Ha m i It o ns Pr i nci p I e

3.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters the equations of motion have been presented as differential equa-
tions. In this chapter we shall express the equations in the form of stationary values of a time
integral. The idea of zero variation of a quantity was seen in the method of virtual work and
extended to dynamics by means of DAlemberts principle. It has long been considered that
nature works so as to minimize some quantity often called action. One of the first statements
was made by Maupertuis in 1744. The most commonly used form is that devised by Sir
William Rowan Hamilton around 1834.
Hamiltons principle could be considered to be a basic statement of mechanics, especially
as it has wide applications in other areas of physics, but we shall develop the principle
directly from Newtonian laws. For the case with conservative forces the principle states that
the time integral of the Lagrangian is stationary with respect to variations in the path in
configuration space. That is, the correct displacement-time relationships give a minimum
(or maximum) value of the integral.
In the usual notation
61;. dt = 0
or
61 = 0
where
This integral is sometimes referred to as the action integral. There are several different inte-
grals which are also known as action integrals.
The calculus of variations has an interesting history with many applications but we shall
develop only the techniques necessary for the problem in hand.
Derivation of Hamilton S principle 47
3.2 Derivation of Hamiltons principle
Consider a single particle acted upon by non-conservative forces F,, F,, Fk and conservative
forcesf;, J, fc which are derivable from a position-dependent potential function. Referring to
Fig. 3.1 we see that, with p designating momentum, in the x direction
d
F, +f; = z (PI)
with similar expressions for the y and z directions.
For a system having N particles D Alemberts principle gives
F, + f; - dt (p,)
6xl = 0, 1 5 i S 3N
?( d l
1; ?( Fl +f; - ;il d l ( P I ) 64 dt = 0
?( 1 Fl% dt - 1 - w t - [Pl6X11 + 1 (PI) ; (6x1) dt ) = 0
1: (E F16xl - 6V +E p 1 6 x , ) dt = 0
Wemay now integrate this expression over the time interval t, to t2
Nowf; = - av and the third term can be integrated by parts. So interchanging the order of
summation and integration and then integrating the third term we obtain
3x1
t 2 I2 d
(3.3)
t 2 t2 av
tl t, axl tl tl
Wenow impose a restriction on the variation such that it is zero at the extreme points t, and
tz; therefore the third term in the above equation vanishes. Reversing the order of summa-
tion and integration again, equation (3.3) becomes
(3.4)
I 1
Let us assume that the momentum is a function ofvelocity but not necessarily a lin-
ear one. With reference to Fig. 3.2 if P is the resultant force acting on a particle then
by definition
Fig. 3.1
48 Hamilton 's principle
*
Fig. 3.2
dPi
pi = -
dt
so the work done over an elemental displacement is
dp.
P,&; = -' dr, = xidpi
dt
The kinetic energy of the particle is equal to the work done, so
T = $xidpi
Let the complementary kinetic energy, or co-kinetic energy, be defmed by
Tc = Jp,&
It follows that 6P = pi6& so substitution into equation (3.4) leads to
1; ( 6( T* - V) +? Fj 6xj ) dt = 0
or
" (T* - V) dt = - "(ZF;Sx,)dt = 6 1'2(-W)dt
ti I t, I t, ; t,
1:
(3.5)
where 6 W is the virtual work done by non-conservative forces. This is Hamilton 's principle.
If momentum is a linear function of velocity then T* = T. It is seen in section 3.4 that the
quantity (T* - V) is in fact the Lagrangian.
If all the forces are derivable from potential functions then Hamilton's principle reduces
to
6 X dt =O (3.6)
All the comments made in the previous chapter regarding generalized cosrdinates apply
equally well here so that Z is independent of the co-ordinate system.
Application of Hamilton S principle 49
3.3 Application of Hamilton's principle
In order to establish a general method for seeking a stationary value of the action integral
we shall consider the simple madspring system with a single degree of freedom shown in
Fig. 3.3. Figure 3.4 shows a plot ofx versus t between two arbitrary times. The solid line is
the actual plot, or path, and the dashed line is a varied path. The difference between the two
paths is 6x. This is made equal to Eq(t), where q is an arbitrary kcti on of time except that
it is zero at the extremes. The factor E is such that when it equals zero the two paths coin-
cide. Wecan establish the conditions for a stationary value of the integral I by setting dlldc
= 0 andthenputtingE=O.
