Professional Documents
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AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
March 2013
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3 WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS
32 Repair of a Hull 15 m below the Waterline
Follow the repair procedure through all its stages from
accident to finish
U. Aschemeier and K. Peters
40 Minimizing Risk in Offshore Submerged Arc Welding
The influences of welding procedures and practices on
avoiding the risks of hydrogen buildup are explained
B. Schaeffer and T. Melfi
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste.
130, Doral, FL 33166; telephone (305) 443-9353.
Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and addi-
tional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd.,
Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166. Canada Post: Publi-
cations Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Re-
turns to be sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box
25542,London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Press Time News ..................6
News of the Industry ..............8
International Update ............12
Stainless Q&A ....................14
Letters to the Editor ............20
RWMA Q&A ......................22
Technology........................24
Product & Print Spotlight ......28
Coming Events....................44
Certification Schedule ..........50
Society News ....................53
Tech Topics ......................55
Errata: D9.1M/D9.1:2012, Sheet
Metal Welding Code
Guide to AWS Services ......66
Conferences ......................70
Personnel ........................72
The American Welder
Learning Track ..................94
Fact Sheet ......................98
Classifieds ......................100
Advertiser Index ................101
57-s Transient Liquid Phase Diffusion Brazing of Stainless
Steel 304
A copper interlayer was used in brazing austenitic stainless
steel to address the concerns of brittle intermetallic compound
formation
M. Mazar Atabaki et al.
64-s Porosity, Element Loss, and Strength Model on
Softening Behavior of Hybrid Laser Arc Welded
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloy with Synchrotron Radiation Analysis
A new model was developed after analyzing weld softening
produced with a hybrid welding system on age-hardened alloys
S. C. Wu et al.
72-s Fabrication and Characterization of Graded Transition
Joints for Welding Dissimilar Alloys
A dual-wire gas tungsten arc welding system was used in this
experiment in joining ferritic low-alloy steels to austenitic alloys
G. J. Brentrup and J. N. DuPont
80-s Effect of Postweld Heat Treatment on the Toughness of
Heat-Affected Zone for Grade 91 Steel
Recommendations are offered on procedures to improve heat-
affected zone toughness in Grade 91 ferritic steels
B. Silwal et al.
Features
The American Welder
Welding Research Supplement
32
88
76
March 2013 Volume 92 Number 3
AWS Web site www.aws.org
76 How to Become a Commercial Diver and Weld Underwater
Take a look at the profession and its demands and decide
whether it is for you
T. M. Brown
80 Family Business Shines in Sunny Florida
See the growth of a company from a small fabricating shop to
a major player in the South Florida construction industry
M. R. Johnsen
88 Navigating Welding Standards
Help is on the way to sort out the confusion that codes and
standards sometimes cause
M. J. Skinkle
92 Welding Students Bring Steel Sculptures Roaring to Life
Artistic expression and welding skills go together at the
Robert Morgan Educational Center
K. Campbell
On the cover: A diver removes metal from the hull of a tanker that was dam-
aged while taking on cargo at a loading facility in Venezuela. (Photo courtesy
of Uwe Aschemeier.)
March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:00 PM Page 3
EDITORIAL
Over the past year or so, there has been one overriding theme in the financial sections
of the media the world has a very large shortage of skilled workers to fill immediate
job needs, and this condition is expected to get worse before enough people are trained
to meet the demand. The experts also agree that the lack of skilled workers is having a
direct impact on the economic recovery.
The American Welding Society is working diligently on efforts to develop the skilled
personnel needed to fill the openings in the numerous occupations involved in the fields
of welding and materials joining. A prime example of this activity is the work of the AWS
Foundation through its various scholarship programs. Providing funds to enable men
and women to attend schools and training facilities so they may develop new skills and
enter the workforce is an essential function of the Foundation, and these programs have
aided hundreds of people who are now employed in the welding industry.
Other segments of AWS are also playing a role in this workforce development activ-
ity. The Membership Committee is working to better define the membership benefits
that are attractive to students and that will lead to their participation in Society activities
as well as enhance their skills and knowledge to better enable their entry into the work-
force. To this end, AWS held two student focus group meetings this past fall. A focus
group meeting is an event for which a limited number of people with expected common
interests are invited and asked to freely share their thoughts in a safe environment. Just
as the field of welding is extremely broad, so too are the interests of our student mem-
bers. Recognizing that students learning the skills required to enter the workforce as a
welder may require different benefits than those seeking an engineering career, AWS
held a focus group for each of these interests.
As expected, the needs of each student group were different, but they had much in
common. The number one benefit each group requested was job related. The details
built into the recommendations were different, but it is apparent that both groups are
focused on their careers and employment opportunities.
Examples of the recommendations included the following:
Assistance with rsum writing
Assistance with the interview process
A request for potential employers to better define the skill set they need for a welder
rather than just the generic welder wanted
Opportunities for summer intern work
Sending student-specific information through social media that can be accessed from
smart phones and tablets
Provide examples of how to tips for real-world applications.
The Membership Committee has received the information from the focus groups and
is planning to incorporate as many recommendations as possible into new member ben-
efits. Also, the committee is discussing having one or more focus group meetings in 2013
to collect additional thoughts regarding other benefit needs or concerns.
One of the committees objectives this year is to establish a minimum of two new
member benefits that, while possibly of interest to others, are specifically aligned with
the recommendations of our student membership.
We truly appreciate the input from the students who attended the focus meetings.
The meetings were held afterhours and this did
impose some scheduling challenges. I also invite every-
one who has suggestions or recommendations for new
benefits that would impact our students to e-mail them
to AWS at rhenda@aws.org or cburrell@aws.org. The
Membership Committee will be pleased to accept and
consider your thoughts.
MARCH 2013 4
Officers
President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Well-Dean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1)
D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altech Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Product Group
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Focusing on Students
Lee G. Kvidahl
AWS Past President and Chair, Membership Committee
Editorial March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:24 PM Page 4
WE LISTENED.
WE DELIVERED.
Introducing the Victor
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(please type or print in black ink)
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-
CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE
SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 201
4
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hodgson_FP_TEMP 2/11/13 2:13 PM Page 19
LETTERS TO THE
EDITOR
Writer Enthuses about Career
Change to Underwater Welding
The challenges of underwater weld-
ing are many. Ive had a long career in
welding above the H
2
O on pipes,
bridges, railcars, plates, and tubes just to
name a few. For 30+ years, I never con-
sidered performing welding underwater.
When an opportunity came, it turned
into one of my most challenging and re-
warding career moves. As campus direc-
tor at one of the countrys top commer-
cial diving and underwater welding
schools, I was given the chance to trans-
form the welding program into what it is
today. Understanding that five years ago
I had no diving experience, let alone un-
derwater welding experience, at the age
of 54 I first learned commercial diving,
then underwater welding.
It is my personal opinion underwater
welding presents some of the most chal-
lenging conditions to work in. The Amer-
ican Welding Societys D3.6, Underwater
Welding Code, describes the wet-welding
process as one where the diver and weld-
ing arc are exposed to water without any
physical barrier. Top-side welders take
for granted being in a controlled envi-
ronment and staying dry. Welding fabri-
cation shops are, for the most part, con-
sistently dry with little wind or extreme
temperature changes. Shipyards need not
worry about underwater currents or poor
visibility.
In the commercial underwater weld-
ing world, water surrounds us, absorbs
our heat, and creates undesirable mi-
crostructures in the heat-affected zone.
Diver fatigue is more common in cold
water conditions, and if you factor in the
support team required to assist just one
diver safely, you can see how the diffi-
culty increases.
All of these challenges, plus lack of
visibility, are what the commercial diver/
underwater welder must face on every
job. Underwater welders rely more on
their sense of feel and sound than they do
eyesight, but the low-pitched rumble
along with balancing the electrode over
the pool is what we strive for. You can
hear the sound of the weld; feel control
of the electrode without ever seeing it;
and come to know what a good weld
feels like.
Training to be a commercial diver/un-
derwater welder is exciting and reward-
ing. You accomplish something unique
in the welding world; most people can
only imagine what its like working or
welding underwater. I know I did until
five years ago.
Ken Temme
AWS Philadelphia Section Chairman
AT FABTECH 2013
Chicago Nov. 18-21, 2013
Submission deadline: Mar. 29, 2013
The AWS Professional Program is an annual four-day program of sessions
on technical topics featuring the most recent welding research and best practices
in manufacturing and construction from around the world.
Submit your Professional Program abstract online by March 29 at
http://awo.aws.org/professional-program-abstract-form
or contact Martica Ventura at (800) 443-9353 ext 224 (mventura@aws.org)
MARCH 2013 20
Letters to the Editor March 2013_Layout 1 2/15/13 3:23 PM Page 20
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MARCH 2013 22
RWMA
Q&A
BY ERIC PAKALNINS
Q: Our company is in the process of
quoting the resistance spot welding of
several small automotive assemblies.
We must provide the customer with
metallographic results using AWS
D8.1M:2007, Specification for Automotive
Weld Quality Resistance Spot Welding of
Steel. This standard contains a large
amount of information. Could you review
and discuss the metallographic informa-
tion I need to know to satisfy my cus-
tomers request?
A: Before discussing the metallographic
requirements of AWS D8.1M:2007 (Ref.
1), it is important to understand the spec-
ifications scope. This specification ap-
plies to resistance spot welds in automo-
tive steels and is intended to define their
desired weld quality. It does this by ad-
dressing the needs of both the produc-
tion floor and the laboratory. Welding
experts from various automotive and
steel companies, and consulting/testing
organizations agreed to the quality char-
acteristics and metrics pertaining to these
resistance spot welds. The evaluation
methods and inspection criteria specified
in this standard include both nondestruc-
tive and destructive elements and can be
used to 1) evaluate welding equipment
capability and procedures (such as weld
schedules), and 2) characterize the weld-
ability of a particular steel. Further, Sec-
tion 5 (Spot Weld Acceptance Criteria)
states that not all inspection methods
have to be applied to determine weld
quality. In other words, it is up to the cus-
tomer to determine what test methods
are appropriate to define weld quality for
a particular application.
Before discussing the metallographic
information your customer has re-
quested, it is important to note that
D8.1M:2007 classifies steels used in re-
sistance spot welding by their minimum
ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Table 1
in the specification has steels grouped
into four categories: Low Strength (<350
MPa), Intermediate Strength (350 to 500
MPa), High Strength (>500 MPa up to
and including 800 MPa), and Ultra High
Strength (>800 MPa). The specification
does not require knowledge of what
group the steels are from when metallo-
graphically inspecting the resistance spot
weld(s). However, it is recommended to
have this information. Please note that
it is necessary to know the steel classifi-
cation when performing nondestructive
surface inspections and other destructive
inspections such as peel/chisel tests and
shear/cross-tension load tests.
