wales, Hurricane Andrew in Florida and in 2000 earthquakes in northern Turkey.
A malevolent crisis is an event when someone with no association to the
organisation utilizes extreme tactics to express anger toward the organisation, for

example the Tylenol tampering crisis and 9/11 (Coombs, 1999; Egelhoff & Sen, 1992;
Fearn-Banks, 1996; Pauchant & Mitroff, 1988).
Technical breakdown crises occur due to poor technical support by the organisation
or products supplied by the organisation fail or break down, such as the Intel Pentium
chip recall (Pauchant & Mitroff, 1988).
Human breakdown crises result from actions of individuals employed by the
organisation. Chernobyl and Three Mile Island accidents were both caused by human
error (Coombs, 1999; Lerbinger, 1997).
Challenges are crises organisations face when confronted by discontented publics
such as the Nestle boycott, and the Dow Corning breast implant compensation legal
action and the Australian Pilots strike(Lerbinger, 1997; Pauchant & Mitroff, 1988).
A mega damage crisis occurs when an accident creates significant environmental
damage. Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989 is ranked as the 30
th
worst oil spill in maritime
history, yet has the highest profile accident of this nature due to mass media coverage
(Fearn-Banks, 1996; Pauchant & Mitroff, 1988).
An organisational misdeed crisis transpires from organisational actions that
management has taken with the knowledge the actions will harm or place publics at risk
for harm without adequate precautions. Typically, these acts discredit or disgrace the
organisation (Lerbinger, 1997). Sample organisational misdeeds include Enron and
OneTels corporate collapses in 2001 and Xerox corporate collapse in 2002.
Workplace violence crises results from violence committed by an employee or
former employee against other employees on organisational grounds such as in the case
of various shootings in the United States (Coombs, 1999; Fearn-Banks, 1996).

Finally, rumour crises eventuate when false information is dispensed regarding an
organisation or its products. This false information impacts on the organisations
reputation, recent examples include the Proctor and Gamble logo which was purported to
indicate devil worship (Fearn-Banks, 1996).
Crisis Public Relations
Little of the research in crisis management has been integrated across disciplines,
and the body of literature has largely ignored the public relations function. Mitroff
(1988), Barton (1993), Kelly (1989), Burson (1985), Dutton (1986) have focused on the
effective management of crises by organisations from a business perspective. Initial
crises mass communication research was undertaken by Wilkens (1987) and Scanlon
(1989). Both researchers examined the role of mass media and methods employed to
disseminate information to the various publics before, during and post crises.
Crisis communication strategy has been a prolific area of research during the latter
1990s (Fishman, 1999). The focus of crisis communication research has developed from
the technical methodology of guidelines and generic plans (Barton, 1993; Fink, 1986) to
a stronger theoretical approach and analysis of role of public relations within the
management of a crisis (Williams & Olaniran, 1994; Marra, 1998; Heath, 2001).
Fishman (1999) asserts that crisis communication began after the 1962 Cuban missile
conflict in the United States, when the prime objective was to prevent the crisis from
occurring and to measure the costs of selected actions.
To date much of the crisis communication literature has focused on the
development of crisis communication management plans (Coombs, 1995, 1999). The
plans proposed are predicative in nature (Barton, 1993; Coombs, 1995, 1999). Coombs

sought to further define this approach and devised a three-staged plan of pre-crisis, crisis
event and post-crisis. Marra (1992) presented a differing view stating that static plans
while useful as a framework are not effective when crises occur. Reinsch and Reinsch
(1996), described the study of crisis communication as a diverse and evolving field (p.
41).
The importance of crisis public relations activities in crisis management has been
well documented, however the prescriptive nature of the public relations literature is
limiting. The majority of research focuses on technical skills, presenting detailed
analysis of the technical elements including crisis communication plans and crisis public
relations response methods (Fitzpatrick & Rubin, 1995). According to Tymson and
Sherman (1996), Pines (1985) and Cutlip et al. (2000) crisis public relations activities
include: (a) coordinating staff to implement specified tasks, (b) determining the facts of
the crisis, (c) preparing an initial statement that covers all that is definite and provide the
media with all the facts that are available, (d) notifying key publics, (e) managing media
inquiries, (f) controlling media coverage, (g) selecting and briefing employees for media
interviews, as company employees are often sought by media for comment, and (h) not
allocating blame, at least until an investigation reveals the true facts. This prescriptive
approach limits the effectiveness of strategic crisis public relations (Marra, 1992).
In crisis public relations, diligence is an essential aspect of the role, and regardless
of the preparation, crisis public relations strategies will only be successful if all avenues
are explored and public relations practitioners are prepared for the unexpected (Fearn-
Banks, 1996). Public relations professionals face a range of issues during a crisis.
Coulter (1996) asserts the communication challenges and the principles of the strategies

are similar to normal business operations. While the most important issue faced for
public relations professionals in dealing with a crisis is maintaining control of the
message (Barton, 1993; Fearn-Banks, 1996; Marra, 1992).
The importance of crisis public relations strategy to organisations is accentuated by
two current trends. First, the mass media and digital revolution that has ensured vast
coverage of crises internationally (Barr, 2000; Hearn et al., 1998). And second, the
awareness of how crises can impact on organisations in terms of reputation, financial
status and perceptions held by significant publics (Pauchant & Mitroff, 1988; Mitroff,
1996).
Coombs (2000) asserts that the most important component of crisis public relations
strategy is the development and implementation of a theoretical and effective media
relations campaign. He claims that the media plays a vital role in an organisations
attempt to convey key messages to targeted publics. He also cautions that mass media
content can damage reputations by creating negative publicity through publishing
rumours and innuendo.
Fink (1986) and Quarantelli (1988) assert that best practice crisis public relations
happens when an organisation has undertaken preparation for possible crises and has a
plan for performance during a specific time period associated with a crisis. Today, the
focus of crisis public relations strategy extends beyond the operational timeframe and
affected publics to incorporate crisis communication theory (Marra, 1998).
The majority of crisis communication theories extend the public relations
excellence theory proposed by Grunig and Hunt (1984). Excellence theory divides
recognized practices of public relations into four areas or models. These models are

used to define the types of public relations practiced. Grunig (1992) expanded excellence
theory and further refined the models developed. These models, the Press
Agentry/Publicity model, the Public Information model, the Two-Way Asymmetric
model and the Two-Way Symmetric model explain the communication process between
an organisation and its publics. Grunig and Repper (1992) assert that symmetrical
communication based on the presuppositions of listening, negotiation and compromise
is the best practice for public relations practitioners, particularly during crises.
Barton (1993) Carney and Jorden (1993) and Fearn-Banks (1996) maintain that a
crisis public relations strategy is essential, yet all provide prescriptive frameworks
illustrating a lack of theory building within the literature. Marra (1992) sought to
develop a crisis public relations strategy framework drawing on the Grunig and Repper
(1992) communication model. Marken (1998) asserts that effective crisis public relations
programs will have a profound affect on short-term outcomes and long-term results for an
organisation. Pinsdorf (2001) extends Markens claim asserting that executives who are
continually vigilant for early warning signs of imminent crises and prepare for such
incidents by devising a crisis management plan in line with organisational and
communication strategies will be successful. These early warning signs typically appear
in mass media coverage raising the public awareness of an topic.
The similar theme in the writings of Grunig, Fearn-Banks, Cutlip et al., White, and
Pinsdorf is that there are four common elements have been considered as the basis for
developing a crisis public relations strategy.
The first element is comprehension of the issue. Critical to this understanding is the
management of the crisis (Fearn-Banks, 1996; Gonzalez-Herrero & Pratt, 1995). All

recommend that an audit of the company is undertaken to examine any areas that may be
susceptible to adverse publicity (Carney & Jorden, 1993; Marken, 1998). Tabris (1984)
posits that crisis audits are the means by which organisations can identify potential
threats and develop instruments to manage these issues should they occur. An issue can
appear in the mass media coverage prior to the onset of actual crisis. Tabris (1984)
claims the success of such an audit is dependent on the communication between the
organisation and its publics. Cutlip et al. (2000) assert that the prime communication tool
used in public relations is mass media. As a consequence of the assertions made by
Cutlip et al. (2000) and Tabris (1984) mass media content is a very important aspect of a
successful crisis public relations strategy.
Crisis management plans have become the focus for crisis management (Mitroff,
1996). These plans are prescriptive in nature providing a framework for action (Marra,
1992). Reinhardt (1987) recommends that in time of crisis prior to any communication
with the organisations publics that a situation analysis of the crisis be undertaken.
Further, he contends that an examination of the scope to the situation including the legal
implications, and whether the legal ramifications will override the publics perception of
the issue is vital (Reinhardt, 1987).
The second element of crisis public relations strategy is the identification of all
publics involved with and affected by the crisis. Once identified the organisation should
identify the target publics such as shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers and
mass media (Hendrix, 1995; Pinsdorf, 1999). Center and Jackson (1995) recommend a
crafted message be developed that delivers information and allows the organisation to
maintain control of communication. The key message should be adapted for each target

public as, for example, the information provided to the marketing department within the
organisation will differ from the information released to mass media (Pinsdorf, 1987).
Thirdly, how the information will be communicated is extremely important (Grunig
& Grunig, 1992). White and Mazur (1995) assert that the medium of the message is as
important as the message itself. The channel of communication selected establishes the
tone for the remaining activities related to the crisis (Carney & Jorden, 1993).
Careful execution of crisis public relations strategy ensures the strategy is effective;
planning for the situation can never be overemphasized (Pinsdorf 1987; Carney & Jorden
1993). Post crisis activity analysis is one of the most critical aspects of a crisis public
relations strategy (Cutlip et al., 2000). Understanding the success and failure of a
strategy further strengthens the public relations practitioners skills and improves future
outcomes, while shaping future strategy. The development of long term communications
strategies will enable the organisation to meet the challenges presented during crisis
activity in a professional and effective manner, ensuring that a sound corporate image is
maintained (Marken, 1998).
During the crisis, the media becomes more important due to the potential damage of
negative mass media coverage. Coombs (2000) suggests that the seriousness of a crisis is
determined by the mass medias reaction to the crisis. Marra (1992), Barton (1993) and
Fearn-Banks (1996) identify that effective use of mass media has numerous benefits
including: (a) the opportunity for the organisation to act in a proactive rather than reactive
manner; (b) greater chance of control of the message, (c) the ability to correct
misinformation, and (d) retain control of the situation. Communication research argues
that early, accurate public responses to crises by organisations can minimize the potential

damage to the organisations credibility (Marconi, 1992; Seeger et al., 1998; Williams &
Treadaway, 1992). Yet the threat and urgency that accompanies crisis situations often
prevents the identification and communication of accurate messages to the various
publics (Fink, 1986; Seeger, 1986; Sellnow, 1993; Sellnow & Ulmer, 1995). The result
is often vague crisis communication by organisations.
Fearn-Banks (1996) counsels that failure to meet with mass media can create the
impression that the organisation is not in control of the situation. Allen and Caillouets
(1996) research in crisis public relations has revealed that an ingratiating strategy was
atypical for crisis public relations strategy. They also identified intimidation and
denouncement strategies for specific targeted publics as tools to manage crisis
communication. Sellnow and Ulmer (1993) contradicted standard crisis management
practice of one message, one voice through the identification of the success of
presenting contradictory messages to specific publics. Using the Exxon Valdez disaster
as an example, Sellnow and Ulmer (1993) offered evidence to support the scientific
arguments presented by Exxon. This information was used to defend the contradictory
statements made by Exxon personnel during the crisis.
Benoit (1997) used image restoration discourse to evaluate the crisis responses of
organisations. He identified image repair strategies as denial, evading responsibility,
reducing offensiveness, correcting action and mortification(p. 177). Brinson and Benoit
(1996) mapped public opinion in terms of the Dow Corning crisis and identified that the
initial response of denial was poorly received but the shift to mortification by Dow
Corning had a significant impact on public opinion. Both responses were communicated
to the target publics by mass media.

Seymour & Moore (2000) sought to rectify poor crisis communication by the
development of a crisis communication theoretical model, the 5Cs of Communication.
Seymour & Moore (2000) assert that this model is the best method of managing
communication during a crisis:
1. Care, all communication should indicate that the company cares about the
issue and empathizes with affected publics;
2. Commitment, the company should declare and act to demonstrate it will to
solve the problem, identify the cause and take action to prevent it from
reoccurring;
3. Consistency, the communication message to all publics must inform each
group regarding the crisis with the same message;
4. Coherence, all communication should progress in a logical manner;
5. Clarity, the issues should be clearly explained and the companys position
and action clarified (p. 99).
They also argue that internal and external communication should meet the five key
criteria stated. This framework provides new insight into methods of communication
during crises. Fearn-Banks (1996) claims that crisis public relations should be seen as a
long term strategy rather than the prescriptive series of responses recommended after the
Acute Stage of the Crisis Life Cycle. Further, crisis public relations is the process of
mitigating harm, managing the publics needs and repairing the reputation of the
organisation during the Crisis Life Cycle.

Crisis Life Cycle
Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model is derived from the marketing product life
cycle. The product life cycle is a concept used in marketing to interpret product and
market dynamics. Most applications of the product life cycle use a form of sales or
consumption data to map a curve over time. There are four stages in the product life
cycle: introduction, growth, maturity and decline. The application of product life cycle
theory implies organisations should develop and implement marketing strategies pursuant
with the service or products position relative to the four stages of the product life cycle
(Kotler, 1991). The original concept of the product life cycle is derived from the
biological life cycle of a plant. In reality very few products follow such a prescriptive
cycle and the length of each stage varies enormously. Kotler (1991) asserts that in using
the product life cycle framework, marketers can more successfully manage products.
Further, he contends that not all products go through each stage as some products go from
introduction to decline in one step.
The concept that crises progress in a certain manner or follow a life cycle was
developed in the early 1980s and is consistent with crisis management literature from this
period (Fink 1986; Barton, 1993; Mitroff, 1994; Sturges, 1994; Coombs, 1999). Fink
(1986) developed the concept and produced the Crisis Life Cycle model. As marketing
researchers used the product lifecycle to interpret product and market dynamics he sought
to apply the Crisis Life Cycle model to better understand crisis behaviours. Finks (1986)
model presents four distinct phases whose titles are grounded in medical terminology: the
Prodromal Crisis, Acute Crisis, Chronic Crisis and Crisis Resolution.

He presented four identifiable stages of a crisis and defined each stage with specific
terms and initiated a management program for crises using this life cycle model.
Bartons (1993) four stage crisis management model and Mitroffs (1994) five stage
crisis management model were developed in response to Finks Crisis Life Cycle
delimitation. Fearn-Banks (1996) sought to refine Bartons model for crisis management.
Figure 1 illustrates Finks (1986) model defining the four stages of a crisis and the
process of the life cycle.
Figure Caption
Figure 1. The sequence of the four stages of a crisis as identified in Finks (1986) Crisis
Life Cycle Model (p. 26).