From Fig. 3.4 we see that
6 (x + dx) = 6x + d(6x)
Therefore 6 (dr) = d(6x) and dividing by dt gives
d x d
dt dt
6 - = - (6x)
mi 2 kx2
(3 -7)
For the problem at hand the Lagrangian is
E = - - -
2 2
Fig. 3.4
50 Hamilton S principle
Thus the integral to be minimized is
The varied integral with x replaced by f = x + ~q is
+ ET^)' - - k ( x + ~q)i ) dt
2
Therefore
Integrating the first term in the integral by parts gives
By the definition of q the first term vanishes on account of q being zero at t , and at t2, so
P 12
Now q is an arbitrary fimction of time and can be chosen to be zero except for time = t
when it is non-zero. This means that the term in parentheses must be zero for any value of
t, that is
m , f + k x = 0 (3 -9)
A quicker method, now that the exact meaning of variation is known, is as follows
k
t 2
S I t , (;X2 - T ~2 ) dr = 0
Making use of equation (3.7), equation (3.10) becomes
P
Again, integrating by parts,
h 6x 1 ; - It:mi 6x dt - kx 6x dt = 0
4
(3.10)
Lagrange 3 equations derivedjkm Hamilton S principle 5 1
or
- It:(m2 + la) 6x dt = 0
and because 6r is arbitrary it follows that
&+la= 0
(3.1 1 )
3.4 Lagrange's equations derived from Hamilton's principle
For a system having n degrees of freedom the Lagrangian can be expressed in terms of the
generalized co-ordinates, the generalized velocities and time, that is P = P (qi ,qi ,t). Thus
with
t 2
tl
I = / X d t (3.12)
we have
Note that there is no partial differentiation with respect to time since the variation applies
only to the co-ordinates and their derivatives. Because the variations are arbitrary we can
consider the case for all q, to be zero except for q,. Thus
Integrating the second term by parts gives
Because 6qj = 0 at t , and at t2
Owing to the arbitrary nature of 6qj we have
(3.13)
These are Lagrange's equations for conservative systems. It should be noted that i = T*
- V because, with reference to Fig. 3.2, it is the variation of co-kinetic energy which is
related to the momentum. But, as already stated, when the momentum is a linear function
of velocity the co-kinetic energy T* = T , the kinetic energy. The use of co-kinetic energy
52 Hamilton S principle
becomes important when particle speeds approach that of light and the non-linearity
becomes apparent.
3.5 Illustrative example
One of the areas in which Hamilton's principle is useful is that of continuous media where
the number of degrees of freedom is infinite. In particular it is helpful in complex problems
for which approximate solutions are sought, because approximations in energy terms are
often easier to see than they are in compatibility requirements.
As an example we shall look at wave motion in long strings under tension. The free-body
diagram approach requires assumptions to be made in order that a simple equation of motion
is generated; whilst the same is true for this treatment the implications of the assumptions
are clearer.
Figure 3.5 shows a string of finite length. Weassume that the stretching of the string is neg-
ligible and that no energy is stored owing to bending. Wefurther assume that the tension T in
the string remains constant. This can be arranged by having a pre-tensioned constant-force
spring at one end and assuming that aulax is small. In practice the elasticity of the string and
its supports is such that for small deviations the tension remains sensibly constant.
Weneed an expression for the potential energy of the string in a deformed state. If the
string is deflected from the straight line then point B will move to the left. Thus the neg-
ative of the work done by the tensile force at B will be the change in potential energy of
the system.
The length of the deformed string is
If we assume that the slope dddx is small then
1
i = O
For small deflections s Q L so the upper limit can be taken as L. Thus
r.
Fig. 3.5
Illustrative example 53
The potential energy is -T (-s) = TS giving
(3.14)
If u is also a function of time then duldx will be replaced by dul dx.
If p is the density and a is the cross-sectional area of the string then the kinetic energy is
The Lagrangian is
E = J-
r =0
According to Hamiltons principle we need to find the conditions so that
t2 r = L
6 1 , t r = O -f [ : ( g) 2- L( 2) 2] 2 ax
dxdt=O
Carrying out the variation
t2 + = L
s,,.L o[ p ( & ) 6 ( $ ) - T ( $ ) 6 ( $ ) p d 2 =O
(3.15)
(3.16)
(3.17)
(3.18)
To keep the process as clear as possible we will consider the two terms separately. For the
first term the order of integration is reversed and then the time integral will be integrated by
Parts
because 6u = 0 at t, and t2. The second term in equation (3.18) is
Integrating by parts gives
(3.19)
54 Hamilton S principle
(3.20)
The first term is zero provided that the emU are passive, that is no energy is being fed into
the string after motion has been initiated. This means that either 6u = 0 or du/dx = 0 at
each end. The specification of the problem indicated that 6u = 0 but any condition that
makes energy transfer zero at the extremes excludes the first term.
Combining equations (3.19) and (3.20) and substituting into equation (3.18) yields
and because 6u is arbitrary the integrand must s u m to zero so that finally
- aZu
pa, , , - T s
(3.21)
This is the well-known wave equation for strings. It is readily obtained from free-body dia-
gram methods but this approach is much easier to modify if other effects, such as that of
bending stiffness of the wire, are to be considered. Extra energy terms can be added to the
above treatment without the need to rework the whole problem. This fact will be exploited
in Chapter 6 which discusses wave motion in more detail.