Destructive Inspection and
Metallographic Criteria
(Section 5.2)
Sample Preparation
The welds to be evaluated should be
cross-sectioned slightly off-center so that
after mounting (if necessary) and sand-
ing/polishing, the centerline plane going
through both sheets will be available for
examination. You should check with the
customer to determine the desired cross-
section orientation as weld(s) can be
cross-sectioned in any direction, includ-
ing parallel (longitudinal cross section)
or perpendicular (transverse cross sec-
tion) to the edge of the sample. After ob-
taining the necessary surface finish, the
customer may want photomacrographs
(typically 10 to 20) prior to etching.
These can be examined for the presence
of cracks and porosity. Next, the weld is
exposed to a suitable etchant to bring out
the weld features (weld nugget, heat-
affected zone) and base metal.
Fig. 1 Fusion zone, nugget width, HAZ, penetration, and indentation (Ref. 1).
Fig. 2 Example of discrepant pores and cavities (Ref. 1).
Fig. 3 Example of discrepant internal cracks (Ref. 1).
RWMA March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 9:19 AM Page 22
23 WELDING JOURNAL
Nugget Width (Section 5.2.1)
Weld nugget width is one of the main
parameters to be determined from met-
allographic examination. As shown in
Fig. 1, the nugget width is the width of
the fusion zone. The fusion zone is the
volume of solidified metal resulting from
the welding process. It does not include
the heat-affected zone (HAZ). The HAZ
is the portion of base metal next to the
nugget whose mechanical properties or
microstructure have been altered by heat
input from the welding process.
The term nugget is often incorrectly
used interchangeably with the term but-
ton. A button is the part of a spot weld
that tears out during destructive testing
of welded steel. It may include all or part
of a nugget, the HAZ, and base metal.
Typically, a hole is left in the mating
sheet(s).
An acceptable weld has a nugget
width equal to or greater than the weld
size listed in Table 2 of the specification,
unless the customer specifies otherwise.
This weld size is also called the minimum
weld size (MWS). The MWS is approxi-
mately related to 4 t, where t is the
governing metal thickness (GMT). Table
2 has a range of GMTs called out for each
listed weld size.
The GMT for a two-sheet (2T) stack-
up is the thinner metal thickness of the
two sheets. For a three-sheet (3T) stack-
up, the GMT is generally the metal thick-
ness of the second-thickest sheet. How-
ever, another approach for a 3T stack-up
is to consider each of the two faying sur-
faces as a separate 2T thickness where
the GMT would be the thinner metal
thickness of the two sheets making up the
faying surface. Consult your customer to
determine their weld size requirement
for a 3T stack-up.
Table 2, note b, states that the weld
size applies to both the nugget width ob-
tained metallographically or to the size
of the fracture mode (for example, a but-
ton) that is obtained from destructive
testing. It is possible that a customer may
specify one weld size requirement for a
nugget and a different weld size require-
ment for a fracture mode result obtained
from destructive testing of the same weld.
When measuring the nugget width in
Fig. 1, the customer may require that any
unfused lengths within the nugget where
the faying surface or interface between
the two sheets originally existed, are sub-
tracted from the nugget width to come
up with an effective nugget width. Check
with your customer to determine their
requirement for this situation.
Penetration (Section 5.2.2)
Penetration is the ratio of the nuggets
maximum depth of fusion to the pre-
welded sheet thickness, expressed as a
percentage [(P1/t1) 100 and (P2/t2)
100]. See Fig. 1 for 2T welding. It should
exceed 20% of the prewelded sheet thick-
ness into each sheet of the stack-up for
both 2T and 3T welding. One hundred
percent penetration into the outer sheets
is undesirable, and in that case, it
may result in discrepancies such as
surface cracking.
Indentation
D8.1M:2007 discusses indentation in
Section 5.1.4 (Surface Inspection Crite-
ria). Indentation is the ratio of the
amount of weld depression to the
prewelded sheet thickness, expressed as
a percentage. Indentation should be less
than 30% of the thickness of each out-
side sheet of the welded joint unless spec-
ified otherwise by your customer.
Although indentation is not addressed
in Section 5.2 (Destructive Inspection-
Metallographic Criteria), it is possible to
measure indentation depth as shown in
Fig. 1. For 2T welding, the percentage in-
dentation into each sheet t1 and t2 can
then be calculated. If the indentation
depth varies over the length of indenta-
tion width, it is usually measured at its
deepest location. Verify this with your cus-
tomer. 3T weld surface indentations are
calculated the same way as the 2T weld
surface indentations by considering the
outer two sheet thicknesses to be t1 and
t2. A final note of caution: ensure that
sheet metal deformation is not included
in the measurement of indentation.
Porosity (Section 5.2.3)
Welds are discrepant if the pores, cav-
ities, or voids observed in a cross section
examined at 10 meet any one of the cri-
teria listed below:
Calculate the area and length for each
pore, cavity, and/or void (see example in
Fig. 2).
1. If the sum of all the areas (P1 + P2
+ P3) is equal to or greater than 15%
of the nugget area, then the weld is
discrepant.
2. If the sum of all the lengths (L1 +
L2+ L3) is equal to or greater than 25%
of the nugget width, then the weld is
discrepant.
Calculate 15% of the linear distance
between the fusion zone periphery and its
center. Measure this distance inboard of
the fusion zone periphery to establish a
15% inboard of fusion zone periphery as
shown by the dotted line in Fig. 2.
3. If any pore, cavity, and/or void or
portion thereof extends into this outer
zone between the fusion zone periphery
and the 15% inboard of fusion zone pe-
riphery, then the weld is discrepant. For
example, the pore defined by area P1
makes the weld in Fig. 2 discrepant.
Internal Cracks (Section 5.2.4)
Welds are discrepant if the cracks ob-
served in the nugget or HAZ at 10 meet
any one of the criteria listed below:
Calculate the length of each crack in
the fusion zone only (see Fig. 3).
1. If the sum of all the lengths (L1 +
L2 + L3) is equal to or greater than 25%
of the nugget width, then the weld is
discrepant.
Calculate 15% of the linear distance
between the fusion zone periphery and its
center. Measure this distance inboard of
the fusion zone periphery to establish a
15% inboard of fusion zone periphery as
shown by the dotted line in Fig. 3.
2. If any crack or portion thereof (for
example, the crack defined by L1) ex-
tends into this outer zone between the
fusion zone periphery and the 15% in-
board of fusion zone periphery, then the
weld is discrepant. Also, if there are any
cracks in the HAZ (for example, the
crack defined by L4), the weld is dis-
crepant. An exception to this would be
cracks deemed acceptable by surface in-
spection (refer to Section 5.1.2), but do
not extend into the fusion zone.
In summary, AWS D8.1M:2007 has
detailed acceptance criteria relating to
weld size, penetration, indentation,
porosity, and internal cracks as they per-
tain to metallographic analysis. However,
check with your customer to determine
whether they have modifications to these
requirements.
Reference
1. AWS D8.1M:2007, Specification for
Automotive Weld Quality Resistance
Spot Welding of Steel. Doral, Fla.: Amer-
ican Welding Society.
ERIC PAKALNINS is a welding consult-
ant with RoMan Engineering Services. He
is a member of the AWS Detroit Section
and serves on the D8D Subcommittee on
Automotive Resistance Spot Welding. He
retired as a senior specialist with the
Chrysler Materials Engineering Welding
Group. This article would not have been
possible were it not for the assistance from
members of the RoMan team. Send
your comments/questions to Eric at
epakalnins@romaneng.com, or to Eric
Pakalnins, c/o Welding Journal, 8669
Doral Blvd., Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166.
RWMA March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 9:19 AM Page 23
TECHNOLOGY
Penetration-Enhancing Compounds for
GTAW Stainless Steels
While the high-quality potential typical of welds using gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is well known, and the use of
products for increasing penetration has been characterized, es-
pecially for butt joints in piping (Refs. 13), what is less famil-
iar are the benefits for using these in welding thin-walled tub-
ing and structural joints.
The productivity of GTAW can be limited for many applica-
tions due to low deposition rates; shallow penetration, typically
1
8 in. maximum; or inconsistent penetration caused by small
variations of trace elements such as sulfur in the base metal, es-
pecially in austenitic stainless steels.
EWI and the Navy Joining Center developed penetration-
enhancing compounds, commercially available as DeepTIG,
for GTAW to overcome these obstacles and reduce fabrication
along with construction costs for a variety of products. The U.S.
patent (Ref. 4) is held by EWI.
Development and Application in Wire Form
Developing the product in wire form offered increased pen-
etration along with filler metal addition in a single product.
Currently, this is available as a development invention featur-
ing a metal-cored wire where the metal core is largely filled with
the product. If there is sufficient demand, there is a potential
for production availability.
The current product is for 300 series stainless steels such as
a 308L composition with a penetration-enhancing compound
in its core. It has been evaluated by several aerospace as well
as oil and gas market companies with successful results. Typical
results are similar to that shown in Fig. 1.
Offering the product in a wire eliminates the need to brush
it on in advance and is closer to a typical welding operation.
Using the penetration characteristics, up to
3
8 in. in a square
edge closed butt joint configuration, with the product in wire
form, allows for complete filling of the joint (including root and
cap) in a single pass. It also eliminates the typical need for a
separate cap pass to generate a positive weld surface profile to
account for the metal displacement from the formation of an
acceptable root face profile. As joint designs and welding pro-
cedures are significantly modified to take advantage of bene-
fits, the product is not a critical variable in a qualified welding
procedure.
While the benefits to penetration on thicker materials are
well characterized (Refs. 14), less well known are the applica-
tions that exploit deep and narrow penetration for other uses.
For example, where thin-walled superduplex stainless steel pip-
ing for oil and gas flow-line applications have been effective in
reducing the occurrence of overpenetration and sagging in
thin-walled tubing associated with low depth/width ratio welds.
Equipment Required
The welding equipment used for GTAW with this product is
the same as that used for conventional GTAW Fig. 2. Main-
tenance of a short arc length (1.2 mm) is critical to ensure max-
imum penetration during welding. Arc length is a critical vari-
able in the repeatability of welds made with the products, so
using mechanized equipment is recommended.
The process operating procedure is similar to that for con-
ventional GTAW. If a powder-based product is used, it should
be applied using a carrier and mixed to a consistency that al-
lows easy application to the joint when it is fitup. The product
will not give the penetration increase desired if removed before
welding, so care must be taken to avoid accidental contact. With
the product in a wire form, this is not a concern.
Inspection, weld quality control, and troubleshooting are
also similar to conventional GTAW; therefore, similar proce-
dures are recommended.
The penetration-enhancing product is offered for the fol-
lowing materials: stainless steels (Types 304, 316, 347, 409, 410,
BY IAN D. HARRIS
MARCH 2013 24
Fig. 1 Square edge closed butt joint, 6-mm-thick Type 304 stain-
less steel plate, welded in a single pass with DeepTIG wire at
195 A and 150 mm/min (6 in./min).
Fig. 2 GTAW with the product pasted onto the surface of a pipe
butt joint.