Fink (1986) claimed not every crisis will experience all four stages and the entire
lifecycle can occur within 24 hours. He asserted that crises are dynamic and unstable
occurrences, with no two crises being the same. Further, he explained that crises were
not recognised as crises by publics and most organisations until the crisis reached the
Acute Stage in the Crisis Life Cycle.
Fink (1986) identified the Prodromal Crisis Stage as the warning or pre-crisis
stage. At this initial stage impact of the crisis on the organisation is yet to be
experienced. Retrospectively actions that occur to prevent the crisis occurring often
happen too late to prevent the crisis from progressing. The term pre-crisis is usually
used only after the crisis has progressed to the Acute Stage (Mitroff, 1994).
Fink (1986) claims that Prodromes will vary in appearance. An apparent Prodrome
is, for example, the recent announcement of strike action by Qantas baggage handlers.
More difficult to detect are the oblique Prodromes where events or actions are not known
by management or are not perceived to be a threat to the organisation.
One Ansett Prodrome was the companys failure to fulfil its maintenance schedule
within Boeings timeframe for aircraft engines in its fleet. Information regarding the
maintenance failure appeared in mass media in December 2000. Thereby raising
awareness of this Prodrome with various publics. Ansett staff were aware of this
Prodrome but failed on act.
Prodromes can also be clearly visible, but the organisation fails to act. NASA was
aware that freezing temperatures could affect the Space Shuttle, but the perceived need
by management to maintain the Space Program led to obsessive decision making by
management (Gottschalk, 1993). In 1986 the pharmaceutical industry acted on the

Prodrome and undertook preventative actions after the Tylenol capsule poisoning
(Benson, 1988). Other pharmaceutical companies introduced tamper free packaging in
response to the Tylenol case, thereby preventing a possible tampering crisis for their
organisation (Fearn-Banks 1996). While the event was at the Acute Stage of the crisis for
Tylenol, the rest of the industry was distanced from the company crisis and mass media
content for the remainder of the industry is categorised as Prodromal.
Fink (1986) asserts that identification and management of Prodromes are essential,
as it is much easier to control and manage the crisis in the early stage of its life cycle.
When a crisis progresses to the acute stage, reaction to the situation is the only possible
option for a public relations practitioner. If management of the Prodrome is not possible,
Fink (1986) asserts that knowledge of Prodromes will assist in crisis management during
the final three stages of the crisis life cycle.
In terms of crisis management, Barton (1993) claims that organisations who remain
sensitive to their environment, monitor mass media content, and explore relevant trends
are better positioned to recognize crises. Further, with proactive management, Gonzalez-
Herrero and Pratt (1996) affirm that early intervention can minimize damage for the
organisation.
Fink (1986) stated that control in the Prodromal Stage decreases the impact of
potential damage to the organisation. Once a crisis has progressed to the Acute Stage of
the Crisis Life Cycle, reactive strategies are the only option to public relations
professionals. Barton (1993), Mitroff (1994), Fearn-Banks (1996) and Seymour and
Moore (2000) contend that management of the message can diminish the impact of the

impending crisis and enable public relation professionals to lessen the potential impact of
the Prodromes.
Shrivastava (1993) presented the 4Cs of framing in his research of crises. He
defined the four major aspects of crises as causes, consequences, caution and coping
(Shrivastava, 1993, p. 30). He also used the term triggering event to explain the
catalyst for crises occurring. Pearson and Clair (1998) drew on Shrivastavas research
also using the term triggering event in their discussion of the adoption of organizational
crisis management (p. 65). They defined the triggering event as the factor that causes
the crisis to progress from the Prodromal to Acute Stage.
A Prodrome often appears as a small news story in mass media content and is the
precursor to the Acute Crisis stage. These themes represent repeated messages and
indicators that offer warning signs to the organisation of possible crises. The occurrence
of the theme and the potential impact mass media coverage related to the theme will have
on an organisation depends on early detection and intervention by public relations
practitioners. Drawn from Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model, trigger themes have
the potential to (a) escalate in intensity, (b) increase close media and/or government
scrutiny, (c) interfere with normal organizational operations, (d) jeopardize positive
public image, and (e) adversely effect profitability ( p. 42).
Pauchant & Mitroff (1992) claim that public relations practitioners who practise
strategic public relations will assist their organisations in managing threats and
opportunities when they appear as trigger themes in mass media. The organisation would
avoid the damaging impact of a crisis and subsequent mass media coverage.

The Acute Crisis Stage occurs immediately after the Prodromal stage. Fink (1986)
claims organisations will suffer some damage, the extent of which depends on the
organisation chooses to manage the crisis. Fink (1986) defines this stage as the shortest
and most intense stage of the crisis. Once the warning or Prodromal phase has ended, the
damage the crisis does to an organisation depends on how the organisation manages of
the issue and how the publics react (Fink, 1986). Failure to act ensures the organisation
loses control of the message (Coombs, 2000). An example is the 1986 Challenger
disaster when it took NASA five hours to make its first comments to the press during
which time the media sourced their own information and presented that to the public
(Barton, 1993). This delay allowed mass media control of the message to the target
publics and mass media maintained this control throughout the remainder of the crisis
(Fishman, 1999).
Researchers claim the key to crisis management is control of the message (Fink,
1986; Barton, 1993; Mitroff, 1994; Seymour & Moore, 2000). The medias ability to
communicate news as soon as it happens has forced organisations to develop crisis
strategies that can be implemented expeditiously (Fink, 1986). According to Pines
(1985), management at this stage should focus solely on taking care of any casualities,
controlling damage, and returning the organisation to normal operating conditions as
quickly as possible. Failure to effectively respond to the crisis can often bring unwanted
reactions (Pines, 1985). Lack of message management relinquishes control to mass
media who will retain control throughout the remainder of the crisis and drive agendas
according to specific aims and objectives (Ogrizek & Guillery, 1999).

Finks (1986) Chronic Crisis or post-mortem stage occurs when the organisation
undertakes an audit of the events, activities and reactions to the crisis. This stage of the
crisis can be lengthy with litigation extending the period of post-mortem (Barton, 1993).
The crisis can be replayed in the courts once the Acute Stage of mass media content has
passed. This mass media content again raises the publics awareness of the crisis during
this stage.
Fearn-Banks (1996) contends this is the containment stage, when organisations
endeavour to limit the impact of the crisis. Barton (1993) claims organisations that enjoy
a positive public image before the crisis will be allowed more scope for explanation by
stakeholders than those whose reputation is already susceptible to closer scrutiny.
Litigation regularly extends the Crisis Life Cycle, current examples of how
litigation impacts on organisations are crises such as the HIH Royal Commission where
extensive mass media coverage reporting on the Commission hearings and outcomes
continue to appear in mass media. During this stage mass media, typically will explore
the reasons for the crisis and mass media content evolves from reporting of the events of
the crisis to further explore the how and why of the crisis.
Mass media content will: (a) allocate blame to individuals and organisations for
the crisis, (b) explore why the crisis occurred and whether negligence can be assigned to
individuals or organisations, (c) define the crisis as a human mistake or an Act of God,
(d) undertake exhaustive analysis of impact of the crisis, and (e) assignment of
responsibility for the crisis (Fink, 1986).
The fourth and final stage is Crisis Resolution where the organisation seeks to
resolve issues that created the crisis and its subsequent impact and effect on the

organisation, its publics and the physical and operational environment. Using mass
media to communicate the resolution of the crisis to relevant publics is a vital crisis
public relations objective (Fearn-Banks, 1996). Failure to achieve resolution of the
theme will allow the theme to become latent which could reappear at a later date and do
greater harm to the organisation. Fink (1986), Barton (1993), and Fearn-Banks (1996) all
recommend that resolution of the crisis is essential.
Fink (1986) was the first to present crises as extended occurrences, and not focus on
the actual Acute phase of the crisis. The majority of cases studies of crises presented in
the public relations literature indicate the importance of crisis communication plans
(Fearn-Banks, 1996). However, recent research indicates that the true value of a crisis
communication plan is overrated (Marra, 1992) and that a strategic approach to crisis
public relations is required (Marra, 1998). Further, strong management of mass media
during the crisis is the key to crisis public relations success (Seymour & Moore, 2000).
Sturges (1994) expanded on Finks earlier work and explored the actions required at each
stage suggesting that crisis communication strategies should be developed to meet the life
cycle of a crisis. This study extends Sturges (1994) approach to describe the relationship
of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model and mass media content in each stage of the
crisis to thereby inform crisis public relations strategy.
Crisis Management
Early research in crisis management focused on individual crisis case studies. The
discipline is now maturing as the focus has shifted to developing analytical
methodologies to explore crisis events and this focus has encouraged the integration of
various ideas and constructs of crisis communication (Fishman, 1999). Crisis

management research has sought to develop models and theory to assist in the
understanding and better management of crises. Crisis management literature focuses on
three areas of discussion:
1. Preparation for meeting the challenges of crises (Barton, 1993; Dutton,
1986; Fink, 1986; Kelly, 1989; Mitroff, 1996; Quarantelli, 1988;
Shrivastava & Mitroff, 1987).
2. The behaviour of the organisation and its publics during the crisis period
(Barton, 1993; Newsom & Carrell, 1986; Ressler, 1982).
3. Communication between the organisation and its publics during crises
(Barton, 1993; Newsom & Carrell, 1986).
There is a lack of research in the communication area of crisis management (Marra,
1992, Heath, 1997, 2001). Little research has been undertaken in reactive crisis
management to measure how this form of management impacts on the organisation
(Seeger, Sellnow & Ulmer, 2001). The reasons for this deficiency may be driven by the
relationship of poor management practice and methodological difficulties (Fink, 1986;
Meyers & Holusha, 1986; Heath, 2001, Hearit, 2001). Loosemore (1999) explored this
lack of research using grounded theory, investigating the communication patterns that
emerge in response to crises. He identified the forces that shape these patterns and the
relationship between these patterns to better inform crisis management efficiency.
Crisis management campaigns seek to address how key issues must be addressed to
minimize the damage and attempt to achieve a positive result from a negative situation.
Crisis management is a vital component of the long-term success of any company (Fink,
1986). Crisis plans can enable managers to meet and overcome the challenges faced

during a crisis, further fore planning allow managers to save time in the development of a
plan by implementing an already devised strategy (Barton, 1993).
One of the greatest threats to an organisations reputational capital occurs when a
significant crisis threatens, or actually does, focus negative public attention on the
organisation. This is typically communicated to publics by the mass media (Cutlip, et al.,
2000). The organisations reactions to the crisis, in terms of timing, communication and
corporate behaviour, will leave an indelible impression on the organisations publics
(Marra, 1992). How the various publics reacts will determine if the company survives
intact, and is able to recover from the incident (Coombs, 2000). Mass media content
plays a vital role in the communication of organisational messages to targeted publics.
Conversely, mass media has the power to damage the company's reputation thorough the
creation of negative publicity (Seymour & Moore, 2000). Barton (1993) and Coombs
(2000) assert the need for a cohesive, strategic approach to all organisational
communication for crisis public relations strategy. Any discrepancy in communication
will be exploited by mass media. For this reason, Barton (1993) Seymour and Moore
(2000) and Fearn-Banks (1996) assert that effective crisis management plans must
incorporate a comprehensive crisis public relations strategy. Coombs (1999) claims that
crisis management should occur in a deliberate, precise, strategic manner, and not
develop in a reactive, emotional style as the reaction to the crisis will send clear message
to its publics regarding the values of the organisation.
Adept crisis management by Johnson & Johnson and Arnotts Biscuits resulted in
the crisis each company experienced enhancing rather than tarnishing their organisational
reputation and image. In 1982, seven people in the Chicago area died after taking Tylenol

capsules that had been laced with cyanide. Johnson & Johnson immediately withdrew all
Tylenol capsules from the United States of American market, at an estimated cost to the
company of $100 million (Benson, 1988). At the same time, the company embarked on a
comprehensive communication effort targeted at the pharmaceutical and medical
communities. Johnson & Johnson successfully presented itself to its publics as a
company that was willing to do what was right, regardless of the cost, and subsequently
regained its status as a market leader in the production and sale of paracetamol in six
months (Benson, 1988).
Similarly, Australian company Arnott's was able to emerge from the extortion crisis
with a positive outcome. In 1997, an extortionist threatened to poison biscuits if certain
police officers involved in a murder case were not given a lie detector test (Lindstrom,
2000). Arnotts immediately informed police of the threat, and suspended a $20 million
advertising campaign, replacing it with a campaign designed to deliver continuous public
knowledge. Products were immediately removed from sale. Once the Acute Stage of
crisis was over Arnotts enlisted a high profile personality with strong credibility in the
Australian market to front their advertisements, which concentrated on the safety of the
product, the manufacturing process, and Arnotts factories (Vines, 2001). The astute
crisis management plan supported by a strong crisis public relations strategy resulted in
Arnotts maintaining the loyalty of consumers, and retaining strong market share (Vines,
2001). Both cases are touted as best practice crisis public relations.
Crisis Management Models
Fink (1986) presented a management plan for each stage of the Crisis Life Cycle
model. Sturges (1994) expanded on Finks earlier work and explored the actions required

at each stage suggesting that crisis public relations strategies should be developed to meet
the life cycle of a crisis. Sturges (1994) was the first to explore different crisis public
relation strategies for each stage of the crisis, asserting that the message needs to evolve
with the crisis. Barton (1993) expanded on Finks crisis lifecycle management to five
stages:
1 Prodromal Stage, where the monitoring of warning signs is essential;
2 Preparation/prevention stage, where reaction to warning signs and steps are
taken to prevent or reduce the effect of consequences;
3 Containment, the management of the crisis;
4 Recovery, the efforts undertaken to return operations to normal; and
5 Learning, this is when the organization endeavours to understand the
developments and build on knowledge for the future.
Mitroff also (1994) divided the management of a crisis into five stages:
1 Signal detection, when warning signs are exhibited;
2 Probing and prevention, when members of the organisation recognize the risk
factors and undertake activities to reduce its effect;
3 Damage containment, how the crisis is handled,
4 Recovery, when the organisation returns to normal organisational procedures
and activities; and
5 Learning, when the organisation undertakes an audit of the event and
improves the organisations crisis response mechanisms.
While there are differences between the approaches the similarities are evident.
Mitroffs (1994) and Bartons (1993) approach reflect Finks (1986) original approach to

the lifecycle definition, with the most striking difference being in the detection and
prevention stage where these academic models seeks to actively prevent crises, Fink
(1986) implies that crises may be prevented, Mitroff (1994) and Barton (1993) claim
crises can be prevented.
Gonzalez-Herrero and Pratt (1995) elected to expand on Mitroffs (1994) recovery
stage, they recommended that the final analysis stage of crisis management incorporated
effective management of the organisational publics, active monitoring of issues related to
the crisis, and improved communication with mass media during the three final stages of
crises.
Gonzalez-Herrero and Pratt (1996) state that Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model
should be developed and become similar to a biological model. The four stages of
Gonzalez-Herrero and Pratts (1996) model are birth, growth, maturity, and decline.
Each stage has very similar attributes to Finks (1986) model, however, Gonzalez-
Herrero and Pratt (1996) support Mitroff (1994) and Bartons (1993) view that
management can avoid crises or under take crisis killing if management resolve issues
before they become crises (Gonzalez-Herrero & Pratt, 1996, p.86). Further, with
proactive management, they assert that early intervention can minimize damage for the
organisation. Fearn-Banks (1996) drew from Bartons crisis management model defining
a crisis in five stages: detection, prevention/preparation, containment, recovery, and
learning.
Grunig and Grunigs (1992) two-symmetrical model communication seeks to
prevent, or at least limit the effect and lessen the duration of a crisis. Fearn-Banks (1996)
further argues that the various crisis theories support the concept that organisations with

crisis communication programs are better prepared to manage crises and therefore suffer
less damage from the experience. Fearn-Banks (1996) claims that from the outset of the
crisis, organisations have the opportunity to influence events. However once the Acute
Crisis stage is reached, organisations tend to lose their capacity to manage and control the
message relayed to organisational publics (Fearn-Banks, 1996). Fearn Banks (1996)
research endorses the prescriptive approach of static crisis programs.
Figure 2 illustrates the proactive side of the Pauchant and Mitroffs (1992) Crisis
Management Model with strategic thinking added. Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) provide
further evidence that the identification of triggers is essential for sound crisis public
relations strategy.
Figure Caption
Figure 2. The proactive side of the Pauchant and Mitroffs (1992) Crisis Management
Model with strategic thinking added (Bronn & Olson, 1999).

This model indicates that a strategic approach to crisis public relations will provide
greater control of the crisis and communication to relevant publics. Further, with
improved signal detection, the Pauchant and Mitroff (1992) model supports the studys
description of the relationship between Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model and mass
media content.
Penrose (2000) asserts that crisis research has evolved from the prescriptive
frameworks and models presented. He makes this assertion based on his analysis of
recent high profile case studies. Crisis management plans were once considered the most
important factor in successful crisis management (Pauchant & Mitroff, 1992). Citing
crises experienced by NASA and Union Carbide, Penrose (2000) explored the actions of
both companies. In both cases management failure is well documented, yet crisis
management plans were immediately available (Marra, 1998). The closed
communication culture of NASA exacerbated the crisis plans failure in that instance
(Marra, 1998). Union Carbide also suffered from management communication and
cultural communication issues (Marra, 1998). In both instances the culture of the
organisation had a direct result on the failure of the crisis plan. Prevailing literature
supports Penroses (2000) claim of corporate culture having a direct affect on the success
or failure of crisis public relations. Conversely, McDonalds had not developed a crisis
plan for the crazed gunman (Starman, 1993) yet the corporate culture of the
organisation assisted in the successful management of the crisis. We are going to do
whats right, was the basis of the crisis management plan by McDonalds (Starman, 1993
p. 309). Management and the ethos of the company led to the successful management of
the crisis by using this open and frank approach.

Penrose (2000) and Marra (1998) identified the gap between the previously
presented strategies and models and intangibles such as corporate communication culture,
public relations effectiveness and management attitudes as significant factors for
consideration in crisis public relations strategy. This study describes the Crisis Life
Cycle and its relationship to mass media content in terms of crisis public relations
strategy.
Definitions of crisis public relations, crises, Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model,
mass media, framing, news framing and mass media content theme have been presented.
These definitions were drawn from a review literature on each of these topics. The
assertion has also been made that public relations research has tended to be prescriptive
and lacking in theoretical methodology.
The discussion of crisis public relations, crisis management, mass media and
framing provided a sense of the current developments in research and the relationship
with the discipline of public relations. The continued development of crisis public
relations requires researchers to move on from the list of guidelines and procedures,
which while essential do not assist in developing best practice for crisis public relations
theory. This chapter has sought to include theory development insights from other
disciplines and perspectives to provide the extension of Finks (1986) model in terms of
mass media content.
The following chapter will use these definitions as the foundation for the four
propositions offered in relation to the extension of Finks (1986) model of mass media
coverage. This description of the extension of Finks (1986) model and the relationship
with mass media content will inform crisis public relations theory.
Chapter Three

The literature review in Chapter Two described the elements for consideration in
strategic crisis public relations. Mass media content, in particular, is identified as an
important element of integrated crisis public relations strategy. The major conclusion
drawn from the literature review is that the current theoretical base should be extended to
link mass media content and Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model.
In this chapter, the theoretical framework of Finks (1986) model is extended to
build an understanding of the nature of mass media content during a crisis. The extension
of this model serves as the foundation in the development of four propositions that are the
empirical bridges between Finks (1986) model and the nature of mass media content
during a crisis. The focus of this thesis is to identify and describe the relationship
between the Crisis Life Cycle and mass media content. Further, this study will examine
the descriptive adequacy of the propositions, a series of indicators are developed to
anticipate mass media content during the Crisis Life Cycle.
The epistemological orientation of this study is positivist. The premise of which is
to generally test theory in an attempt to increase the predictive understanding of
phenomena (Yin, 1993). Sarantakos (1998) asserts that in theory construction, the
development of propositions or statements about the relationship between specified
concepts is undertaken when researchers aim to answer questions of why, while
classification systems are used to answer the questions of what. Johnson (1989) and
Stergrios (1991) identified three different forms of propositions: postulates or original
propositions which are not derived from other propositions, theorems, propositions
developed from existing propositions, and laws or true propositions that are repeated
and universally accepted.
The propositions developed for this study make assertions regarding the
relationship between the stages of Finks (1986) model and mass media content. The
purpose of these propositions is to describe changes in mass media content over the
period of a crisis. While Sarantakos (1998) argues that propositions are limited in their
explanatory power, he accepts that when propositions fit the studys research aims, the
resulting data will answer research questions posed (p.11). The four propositions form a
set of logically interrelated claims that describe mass media content during the course of
the Crisis Life Cycle. The propositions offer empirically accessible descriptions of the
relationship between the Crisis Life Cycle and mass media content and provide a testable
description of the model (Sarantakos, 1998). Each of the indicators posed identify
directly observable themes of mass media content and will be used to empirically define
the variables within the study.
Fink (1986) suggests that crises progress through four stages, each exhibiting its
own unique set of attributes. This study suggests that an extension of this model provides
the framework within which mass media content during a crisis can be described. This
study proposes that mass media content will present a series of themes during the Crisis
Life Cycle. The studys extension of Finks (1986) model and its relationship to mass
media content during a crisis can inform crisis public relations strategy.
Figure Three represents the integration of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model
and four propositions related to mass media content. The propositions link mass media
content to each stage of a crisis. These propositions serve as the source of indicator
statements that anticipate mass media content based on the four stages of Finks (1986)
model. This approach allows the researcher to describe the themes throughout the Crisis
Life Cycle and explore the thematic change of mass media content. The propositions act
as the empirical bridges between Finks (1986) model and mass media content.
The theoretical foundation described in Chapter Two and the extension of Finks
(1986) model are used to produce a framework that describes the changing themes in
mass media content during the Crisis Life Cycle. As each stage of Finks (1986) model
contains different themes in mass media content, the components of the themes relate to
the four original propositions proposed. Each theme exhibits attributes pertinent to the
stage to which it is allocated.
Figure Caption
Figure 3 Empirical Bridges between Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle Model and Mass
Media Content.

PROPOSITIONS
For the purposes of this study four propositions have been developed. The
propositions are presented in chronological order, supported with by a statement related
to the components of the theme is presented. Further, the indicators are presented and
discussed. The purpose of each indicator is to examine the adequacy of each proposition
proposed for each stage of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model.
Prodromal Crisis
Proposition One
In the Prodromal Crisis stage mass media content contains a pool of trigger themes
that could constitute the agenda for coverage of a crisis.
Fink (1986) described the first or Prodromal Stage of the model as the warning
stage. Mitroff (1996) identified the first stage as signal detection. Fearn-Banks (1996)
defined this stage as Detection or the stage where warning signs of possible crises
appear. Barton (1993) and Mitroff (1996) redefined the term of signal detection as
Pre-Crisis, however, this term only appears retrospectively in crisis management
literature discussions relating to the second or Acute Crisis Stage in Finks (1986) model.
For the purposes of this study, Finks (1986) terms will be used; the first stage is the
Prodromal Stage of the Crisis Life Cycle Model.
Prodromes typically appear as small news stories in mass media. Fink (1986)
defined two different types of Prodromes. An apparent Prodrome is an event or issue
which when it occurs, creates a level of awareness by one or many publics related to the
organisation, its staff or its operations. Fink (1986) asserts that apparent Prodromes are
easy to identify and as a consequence, best managed by organisations. More difficult to
detect are the oblique Prodromes where events or actions are not known by management
or not perceived to threaten the organisation. Fink (1986) claims that identification and
management of Prodromes is essential in crisis management.
Fink (1986) describes this first stage as the crisis build up or Prodromal period.
During this initial period of the crisis, Fink (1986) asserts that Prodromes appear as clues
or hints in mass media content. Mass media coverage of a Prodrome can pose a potential
threat to an organisation (Sturges, 1994). The manner in which mass media choose to
frame the Prodromes and the attributes Prodromes exhibit in mass media content is an
important aspect of this study.
This study proposes that mass media coverage of each Prodrome is termed a trigger
theme. Trigger themes represent repeated messages or pointers which, if recognized,
may assist the organisation in implementing activities to anticipate a crisis, and exploit its
benefit or reduce the negative impact of such an occurrence (Barton, 1993; Fearn-Banks,
1996; Mitroff, 1996).
Gonzalez-Herrero and Pratt (1996) in their investigation of Mitroff (1996) and
Bartons (1993) crisis management studies also used the term trigger in their discussion
of crisis killing. They affirmed that if an organisation resolved the trigger themes
before they progress, crises could be avoided (Gonzalez-Herrero & Pratt, 1996).
Shrivastava (1993) used the term trigger in his discussion relating to causes of crises,
explaining that causes include the immediate failures that triggered the crisis, and the
antecedent conditions that allow failures to occur (p.30). Sturges (1994) used the term
triggering event in his discussions of the precursors to the crisis and how these
precursors could progress to crises. Pearson and Clair (1998) define the triggering
event as the factor that causes the crisis to progress from the Prodromal Crisis to Acute
Crisis stage in Finks (1986) model. Egelhoff (1992) in his development of a
contingency model for managing a variety of corporate crises claims triggering
events typically occur within the environment with which the organisation is familiar
and coverage of which often appears in mass media (p. 467). Pinsdorf (1987) cited poor
crisis public relations as a trigger claiming that it will result in an organisations publics
loss of confidence in the organisations credibility and competence.
The number of trigger themes in mass media content varies at any given time. This
group or pool of trigger themes provides the foundation for mass media content during
the three final stages of Finks (1986) model. The selection of a specific trigger theme is
however, directly related to the crisis. Once the theme is selected its progress through the
life cycle is directly related to the crisis and how it progresses.
Shrivastavas (1993) initial concept of a trigger that was developed by Sturges
(1994) and Pearson and Clair (1998) is used for this study. A trigger theme defines
coverage of Prodromes appearing as mass media content. Pearson and Clair (1998) assert
that when organisations choose not to respond to trigger themes, rumours may fill the
void. Mass media can increase the impact the crises have on organisations (Susskind &
Field, 1996; Turner, 1976; Weick, 1988). The trigger themes appear as symptoms or
precursors to crises in mass media content and are the vital first factor in tracking mass
media content during the four stages of Finks (1986) model.

Indicator
The quantity of individual of trigger themes in mass media content will decrease in
frequency over the time of crisis.
Mass media content in the Prodromal Crisis stage consists of a pool of trigger
themes. Each theme has the potential to progress to a crisis. Therefore, during the
Prodromal Crisis stage in Finks (1986) model, mass media content will contain a pool of
trigger themes. Each trigger theme will provide a brief synopsis or initial coverage of a
specific Prodrome and act as the foundation for further mass media content. Each
Prodrome has the potential to escalate into a crisis and the associated trigger theme has
the potential to mirror the behaviour of the Prodrome. This implies that the level of mass
media content related to a specific trigger theme is directly linked to the progression of
the Prodrome through Finks (1986) model. Once in existence, trigger themes may
remain latent in the theme pool for extended time periods, before selection and moving
from the theme pool into prominence in the Acute Crisis Stage.
Hence during the initial or Prodromal Crisis Stage, mass media content contains a
pool of trigger themes, each presenting a brief discussion on active Prodromes. The level
of analysis and detail of each trigger theme is low. It is predicted that mass media
content of the pool of trigger themes will appear as minor news stories. Trigger themes
do not receive in-depth analysis or exhaustive scrutiny by mass media during the
Prodromal Crisis stage in Finks (1986) model.