Technology March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 8:58 AM Page 24
25 WELDING JOURNAL
duplex and superduplex); nickel-based alloys (Alloys 600, 625,
690, 718, 800); and carbon and low-alloy steels (A36, SA-178C,
2 Cr-1Mo, X80).
Advantages and Disadvantages
Shipbuilders and industrial users confirmed the perform-
ance and cost benefits of using DeepTIG GTAW. It increases
weld penetration by as much as 300% for mechanized or auto-
matic applications; reduces heat-to-heat variation in penetra-
tion and distortion based on achieving the desired penetration
at a lower welding current; and promotes grain refinement in
some alloys.
The mechanical properties, weldability, corrosion resistance,
and safe use of these products have been extensively tested and
found suitable for a range of applications. They have reduced
welding time by 50% in most applications. Stainless steels and
nickel alloys welded manually in five passes require only one
or two passes using this product. Welding times for these appli-
cations could be reduced from approximately 23 min for the
manual procedure to 3 min for a single-pass GTAW procedure.
Reasons for using this product include reduced heat input
and distortion compared to conventional GTAW, reduced joint
preparation requirements and joint volume, and reduced wire
consumption for making the weld.
When the penetration-enhanced GTA process is used for
welding austenitic and superaustenitic materials, there is little
to no observable impact on the microstructure morphology
(Refs. 58). Conversely, when used on duplex and superduplex
stainless steels, the microstructure shifts to a finer prior ferrite
grain size with a larger volume fraction of austenite Fig. 3.
One critical item noted following welding was that for both
duplex and superduplex, the weld metal nitrogen content re-
mained unchanged following welding. Typically, these alloys
lose 10 to 30% of their nitrogen content during welding. Su-
perduplex stainless steels welded in conjunction with the prod-
ucts have been shown to exhibit improvements in both mechan-
ical and corrosion properties. The use of these commercially
Weld Test Stand
The Weld Test Stand
allows for quick,
secure clamping and
positioning of pipe
or plate test
assemblies.
Fig. 3 Use of both processes on thin-walled, 2205 duplex tubing
to reduce sagging resulting from low depth-to-width ratio. (Image
courtesy of EWI and Sandvik.)
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Technology March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 8:58 AM Page 25
available oxide-based products for superduplex stainless steel
yields a smaller observable (prior ferrite) grain size when com-
pared to welds produced without its use.
Industries and Application
The Navy has approved using SS-7 (the products name for
use on stainless steels) for GTAW stainless steels. One ship-
builder used the GTAW DeepTIG to fabricate piping for Navy
aircraft carriers and commercial tankers while another used the
stainless steel, penetration-enhancing compound to improve
the quality and reduce the costs of pipe welds on destroyers. A
boiler manufacturer utilized it in boiler tube production
applications.
An orbital GTAW equipment manufacturer employed SS-7
for orbital GTAW stainless steel tubing. Other manufacturers
have used it for fabricating large medical instrument sterilizers
as well as duplex and superduplex tubing for downhole umbili-
cals associated with oil and gas equipment. Aerospace original
equipment manufacturers/suppliers have utilized it for fabri-
cating various components.
Mechanical Properties and Corrosion
Resistance for Stainless Steels
Structural welds produced with the penetration-enhancing
product performed commensurate to or better than conven-
tional GTA welds Fig. 4. Additionally, GTAW with this prod-
uct increased strength, decreased the volume of weld metal and
heat-affected zone, increased corrosion resistance (critical pit-
ting temperature, ASTM G-150 and ASTM G-48), improved
bead shape and nugget size, and improved austenite content
with smaller grain size in SAF 2507 (the Sandvik-owned trade-
mark for a 25Cr duplex, ferritic-austenitic, stainless steel,
Fig. 3).
Summary
The benefits of powder-based DeepTIG are enhanced
when using the product in wire form in terms of simple appli-
cation and use while maintaining its demonstrated benefits. De-
velopment of applications by customers has demonstrated this
factor, and further interest and applications are sought.
References
1. Paskell, T., Johnson, M., and Lin, W. 1997. Development,
evaluation, and deployment of fluxes for GTAW that increases
weld penetration in austenitic stainless steels, carbon-man-
ganese steels, and copper-nickel alloys. NJC TDL No. 93-06.
Columbus, Ohio.
2. Lundin, C. D., et al. 1996. Gas tungsten arc welding flux
for increased penetration properties characterization. Project
No. NJC TL 94-0038. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.
3. Richardson, R., and Kirchheimer, P. G. 1996. Mechanisms
of enhanced penetration with gas tungsten arc welding. NJC TL
94-2048. The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
4. U.S. Patent No. 5804972. Filed 1996. Granted September
1998.
5. Ames, N. D., Johnson, M. Q., and Holmquist, M. 2000.
Orbital welding of small-bore superduplex tube using GTAW
flux. Duplex Stainless Steel Conference. Venice, Italy.
6. Ames, N. D., Ramberg, M., Johnson, M. Q., and Johns, T.
2002. Comparison of austenitic, superaustenitic and superdu-
plex weld properties produced using GTAW flux. Stainless Steel
World America (2).
7. Ames, N. D., Johnson, M. Q., and Lippold, J. C. 2002. Ef-
fect of GTAW flux on the microstructure and properties of
austenitic, superaustenitic and superduplex stainless steel welds.
Trends in Welding Research (4).
8. Ames, N. D., Frye, C., and Larsen, K. 2004. Improved cor-
rosion resistance of superduplex weldments. Stainless Steel
World America (10).
MARCH 2013 26
Fig. 4 GTAW T joint, 6 mm, Type 304 stainless steel, 225 A, 155 mm/min (6 in./min) travel speed. Autogenous welding with (left) and
without (right) the powder-based product. Using the product in a wire, a fillet could be added simultaneously.
Dr. IAN D. HARRIS (iharris@ewi.org) is Technology Leader, Arc
Welding at EWI, Columbus, Ohio.
Technology March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 8:59 AM Page 26
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
weld aid_FP_TEMP 2/11/13 1:56 PM Page 27
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
Umbilical Tubing Tolerates
Subsea Environments
Laser welded, Lean Duplex 19D tub-
ing provides an alternative for subsea um-
bilical applications. Zinc cladding is added
for improved external protection against
corrosion-inducing, temperature-fluctu-
ating subsea conditions. In addition, it un-
dergoes testing, including X-ray, eddy cur-
rent, ultrasonic, and final acceptance, to
meet and exceed ASTM-A789 and
ASTM-A790 specifications.
RathGibson
www.rathgibson.com
(800) 468-9459
Finishing Products Useful
for Welding Applications
The companys weld finishing products
line consists of stringer bead brushes, in-
cluding the TY encapsulated stringer
bead brushes developed in conjunction
with offshore pipeline companies to clean
J-weld joints; scratch brushes made with
kiln-dried hardwood for tuft retention;
and cup brushes, including the TY en-
capsulated cup brushes, which mount on
portable and electric tools and finishing
machines, useful for surface prep and re-
moving burrs, as well as other surface
work.
Osborn
welding.osborn.com
(216) 361-1900
New Technologies Advance
Cutting Processes
The company has introduced a plasma
cutting line with a new set of parameters
that delivers fine feature cutting on mild
steel up to 1 in. thick. These settings are
available for customers with an HPRXD
autogas system and work in combination
With the Activ8 portable wire feeder, available in a One-Pak con-
figuration that includes a Magnum PRO Curve 300 gun, welders get
a package matched for most applications in the offshore, shipbuilding,
construction, or pipeline industries. It includes the wire feeder with in-
ternal contactor, gas solenoid, arc-sensing lead, and clip (15 ft) along
with a K1500-2 gun bushing. The Magnum PRO Curve 300 gun of-
fers a 15-ft gun cable,
1
16-in. liner, and K466-10 gun connector kit. Also,
the wire feeder is designed for 8-in. spools; is compatible with any DC
CV and/or CC power source; and has front WFS knob and internal-
booted cold feed and gas purges, trigger interlock, and CV/CC switches.
Across-the-arc operation uses a sense lead and contactor to enable weld
current. A standard shielding gas apparatus can be used for FCAW-G
and GMAW processes. The wire feeder is capable of feeding
self-shielded FCAW or FCAW-G and GMAW gas-shielded wires at
50800 in./min. It will handle GMAW wires 0.0230.052 in. in diameter
and FCAW wires 0.0350.078 in. in diameter. The machine is rated at
330 A at 60% duty cycle and weighs 27 lb. At its center is the
MAXTRAC drive system featuring a dual gear-driven drive system,
patented wire drive, and tachometer-controlled motor.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
MARCH 2013 28
Semiautomatic Wire Feeder Designed for Offshore Operations
P and P March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 1:25 PM Page 28
29 WELDING JOURNAL
with its True Hole technology. Also
launching is a 200-A process for mild steel
bevel cutting and detailed settings for un-
derwater cutting mild steel up to 1 in.
thick.
Hypertherm
www.hypertherm.com
(800) 643-0030
Catalog Features New
Welding Machines
The 2013 Power of Blue 104-page,
full-color catalog showcases the com-
panys line of welding and cutting ma-
chines, including 11 new products. Pro-
vided are specifications and product com-
parisons on GMA, GTA, and SMA weld-
ing machines, plasma cutting tools, weld-
ing generators, and fume extractors. The
catalog highlights Arc Armor welding
protection, including helmets and safety
apparel. Featured are scannable tags for
mobile product information. The catalog
may be requested or downloaded from the
Web site below.
Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
www.millerwelds.com
(800) 426-4553
Helmet Available in Light-
Duty and All-Duty Models
The Limited Edition No. 2 custom
welding helmet is available in light-duty
and all-duty models. The light-duty hel-
met is offered with three shade types: au-
todarkening variable shade, autodarken-
ing fixed shade, and passive shade. All
models include a built-in magnifying lens
holder and are packaged with a protective
bag, comfort cushion, do-rag, and protec-
tive inside and outside cover lenses. The
Call or visit us on the web:
1-800-245-3186
www.bugo.com
Affordable, Portable
Automation
Cuts or welds in any position
Rack & pinion drive
Easy operation
Kits available:
- Oxy-fuel
- Plasma
- Welding
Made in U.S.A.
Surface Finishing Solutions
1-800-700-5919 www.csunitec.com
Rolei
BE5
Sheet metal deburring machine
2-sided deburring up to 0.20" thick, achieved with one operation
PTX Eco Smart
Shadow-free satin finish
up to a mirror polish
Linear grinder utilizes slip-on
abrasives, saving time and money
PIPE-MAX
Sander/Grinder/
Polisher
Renders weld
seams invisible on
flat surfaces
and pipe
up to
14" dia.
Integrated dust collection port
Largest
Dry-cutting
Metal Saw
on the Market!
Super Dry Cut Saw
Dry cut up to 4
3
/4" depth
12
3
/4" dia. blade cuts steel,
sandwich panels, trapezoidal
sheets, conduits, metal pipes
and more without coolant
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P and P March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 1:26 PM Page 29
MARCH 2013 30
helmet design features a dragon on one
side and a koi fish on the other.