Acute Crisis
Proposition Two
In the Acute Crisis Stage, mass media content isolates one trigger theme from the
pool of themes. This selected theme serves as the principle explanation of the crisis.
The second or Acute Crisis Stage is defined as the shortest and most intense stage
of the crisis (Fink, 1986). Sturges (1994) defines the second stage as the crisis
breakout. Mitroff (1996) identified this stage as the probing and prevention stage,
when the organisation recognized the risk factors of the crisis and undertook activities to
reduce its effect. Fearn-Banks (1996) drew on Bartons (1993) definition of the second
stage of Crisis Life Cycle as that of prevention/preparation.
During this stage the Prodrome evolves into the actual crisis. While Fink (1986)
and others argue that crisis commences prior to this stage, during this period, the
Prodrome is the catalyst got the crisis to occur. The result of fiscal, physical or emotional
damage to the organisation and its publics is typically reported in mass media. The
trigger theme associated with the specific Prodrome is the focus of mass media content.
Mass media seeks to explore the selected trigger theme undertaking exhaustive analysis
of the events connected with the crisis. In the Acute Stage of Finks (1986) model, the
selected trigger theme will experience an increased mass media focus and mass media
content will provide an explanation of the crisis.
The trigger theme evolves in line with the crisis and during the Acute Stage, the
theme of mass media content is one of explanation of the event or catalyst for the crisis.
Indicator
Mass media content related to a selected explanatory theme will reach highest
frequency in the Acute Crisis Stage.
Mass media content evolves from the brief and initial reports in the Prodromal
Crisis Stage to extensive discussions on the actual events of the crisis and the issues
related to its occurrence. The expectation is that mass media content will present
extensive details of the selected trigger theme in chronological order. This coverage
often contains descriptions of the impact the trigger theme has had on relevant publics.
During this stage, mass media seek information from the organisation relating to the
crisis and endeavour to explore the reasons for the resulting event. Mass media content
consists of descriptive coverage providing detailed discussions of the crisis and how it
occurred. During this stage, the number of articles pertaining to the selected theme will
reach the highest level. This level of coverage will match the intensity of the stage of the
actual crisis in terms of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model.
Chronic Crisis
Proposition Three
In the Chronic Crisis Stage, mass media content focuses on assigning responsibility
and blame for the selected trigger theme.
Fink (1986) defines the Chronic Crisis stage or post-mortem stage as the stage
where the organisation undertakes an audit of the events, activities and mass media
content of the crisis. Fink (1986) selected the term chronic as the effects of crisis can be
experienced by organisations for years. Barton (1993) referred to this stage as
containment while Mitroff (1996) expanded the term to damage containment.
During this stage criminal and civil charges, government inquiries, litigation and
responses from affected publics are all activities that ensure the continuation of mass
media content thereby prolonging the effects the crisis has on an organisation. Often the
crisis is revisited by mass media during legal proceedings, raising publics awareness of
the trigger theme and revisiting the chronological discussions that mass media have
already presented. The activities previously mentioned regularly enable latent trigger
themes to become prominent during this stage. Mass media select to explore the reasons
for the crisis and mass media content evolves to explore the how and why of the
crisis.
Indicator
Themes of blame and responsibility in mass media content will reach the highest
frequency in the Chronic Crisis Stage.
During the Chronic Crisis Stage, mass media seek to assign responsibility and
blame to those individuals and/or organisations responsible for the crisis occurring. This
is the lingering stage of the crisis with periods of investigation, in-depth media reports
and as extensive analysis of the crisis occurs in mass media content.
It is predicted that mass media content will consist of themes of blame and
responsibility. Mass media identify how the event occurred and who or what is
responsible for its occurrence. Themes of blame and responsibility will reach the highest
level during this stage of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model.
Crisis Resolution
Proposition Four
In the Crisis Resolution Stage, mass media content focuses on themes of resolution
or the trigger theme moves to latent status.

In the fourth and final stage mass media seeks to resolve the issues that created the
crisis and present the reasons the events occurred as a result of the crisis. Fink (1986)
was the first to present crises as extended occurrences, focusing not only on the Acute
phase of the crisis. Barton (1993) and Mitroff (1996) divided this final stage into two
stages, resolution and learning. This division was supported by Fearn-Banks (1996).
This final termination stage is defined by the resolution of the issue or event which
created the crisis initially. During this stage the crisis no longer has an effect on the
organisations operational activities or on its publics (Fearn-Banks, 1996; Fink, 1986;
Mitroff, 1996).
Indicator
Trigger themes emphasizing crisis resolution will reach highest frequency in the
Crisis Resolution Stage.
In this stage mass media content seeks to resolve the trigger theme and summarize
how the crisis occurred, who and/or what was to blame and responsible for the crisis and
what can be drawn from the events as implications for the future.
Indicator
If the theme moves to latent status, then the theme will have little or no
representation in mass media content.
If mass media are unable to resolve the trigger theme, then the theme moves to
latent status and remains there until such times as an event could reactive the trigger
theme and bring it back into prominence. It is in the interest of public relations
professionals that trigger themes are resolved and not allowed to move to the latent stage
as the potential for a new cycle of damage to the organisation remains.

Crises do not occur in isolation, they occur as one component of the organisational
environment, while other Prodromes and trigger themes progress through parallel Finks
(1986) Crisis Life Cycles.
Figure Four illustrates the flow chart of trigger theme development during the life
cycle of the crisis. After the initial selection the trigger theme moves from the theme
pool and commences the cycle of changing theme attributes of explanation, blame and
responsibility and resolution. Those trigger themes which are not resolved move back
into the pool of trigger themes.
Figure Caption
Figure 4 Flow Chart of mass media contents trigger theme movement during the four
stages of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model.
CONCLUSION
The four propositions to be used in the exploration of the case study in the
following chapter have been defined and discussed. Each proposition has been
developed from the review of the crisis literature presented in Chapter Two. The
indicators discussed will be utilized in measuring these four propositions with the case
study. The theoretical discussion of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model has provided
the foundation for the four propositions and the extension of Finks model.
King, Keohane and Verba (1994) assert that the most important way to contribute to
theory is to show that theories or evidence designed for some purpose in one literature
could be applied in another literature to solve an existing but apparently unrelated
problem (p. 17).
This study describes the relationship between the types of themes present in mass
media content and Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model. This extension of the model
and its relationship with broad themes present in mass media content during a crisis can
contribute to the development of crisis public relations theory.
This study suggests that Finks (1986) model should be part of the larger issues of
crisis public relations theory and its inclusion may lead to more effective and efficient
management of crises. The study builds a case for the need to consider the model in a
larger context. This extension of the model to include general themes present in mass
media content serves as the framework to evaluate the effectiveness of public relations
strategy during crises. Thereby, making an explicit contribution to current crisis public
relations literature.

(1986) model. The identification of these themes can allow for the construction of a
model that predicts broad thematic categories during the four stages of the Crisis Life
Cycle.
The development of the model should help enable practitioners to predict which
type of content will appear and when. This type of predication is not possible through the
main body of research, as it is descriptive in nature. A theoretically based model would
allow public relations practitioners to identify themes and facilitate the implementation of
a crisis public relations strategy in the Prodromal phase, thereby avoiding the Acute and
most damaging stage of the crisis.
In the following chapter the propositions will be used to describe mass media
content and explore the focal trigger theme over the life of the crisis selected for the case
study.
Chapter Four

This chapter examines case study methodology in the context of both qualitative
and quantitative research. The case study method will be defined and the value of case
study research and its applicability to the discipline of crisis public relations will be
discussed. Content analysis, a systematic approach to social research, is the scientific
means used in the collection and analysis of data for the study. The propositions
proposed in the previous chapter are utilized to describe mass media content during
Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle. An overview of Ansett Airlines is presented and a
detailed synopsis of the crisis explored. This chapter provides literary evidence
supporting the appropriateness of case study and content analysis methodology in
expanding the Crisis Life Cycle and exploring the changes in mass media content over
the life of a crisis.
Qualitative research methods were developed in the social sciences to enable
researchers to study social and cultural phenomena (Yin, 1993). Examples of qualitative
methods include: action research, case study research and ethnography. Qualitative data
can be gathered via observation and participant observation (fieldwork), interviews and
questionnaires, documents and texts, and the researchers impressions (Sarantakos,
1998). Central to qualitative research is gaining the emic, or insiders perspective, that is,
the perspective of the participants within the research study. Patton (1990) asserts that
placing emphasis on understanding the emic perspective is not incompatible with

inclusion of the etic, or outsider perspective, and researchers must be aware of this
difference when undertaking qualitative research.
CASE STUDIES
The case study method is well established in the qualitative research tradition (Yin,
1993). The case study is a form of qualitative research that can use a variety of research
methodologies to contextually observe a specific situation or phenomenon (Yin, 1993).
Regardless of the researchers epistemology, case studies are an appropriate strategy for
answering the how or why research questions which do not require control over the
events (Yin, 1993). Case studies offer a flexible yet integrated framework for the holistic
examination of a phenomenon in its natural state. However, researchers must tolerate
ambiguity, be responsive to emerging data and refine the design of the study even as it is
underway (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). The case study method can accommodate
different epistemologies and can be applied to a wide range of disciplines, especially in
the social and behavioural sciences (Blaikie, 2000). Yin (1993) recognizes significant
value in the ability of case studies to suggest a range of possibilities for a future which
cannot be assumed to be a projection of the past. The design of a case study can be
customized to address a wide range of research questions and types of cases and to
incorporate a variety of data collection, analysis, and reporting techniques (Yin, 1993).
Because case study is exceptionally useful for descriptive research, theory generation,
and examination of atypical phenomena, it is particularly appropriate for applied research
related to contemporary issues of people in the real world such as crisis public relations
(Marra, 1992). There is a growing trend to no longer consider the case study method
exclusively in a qualitative context. The trend is to utilise case study as an adaptive

research structure that can accommodate qualitative and quantitative perspectives,
techniques and standards (Yin, 1993).
Sarantakos (1998) citing Kromrey (1986) explained that case study research
involves studying individual cases, often in their natural environment for an extended
period of time, and further various methods of data collection and analysis can be
employed. Yin (1993) defines case study as a method of choice when the phenomenon
under study is not readily distinguishable from its context (p. 3).
Yin (1993) constructed the case study model from the positivist perspective. Yins
(1993) design replicates features from natural science on the premise that the more
measurable and objective the criteria, the greater the confidence in the results. This
requirement of qualitative study for the rigor of design and methodology provides
reliability and validity (Sarantakos, 1998). Yin (1993) stipulates that a case study must
have the capacity to deal with a diversity of evidence, the ability to articulate research
questions and theoretical propositions, and requires production of a research design.
Eisenhardt (1989) provides a more comprehensive definition of case study
methodology.
Case study is a research strategy which focuses on understanding the
dynamics present within single settingscase studies typically combine data
collection methods such as archives, interviews, questionnaires, and observations.
The evidence may be qualitative (e.g. words), quantitative (e.g. numbers), or
both.case studies can be used to accomplish various aims: to provide
descriptiontest theoryor generate theory (p. 534-535).

Yin (1993) cautions that descriptive case studies should not be used simply to
describe everything. He claims that researchers have a responsibility to be selective in
order to focus on answering the purpose of the study, including the full but realistic range
of topics considered to provide a complete description of the phenomena being explored
(Yin, 1993).
Case studies are often referred to as a method of data collection. For the purposes
of this study, the definition of case study provided by Yin (1993) is employed.
Sarantakos (1998) asserts that for many researchers case studies are a research model or
design that deals with all aspects of research. Yin (1993) argued that this form of
investigation exhibited the following unique characteristics:
It studies whole units in their totality and not aspects or variables of
these units; it employs several methods of data collection or multiple analysts to
avoid or prevent errors and distortions; it often studies a single unit: one unit is
one study; it perceives the respondent as an expert not just as a source of data;
and it studies a typical case (p. 160).
Yin (1993) also claimed that case studies differ from other research methodologies
in various ways.
An experiment, for instance, deliberately divorces a phenomenon from its
context, so that attention can be focused on a few variables (typically, the context
is controlled by the laboratory experiment). A history, by comparison, does not
deal with the entangled situation between phenomenon and context, but usually
with non-contemporary events. Finally, surveys can try to deal with the

phenomenon and context, but their ability to investigate the context is extremely
limited (p. 163)
Triangulation is used to produce more reliable and valid results for the study this
includes the use of multiple data-collection methods, sources, analysis, or theories to
check validity. Snow and Anderson (cited by Feagin, Orum, and Sjoberg, 1991) assert
that triangulation can occur with data, investigators, theories, and even methodologies.
Stake (1994) argues triangulation is the protocol to ensure accuracy and alternative
explanations. The need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to confirm the
validity of the processes. In case studies, this can be achieved in using multiple sources of
data or multiple analysis of data (Yin, 1993).
To ensure the validity of the study and further strengthen its validity through
triangulation, the data were collected from various sources. This collection process is
supported by Yin (1993) who argues that in case studies, triangulation can be achieved in
using multiple sources of data for this case study, data was collected from four different
newspapers over a six month period.
The epistemological orientation of this study is positivist. The premise of positivist
studies is generally in an attempt to test theory to increase the predictive understanding of
phenomena. Yin (1993) purports that knowledge gained through scientific and
experimental research is objective and measurable. This research has sought to describe
Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model and mass media content. Yin (1993) considers this
the most pure hypothesis or theory-building form of case study methodology. The
purpose of this study is descriptive; the study has constructed and organized data, relating
these results to other research findings and themes that identify the salient features of the

case. Description has recreated the mass media content with as much of its context as
possible, as well as the meanings and intentions in the phenomenas life cycle (Blaikie,
2000).

ANSETT AIRLINES
In order to provide a context to the 767-200 goundings Easter period crisis
experienced by Ansett Airlines in April 2001, an environmental analysis and
organisational assessment of Ansett Airlines has been undertaken. In 2001 Ansett
Airlines was a well established domestic carrier in the Australian air travel market and
considered one of Australias most prominent and trusted brands (Ligerakis, 2001).
Ansetts logo, was seen by passengers to be synonymous with reliability, safety,
engineering excellence and customer service (Ansett, 2001). Underpinning this
reputation, Ansett had won various awards for safety and service standards (Ansett,
2001).
On the domestic routes within Australia, Ansett offered two classes of travel;
Business and Economy. On average eight percent of the total seating allocation is
allocated to Business Class with the remainder of the seats were in the category of
Economy Class (Ansett, 2001). To encourage ongoing customer patronage and compete
with rival competition loyalty programs, Ansett operated two loyalty programs; the
Frequent Flyer Program and the Golden Wing Club.
Ansetts Frequent Flyer Program had close to two million members, this was the
second largest Australia-based airline loyalty program. The program enabled members to
accumulate points through flying with Ansett or its 20 Frequent Flyer international and

domestic airline partners. Points were awarded according to the class of travel and
kilometres flown. In addition members could accumulate point through qualifying
transactions with various nominated companies (Ansett, 2001).
Golden Wing Club provided members with access to a network of Golden Wing
Club and associated lounges in Australia and around the world. The lounges provided a
quality environment for passengers to relax or do business before flying. Access to the
lounges was by subscription, on an annual or life basis. Access to the lounges was
provided to Golden Wing Club members and Gold Frequent Flyers in the domestic
network (Ansett, 2001).
History
Sir Reginald Myles Ansett founded Ansett Australia in 1935 as Ansett Airways. It
made its first passenger flight on 17
th
February 1936 from Hamilton in Western Victoria
to Melbourne. In February of the following year the company was incorporated as Ansett
Airlines. In May 1946 Ansett Airways became Ansett Transport Industries. A decade
later Ansett bought Australian National Airways and by 1958 its fleet had grown to over
40 aircraft (Ansett, 2001).
In October 1964, Ansett introduced the first jet airliner, the Boeing 727, to
Australian service. By 1969, Ansett had achieved the status of Australia's largest
domestic airline. In 1979 control of ANA passed into the hands of TNT and News Corp.
Rupert Murdoch became CEO in December; and in 1980 a totally separate company,
Ansett Air Freight, was formed. In 1996, Ansett's major shareholder (News Corporation)
became sole owner of Ansett New Zealand and during 1998 Ansett Australia, Ansett
International, Air New Zealand and Singapore Airlines joined in an alliance which was

the largest in the Asia-Pacific area. News Corporation began divesting itself of aviation
interests in 2000. Ansett Australia became wholly owned by Air New Zealand as part of
the Air New Zealand - Ansett Group. Ansett International, in 2001, was 49 percent
owned by Air New Zealand and 51 percent by other shareholders (Ansett, 2001).
In January 2001, Ansetts fleet consisted of 67 aircraft, including 24 Boeing 737-
300s, 20 Airbus A320-200s and 10 Boeing 767-200 aircraft. Ansett operated the regional
airlines of Kendall Airlines, Aeropelican, Hazelton Airlines and Skywest Airlines, which
together comprised a fleet of 53 aircraft, including 11 CRJ-200 jet aircraft (Ansett, 2001).
Due to a series of events including the crisis explored in this study, Ansett Australia
was placed into voluntary administration and all operations of the group ceased on
September 14, 2001. Administrators were appointed and they sought to sell the airline as
a going concern. Ansett continued to operate under a Federal Government guarantee
until on February 28, 2002, when the Administrators of Ansett Australia announced that
the sale of the Ansett mainline business to the Fox/Lew Syndicate (Tesna) would not
proceed. This resulted in the suspension of all flights as from midnight Monday 4
th
of
March 2002 and the airline ceased operations on that date.
Ansett Airlines 2001
By March 2001 Ansett had used various initiatives to position itself as Australias
leading airline (Ligerakis, 2001). There was fierce competition in the domestic aviation
market with four major domestic airline carriers operating in Australia: Qantas, Ansett,
Impulse and Virgin Blue. Ansett enjoyed a strong reputation and positive image within
the Australian market. Ansett was announced as the Winner of Best Airline for
International Business Class Travel in 1999, and won its fifth consecutive Airline of the

Year Award in 1998 (Staralliance, 2001). Ansett also established extremely high levels
of customer loyalty through its frequent flyer programs, the Golden Wing Club and by
securing lucrative corporate contracts.
Ansett Airlines had a number of significant and potentially damaging weaknesses.
Ansett had the oldest fleet of all Australian carriers. Virgin Blue had a fleet less than five
years old, the Qantas fleet was 10 years old and the Ansett fleet is almost 12. The age of
the Ansett fleet had given rise to safety concerns in December 2000, and mass media
content related to the focal theme of safety appeared in print from December 2000
onwards. Ansett was has also hindered by negative media coverage regarding ownership
issues and the previous grounding crisis that occurred in December 2000. Uncertainty
over ownership and subsequent internal structural difficulties were exacerbated by the
purchase of Ansett by Air New Zealand in 2000 (Westfield, 2001). Ensuing questionable
corporate governance standards and foreign ownership issues further weakened the
airlines position in the market (Coggeshall, 2001).
It has been argued that markets are moving from an economic system in which
national markets are distinct entities, isolated from each other by trade barriers, distance,
time and culture, towards a system in which national markets are merging into the global
marketplace (Johnson & Scholes, 1989). The international pressure of the globalised
economy led to the deregulation and privatisation of the Australian airline industry in
1990. Globalisation created pressure for Ansett from international competitors in its
'secure' home market. In 2001, carriers where allowed to determine routes and fares
(Ansett, 2001). Deregulation was a government response to the evidence of inefficiency

and high prices within this protected industry and was intended to increase competition
and improve consumer welfare (Johnson & Scholes, 1989).
Deregulation supported a series of competitive fare wars and customer incentive
strategies designed to enlarge market share and increase customer loyalty within the
Australian market. To remain profitable, Ansett developed generic competition strategies
to differentiate the airline. The decision to transfer airlines into private sector operations
pressured airlines to compete in an arena where success is measured by profit, efficiency
and shareholder dividends. Several groups claimed that safety and the ethical and socially
responsible corporate governance were then being neglected in this profit driven industry
(Westfield, 2001).
Profitability has become a significant problem inherent within the global airline
industry. Although the industry is worth $355 billion in the United States of America
alone, high fixed costs and fuel prices ensure that profit margins remain low. The
profitability issue was exacerbated in 1991, when unprecedented losses were recorded by
airlines across the globe. High levels of customer dissatisfaction led to a decrease in
international passengers for the first time and significant excess capacity of aircraft, from
the boom of the late 1980s, led to losses of $20.4 billion being recorded by member
airlines of the International Air Transport Association. This figure exceeded industry
profits over the previous 67 years (Ansett, 2001). Airlines recognised the need for radical
change to ensure their survival and prosperity. During a time of renewed economic
growth, organisational strategies such as aggressive cost cutting returned the industry as a
whole to profitability (BritishAirways, 2001). Ansett continued to function with high
operating costs although the strategic alliance of Star Alliance provided the airline with

improved efficiency through cost savings associated with economies of scale in terms of
terminals, planes and crew.
The Australian domestic airline industry operates where competition is a primary
force or threat within the industry. With the introduction of deregulation and
privatisation, the main barrier to entry to the Australian airline industry is the high
establishment costs for start up operations. Qantas and Ansett enjoyed this competitive
advantage for ten years. Despite no longer being a protected market, the Australian
airline industry remained essentially duopolistic, with the dominant players enjoying the
majority of industry profits.
The emergence of Virgin Blue, in August 2000, increased competition within the
domestic market and decreased profitability for Ansett and Qantas. Despite being
deregulated for over a decade, industry incumbents Ansett and Qantas established strong
brand names and strong profits during the 1980s and 1990s. Entry in the market was
difficult with the established duopoly engaging in predatory pricing and controlling
terminal space throughout Australia, thereby inhibiting the activities of smaller airlines.
In August 2000, Virgin Blue engaged in an aggressive price-cutting strategy in an attempt
to capture market share, to establish customer loyalty and brand themselves as low-cost
carriers. This campaign was successful. In March 2000, Ansett was struggling to
maintain its position in the domestic market. Ansett's domestic market share had shrunk
from 56 percent in 1995 to about 43 percent as a result of rising competition from Qantas,
Virgin Blue and Impulse Airlines (Coggeshall, 2001).
On Thursday, April 12
th
2001, Ansett Australias fleet of ten 767 aircraft were
grounded indefinitely by the Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA)(Gibson, 2001).

Further CASA stated that they would issue Ansett with a notice giving the airline 14 days
to Show Cause as to why its approval to operate should not be withdrawn on April 20
th
,
2001. CASA based the notice on a pattern of ongoing structural, management and
personnel problems (Toller, 2001, p. 1). The fleet was grounded after engine cracks
were discovered in the engine mounts of three planes and another plane was found to
have improperly stowed emergency slides and had flown eight times before the safety
breach was discovered (Toller, 2001). CASA believed that there had been a clear lack of
proper control over the planning of maintenance, the control of critical documents and the
execution of maintenance. Director of Aviation Safety Mick Toller stated that CASA
could no longer accept Ansetts assurances that the safety of 767-200s could be
maintained (Toller, 2001, p. 1). The 767 aircraft comprised about 20 percent of the
carriers total capacity. The groundings occurred one day prior to the start of Easter
holiday season, a peak time for air travel. Ansett claimed that 95 percent of the 132,000
holiday passengers travelling from April 12
th
to April 15
th
were flown on Ansett and Air
New Zealand with the longest delays experienced by travellers being under one hour
(Creedy, Haslem, & Milligan, 2001).
Ansett CEO, Gary Toomey, responded to the news by announcing that while the
groundings were a setback. it was consistent with the need for us to just relaunch the
whole airline (Ligerakis, 2001, p. 1). Ansett had been in the process of restructuring the
engineering management when CASA grounded the fleet. Once the new engineers were
in place and the regulator was satisfied, Toomey stated that they would be madly
looking at trying to replace the fleet and then relaunch the airline(Ligerakis, 2001, p. 1).
Ansett announced that the airline would comply with CASA demands, but disputed the

views about the quality of safety and maintenance. Toomey defended Ansett by stating
that the new management team, in place since 2000, had given priority to a
comprehensive review of engineering and maintenance practices, and asserted that Ansett
itself had reported the engine cracks and various other safety breaches to CASA. Further
Ansett had immediately grounded the unsafe aircraft without instruction to do so (Creedy
et al., 2001). On Friday, 20 April 2001, CASA announced that it would not issue a
formal Show Cause Notice to Ansett following their acceptance of Ansetts detailed
plans for improvements across its maintenance and operational areas (Toller, 2001). The
grounding caused major repercussions within the industry and to the security and
economic viability of Ansett, Air New Zealand shares fell by 13 percent (Westfield,
2001).
To determine the stages of the Crisis Life Cycle for the case study, time periods
were defined by the public information released by Ansett and CASA. This information
enabled the researcher to define the stages of the crisis in terms of Finks (1996) Crisis
Life Cycle model. The Prodromal Crisis stage commenced on January 1
st
, 2001 and
continued until Monday April 9
th
, 2001 when CASA notified Ansett that the 767-200
fleet was grounded. This decision by CASA was the triggering event to cause the crisis
to move to the next stage in the Crisis Life Cycle. The Acute Crisis stage commenced on
Tuesday April 10
th
, 2001 and intensified on Thursday, April 12
th
as travellers
commenced their travel for the Easter break, the Acute Crisis stage continued until Friday
April 20, 2001. During this period the entire Ansett Airlines 767-200 fleet was grounded.
CASA threaten to issue the company with a Show Cause notice to suspend Ansetts
operating licence due to safety breaches; CASA revoked the threat on April 20
th
, 2001

and allowed cleared aircraft to recommence operations. From Saturday, April 21
st
, 2001
onwards, Ansett operated in the Chronic Crisis stage until June 30
th
, 2001 when the case
study time period concluded. While the immediate issue regarding safety breaches was
resolved on April 20
th
, 2001, Ansetts undertaking to purchase new aircraft and hire new
maintenance staff to meet CASAs requirements regarding aircraft safety did not occur
during the time period of the case study.
The 767-200s groundings crisis created an enormous amount of publicity in the
Australian mass media, and the negative exposure created the worst public relations crisis
that Ansett had ever confronted (Ligerakis, 2001). Ansetts response to the crisis was an
incoherent array of announcements developed in an ad hoc fashion. The centrepiece of
their communication strategy was a relaunch of the airline brand through a hastily
prepared, glossy, mass media campaign (Ansett, 2001). The campaign was titled
Absolutely and featured a vast array of Australian celebrities, sporting personalities and
famous corporate identities (Ansett, 2001). The communication strategy that emerged
was ineffective in dealing with the crisis. Ansett needed a cohesive, strategic and
comprehensive approach act in a proactive manner to better manage the crisis and attain a
positive outcome from a negative situation.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Content Analysis
Content analysis is a product of the electronic age. While content analysis was
regularly performed in the 1940s. It became a more credible and a more frequently used
research method in the mid-1950s, when researchers focused on concepts rather than
simply words, and on semantic relationships rather than just presence (Stempel &

Westley, 1989). While content analysis developed from use in simple journalistic
research, it has evolved in a versatile, widely used methodology in various fields of
research. Content analysis can be used in research where other methods are generally
insensitive or intrusive (Amoroso & Eriksson, 2000). Woodward (1934) described the
impact of newspaper communication on public opinion. Woodwards research was based
on Lippmans (1922) work on public opinion and his analysis of communication in its
various forms. In business research such as organizational behaviour and marketing,
content analysis has been extensively used to investigate written and media
advertisements, corporate communication networks, and mass media effects on public
opinion (Amoroso & Eriksson, 2000).
Krippendorff (1980) defines content analysis as a systematic, replicable technique
for compressing words of text into fewer content categories based on explicit rules of
coding (p.52). Berelson (1952) defined content analysis as a research technique for the
objective, systematic, and quantitative description of manifest content of
communications (p. 74). As a research tool, content analysis focuses on the actual
content and internal features of media. It can determine the presence of certain words,
concepts, themes, phrases, characters, or sentences within texts or sets of texts and
quantifies this presence in an objective manner. Sarantakos (1998) defines texts as books,
book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper headlines and articles,
historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theatre, informal
conversation, or really any occurrence of communicative language. The result of content
analysis is used to formulate inferences about the messages within the text(s), the
writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part.

Content analysis can be applied to examine any piece of writing or occurrence of
recorded communication. Due to this versatility, content analysis is used in a wide range
of disciplines, ranging from marketing and media studies, to literature and rhetoric,
ethnography and cultural studies, gender and age issues, sociology and political science,
psychology and cognitive science, as well as other fields of inquiry. Berelson (1952) and
Weber (1990) assert content analysis can be used to: (a) reveal international differences
in communication content, (b) compare media or levels of communication, (c) audit
communication content against objectives, (d) detect the existence of propaganda, (e)
identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or
institution, (f) code open-ended questions in surveys, (g) describe attitudinal and
behavioural responses to communications, and (h) determine psychological or emotional
state of persons or groups.
Eckhardt and Ermann (1977) recommend the qualitative technique of content
analysis to investigate the subjective nature of the data exploring attitudes, motives, and
values. Sarantakos (1998) claims the quantitative technique explores the thematic
changes in communication allowing researchers to draw inferences about individual or
group values, intentions and ideologies which are expressed in the content of
communication and the effects the communication has on an audience. Therefore both
techniques allow the researcher to study the content of documents.
Types of Content Analysis
There are two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and
relational analysis. Conceptual analysis establishes the existence and frequency of
concepts in a text. Relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

relationships among concepts within a text. Sarantakos (1998) contends that as content
analysis explores the content of documents that the two categories are manifest or latent
content and asserts that manifest content defines the actual text of the document, the
printed word.
Traditionally, content analysis has most often been thought of in terms of
conceptual analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the
number of its occurrences within the text recorded. Because terms may be implicit as
well as explicit, it is important to clearly define implicit terms before beginning the
counting process. To limit the subjectivity in the definitions of concepts, specialized
dictionaries are often used. As with most other research methods, conceptual analysis
begins with identifying research questions and choosing a sample or samples. Once the
text is selected it is coded into manageable chunks or content categories. The process of
coding is the selective reduction of content based on the central concept of content
analysis. By reducing the contents of material into meaningful and pertinent units of
information, certain characteristics of the message may be analysed and interpreted
(Stemler, 2001).
Sarantakos (1998) defines latent content as the exploration of the meanings of
words, phrases and sentences. Relational analysis or latent content exploration builds on
conceptual analysis by examining the relationships among concepts within a text. The
initial choice of what is to be studied and/or coded determines the possibilities of that
particular study. Relational analysis requires selection of concept type before any analysis
is attempted. Studies have been conducted with as few as one and as many as 500
concept categories. Sarantakos (1998) cautions researchers that too many categories may