Matheson
www.mathesongas.com/welding
(877) 684-4427
System Fabricates and
Repairs Plastic Parts
The Magna-Stitcher plastic repair sys-
tem (Model MS-2500) has the power and
accessories needed for repairing and fab-
ricating plastic parts. It works by welding
a stainless steel stake into the surface of
the plastic, resulting in a permanent re-
pair of a crack. The system can be used to
repair containers, housings, brackets,
shrouds, mounting tabs, and any thermo-
plastic part. It features a work light in the
gun to illuminate the work area and comes
with an assortment of stainless steel
Magna-Stakes, each for a specific repair,
including cracks on flat surfaces, broken
tabs, and repairing inside as well as out-
side corners.
Motor Guard
www.motorguardplasma.com
(800) 227-2822
Robotic Blast System Made
for Coating Work Cells
Model RB-RSSA-8, a 7-axis robotic
grit-blast machine for roughening compo-
nent surfaces in a production thermal
spray coating cell, contains a 54- 46-in.
blast process chamber that is 42 in. high.
A single pressure-blast nozzle is fed by a
3.5 ft
3
capacity, ASME-certified pressure
vessel. Blast nozzle motion is provided by
a Fanuc M-10iA robot and coordinated
with component rotation on a servomo-
tor-driven auxiliary axis controlled by its
R-30iA robot controller. Its spindle, fit-
ted with a jawed chuck or T-slotted
turntable, can be controlled clockwise and
counterclockwise, or it is capable of rota-
tion at speeds from 0 to 300 rev/min. Dur-
ing the programmed blast cycle, the ro-
botic grit blasting system maintains the
correct nozzle angle, stand-off distance,
and surface speed. Its media reclaimer
stack-up includes a cyclone separator.
Guyson Corp.
www.guyson.com/robotics.php
(518) 587-7894
Redesigned Web Site
Highlights Safety Products
The company has launched a re-
designed Web site that offers several dif-
ferent paths and options to obtain infor-
mation on safety products in the eye, head
and face, hearing, and respiratory protec-
tion categories. Every product is shown
on an individual, easy-to-navigate page
that displays its features and benefits. The
Web site still incorporates the distribution
center, where distributors can find sup-
port tools, such as product images, litera-
ture, and sales rep contact information.
New to the site is a real-life stories sec-
tion, featuring testimonials and photos
from product users.
Gateway Safety
www.gatewaysafety.com
(800) 822-5347
Camera Monitors
High-Spatter Applications
The MeltView DART-A camera pro-
vides up-close monitoring of welding
processes that generate high amounts of
spatter/metal vapor and are difficult for
humans to access. It enables users to mon-
itor multiple machines simultaneously as
well as record welding for troubleshoot-
If you wish to view the worlds
best weld process for code
quality and alloy welds,
visit www.tiptigusa.com
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P and P March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 1:27 PM Page 30
ing and quality assurance. Magnified im-
ages of the weld zone provide clear image
quality and facilitate real-time detection
of welding defects. It employs high-
dynamic range optical technology to pro-
duce high-quality welding images. A key
feature is automatic switching between
welding and nonwelding states. When
provided with dry, clean air or nitrogen,
the camera can operate in temperatures
up to 80C.
MeltTools LLC
www.melttools.com
(269) 978-0968
Blades Balanced with High
Diamond Concentration
The line of Blue Lightning diamond
blades consists of a collection featuring
34 diamond blades and 4 diamond cup
wheels. The blades are tensioned and bal-
anced with high diamond concentration,
resulting in longer life and increased effi-
ciency. Hot pressed technology produces
a consistent density of segments and rims
that hold up to tough applications.
Mercer Abrasives
www.mercerabrasives.com
(800) 221-5202
Boots Offer Closure
System for Securing Laces
The No. 2491 mens 8-in. work boot
(pictured) and No. 4216 mens 6-in. work
boot have a full-grain, waterproof Cor-
dura upper, dual-density Supersole welt
construction, fiberglass shank, and Cam-
brelle-covered polyurethane footbed.
Benefits of the Boa closure system include
the following: Once locked into place, its
reels and laces stay secure, one-hand fit
adjustment with a quick turn of its dial,
and comfort with no pressure points. Both
are recommended for oil/gas workers and
personnel working around heavy equip-
ment and/or chemicals. Also, the 2491 of-
fers an oil- and slip-resistant outsole, the
31 WELDING JOURNAL
Manufacturing
Flux Cored
Welding Wire
COBALT
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HARDFACE
STAINLESS
ALLOY STEEL
TOOL STEEL
MAINTENANCE
FORGE ALLOYS
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COR-MET, INC.
12500 Grand River Rd.
Brighton, MI 48116
PH: 800-848-2719
FAX: 810-227-9266
www.cor-met.com
sales@cor-met.com
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continued on page 88-s
P and P March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 1:29 PM Page 31
MARCH 2013 32
Accidents seem to happen at the most
inconvenient times, so it is important to
know who to turn to when they happen.
When a 50,000-ton product tanker ended
up with a hull breach while taking on
cargo in a loading facility in Venezuela,
the owner turned to Miami Diver LLC,
a founding member of the Subsea Solu-
tions Alliance, a global network of spe-
cialized underwater ship repair contrac-
tors that also includes Parker Diving
Service LLC and Trident BV.
The following is a chronological re-
view of the events, from the accident,
through damage review until the success-
ful repair of the vessel.
The Tanker
The vessel is a 50,000 MT ice-classed
product tanker (Fig. 1), built in 2009. The
183-m-long double-hull ship is classed by
DNV and RINA. In the area of the dam-
age, the hull is constructed from 13.5-
mm-thick higher tensile steel AH36.
The Accident
In May 2012, the tanker was loading
jet fuel in a tanker port in Venezuela.
During the loading operation at the ter-
minal, the tanker sank deeper into the
water with every ton of cargo being
Repair of a Hull
15 m below the
Waterline
BY UWE ASCHEMEIER AND
KEVIN PETERS
UWE W. ASCHEMEIER
(uwe@miamidiver.com) is the sr.
welding engineer for the
SubSea Solutions Alliance.
KEVIN S. PETERS
(kevin@miamidiver.com) is the
president of Miami Diver LLC, a
member of the SubSea Solutions
Alliance.
Since circumstances prevented the vessel
from entering dry dock, the repairs had to
be completed while it was afloat
Fig. 1 This 189m vessel
required an underwater
repair after it had its hull
pierced sufficiently enough
to let seawater enter its
water ballast tank.
Aschemeier 3-13_Layout 1 2/12/13 2:35 PM Page 32
33 WELDING JOURNAL
pumped into the tanks. Nobody knew
that a submerged obstacle, most likely in
the form of a broken pile, was hidden
below the waterline, invisible to the offi-
cers and crew of the vessel. While in-
creasing her draft through the increasing
weight of the cargo, the submerged pil-
ing finally pierced its way through the
hull of the vessel, allowing the ingress of
seawater into the portside water ballast
wing tank.
Damage Assessment
Despite the damage, the tanker left
Venezuela and sailed to Aruba in the
Caribbean Sea, where an initial evalua-
tion of the damage was performed by a
local dive company. After the assess-
ment, the owner of the tanker contacted
the Miami Diver office in Curaao.
The damage proved to be severe (Fig.
2), preventing the vessel from sailing to
its destination. Class would only allow
the vessel to continue the journey if the
hull breach was fixed permanently. Since
the vessel was fully loaded, dry-docking
was out of the question. The repairs
needed to be performed with the vessel
afloat. It was discussed with the owner
and class to sail to Curaao and perform
the repairs with the vessel at berth in the
clear waters of the sheltered Caracas Bay.
Miami Divers engineering department
developed a detailed repair procedure
that was submitted and agreed to by the
owner and class, suggesting a no condi-
tion once the repair was completed.
Attending the Vessel
With the arrival of the vessel in Cu-
raao, a team of divers, welders, and the
welding engineer were deployed from
Miami, Long Beach, and Curaao to at-
tend the vessel. The initial inspection
dive revealed an approximate 400- 500-
mm hole in the hull of the vessel and de-
formed hull plating in the vicinity of the
hull breach. In addition to the aforemen-
tioned damages, the bilge keel and
grounding bar were also found to be dam-
aged Fig. 3.
The bilge keel and grounding bar had
to be trimmed back to allow for the in-
stallation of the cofferdam and the insert
plate. The trimmed bilge keel and
grounding bar were mechanically pro-
filed to match the original form.
Templating, Engineering,
and Building the
Cofferdam
To allow the repair work to be per-
formed under dry conditions, a coffer-
dam was engineered by Miami Diver.
To ensure that the cofferdam would
be large enough to enclose the area of
the deformed hull, divers laid out the
area the cofferdam needed to cover and
communicated the measurements to the
engineering department.
Since the damage was in the turn of
the bilge, the transition between the flat
bottom and sidewall of the ship, divers
templated the contour of the area to be
Fig. 2 Damage to the hull
viewed from the outside.
Aschemeier 3-13_Layout 1 2/12/13 2:53 PM Page 33
MARCH 2013 34
enclosed by the cofferdam. The area cov-
ered by the cofferdam needed to be large
enough to cover the deformation in the
hull caused by the impact.
Based on information and sketches
provided by the divers, the cofferdam was
modeled to meet the required 4-times
safe working load at 14 m depth. Com-
plete built drawings were produced to en-
sure the cofferdam was built in accor-
dance to the modeling profile.
The cofferdam was built from 8-mm
ASTM A36 steel in the facilities in Cu-
raao Fig. 4.
Preparing the Insert Plate
The deformed and breached shell
plate section needed to be removed and
replaced with a rectangular insert plate,
approximately 2185 1422 mm in size,
with the corners prepared with class-
required radii.
The insert plate, fabricated from 15-
mm-thick EH36 class-approved steel was
cut to size, prepared for welding with an
approximate 37.5-deg bevel and rolled to
match the curvature of the hull. The
preparation of the insert plate was per-
formed locally in Curaao.
The track with customized ceramic
backing tiles develop by Miami Diver was
fitted around the peripheral edge of the
insert.
Lifting lugs were welded onto the rec-
Fig. 3 Schematic of the vessel showing where the hull was pierced and bilge keel damage.
Fig. 4 The cofferdam under construction.
Aschemeier 3-13_Layout 1 2/12/13 2:54 PM Page 34
35 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 5 Diver welder welding
a lifting lug to the hull.
Aschemeier 3-13_Layout 1 2/12/13 2:54 PM Page 35
tangular insert plate to allow for easier
handling. After preparation of the insert
plate was completed, the plate was placed
into the cofferdam.
Installing the Cofferdam
The cofferdam was fitted with a
closed-cell foam gasket material around
the outer perimeter. It was centered and
installed over the breach and deforma-
tion, overlapping the weld zone 500 mm,
to shield the welding area and heat-
affected zone.
Weld fixtures were wet welded to the
ship hull (Fig. 5) by diver welders to hold
the cofferdam in place.
After installation, the cofferdam was
dewatered and checked for leaks prior to
cutting and welding work to be per-
formed from the inside.
Removing the Damaged
Shell Plate Section from
the Inside
The damaged section of the hull plat-
ing was removed by oxyfuel cutting from
inside the cofferdam. The edges of the
cut area (future weld joint) were ground
smooth and beveled (Fig. 6) to approxi-
mately 37.5 deg. The corners were pre-
pared with a 100 mm (4 in.) radii.