obscure the results and too few can lead to unreliable and potentially invalid conclusions.
Due to the number of techniques of relational analysis available this form of analysis is
gaining in popularity. Researchers have the opportunity to devise procedures according to
the nature of study. Once a procedure is rigorously tested, it can be applied and compared
across populations over time. The process of relational analysis has achieved a high
degree of computer automation but still is, like most forms of research, time consuming.
The strongest claim made for relational analysis is the maintenance of a high degree of
statistical rigor without losing the richness of detail apparent in even more qualitative
methods (Stemler, 2001).
Krippendorff (1980) recommends that researchers address six questions before
undertaking content analysis: (a) which data is analyzed? (b) how is the data defined? (c)
what is the population from which the data is drawn? (e) what is the context relative to
which the data is analyzed? (f) what are the boundaries of the analysis? (g) what is the
target of the inferences?
Due to its reliance on coding and categorizing of data, the content analysis method
enables the researcher to present rich and meaningful results. Prior to coding data, the
researcher devises categories of analysis that Weber (1990) explains as a group of words
with similar meaning or connotations (p. 37). In devising categories, four requirements
must be met as each category developed must be exhaustive, exclusive, drawn from a
single classification and reflect the purposes of the study. Ferguson (2000) who states
that the categories devised must meet the requirements of the research question posed for
the study. Wimmer and Dominick (1997) recommend the use of common sense in the
development of categories to ensure that the categories are not so broad as to encompass

too much data and fail to respond to critical issues of the study or be too narrow and limit
interpretation of the data collated. Sarantakos (1998) asserts that categories must be
mutually exclusive and exhaustive (p. 282). In being mutually exclusive, the categories
defined will ensure that no unit falls between two data points, and each unit is represented
by only one data point. The requirement of exhaustive categories is met when the data
language represents all recording units without exception (Ferguson, 2000). Finally, each
category will be derived from a single classification principle (Ferguson, 2000). The
quality of results generated by content analysis is directly related to the quality of the
categories developed.
Once the categories have been established, researchers undertake the process of
coding or classifying the data in the content categories. There are four main methods
used to define a unit of content. Its physical border, such as a newspaper article that is so
many columns wide and number of words long, can define a unit. Second, the unit of
content can be defined syntactically, when words, sentences, or paragraphs, used by the
unit of contents author creates a separator. A third method is termed a referential unit,
this refers to the way a unit is represented. Stemler (2001) recommends the use of
referential units when drawing inferences about attitudes, values, or preferences. Finally a
unit of content can be defined by exploring the text in order to examine underlying
assumptions; this unit is termed a propositional unit. For example, in a sentence that
would read, Investors took another hit as the stock market continued its descent, this
would be analysed as The stock market has been performing poorly recently/Investors
have been losing money (Krippendorff, 1980).

In most content analysis researchers employ three sorts of units, these being:
sampling units, context units and recording units (Stemler, 2001). A sampling unit can
be words, sentences, or paragraphs. Typically, context units are not finite or mutually
exclusive but are defined by physical limits such as sentences, paragraphs or entire
documents. Recording units are the concepts or ideas within a document and are rarely
defined by physical boarders (Stemler, 2001).
Researchers can select from two types of coding, these being emergent and priori
coding. As the name suggests with emergent coding, categories are established following
some preliminary examination of the data. Independent researchers examine the data and
develop individual themes. These lists are then reconciled for differences. Finally, the
master list is created and used in the coding of data. Stemler (2001; 1998) recommends
that once the results from the individual researchers are completed, the results should be
tested using Cohens (1960) Kappa. Cohens Kappa approaches 1 as coding is perfectly
reliable and goes to 0 when there is no agreement other than what would be expected by
chance. If the level of reliability achieved is not acceptable, then the researchers must
repeat the process. Once the reliability has been established, the coding is applied on a
large-scale basis (Stemler & Bebell, 1998).
With priori coding, the categories are established prior to the analysis based upon
some theory, and the coding is applied to the data. Revisions are made as necessary, and
the categories are strengthened ensuring maximum mutual exclusivity and exhaustiveness
(Weber, 1990).
This study has explored the complex chain of themes (pattern) over time, tracking
one trigger theme during the four stages of the crisis life cycle model over a six-month

period, and has examined the causal relationship among independent, intervening, and
dependent variables.
Selltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch & Cook (1960) suggest the main reasons for using the
sampling method are:
1. If the size of the population prevents complete coverage, then it is argued
that the survey population results can be achieved in a short time frame and
produce comparable and valid results.
2. It is more economical to select a sample due to costs of undertaking the data
collection.
3. It is also argued that samples offer a higher degree of accuracy in the
collection of data due to the smaller number of cases (Selltiz, Jahoda,
Deutsch & Cook, 1960, p. 139).
Conversely sampling still requires administration, planning and programming and
has been found not be as valid (Selltiz, Wrightsman, & Cook, 1976).
Sample
The sample population defined should be representative and the selection of the
sample must be based on sound methodological principles. The use of probability
sampling provides the researcher with a high degree of reliability, degree of
representativeness and high generalisability of the results achieved (Keller, Warrack, &
Bartel, 1990). When determining sample size the researcher must specify how much
error is acceptable (Alreck & Settle, 1995; Roscoe, 1975; Weisberg & Bowen, 1977) and
the confidence level required (Alreck & Settle, 1995; Roscoe, 1975). A probability (or

significance) level of 0.05 has been established as a generally acceptable level of
confidence in most social science research (Sarantakos, 1998).
This study uses the methodology provided by Selltiz, Wrightsman and Cook (1976)
as a guide for representativeness. The units of analysis or cases were selected in a
systematic and objective manner, each case is easy to identify and clearly defined. The
units are independent of each other and uniform, appearing only once in the population.
No units have been discarded and the selection process that is outlined in further detail is
based on proven criteria.
Krejcie and Morgan (1970) offer a table to assist in determining sample size for a
representative sample using Cochrans formula that incorporates the confidence and
precision criteria required. According to the table the sample size is representative of 269
news articles (the population), one refers to the table at N=269 and using the following
formula defines the representative sample size n=159. The table is applicable to any
population of a defined (finite) size.
Cochrans Formula - Statistical Expression of the definition of sample size:
s =
2
NP (1-P)
+
2
P(1-P)

d
2
(N-1)
Where s is the required sample size,
2
is the table value of chi-square for 1 degree
of freedom (3.841), N is the population size, P is the population proportion and d is the
degree of accuracy (Cochran, 1977).
Krejcie and Morgan (1970) maintain that by using this calculation, as the
population increases, then the sample size increases at a diminishing rate to the point of
plateau and becomes constant at approximately 380 cases. They state that the added
expense and energy required to sample beyond about 380 cases is not necessary. Alreck
and Settle (1995) provide similar evidence.
According to Gay and Diehl (1992), the number of respondents acceptable for a
study depends upon the type of research involved - descriptive, correlational or
experimental. The limitation with this approach for estimating the sample size is that
while the procedure is statistically sound, it relates to estimations based on assumptions
and conditions. The formula calls for the values of p, Z and E to be estimated and these
values can be difficult (Sarantakos, 1998).
Many social researchers use probability sampling, this is due to the high level of
reliability, degree of representativeness and generalisability of results (Maxwell, 1996).
Probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of
random selection. In order to have a random selection method the process or procedure
employed ensures that each unit of analysis has equal probability of selection (Roscoe,
1975).
To ensure this randomness, a computer generator to produce random numbers can
be used in unit selection. Randomness and random numbers have traditionally been used
for a variety of purposes, for example games such as dice games (Keller et al., 1990).
Computers have assisted researchers in the generation of random numbers in the form of
pseudo-random number generators. These numbers are not truly random, rather the
numbers have been computed from a mathematical formula. Generally these programs
employ modern algorithms for number generation (Keller et al., 1990).
Random sampling has been employed for sample selection in this study. In this
instance each unit of analysis in the total population had an equal chance of being

selected. The sample meets the criterion of randomness (each element having an equal
chance at each draw) and that actual composition of the sample itself does not determine
whether or not it was a random sample (Keller et al., 1990).
For this study each news article had an equal opportunity of being selected. Each
news article was allocated a number, ranging from 1 to 269. A computer random number
generator was used to randomly select those units assigned to those numbers being
included in the sample. With a random sample, every unit in the population has equal
chance or probability of being selected for the sample. This probability is: p = 1/N,
where N = the size of the study population. All units had equal chance of being selected
for the sample, and sample size is statistically sound. This method of sampling is
considered to offer accurate results, having a high degree of representativeness
(Sarantakos, 1998).
Data Collection
To meet the four requirements Ferguson (2000) established each category is
exhaustive, exclusive, drawn from a single classification and reflective of the purposes of
the study. One of the essential requirements of content analysis is that when coding each
category must be mutually exclusive (Sarantakos, 1998). Due to the nature of the trigger
themes they can not be coded as exclusive using the same coding criteria as the themes of
explanation, blame and responsibility and resolution. Therefore the researcher has used
progressive contextual analysis which allows the trigger themes to be coded by article.
Once the pool of themes is identified, a single trigger theme is selected, and this theme
acts as the foundation for themes of explanation, responsibility and blame and resolution.

Mass media has undertaken an agenda gate keeping role in the provision of content
of the crisis. A function of gate keeping for mass media is to frame content in terms of
explanation themes which describe the cause and effect relationship between the theme
and content. In analysing the trigger theme at the article level, the selection of the focal
theme is possible and the researcher traces media framing related to the theme in the
collection of articles. To select the focal trigger theme a frequency count was
undertaken. The focal trigger theme forms the basis for how mass media frame Ansett
Safety in terms of explanation, responsibility and blame and resolution themes. The
methodology for choosing newspapers for this research was based on the criteria
designed to cover the various views of newspapers throughout Australia. Four
newspapers were chosen, The Australian, The Financial Review, The Age and The Sydney
Morning Herald.
The research material consists of a total of 269 newspapers articles. This number
refers to all newspaper articles in which the name Ansett and safety appeared during
the designated time period. These articles were collected from January 1
st
, 2001 to June
30
th
, 2001. The systematic gathering of the articles was confirmed as an exhaustive
collection using the electronic search engine Lexis Nexis.
The articles were used as units of analysis, and their titles, position and content
were examined. Each article has been classified according a defined set of criteria
presented in Appendix A. The focal trigger theme drawn from the pool of general themes
was Ansett safety, this trigger theme was selected after a frequency count of all Ansett
content in print mass media during the first six months of 2001. The researcher classified
the analysed units simultaneously in order to achieve interceding reliability. Following

the collection, examination, and classification of the articles, an electronic structured data
file was created containing the research material. The statistical editing, processing and
analysis of the data were done with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS).
RESULTS
The findings of the research conducted are presented and analysis of the results is
undertaken has endeavoured to track patterns in mass media content in relation to the four
propositions proposed in Chapter Three, and to undertake analysis of the data in terms of
Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle Model. To determine the stages of the Crisis Life Cycle
for the case study, time periods were defined by the information collected Ansett and
CASA press releases and organisational web sites. This information enabled the
researcher to define the stages of the crisis in terms of Finks (1996) model. Prodromal
Crisis Stage commenced on January 1
st
, 2001 and continued until Monday April 9
th
, 2001
when CASA notified Ansett that the 767-200 fleet was grounded. This decision by
CASA was the triggering event which caused the crisis to move to the next stage in the
Crisis Life Cycle. The Acute Crisis Stage commenced on Tuesday April 10
th
, 2001 and
intensified on Thursday, April 12
th
as travellers commenced their travel for the Easter
break, the Acute Crisis stage continued until Friday April 20
th
, 2001. During this period
the entire Ansett Airlines 767-200 fleet was grounded. The CASA threaten to issue the
company with a Show Cause notice to suspend Ansetts operating licence due to safety
breaches; CASA revoked the threat on April 20
th
, 2001 and cleared the aircraft to
recommence operations. From Saturday, April 21
st
, 2001, Ansett operated in the Chronic
Crisis Stage until June 30
th
, 2001 when the case study time period concluded. While the

immediate issue regarding safety breaches was resolved on April 20, 2001, Ansetts
undertaking to purchase new aircraft and hire new maintenance staff to meet CASAs
requirements regarding aircraft safety did not occur during the time period of the case
study. Figure Five illustrates the frequency of trigger themes during the six month case
study.
Figure Caption
Figure 5 Frequency of trigger themes during the six moth case study, illustrating the high
frequency of the focal trigger theme during the most intense stage or Acute Crisis stage.

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
Date
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Focal Trigger
Other Trigger

The articles from which the sample was drawn were collected from four
newspapers. The frequency of selection is as follows: The Australian, 43 percent; The
Financial Review, 16 percent; The Age 15 percent and The Sydney Morning Herald 26
percent.
With respect to the position of the articles, the number of articles in the first or news
section of the newspapers was significantly higher (75 percent) than any other section.
Articles also appeared in the Business and Finance (11 percent), Features (6 percent) as
well as the sections of Letters to Editor, Sport, and Company and Markets which account
for the remainder content with the selected trigger theme (8 percent).
All articles were selected by the appearance of the focal trigger theme, this being
safety. The focal trigger theme for the study is Ansetts safety record regarding its 767-
200 fleet. This theme appeared on 105 occasions (67 percent). The other trigger themes
identified in the mass media content were: (a) Ansett Airlines purchase of Hazelton
Airlines, (b) Price war between the four domestic carriers, (c) Aircraft delays due to
service failures, (d) Poor financial stability for Ansett Airlines, (e) Singapore Airlines
proposed purchase of Ansett, (f) Civil Aviation Safety Authority investigations, (g)
CASA Chief ability questioned, (h) Declining passenger numbers, (i) Qantas purchase of
Impulse Airline, and (j) The decline of the Ansett share price. These trigger themes
appeared on 54 occasions (33 percent) in print mass media content. The focal trigger
theme did not appear in mass media content during the month of March, 2001. The
trigger theme during this period was Poor financial stability for Ansett Airlines and
Singapore Airlines proposed purchase of Ansett.