Preparing the Weld Joint
To allow unrestricted access for re-
moval of the damaged hull section and
installation of the new insert plate,
frames needed to be cropped and/or tem-
porarily removed. The welds between the
web frames and hull were carefully re-
moved by gouging the weld. In the area
MARCH 2013 36
Fig. 6 Grinding performed to prepare the joint for welding. Fig. 7 Insert plate being installed.
Fig. 8 Welding the root
from inside the cofferdam.
Aschemeier 3-13_Layout 1 2/12/13 2:54 PM Page 36
of the intersection between the web of
the frame and weld joint of the insert
plate, weld access holes were removed
from the web member, sufficient in size
to allow unrestricted access to the weld
joint to be welded and tested.
Installing the New Shell
Plating
After preparation of the weld joint,
the insert plate was pulled tight against
the outside of the shell plating with a con-
sistent root opening of about 10 mm. The
plate was secured in place with weld fix-
tures Fig. 7. Prior to welding the in-
sert plate, the previously cropped and/or
removed frame members were rein-
stalled and tack welded into place. The
preheat temperature of 80C was con-
trolled through heat-indicating crayons.
Root Opening with
Ceramic Backing
Ceramic Inclusion
While welding the root, welders expe-
rienced a popping of the ceramic back-
ing resulting in undesirable rejectable in-
clusions in the root of the weld. It ap-
peared that the ceramic was emerged in
the seawater for too long, picking up
moisture that could not be released
through preheating.
It was discussed with the owner and
surveyors to cut a 510- 660-mm man-
hole into the center of the insert plate,
backgouge the root pass from the insert
plate to remove all inclusions, and reweld
the root from inside the cofferdam. The
manhole was welded on ceramic backing.
Both classification societies DNV and
RINA agreed to the proposal.
After completion of the weld between
the insert plate and hull, the manhole was
cut in the center of the insert plate to gain
access to the root side of the original joint.
The root pass was removed by carbon
arc gouging, followed by cleaning the
joint by grinding and rewelding the root
with the SMAW process (Fig. 8) in the
overhead position.
Welding the Root from
Inside the Cofferdam
After welding was completed, visual
and ultrasound inspection was per-
formed on the weld between the insert
plate and hull plating. The weld did not
reveal rejectable indications.
Reinstalling the Manhole
CutOut
The weld joint of the insert plate for
the manhole was prepared and welded
on ceramic backing. It was subject to vi-
sual and ultrasound inspection after com-
pletion. The welds passed without re-
jectable indications Fig. 9.
All temporary removed frames were
reinstalled with weld sizes matching the
original weld sizes.
Welding
Underwater Wet Welding
Underwater wet welding was only per-
formed to attach installation aids for the
cofferdam, which were removed after
completion of the work.
All underwater wet welding was based
on AWS D3.6:1998 Class A welding pro-
cedure qualifications (WPQ), employing
the wet shielded metal arc welding
process with Hydroweld FS electrodes.
All welds were executed as multilayer fil-
let welds in T- and lap joints.
37 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 9 Large and small inserts as
they appeared from the water side.
Aschemeier 3-13_Layout 1 2/12/13 2:55 PM Page 37
Top Side Welding
Top side welding was per-
formed as a permanent repair in
the dry. Top side welding was per-
formed in accordance with the
class-approved welding proce-
dure specification (WPS), em-
ploying the flux cored arc weld-
ing process (FCAW) under a
shielding gas consisting of 75%
argon and 25% CO
2
and shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW)
process with class-approved
E7018 low-hydrogen electrodes.
Complete joint penetration
welds were either welded on non-
consumable ceramic backing or
backgouging the root and reweld-
ing the root side of the joint.
Removing the
Cofferdam
After removal of the coffer-
dam (Fig. 10), previously welded
installation aids were removed
and any weld metal remaining on
the hull was ground flush.
Underwater magnetic particle
(MT) testing was performed on
the ship hull where installation
aids for the cofferdam were re-
moved.
Corrosion Protection
After welding was completed
and the welds passed nondestruc-
tive examination, corrosion pro-
tection in the form of Hycote 151,
an underwater, two-component,
polyamine-cured epoxy coating,
was applied over the welds, areas
adjacent to the welds, and areas
where the corrosion protection
had been removed or burned off
during welding. This assisted in
the protection and reduction of
metal wastage in those areas due
to immersion in saltwater by
providing a permanent anticorro-
sive protection. Preparation of the
coating of the internal paint
system was performed by the ves-
sels crew.
MARCH 2013 38
Fig. 10 Divers removing the
cofferdam.
Aschemeier 3-13_Layout 1 2/12/13 2:55 PM Page 38
For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
commercial diving_FP_TEMP 2/11/13 2:12 PM Page 39
MARCH 2013 40
W
eld integrity, quality, and con-
sistency are compatible with
higher welding productivity and
lower fabrication costs, as long as key fac-
tors are taken into consideration. The ef-
fect of diffusible hydrogen, selection of
alloy systems, and choice of welding pro-
cedures all play a crucial role in main-
taining high quality and consistency in
offshore weldments.
Welders and welding engineers face
distinct challenges in an era of increased
scrutiny by governmental regulations,
owners representatives, and agency clas-
sification societies. For example, owner
representatives are closely monitoring
the welding activity of yards, commonly
looking for less than 1% defect rate in
overall welding performance before con-
tracts are awarded. This requires that the
design engineering, fabrication, and con-
struction firms rethink the margin of
safety in their welding processes.
To reach first oil or gas in deep water,
designs incorporating higher-strength
materials are increasingly common, as
are higher productivity welding proce-
dures, even in automated processes such
as submerged arc welding (SAW). How-
ever, changes in welding variables can
also increase hydrogen content, further
influencing the risk of delayed cracking.
Hydrogen-related cracking is known to
be a function of the hydrogen quantity,
susceptibility of the microstructure, and
residual stresses on the metal. Welding
procedures and practices influencing the
diffusion of hydrogen are often over-
looked. Increased productivity in weld-
ing almost always results in thicker indi-
vidual weld passes and more weld passes
per hour (for less time between passes).
The result is larger diffusion distances,
shorter periods of time for hydrogen to
escape, and an increased risk of hydro-
gen-related cracking. These factors, es-
pecially when combined with the mi-
crostructures of higher-strength steels
common to the offshore welding indus-
try, require a new look at hydrogen con-
trol in every aspect of welding.
In addition to an increased risk of hy-
drogen cracking, mechanical properties
such as crack tip opening displacement
(CTOD) toughness often suffer when
larger weld beads are deposited with con-
ventional welding consumables and
processes. This article quantifies the risk
factors beyond those explored in stan-
dardized diffusible hydrogen and CTOD
Minimizing Risk in Offshore
Submerged Arc Welding
BEN SCHAEFFER is a development
engineer and TERESA MELFI is an
engineering manager for
The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio
(www.lincolnelectric.com).
Increasing deposition rates in submerged arc
welding requires proper selection of consumables
for achieving consistent toughness and low
diffusible hydrogen weld deposits
BY BEN SCHAEFFER AND
TERESA MELFI
Fig. 1 Increased deposition rates
achieved through AC waveform
control.
Schaeffer and Melfi Feature March 2013_Layout 1 2/12/13 3:23 PM Page 40
41 WELDING JOURNAL
testing, dispelling some commonly held
beliefs and proposing others. From this,
options are established to mitigate these
risks in the real-world environment of
heavy offshore structures.
Its important that offshore firms in-
crease their technical requirements for
welds, look to new technologies and
strategies to maintain consistency and
quality of weld deposit properties, as well
as achieve higher productivity. For SAW,
this is achieved through welding proce-
dure upgrades in combination with prop-
erly selected welding consumables.
Increasing Productivity
with AC Technology
Fabricating offshore platforms and
components requires an unwavering
commitment to the quality of welding but
also carefully managed costs and produc-
tion schedules. A newer technology in
SAW power sources is AC waveform con-
trol. As shown in Fig. 1, it permits signif-
icant increases in electrode deposition
rates, allowing higher weld productivity
at the same average heat input.
The outcomes are reduced welding
and operational costs along with in-
creased weld team productivity in single-
or multiarc welding applications. And,
with input current requirements reduced
by up to 50% for some of the newest in-
verter-based SAW systems, users consis-
tently report significant energy savings
over traditional SAW equipment.
Increased deposition rates do not
come without a price, however. That
price is risk; specifically, failing mechan-
ical properties (toughness) and hydrogen
related cracking.
CTOD Toughness and
Consumable Selection
The productivity increases delivered
through SAW AC waveform control are
associated with higher deposition rates,
often accompanied by thicker individual
weld passes. Many alloy systems develop
toughness when as-deposited weld metal
is reheated and refined by subsequent
weld passes Fig. 2. Thicker weld beads
resulting from higher deposition rates
can affect mechanical properties by in-
creasing the percentage of as-deposited
(unrefined) weld metal. Unrefined weld
metal is associated with coarser grain mi-
crostructure, more grain boundary fer-
rite, and lower toughness in Mn-Si (mild
steel) and Mn-Si-Ni alloy systems.
Weld bead size and placement are es-
pecially influential on weld deposit
toughness when such alloy additions are
not engaged. Smaller weld beads and
more passes ensure higher content of re-
fined weld metal but limit welding pro-
ductivity. Technology advances in SAW
fluxes allow for better toughness in the
unrefined weld metal of mild steel and
low-alloy systems without making tradi-
tional sacrifices to diffusible hydrogen or
ease of welding at higher deposition
rates.
Table 1 shows that CTOD toughness
at 10C of predominantly unrefined
weld metal (weld centerline [WCL] + 5
mm, Fig. 2) approaches that of predomi-
nantly refined weld metal for both mild
steel and low-alloy deposits when using
a welding flux designed accordingly.
These results show consistent toughness
throughout a weld deposit even at a
higher overall concentration of unrefined
weld metal, and imply a reduced risk of
toughness-related failures is possible
when modifying joint designs and weld-
ing procedures for improvements to pro-
ductivity.
Consistent CTOD values for a weld
deposit may also serve as its own produc-
tivity improvement. The CTOD values
quantify a welds resistance to ductile
crack propagation. During multipass
welding of thick sections, residual
stresses accumulate that deteriorate a
welds ability to resist ductile crack prop-
agation (and reduce CTOD values).
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) is
often used by fabricators to relieve resid-
ual weld stresses. According to Offshore
Standard DNV-OS-F101, Postweld heat
treatment shall be performed for welded
joints of C-Mn and low-alloy steel hav-
ing a nominal wall thickness above 50
mm, unless fracture toughness testing
shows acceptable values in the as-welded
condition.
Consistent CTOD values in the as-
welded condition eliminate the need for
PWHT, significantly reducing cost and
improving productivity.
Table 1 Through-Thickness CTOD Values at 10C for a Mild Steel Weld Deposit
Lincolnweld
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Expand your credentials with an endorsement that fulfills your recertification requirements.