During the Prodromal Crisis stage, 11 trigger themes were identified, these themes
constitute the pool of trigger themes as proposed in the discussion of the trigger theme
pool presented in Chapter Three. Proposition One suggests that in the Prodromal Crisis
stage mass media content contains a pool of trigger themes that could constitute the
agenda for coverage of a crisis. The data from the case study identifies 11 different
trigger themes in the pool. Seven of the pool of trigger themes identified in mass media
content from the case study appeared during the months of January, February and March
2001, prior to the onset of the Acute Crisis stage for the selected trigger theme. During
the month of April, the focal trigger theme and two other themes Civil Aviation Safety
Authority investigations and CASA Chiefs ability questioned appeared in the sample
of mass media content analysed. During the months of May and June the focal trigger
theme continued to appear prominently. Two additional trigger themes relating to the
decline in Ansetts share price and the decline in market share were also present in mass
media content during this two month period.
Fink (1986) asserts that a Prodrome typically appear as a small news story in mass
media. Data results indicate that 66 percent of all mass media content within the sample
which appeared in the Prodromal Crisis stage were of the average length of between 351
and 750 words long, while the remainder of the articles were either less than 350 or more
than 750 words in total.
In the Acute Stage of the Crisis, data indicates that mass media content containing
the initial trigger theme had evolved to extensive discussions on the actual events of the
crisis and the issues related its occurrence. During the Acute Crisis Stage pf the trigger
theme selected for the case study, mass media content presented an extensive explanation

content of the crisis detailing events as that occurred in a chronological order. While not
predicted, themes of blame and responsibility also appeared in mass media content during
the Acute Crisis Stage of the Crisis Life Cycle, with these themes accounting for 30
percent of the data during this period. However, themes of explanation account for 70
percent of mass media content during the Acute Crisis Stage of the Crisis Life Cycle.
In the Chronic Crisis Stage, themes of blame and responsibility accounted for 63
percent of the mass media content. Again, while not predicted explanation themes
continue to appear in mass media content during this period (32 percent). During this
stage of the Crisis Life Cycle events such as the Federal Government inquiry into the
groundings crisis, the launch of Ansetts Absolutely campaign, litigation and responses
from affected publics ensured the continuation of mass media content and prolonged the
impact of the crisis for Ansett.
While the immediate issue regarding safety breaches was resolved on April 20
th
,
2001, Ansetts undertaking to purchase new aircraft and hire new maintenance staff to
meet CASAs requirements regarding aircraft safety did not occur. While the
undertaking did provide a possible resolution theme mass media content. The actual
proposed actions did not occur during the time period of the case study, and in fact never
occurred as the company was placed into liquidation. Figure Six illustrates the frequency
distribution of the data.

Figure Caption
Figure 6 Frequency of Explanation, Responsibility and Blame and Resolution over the
life of the crisis, utilising Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model to define the time scale
periods.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Prodromal Acute Chronic Resolution
Cris is Life Cycle stages
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Explanat ion
Respons ibility
and Blame
Resolution

The analysis of the data collected for the crisis case study has been presented and
discussed. In exploring the data in terms of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model and
utilising the extension of the model developed by the researcher in Chapter Three both
weaknesses and strengths of the extended model were identified. Two core themes
emerged from the data. First, a variety of trigger themes appear throughout the time
period of the case study. While other trigger themes were given prominence, in some
months the focal trigger theme appears in mass media content as a tag phrase for other
trigger themes. Further, the trigger theme was not resolved, and as a result moved back
into the pool of trigger themes.
The implications for practice and recommended further research of the model are
provided in Chapter Five. Further the limitations and strengths of the research methods
used are also discussed.
Chapter Five

This chapter presents the discussion of the results discussed in Chapter Four and
drawing implications from the findings to better inform crisis public relations theory.
This initial exploration of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model in terms of mass media
content provides useful insights into the evolution of a specific trigger theme during the
life cycle of a crisis. The results presented in the previous chapter indicates that this
preliminary test of the extension of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model provides a
number of analytical issues and identifies limitations to the model. The issues and
limitations identified present areas for further research to provide a better expansion of
Finks (1986) model.
Researchers (Barton, 1993; Coombs, 1999; Marra, 1998; Mitroff et al., 1987) have
shown that how organisations select to manage a crisis will influence the length and
effect of the crisis. The literature reviewed indicates that effective crisis public relations
strategies can lessen the impact and time frame of a crisis, while poorly managed
situations can be magnified with an inappropriate crisis public relations strategy often
extending the Chronic Crisis Stage of the Crisis Life Cycle.
It is important to consider that crisis public relations is only one aspect of the
overall crisis management strategy implemented by an organisation (Fishman, 1999).
While some organisations recognise and embrace effective crisis public relations
strategies, other do not. How these differing levels of management translate into mass
media content of the crisis for an organisation has not been determined. Rather, this

initial explorative study has sought to discover how the extension of Finks (1986) model
can better inform crisis public relations.
Much of the crisis literature reviewed for this study was drawn from business and
management paradigms. These arenas fail to acknowledge the important contribution
crisis public relations can make to the crisis management process. However, as identified
by Marra (1998), Coombs (1999) and Heath (2001), effective crisis management is partly
the result of effective crisis public relations strategies. The conclusions reached in this
chapter do suggest that a better crisis public relations threory can be developed with the
use of the extension of Finks (1986) model in terms of mass media content.
DISCUSSION
Every crisis is different with a variety of variables which affect how the crisis
progresses through the four stages of Finks (1986) model. The crisis experienced by
Ansett in April 2001 had a lasting impact on the viability of the airline. The specific
crisis explored was framed in mass media content as a technical crisis (Hallahan, 1999).
And while the Acute Crisis stage of the Crisis Life Cycle model was resolved in ten days,
the effects of the crisis during its Chronic Crisis stage were extensive and financially
debilitating for the organisation.
The manner in which Ansett chose to manage this particular crisis in terms of its
public relations function can be easily criticized, but it is important to note significant
qualifications. The actions taken by Ansett during the crisis resulted from multi-faceted
organisational processes, many of which the researcher is not privy to. Ansetts public
relations manager, Heather Jefferies, confirmed that a reactive crisis public relations
strategy was implemented by the organisation (Jefferies, 2001). Further efforts to

manage mass media content during this process consisted of three press conferences and
12 press releases (Jefferies, 2001).
This study did not seek to explore the organisational influence on mass media
content during the Crisis Life Cycle, rather the research undertaken is an attempt to gain
greater insight into the changes in mass media content to provide better information to
allow an organisation to make crisis public relations decisions.
The results from the Ansett case study supported or partially supported the four
propositions represented in the extension of Finks (1986) model. Analysis of mass
media content for the case study revealed that much of the data did fit into the
predetermined four stages of the extended model. While an extensive search of
newsprint was undertaken and extensive data was collected, this study does not claim
conclusive causality between themes and mass media content or provide a complete
review of the case study.
The Ansett crisis situation was further complicated by its failure to manage and
resolve the focal trigger theme in December 2000. The groundings of Ansetts 767-200
fleet, and its requirement for the organisation to implement major changes in order to
demonstrate its commitment to passenger safety would have resolved the trigger theme in
December, 2000. However due to other crises Ansett was facing; the focal trigger theme
was not resolved and reappeared in April 2001. This further supports the studys claim
for resolution of trigger themes when they first appear.
Proposition One
In the Prodromal Crisis stage mass media content contains a pool of trigger themes
which could constitute the agenda for coverage of a crisis.

Finks (1986) Prodromal Crisis stage focuses on the warning signs that an
organisation can utilise to identify possible and potential threats to the organisation.
These threats are manifested in mass media content and appear as trigger themes during
the Prodromal stage. Seeger, Sellnow and Ulmer (2001) assert that organisations that
remain sensitive to their environment, monitor mass media content and explore relevant
trends in mass media coverage are positioned better to recognize crises.
Ansett unfortunately failed to heed the multiple and implicit warning signs of the
focal trigger themes during the Prodromal stage of the Crisis Life Cycle. Instead, the
organisation continued to ignore the Boeing maintenance bulletins and elected to
downsize its maintenance crew in an effort to reduce operating costs. Safety incidents
relating to the 767-200 fleet continued to occur. These incidents included: a failed safety
slide, wheel mount failures, engine cracks and other mechanical difficulties increasing
the mass media and publicss awareness of Ansetts aging 767-200 fleet. Ansett safety
became a focus of mass media coverage.
Fink (1986) contends that the Prodromal stage is the beginning or the pre-crisis
stage when management should be alert to possible warning signs or trigger themes that
appear in mass media content. The data provided indicates numerous trigger themes for
Ansett, yet Ansett management failed to act to address these trigger themes. Further,
CASA and Boeings acceptance of Ansetts assurances regarding improved maintenance
schedules for the 767-200 fleet further exacerbated the impact of crisis when the trigger
theme of safety reappeared and progressed to the Acute Crisis stage on the Crisis Life
Cycle.

In January 2001 the pool of trigger themes consisted of seven different trigger
themes including the focal trigger theme of safety was selected for the study. During the
months of March and April another three trigger themes were identified and joined the
pool of trigger themes. In May an additional two trigger themes were identified from the
data. The results presented a limitation to Proposition One. The study did not explore
the nature of the pool of trigger themes in terms of how the number of trigger themes in
the pool would change over the time of a specific crisis. While the study acknowledges
that the behaviour of a trigger theme is directly linked to the Crisis Life Cycle it did not
address the change in the number of trigger themes in the pool over the life of the crisis.
Hence, these trigger theme developments should be incorporated in a further expanded
and refined Crisis Life Cycle model.
The data also revealed that the Indicator did not correctly address the length of mass
media content during this stage. The length of the articles during the Prodromal Crisis
Stage were longer than anticipated due to the nature of mass media content. It appears
that trigger themes can appear in mass media content as lengthy discussions during the
Prodromal Crisis Stage, as well as the proposed succinct short mass media content items.
Proposition Two
In the Acute Crisis stage, mass media content isolates one trigger theme from the
pool of themes. This selected theme serves as the principal explanation of the crisis.
The selected focal trigger theme acts as the primary vehicle by which publics gain
an understanding of the crisis. The second stage in Finks (1986) model is the Acute
Crisis or the impact stage. In Ansetts case it refers to CASAs grounding of the 767-200
fleet two days prior to the Easter break. The travel plans of more than 170,000 people

were affected by CASAs decision and Ansetts failure to improve safety program and
improve maintain its fleet (Wainwright, 2001).
This is often the shortest but most damaging stage of the crisis as one of the trigger
themes is selected from the pool of themes and moves into prominence in mass media
content. The resulting physical, fiscal, and emotional damage to an organisation and its
relevant publics can be significant. Mass media content during this stage of Finks
(1986) Crisis Life Cycle contained themes of explanation where mass media content
presents an explanation of the crisis in a chronological order of events and actions.
Proposition Two requires that during this stage the frequency of explanation themes
will be highest. During this stage mass media content of Ansett explored and discussed
in detail the events leading to CASAs decision to the grounding of Ansetts 767-200
fleet. Mass media content included detailed discussions of Ansetts safety record and the
events of December 2000 regarding the 767-200 fleet. Further mass media content
provided insight into those passengers whose travel plans had been affected by the
groundings. While CASA called the initial press conference on April 10
th
, 2001, Ansett
was not a passive participant during the Acute Crisis stage of the Crisis Life Cycle.
Ansett attempted to control the flow of information to mass media by staging a series of
press conferences to address questions raised in mass media content. Further to illustrate
concern for its clients, Ansett announced that the airline would endeavour to move
passengers on other commercial aircraft, utilising support from its owner, Air New
Zealand (Wainwright, 2001).
The number of explanation themes was greatest in frequency during the Acute
Crisis stage, supporting Proposition Two. Mass media content presented a range of

articles from front page news stories to editorial discussions and letters to the editor.
Detailed explanations of the events of the crisis were presented. Blame and responsibility
themes also began to appear in mass media content during this period, suggesting that the
Acute Crisis stage allows for a variety of themes in content. This implication requires
further investigation in the refinement of the expanded Crisis Life Cycle model.
The Acute Crisis stage of the crisis exhibited several of the attributes that Finks
(1986) model predicts. First, the crisis proved to be a critical distraction for Ansett,
causing vast disruptions to its normal business operations. Second, the crisis attracted
increased government and media scrutiny. CASA commenced a complete review of all
Ansett operations and the Federal Government instigated an inquiry into the companys
safety and maintenance activities. Mass media content of the crisis increased
dramatically during the Acute Crisis stage, moving the trigger theme of Ansetts 767-
200s safety record from an undisclosed problem to a receptacle of attention (Fink,
1986, p. 23). Mass media content explored and described the level of safety provided in
the Australian domestic air travel market since deregulation. The credibility of Ansetts
safety and maintenance records was now open to investigation by mass media, as various
parties sought to explore how the crisis occurred. The financial stability of Ansett was
already under investigation by sections of mass media, the crisis increased the markets
awareness of Ansetts burgeoning debt and issues with its operations. The companys
share price dropped, and customer confidence in the airline reached an all time low
(Caruana, 2001).
The data from the case study indicates that the Acute and Chronic Crisis stages of
the Crisis Life Cycle do not have clearly definable boundaries. Instead, as in this case, an

arbitrary decision must be made by the researcher to define the time frame for each stage.
Fishman (1999) argues that time is a useful factor in making the cut. However,
subjective judgement is required to segregate the two stages. Fink (1986) asserts that the
Acute Crisis stage is the most intense. The reason for selecting April 10
th
to 20
th
,

2001
as the Acute Crisis stage was this was the most intense period of the crisis. CASA had
threatened Ansett with a 14-day Show Cause notice seeking to prevent the airline
operating and grounding the airlines entire 767-200 fleet.
Proposition Three
In the Chronic Crisis stage, mass media content focuses on assigning responsibility
and blame for selected trigger themes.
The third or Chronic Crisis stage is so termed because the effects of a crisis may
linger for years, as physical restoration, legal action, and public activism ensures
continuing mass media coverage. The actions and activities of the organisation, mass
media and affected publics can prolong the effects of a crisis (Barton, 1993). This is the
stage where accusations and defences are made by the organisation (Benoit, 1997). The
third proposition proposed that the number of themes of blame and responsibility would
peak during the Chronic Crisis stage. The data supports this proposition. Mass media
content describe the reasons for the groundings and allocate blame and responsibility to
Ansett for the crisis.
In the post-Easter grounding environment, the mass media scrutiny of Ansett and
subsequently CASA were hostile. Members of the media obtained copies of CASAs
December 2000 report into Ansetts maintenance of its 767-200 fleet (Wainwright,
2001). Further the media sought the opinions of Boeing to assist in the allocation of

blame and responsibility for the crisis. In light of the CASA grounding of Ansetts 767-
200 fleet, Ansett adopted a strategy of victimization. Gary Toomey, Ansetts managing
director sought to assign blame to CASA for the crisis (Caruana, 2001).
Ansett was forced to accept responsibility for the maintenance failures and the
company undertook three major corrective actions to restore its public image and gain
CASAs approval to continue operations. First, Ansett announced that the company
would sell its fleet of 767-200s and commence a program to purchase a new fleet of 767
aricraft. Second, Ansett announced that the airline would appoint 400 new maintenance
workers to expand the companys service and maintenance program. Finally, to restore
customer confidence, the Absolutely advertising campaign at a cost $30 million was
launched in May 2001 to entice customers to again travel with Ansett.
The proposed themes of blame and responsibility did appear in mass media content
during this stage of the Crisis Life Cycle did meet the requirements of the proposition.
However, further refinement to the model is required to accommodate the changes in
mass media content during the Chronic stage of the Crisis Life Cycle.
Proposition Four
In the Crisis Resolution stage, mass media content focuses on themes of resolution
or the trigger theme moves to latent status.
The final or Resolution Stage is reached when the crisis no longer impacts the
organisation's operational environment or its publics (Fink, 1986; Mitroff, 1996).
Proposition Four proposes that mass media content will have the highest frequency of
resolution themes in this stage or the trigger theme will move back into the pool of trigger
themes. While Ansett advised CASA and the Australian public of how the company

would resolve the trigger theme, the trigger theme was not resolved during the case study.
Safety issues relating to Ansetts 767-200 fleet continued to appear in mass media
content during the two remaining months of the case study. The companys opportunity
to resolve the trigger theme was removed when Ansett was placed into receivership in
September 2001.
Only three resolution themes appeared during the case study and all three appeared
in May, 2001. It is apparent that the implication for crisis public relations practitioners is
that failure to resolve trigger themes ensures the ongoing threat of unresolved trigger
themes.
An evaluation of the adequacy of the propositions derived from Finks model
indicates that there are four initial issues to be considered.
First, during the Prodromal Crisis stage the behaviour of the trigger themes requires
further research to better monitor the movement of trigger themes within the pool of
trigger themes. Exploration and refinement of trigger theme identification and an
improved method of tracking the development of trigger theme is essential.
Second, the mass media content in the Prodromal Crisis Stage is not restricted to
brief discussions of the trigger theme, rather mass media content in this instance can
provide lengthy discussions of the trigger theme. This presents implications for public
relations professionals in terms of how best to identify trigger themes for the proposed
pool.
The literature does not provide a definitive structure for the demarcation of each
stage, research into this area of the Crisis Life Cycle is essential in the development of
the expanded model in terms of mass media content.