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A CWI or SCWI can take a Supplemental Inspection Exam anytime during the nine-year cycle.
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the country.
ASME Section IX, B31.1 &
B31.3 Boiler & Pressure Vessel
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Section IX Boiler & Pressure Vessel
Structural Drawing Reading
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Even if your nine-year recertification
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Plan ahead.
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Plan ahead.
is given at the end of each seminar week.
indications produced on radiographic media. It will prepare you for the CRI certification exam, which
The five-day CRI seminar is designed to ensure that you have the knowledge to properly assess
you can apply to become certified as an
recertification requirement.
One other stand-alone credential can serve as an endorsement credit and also fulfills your
. 15-20 Apr Houston
is given at the end of each seminar week.
indications produced on radiographic media. It will prepare you for the CRI certification exam, which
The five-day CRI seminar is designed to ensure that you have the knowledge to properly assess
you can apply to become certified as an
At any time during your nine-year cycle, if you meet the prerequisites, recertification requirement.
One other stand-alone credential can serve as an endorsement credit and also fulfills your
1 egas May 6-1 Las V Ve
This is a valuable certification that fulfills your is given at the end of each seminar week.
indications produced on radiographic media. It will prepare you for the CRI certification exam, which
The five-day CRI seminar is designed to ensure that you have the knowledge to properly assess
WS Certified Radiographic Interpreter A you can apply to become certified as an
At any time during your nine-year cycle, if you meet the prerequisites,
One other stand-alone credential can serve as an endorsement credit and also fulfills your
Miami June 3-7
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COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
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ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
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MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
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LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
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SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidates Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.
SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
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NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
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CLASS OF 2014
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2013
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AWS Conferences & Exhibitions:
AWS invites you to join us in Las Vegas to expand your weld cracking
knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld
cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures.
Gain practical knowledge on the types and causes of weld cracking.
Network with industry peers to discuss the best solutions for business growth.
AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)
for each hour of conference attendance. These PDHs can be applied toward AWS
recertifications and renewals.
Weld Cracking Conference
March 26-27, 2013 / Las Vegas
For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site
at www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 264.
cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures.
knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld
WS invite AAW
cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures.
knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld
WS invites you to join us in Las
cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures.
knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld
egas to expan VVe WS invites you to join us in Las
cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures.
knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld
egas to expand your weld cracking
knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld
egas to expand your weld cracking
recertifications and renewals.
for each hour of conference attendance.
WS Conf AAW
Network with industry peers to discuss the best solutions for business growth.
Gain practical knowledge on the types and causes of weld cracking.
recertifications and renewals.
for each hour of conference attendance.
WS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)
Network with industry peers to discuss the best solutions for business growth.
Gain practical knowledge on the types and causes of weld cracking.
These PDHs can be applied toward for each hour of conference attendance.
WS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)
Network with industry peers to discuss the best solutions for business growth.
Gain practical knowledge on the types and causes of weld cracking.
A These PDHs can be applied toward
WS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)
Network with industry peers to discuss the best solutions for business growth.
Gain practical knowledge on the types and causes of weld cracking.
WS AAW
WS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)
Network with industry peers to discuss the best solutions for business growth.
or the latest conference information and registr F
ws.org/conferences .a wwww. at
or the latest conference information and registr
800-443-9353, ext. 264 or call ws.org/conferences
ation visit our web site or the latest conference information and registr
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ation visit our web site
educ cracking conf_FP_TEMP 2/12/13 9:10 AM Page 87
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2013 88
A
t times, manufacturers may state
welding requirements for their
projects that seem overwhelming
and complicated. It doesnt matter if you
are working for a company whose clients
are in the aerospace or oil and gas indus-
tries, a military parts supplier, or a
builder of aircraft carriers or bridges
(Fig. 1), there is a common approach that
can help you successfully comply with
each companys welding requirements.
I discovered soon after joining one
company that many of its welding proce-
dures had no supporting Procedure
Qualification Records (PQRs). If you are
familiar with standard welding practices,
you know how disturbing that discovery
was for me. I was further concerned this
was allowed to happen at a company that
employed an outside agency to audit its
welding operations .
It was clear to me that parts of the
welding program were missing and as-
pects not clearly understood at my new
place of employment, and I devised a
plan to correct these oversights. If you
want to make sure that your company has
a solid welding program, try the follow-
ing approach that I have used to ensure
compliance to welding requirements, re-
gardless of the industry, project, or task.
Standards, Codes, and
Specifications
The three commonly recognized doc-
uments that guide welding activities are
standards, codes, and specifications.
Standards consist of codes, specifica-
tions, recommended practices, guide-
lines, and methods.
Codes and specifications use the word
shall and will to indicate mandatory
requirements. Guidance information
that is recommended but not mandatory
is indicated by using the words should
or may.
Codes differ from specifications in
that their use is generally applicable to
processes. Specifications generally pro-
vide requirements for products. Codes
and specifications become mandatory
when so specified by a governmental ju-
risdiction or they are referenced by pro-
curement or contractual documents.
Navigating the Documents
The first step in navigating documents
for welding begins with identifying which
code, specification, or standard you must
use.
The qualification document presents
the requirements for qualifying the weld-
ing procedures and the requirements for
welder performance qualification. The
qualification document details the kind
of destructive testing and how many spec-
imens of each are required for the type
of qualification (procedure or perform-
ance). The testing usually includes both
Guidance is offered to help you
understand the various controlling
documents that can be specified for a
wide variety of welding-related projects
Navigating
Welding
Standards
Fig. 1 The main span catwalk of the Oakland Bay Bridge in San
Francisco, Calif.
MICHAEL J. SKINKLE
(mskinkle@Bechtel.com) is weld-
ing/NDE specialist, Bechtel Corp.,
Oil, Gas, and Chemicals, Materials
Engineering Technology,
Houston, Tex.
BY MICHAEL J. SKINKLE
Skinkle feature_Layout 1 2/14/13 2:26 PM Page 88
THE AMERICAN WELDER
89 WELDING JOURNAL
tensile and bend specimens, and there
may be additional types of testing de-
pending on the situation.
Listed below are a number of com-
monly cited welding qualification
documents.
AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2010, Structural
Welding Code Steel
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section IX, Qualification Stan-
dard for Welding and Brazing Procedures,
Welders, Brazers, and Welding and Braz-
ing Operators
AWS D3.6M:2010, Underwater
Welding Code
AWS B2.1/B2.1M:2009, Specifica-
tion for Welding Procedure and Perform-
ance Qualification
AWS D17.1/D17.1M:2010, Specifi-
cation for Fusion Welding for Aerospace
Applications
NAVSEA S9074-AQ-GIB-010/248,
Requirements for Welding and Brazing
Procedure and Performance Qualification
(NAVSEA Technical Publication)
NAVSEA 250-1500-1, Technical
Manual, Welding Standard
AWS D1.2/D1.2M:2008, Structural
Welding Code Aluminum
AWS D1.3/D1.3M:2008, Structural
Welding Code Sheet Steel
AWS D1.4/D1.4M:2011, Structural
Welding Code Reinforcing Steel
AWS D1.5/D1.5M:2010, Bridge
Welding Code
AWS D1.6/D1.6M:2007, Structural
Welding Code Stainless Steel
API Standard 1104, Welding of
Pipelines and Related Facilities
As you can see, there are many differ-
ent welding qualification documents.
The qualification document that must be
used depends on what is to be welded
(aircraft carrier, process piping in a re-
finery, etc.). Some qualification docu-
ments work in conjunction with another.
An example of this is the fusion welding
for aerospace applications document
D17.1/D17.1M. It suggests using AWS
B2.1/B2.1M and the Engineering Au-
thority for qualifying welding proce-
dures. For welding program navigation
purposes, the qualification document is
where you will find the requirements for
welding procedure qualification and
welder performance qualification.
The Fabrication Standard
The second step in welding document
navigation consists of identifying which
fabrication standard you are working to.
The fabrication document may be a code,
specification, or standard.
What kind of information is in the fab-
rication document? For the purpose of
welding document navigation, we are
looking for the requirements for preheat,
postweld heat treatment, hardness, and
impact, and special weld testing, i.e., the
number of various weld joint configura-
tions and types of testing. There may also
be welding workmanship requirements,
and instructions for the preparation of
the base metal, weld inspection, and
other welding-fabrication requirements.
The fabrication documents require-
ments may be job specific, part specific,
or project specific.
Most welding documents are struc-
tured in the fashion of separating the
qualification document and fabrication
document, but this is not always the case.
Both D1.1 and D17.1 are qualification
documents that also provide fabrication
information.
Several typical welding fabrication
documents are listed below.
NAVSEA S9074-AR-GIB-010/278,
Requirements for Fabrication, Welding and
Inspection, and Casting Inspection and Re-
pair for Machinery, Piping, and Pressure
Vessels
BAE Systems, Number P50, Spec-
ification for the Welding and Fabrication
of Titanium 6AL4V Alloy Ultra Light-
weight Field Howitzer
PPD 802-6337597 (a Project Pecu-
liar Document)
NAVSEA T9074-AD-GIB-010/1688,
Requirements for Fabrication, Welding,
and Inspection of Submarine Structure
MIL-STD-1689A, Department of
Defense Manufacturing Process Stan-
dard: Fabrication, Welding, and Inspec-
tion of Ships Structure
ASME B31.1, Power Piping
ASME B31.3, Process Piping
ASME B31.4, Pipeline Transportation
Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and
other Liquids
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section I, Rules for Construction
of Power Boilers
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section VIII, Rules for Construc-
tion of Pressure Vessels
API 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil
Storage
As you can see, there are many fabri-
cation documents published by various
organizations. Moreover, each fabrica-
tion company operates differently and
may have its own internal fabrication
standards. The contract, purchase order,
or circular of welding requirements gov-
erning the work being accomplished or
the Appendix K (if youre working with
submarines or aircraft carriers) will de-
fine which welding documents to use.
Project Specifications
The third step in welding document
navigation consists of identifying which
project specifications apply to your work.
This step may or may not be applicable
depending on each situation. For exam-
ple, I previously worked for Fluor. It is a
Fortune 500 company with projects un-
derway worldwide. Each customers proj-
ect is unique with specific requirements.
Fortunately, most projects have a
master specification index that lists all of
the controlling documents cited for the
entire job. This allows one to quickly
identify all of the specifications that
must be followed to meet each clients
requirements.
Some examples of welding project
specifications are listed below.
Master Specification 000-285-
85050, General Welding/NDE Specifica-
tion for Pressure-Retaining Components
Skinkle feature_Layout 1 2/14/13 2:27 PM Page 89
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2013 90
Master Specification 000-285-
85001, Welding/NDE Specification for
Pressure Vessels and Heat Exchangers
Master Specification 000-285-
85002, Welding/NDE Specification for
Shop/Field Fabricated Pipe
Master Specification 000-285-
85003, General Specification for Weld
Overlay and Integrally Bonded Cladding
Master Specification 000-285-
85007, Welding, Shop and/or Field Fab-
ricated Structures
Summary
The method described here should
help guide you through some of the com-
plicated situations and clarify the numer-
ous requirements prescribed for working
on most any project, whether a bridge, an
aircraft carrier, a submarine, or welding
structural steel in a refinery, for an oil
company project, or welding for a power
company or a supplier of military parts.
Acknowledgments
I would like to give a special thanks
to Gary Cannell, senior fellow, welding
and materials engineer, Fluor Govern-
ment Group, for technical support and
advice for this article, and information
presented in the AWS Welding Hand-
book, Vol. 1, Welding Science and Tech-
nology, Ninth Edition. 2001. Codes and
Other Standards, pp. 684, 685.
Fig. 2 A worker is
shown welding on the
Oakland Bay Bridge.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Skinkle feature_Layout 1 2/14/13 2:27 PM Page 90
general corporate_FP_TEMP 2/11/13 9:09 AM Page 91
THE AMERICAN WELDER
W
elding students at Robert Morgan
Educational Center, Miami, Fla.,
have been tapping into their best
wildlife and swashbuckling creativity,
proving just how amazing steel sculptures
can turn out when industrial training is
combined with artistic expression.
A 7-ft-tall elephant and 12-ft-tall gi-
raffe fabricated by high school and
adult welding students in the newly
formed morning class required draw-
ing, measuring, and critical thinking skills
Fig. 1. They used hot-rolled, 11-gauge
steel sheets; cut them into 2-in.-wide strips
of various lengths; moved in various posi-
tions to gas metal arc weld (GMAW) the
strips in place; viewed pictures of the real-
life animals; then painted the elephant
gray and the giraffe yellow with brown
spots.
Additionally, welding students in the
morning class paid tribute to the schools
mascot by creating a Captain Robert
Morgan sculpture Fig. 2. The 7-ft-tall
pirate was crafted from 11-gauge steel
sheets cut into 2-in.-wide strips by various
lengths then assembled using gas metal
arc welding. Features include a painted-
red hat crafted from 18-gauge stainless
steel; facial characteristics accented with
an eye patch and beard; a silver sword;
metal belt buckles across his chest and
waist; and large jewelry around his neck
and hands. Two small cannons to go with
him have been made as well, and a treas-
ure chest to go by his side is in the works
Fig. 3.
Ricardo Delgado, the schools welding
instructor and an American Welding So-
ciety member, thought it was a good idea
for his applied welding technology classes
to make various figures after being in-
spired by visiting different universities and
public buildings.
The lessons the students have
learned, and are still learning, is the con-
cept of teamwork, the artistic work of
welding, and using measurement tools,
Delgado said.
Challenges faced while working on the
sculptures varied from height proportion-
ing the large animals to dimensional fac-
tors with bringing out the 3D image vs. a
flat pattern. On the flip side, students
gained experience and skills working on a
project.
The time to create each figure varied
from two weeks to a month. Currently,
they are on display throughout the school
in different courtyard areas. Faculty mem-
bers along with students enjoy their pres-
ence. Planned projects for the future in-
clude making flamingos and alligators.
We are constantly creating new art-
work, Delgado added. Adult welding stu-
dents in the evening class have trans-
formed discarded bicycles into custom-
made, American Chopper-style rides.
Delgado further feels it is rewarding
to help his students succeed and have
worthwhile careers. When companies call
asking for welders, he helps them prepare
for interviews and get ready to become
qualified.
MARCH 2013 92
KRISTIN CAMPBELL
(kcampbell@aws.org) is
associate editor of the
Welding Journal.
BY KRISTIN CAMPBELL
Fig. 1 A 12fttall giraffe stands in front
of Robert Morgan Educational Centers
bookstore.
Fig. 2 The 7fttall Captain Robert Mor
gan takes his stand in front of the schools
cafeteria.
Fig. 3 Todd White, a high school student
in the morning welding class, performs fin
ishing work on a small cannon.
Welding Students Bring Steel
Sculptures Roaring to Life
Miami students challenged
to express their artistry
through welding
1
2
3
Campbell Layout_Layout 1 2/13/13 4:14 PM Page 92
NOVEMBER 18-21, 2013
MCCORMICK PLACE
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS USA
fabtechexpo.com
CHICAGO
SAVE THE DATE
2013
Follow us: Co-sponsors:
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fabtech_FP_TEMP 2/11/13 1:47 PM Page 93
THE AMERICAN WELDER
LEARNING TRACK
MARCH 2013 94
Welder Training & Testing
Institute Stresses Personalized
Skills Development
The school offers numerous training
programs to help each student reach
their individual goal
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
HOWARD M. WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org), is associate editor
of the Welding Journal.
Students at WTTI pose for a group shot.
2 WTTI Learning Track 3-13_Layout 1 2/13/13 1:58 PM Page 94
THE AMERICAN WELDER
95 WELDING JOURNAL
T
he Welder Training & Testing Insti-
tute (WTTI) is comprised of a
Welding Technology School and an
Industrial Services Division, both located
in Allentown, Pa., about 60 miles north of
Philadelphia.
The Welding Technology School, in
operation since 1968, is accredited by the
Accrediting Commission of Career
Schools and Colleges (ACCSC). The
school offers comprehensive welding
programs for adults interested in estab-
lishing a career in the field of welding.
Advanced courses and seminars are
available for professionals seeking to up-
grade their skills in a number of com-
mercial processes, including pipe weld-
ing, brazing, submerged arc welding, and
specialty gas tungsten arc welding.
Recognizing that everyone has a dif-
ferent learning ability and potential, the
instructional staff members (Figs. 1, 2)
make every effort to personalize the
training to best develop each individuals
career skills. This starts with a one-on-
one interview process and a tour of the
institute by each prospective student to
meet the instructors and visit with the
school staff. This offers the opportunity
to discuss their goals, determine which
program is best suited for achieving their
career objectives, and discuss tuition,
other expenses, financial aid opportuni-
ties, local housing, recent job offerings,
and other concerns.
The school operates on a rolling en-
rollment with new students beginning
their programs or courses on a weekly
basis throughout the entire year. Stu-
dents have the benefit of progressing
through their program based on their
own personal achievements. Therefore,
the pace of training is not set by the
group, but rather by each individuals
ability to develop and acquire each new
skill. Each students attendance and daily
progress are monitored by an interactive
software system specially developed by
WTTI. Students are responsible for mon-
itoring their progress with the oversight
of the instructor, much the same as oc-
curs in the real-world job environment.
The unique computer-based tracking sys-
tem enables each student to reach his or
her personal educational objective on
target within their chosen timeframe.
The theory sessions are taught on a
modular basis and the lectures are pre-
sented with extensive use of digital
media. These lectures are enhanced
through hands-on activities in the inte-
grated computer lab.
Fig. 1 Ready for work, WTTI welding instructors are (from left) Andrew Laker, Sam
Dorward, Adam Kline, Troy Heiser, and Marc Tobash.
LEARNING TRACK
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
2 WTTI Learning Track 3-13_Layout 1 2/13/13 1:59 PM Page 95
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2013 96
Prior to graduation, the school pro-
vides assistance with preparing rsums,
and uses its established relationships with
major employers nationwide to match
each students capabilities with the most
appropriate jobs available, and arranges
for plant tours and job interviews when-
ever possible.
The Training Site
To ensure each welding student re-
ceives adequate personal attention, the
school maintains a low student/teacher
ratio. Its 10,000-sq-ft training facility
houses 65 welding stations equipped with
multiprocess inverters, several layout
areas, and multiple cutting and pipe-
beveling stations. The fully equipped
classrooms support the in-shop training
with lessons in safety, blueprint reading,
layout, and the theory necessary to under-
stand and utilize the various welding
processes. In addition to skills training,
the school emphasizes the importance of
practicing the employee-retention attrib-
utes of punctuality, good attendance, and
reliability.
Course Offerings
The school presents diplomas to grad-
uates of the following comprehensive
diploma programs and courses to provide
students with the level of training needed
to meet their goals.
The program titles (with the hours in
parentheses) are Welder Fitter (900) and
Combination Welding (740).
The general courses include Practical
Shop Welding (600) and General Shop
Welding (500).
The process-specific and advanced-
technique courses include Standard Weld-
ing (180), Advanced Welder Qualification
Pipe (120), Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(60), Gas Metal Arc Welding (60), and
Flux Cored Arc Welding (60).
The Welder Fitter is a career-level pro-
gram for beginners who have little or no
welding experience. It begins with basic
structural welding skills in multiple
processes and advances through all-posi-
tion pipe welding on carbon steel, stain-
less steel, and aluminum.
The school is equipped to qualify
welders in accordance with the standards
for the AWS Certified Welders program.
All students have the option to participate
in qualification testing at the conclusion of
their training for an additional fee.
How to Start Training
First, visit the institutes Web site
(www.wtti.org) to tentatively select the
program or courses that interest you.
Next, to verify you meet the admission re-
quirements, download and complete the
student application form. Then you
should contact the school to make an ap-
pointment for the facility tour and enroll-
ment interview to discuss your work and
educational history, future goals, and ca-
reer path. The registration fee is $75.
DO YOUR OWN TESTING
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LEARNING TRACK
Fig. 2 Lead instructor Troy Heiser (right) teaches Bryan Stanton how to walk the cup
on 4-in. Schedule 10 stainless steel pipe in the 6G position
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2 WTTI Learning Track 3-13_Layout 1 2/13/13 2:00 PM Page 96
THE AMERICAN WELDER
97 WELDING JOURNAL
Financial Aid
A call or a visit to the WTTI financial
aid office will help determine your eligi-
bility for the various sources of financial
assistance. The school is eligible for Fed-
eral Direct Student Loans, Pell Grant
Program, and supplemental Education
Opportunity Grant Program, and veter-
ans educational assistance.
On-Site Training
The Institute also offers on-site train-
ing using 50-ft mobile trailers fully
equipped to train ten welders at a time in
oxyacetylene, shielded metal arc, flux
cored arc, and gas tungsten arc welding.
The Industrial Services
Division
The institutes Industrial Services Di-
vision (ISD) provides specialty services
to the welding industry both domestically
and internationally. It operates a me-
chanical testing lab accredited by A2LA
to ISO/IEC 17025 and a nondestructive
testing lab with capabilities in the latest
methods, including digital radiography
and phased array ultrasonics Fig. 3.
The labs provide welder, brazer, and pro-
cedure qualification testing to a broad
range of codes, as well as material and
failure analysis. Field services such as in-
spection, consulting, and customized
training are provided by its staff of AWS
Certified Welding Inspectors (CWIs),
ASNT Level IIs and National Level IIIs,
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Fig. 3 View of the WTTI lab for perfoming chemical analysis, and impact and tensile-strength testing.
LEARNING TRACK
Contact:
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FAX (610) 820-0271
www.wtti.edu
2 WTTI Learning Track 3-13_Layout 1 2/13/13 2:01 PM Page 97
THE AMERICAN WELDER
FACT SHEET
In fusion welding, a double-groove
weld is a groove weld made from both
sides. Figure 1 shows various types of dou-
ble-groove welds. The definitions of these
welds follows.