Finally, the Crisis Resolution stage is critical to the successful implementation of
crisis public relations strategy. However, resolution of trigger themes is directly linked to
the management of the crisis by an organisation, and resolution can only be achieved
through management action. Public relations professionals must have access to the
senior decision makers and influence in the decision making process to ensure greater
success in crisis management.
Study Limitations and Strengths
The expansion of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model explored in this study is
the initial step in building an adequate model that extends his work and provides for the
possibility of predicting mass media content during the Crisis Life Cycle. The study has
provided a preliminary test of the expanded model. The results indicate that further
research is required to develop the expanded model, prior to submitting it to a more
rigorous empirical test. When this testing is undertaken issues such as of inter-coder
reliability could be addressed.
This preliminary study endeavoured to develop a model to explore the nature of
mass media content during the Crisis Life Cycle. The single case study undertook the
first or preliminary test in the development of the expanded model.
The researcher acknowledges that there are three main limitations to consider with
case study methodology. The most cited limitation is the difficulty in generalizing the
findings (Yin, 1993). This initial study sought only to describe the expanded model in
terms of mass media content and present an initial discussion on the findings, drawing
implications for further research.
The decision for a single case study is supported by the literature of interpretive
researcher Wolcott (1994) who claims that single case designs, especially if the
researcher is inexperienced, are the best method of case study research. Experienced
researchers could aggregate and compare existing case studies of similar phenomena,
however Wolcott (1994) does not endorse multiple-case designs. The selection in terms
of the purpose of the study is further supported by both Yin (1993) and Wolcott (1994)
who assert the benefits of single case study in explorative studies.
Yin (1993) claims that the goal of the study should establish the parameters that
then should be applied to all research. In this way, even the single case should be
considered acceptable, provided it met the established objective (Yin, 1993). The prime
objective of the study was to describe the relationship between the types of themes
present in mass media content and Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle. Further this
preliminary test was the first step in building an adequate model to extend Finks work.
The research of cited of Yin (1993) and Wolcott (1994) supports the decision of the
researcher to select a single case study unit for the research undertaken.
Second, literature raises the concern of lack of skill and/or bias by the researcher as
case studies are dependent on the sensitivity and integrity of the researcher (Yin, 1993).
The researcher is the primary data gathering instrument and each researcher has different
skill levels. There also can be unethical selection of data, bias, and failure to distinguish
between stated and observed behaviours and attitudes. This initial study explored print
mass media content collated for a single case study. The methodology for choosing
newspapers for this research was based on the criteria of national coverage in Australian
newspapers. Four newspapers were chosen, The Australian, The Australian Financial

Review, The Age and The Sydney Morning Herald due to the spread of the readership of
the newspapers.
The research material consists of a total of 269 newspapers articles. This number
refers to all newspaper articles in which the name Ansett and safety appeared during
the designated time period. These articles were collected from January 1
st
, 2001 to June
30
th
, 2001. The systematic gathering of the articles was confirmed as an exhaustive
collection using the electronic search engine Lexis Nexis.
Case studies are limited by being labour-intensive and time consuming (Yin, 1993).
As case studies can exhibit characteristics both iterative and emergent, false starts and
unproductive investigation were minimized by the researchers careful planning for the
study, articulation of the research question posed, and comprehensive development of the
research design undertaken for the study.
Yin (1993) warns that case studies can generate a product which is too lengthy,
detailed, or involved to be of much value to practitioners. Mindful of this limitation and
in consideration of the primary audience, other public relations researchers, the
researcher exercised discretion in the amount of description, analysis, and summarization
included in the study. Further as Miles and Huberman (1984) and Yin (1993) stated that
developing a priori construct prior to data collection assists in focusing research and
provides a stronger foundation for the instruments of measurement. The researcher
sought to describe the expanded model in terms of mass media content and devised the
indicators in terms of the propositions posed. This study satisfies the three tenets of the
qualitative method (Yin, 1993). This was achieved by describing the relationship
between the expanded Crisis Life Cycle model and mass media content. The study

sought to understand why mass media content changes through the four stages of a crisis,
and attempts to explain how content themes change during the Crisis Life Cycle.
The researcher considered three issues in assembling the documents for content
analysis and each has been considered in relation to the study. First, when a substantial
number of documents from the population are missing, the content analysis must be
abandoned (Stemler, 2001). This did not occur as ready access to all newsprint was
available through the electronic search engine. Second, inappropriate records (e.g., ones
that do not match the definition of the document required for analysis) should be
discarded, but a record should be kept of the reasons (Stemler, 2001). The four
newspapers selected for the study were searched for data, which resulted in data that
represented the entire population used in the study. Finally, some documents might
match the requirements for analysis but just be uncodable because they contain missing
passages or ambiguous content (Stemler, 2001). All documents were complete due to the
use of the search engine.
The most basic style of content analysis is a word-frequency count. Researchers
draw the assumption that the words that are mentioned most often are the words that
reflect the greatest concerns (Stemler, 2001). This basic assumption does not
accommodate several issues essential in undertaking this form of content analysis. One
issue is the impact of synonyms, which could be used for stylistic reasons throughout a
document, and cause the researcher to underestimate the importance of a concept (Weber,
1990). Another is the weighting of words selected as each word may not represent a
category equally. Currently, content analysis lacks well-developed weighting
procedures; hence the researcher should be aware of this limitation (Weber, 1990). For

example, the word bat could mean a mammal, a tool, or an action verb. Multiple
meaning words are those with several meanings dependent upon how they are used in a
sentence. Mindful of this limitation, the researcher explored data in terms of specific
content themes and while the themes were used as a frequency count, single words were
not.
The overarching problem of concept analysis research is the challengeable nature of
conclusions reached by its inferential procedures (Stemler, 2001). The issue of the level
of implication is acceptable and reasonable conclusions can be drawn from substantive
amounts of quantitative data, but the question of proof may still remain unanswered
(Stemler, 2001).
The issues of reliability and validity arise in all research methods. However, as this
study was a preliminary exploration of the expanded model and issues of reliability and
validity have been satisfied in terms of the study.
The generalizability of results depend on how the concept categories are determined
and the level of reliability (Stemler, 2001). The articles were used as units of analysis,
and their titles, position and content were examined. Each article has been classified
according a defined set of criteria as presented in Appendix A. The focal trigger theme
drawn from the pool of general themes was Ansett safety, it was selected after a
frequency count of all Ansett coverage in print mass media content during the first six
months of 2001.
Reproducibility, not only of specific categories but of general methods is applied to
establishing all sets of categories makes the study, and its subsequent conclusions and
results, more sound (Stemler, 2001). The researcher classified the analysed units
simultaneously in order to achieve interceding reliability. Following the collection,
examination and classification of the articles, an electronic structured data file was
created containing the research material. The statistical editing, processing and analysis
of the data were done with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
Content analysis provided several advantages to the researcher (Weber, 1990).
Content analysis enabled the researcher to examine communication via texts or
transcripts, and hence gain an understanding of the central aspect of social interaction
(Stemler, 2001). Content analysis assisted the researcher in gaining valuable
historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts (Sarantakos, 1998).
Further, content analysis allowed the researcher a closeness to mass media content which
enabled the researcher to explore specific categories and relationships and also
statistically analyses the coded form of the text (Weber, 1990). Finally, content analysis
is an unobtrusive means of analysing interactions, it provides insight into complex
models of human thought and language use and when undertaken proficiently is
considered a relatively exact research method (Weber, 1990).
Content analysis suffers from several disadvantages, both theoretical and procedural
(Stemler, 2001). In particular, content analysis can be extremely time consuming, and
subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a higher
level of interpretation, it is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to
draw meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
(Weber, 1990). It is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
and tends too often to simply consist of word counts disregarding the context which
produced the text (Weber, 1990).

CONCLUSION
In the discipline of public relations, crisis public relations continues to generate
strong interest in both academic and professional arenas. Yet, both researchers and
public relations practitioners have struggled to operationalize the role of public relations
role in crisis situations (Coombs, 1999; Heath, 2001). The result are public relations
strategies that generally are defined either by lists of quantitative variables that are
expensive to measure and difficult to integrate, or qualitative models, often restricted to
procedural devices and context-specific applications (Cornelissen, 2000). These reactive
crisis public relations strategies are the least effective, yet the most commonly used today
(Marra, 1992). Marra (1998), Fishman (1999) and others have ensured the evolution of
research to a strategic focus, asserting that strategic crisis public relations is an essential
business function.
The most prevalent theories presented for crisis communication are drawn from
management, business and mass communication. These theories remain isolated within
their own disciplines and the current body of literature lacks integration of these ideas
and concepts. This study drew on the current body of crisis literature, in particular, Finks
(1986) Crisis Life Cycle model and applied the expanded model to inform crisis public
relations strategy. This study has sought to integrate the ideas of research of Fearn-Banks
(1996), Mitroff (1996), Heath (2001) and others with the various ideas and constructs of
crisis communication to better inform crisis public relations practitioners. The study has
sought to integrate the two areas of literature of crisis public relations and mass media
content to explore the relationship in terms of Finks (1986) Crisis Life Cycle model.
The results of the case study provide further research to refine the expanded model.

Further the propositions require further development to better describe mass media
content during each stage of the crisis. The main aim of the study has been to refine the
expanded model so that it could be strengthened with subsequent research and testing.
The studys results indicate that the Crisis Life Cycle model should be considered in
the larger context of crisis public relations theory. This extension of the model to include
general themes present in mass media content serves as a framework for evaluating the
effectiveness of public relations strategy during crises, thereby, making an explicit
contribution to current crisis public relations literature.
(1986) model. The identification of these themes allows for the construction of a model
that predicts broad thematic categories during the four stages of the Crisis Life Cycle.
The development of the model enables practitioners to predict what type of content
will appear and when. This type of predication is not possible through the main body of
research, as it is descriptive in nature. The theoretically based model presented will allow
public relations practitioners to identify themes and facilitate implementation of crisis
public relations strategy in the Prodromal phase, thereby avoiding the Acute Crisis stage
and most damaging stage of the crisis.
The study has demonstrated the relevance and importance of the extension of Finks
(1986) model to understanding mass media content during a crisis. The extension of
Finks (1986) model and mass media content provides a way to better understand a crisis
and its life cycle from a public relations perspective. Further this expanded model
provides the framework for public relations professionals to identify and comprehend the

dynamic and multi-dimensional set of relationships that occur during the Crisis Life
Cycle in a rapidly changing environment.
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APPENDIX A
Case Study Coding Framework
a) Basic Information
1 Item number
2 Coder
3 Newspaper name
4 Date
b) Article Position
5 Article Section
6 Page Number
7 Size of Article
c) Article Theme General Descriptive Category
T Trigger Theme
c) Paragraph Theme Specific Exclusive Category
E Explanation Theme
B Blame Theme
R
1
Responsibility Theme
R
2
Resolution Theme

Explanation
Basic Information
1 Item Number (code number and 3 digits)
Commentary: Identification number of article. Each article has been assigned with
an identification number from the population from 001 to 269.
2 Coder (coder 2 digits)
Commentary: Identification number of coder. As there are multiple coders for
analysis, each will be identified numerically 01, 02, 03, etc.
3 Newspaper Name (2 digits)
The Australian 01
The Australian Financial Review 02
The Age 03
The Sydney Morning Herald 04
Commentary: Identification of number of the newspaper.
4 Date (4 digits)
Commentary: Identification of article by date. Day and month of when the article
was published with number of days presented 01 through to 31 and number of months
from 01 to 06.
News Frame
5 Article Section (2 digits)
News / Local 01
Business / Finance 02
Aviation 03

Features 04
Editorial 05
Letter to the editor 06
Company / Markets 07
Sport 08
Computers 09
Commentary: Attempting to find a distinction between themes and location of
article during each of the four stages of the life cycle.
6 Page Number ( 2 digits)
Commentary: Identify the perceived significance of the story by the newspaper
during the four stages of the life cycle.
7 Size of Article
Small (Less than 350 words) 01
Medium (Between 351 and 750 words) 02
Large (Greater than 751 words) 03
Commentary: To measure the editorial importance given to the article, used to
attract the readers attention. All four newspapers are of roughly equal size so the
defined size will be applicable across the data.
General Descriptive Category
Trigger Theme T
Commentary: Each trigger theme will present in content as a brief synopsis or
initial coverage of a specific issue or event which has the potential to progress to a crisis.

There are two clearly distinct types of articles; those with a focus on the Ansetts
safety and articles with a different focus, where the reference to Ansett safety appears in
discussion. When the article focus is secondary on Trigger Theme coding, the
information collected from the articles should focus on the section that talks about Ansett
767-200 groundings specifically. The focal Trigger Theme selected due to frequency is
Ansett Safety. The following four themes will be analysed in terms of this theme.
Specific Exclusive Category Cause / Effect Relationships
Explanation Theme E
Commentary: Explanation themes from mass media content of extensive
discussions on the actual events of the crisis and the issues related to its occurrence.
Often presented as chronological discussions of the crisis or event, the explanation theme
presents various issues related to the crisis.
Blame Theme B
Commentary: Blame themes typically present as individuals or the organisation
attempts to assign blame for the crisis occurring, usually through making accusations in
mass media.
Responsibility Theme R
1

Commentary: Responsibility themes present as discussions of how the event
occurred and who or what is responsible for its occurrence.
Resolution Theme R
2

Commentary: Resolution theme discussions summarize how the crisis occurred,
where blame was allocated and implications for the future can be drawn from the events.

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