A double-square-groove weld (Fig. 1A)
is a weld in a square groove welded from
both sides.
A double-bevel-groove weld (Fig. 1B) is
a weld in a double-bevel-groove welded
from both sides. A double-bevel groove is
a double-sided weld groove formed by the
combination of a butting member having
a double-bevel edge shape abutting a pla-
nar surface of a companion member.
Figure 1C shows a double-V-groove
weld, which is a weld in a double-V groove
welded from both sides. A double-V
groove is a double-sided weld groove
formed by the combination of butting
members having double-bevel edge
shapes.
Figure 1D shows a double-J-groove
weld, which is a weld in a double-J groove
welded from both sides. A double-J groove
is a double-sided weld groove formed by
the combination of a butting member hav-
ing a double-J edge shape abutting a pla-
nar surface of a companion member.
A double-U-groove weld (Fig. 1E) is a
weld in a double-U groove welded from
both sides. A double-U groove is a double-
sided weld groove formed by the combi-
nation of butting members having double-
J edge shapes.
A double-flare-bevel-groove weld (Fig.
1F) is a weld in a double-flare-bevel groove
welded from both sides. A double-flare-
bevel groove is a double-sided weld groove
formed by the combination of a butting
member having a round edge shape and a
planar surface of a companion member.
A double-flare-V-groove weld (Fig. 1G)
is a weld in a double-flare-V groove
welded from both sides. A double-flare-V
groove is a double-sided weld groove
formed by the combination of butting
members having round edge shapes.
Types of Double-Groove Welds
Fig. 1 Types of double-groove welds.
MARCH 2013 98
Fact Sheet March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:34 PM Page 98
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ALM Materials Handling Positioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
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Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
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Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
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CS Unitec Surface Finishing Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
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Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837
Divers Academy International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
www.diversacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 238-3483
ESSEN Germany International Trade Fair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
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FABTECH 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
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Fischer Engineering Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
www.fischerengr.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 754-1750
Fronius USA, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
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Gedik Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
www.gedikwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+90 216 378 50 00
Greiner Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
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Gullco International, Inc. - U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
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Harris Products Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
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Hobart Inst. of Welding Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
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Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
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Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC
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NASCC The Steel Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
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Nippon Steel & Sumikin Welding Co., Ltd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
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OTC Daihen, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
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Schaefer Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
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Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC
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Tip Tig USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15, 30, 72
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Triangle Engineering, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
www.trieng.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(781) 878-1500
TRUMPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
www.us.trumpf.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only
Victor Technologies International, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
www.victortechnologies.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 426-1888
Weld Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
www.weldaid.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 935-3243
Weld Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
www.weldengineering.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(508) 842-2224
Weld Hugger, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
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IFC = Inside Front Cover
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INDEX
101 WELDING JOURNAL
MAR 2013 WJ CLASSIFIEDS_Classified Template 2/14/13 1:41 PM Page 101
Welding Fundamentals
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educ awo wldg fundamentals_FP_TEMP 2/12/13 2:57 PM Page 102
Introduction
Austenitic stainless steels have been
widely used in nuclear power plants for
different applications such as superheaters
and heater components, and they are also
used in cryogenics and pressure vessels.
These steels perform well at elevated tem-
peratures and are applied extensively for
steam pipes and exhaust systems. How-
ever, there are many difficulties in joining
these steels using fusion welding methods.
Despite the fact that there is some re-
search on joining stainless steel using gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW), laser beam
welding (LBW), and plasma arc welding
(PAW), work continues on attaining a re-
liable joint. A concern, when welding the
austenitic stainless steel by conventional
welding methods, is the susceptibility to
solidification and liquation cracking (Refs.
14). In many instances, the formation of
brittle intermetallic phases in the diffusion
zone leads to unfavorable changes in the
mechanical and physical properties of the
metallic bonds (Refs. 57). The research
work presented in this study concerns the
transient liquid phase diffusion brazing of
stainless steel 304 using a pure copper in-
terlayer. Copper as the interlayer does not
form brittle intermetallic compounds with
iron, and its melting point is lower than Fe
and Ni. Thus, the flowability increases at
higher brazing temperatures and encour-
ages a suitable contact between the faying
surfaces. The brazing variables and their
effect on microstructural changes have
been investigated using optical and scan-
ning electron microscopy and energy
dispersive spectrometry elemental analy-
ses. In addition, the brazing mechanism
was explained using numerical methods.
The analysis was coupled with a corrosion
test, considering the effects of the brazing
parameters.
Experimental Procedure
The stainless steel was received in the
form of plate 2 mm thick, and the chemi-
cal composition as shown in Table 1. The
plates were cut using an abrasive cutting
saw to the dimensions of 2 10 20 mm.
The mating surface of the stainless steel
was prepared by conventional grinding on
1200-grade silicon carbide paper followed
by polishing using diamond paste. The
specimens then were cleaned in an ultra-
sonic bath using acetone for 15 min and
dried in air. A copper foil (50 m thick,
99.95% purity) was used as intermediate
material, and the surface of the interlayer
was polished in the same fashion as it does
to the base metal. A stainless steel fixture
was designed to fix the specimen and hold
the sandwich assembly during the metallic
brazing process. The brazing process was
performed in a vacuum furnace, and the
substrate and interlayer contact area was
enhanced by a pressure of 0.5 MP at set
brazing temperatures. The brazing cycle is
shown in Fig. 1. The test specimens were
heated to the brazing temperature, then
left in the furnace for a variable holding
time and heating rate, and finally cooled
to room temperature. The brazing param-
eters for the copper interlayer are shown
in Table 2. The specimens were prepared
by grinding on 240- to 2400-grade SiC
paper, then etched using 2 g FeCl
3
, 24 mL
distilled water, and 6 mL HCl. Mi-
crostructural observations were conducted
using an optical microscope (Nikon mi-
crophot-FXL), scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM, PHILIPS XL 40) using
backscattered mode, and energy-disper-
sive spectrometry (EDS). Moreover, the
corrosion test was carried out in a 3.5%
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, MARCH 2013
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Transient Liquid Phase Diffusion Brazing
of Stainless Steel 304
The results of different brazing temperatures and holding times were compared
to determine the best condition
BY M. MAZAR ATABAKI, J. NOOR WATI, AND J. IDRIS
KEYWORDS
Stainless Steel
Transient Liquid Phase
Diffusion Brazing
Microstructure
M. MAZAR ATABAKI (mmazaratabak
@smu.edu, mamehdi2@live.utm.my) is with
Research Center for Advanced Manufacturing
(RCAM), Department of Mechanical Engineer-
ing, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex.,
and Department of Materials Engineering, Fac-
ulty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia. J. NOOR WATI
and J. IDRIS are with Department of Materials
Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Transient liquid phase diffusion brazing was employed to join stainless steel 304
using pure copper foil as the interlayer. The brazing process was carried out in a vac-
uum furnace at various temperatures for a range of times. The joints were studied
with optical and scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectrometry, and
corrosion testing. The diffusion of the main elements from the interlayer and base
metal into the braze line and brazing-affected areas was the main controlling factor
pertaining to the microstractural evolution of the joint interface. The presence of eu-
tectoid Fe+ eutectic Cu + Cr and Fe (Cr, Ni) intermetallic was detected at the in-
terface of the joints brazed with copper interlayer. The average displacement of the
solid/liquid interface as a function of time was found to be about 0.36 of the brazing
time. The diffusivity of copper in the grain boundary of the stainless steel was found
to be around 56 10
5
times higher than the lattice diffusivity at the interface of the
joint, showing copper as a melting point depressant has the ability to produce grain
boundary grooves facilitating the diffusion of the copper atoms.
57-s WELDING JOURNAL
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Atabaki 3-13_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 57
NaCl solution in order to determine the
corrosion resistance of the bonds. To esti-
mate the reliability of the joints, a shear
test was applied using an Instron tensile
test machine with a crosshead speed of 1
mm/min.
Results and Discussion
Microstructure Analysis
of 304SS-Cu-304SS
Figure 2AC shows the optical mi-
crostructure of the brazed specimens at
900, 950, and 1000C for 20 min holding
time, respectively. It is observed that a cer-
tain amount of diffusion occurs between
the interlayer and two substrates. A thin
diffusion layer was revealed parallel to the
joint interface on the stainless steel side
for all joints. However, it is interesting to
note that the stainless steel after exposure
to the brazing temperature exhibits differ-
ent microstructure by emerging twins on
the surface of the steel Fig. 2A. This ex-
posure to the brazing temperature also re-
sults in the formation of complex carbides
within the austenite grains. This leads to
an impoverishment of chromium in the
austenite solid solution.
The interface of the stainless steel and
copper consisted of a continuous reaction
layer free from voids on both sides. It was
observed that the copper side showed the
absence of any recognizable diffusion
zone. Images of the joints prepared at
900, 950, and 1000C for 20 min holding
time, shown in Fig. 3AC, were taken by
scanning electron microscope in the back-
scatter mode. It can be seen that grain
boundary grooving increases the diffusion
of the main alloying elements due to the
curl shape liquid/solid interface and higher
grain boundary diffusivity. The effect of
the grain boundary grooving was indicated
(Refs. 8, 9) considering a significant dif-
ference in a predicted brazing time with
different grain sizes. Accordingly, if the in-
terfacial curvature enhances the solute,
solubility would be increased depending
on the stainless steel grain size.
Therefore, increasing the interfacial cur-
vature at the higher temperatures is the rea-
son for enhancing the solute influx into the
substrate at both sides of the joint, especially
in the diffusion zone. After the grain bound-
ary grooving, the base metal dissolves into
the partial molten copper interlayer until
the stainless steel in the molten partial melt
reaches its equilibrium state at the brazing
temperature. While the partial melt touches
the stainless steel, a high-carbon iron phase
formed and, as a result, the high-carbon iron
phase in the molten copper interlayer ex-
ceeded its equilibrium quantity. This phase
then deposits as a columnar dark structure
of Fe-Cu-C phase. This phase grew increas-
ingly with heating time and finally solidified
at the interface of the base metal and
interlayer.
Therefore, the process of dissolution
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Fig. 1 Transient liquid phase diffusion brazing cycle and the
dimensions of the brazing specimens.
Table 1 Chemical Composition of the Materials (wt-%)
Material C Fe Mn Si P S Cr Ni N Cu
304 SS 0.08 Bal 2.0 0.75 0.045 0.03 20.0 10.5 0.1
Copper 99.99
Interlayer
Fig. 2 The optical microstructure of the joints prepared at A 900C; B 950C; C 1000C for 20 min, using copper interlayer.
A
B
C
Atabaki 3-13_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 58
and solidifying the dark phase can be ex-
plained by the distortion of the stainless
steel structure due to the diffusion of Cu
into the steel. This causes the separation of
the formed Fe-Cu solid solution clusters
Fig. 4. In order to determine the chemical
composition of the brazing interface, en-
ergy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS) analysis
was performed using spot analysis taken
from the stainless steel and copper inter-
layer. From the observations, various diffu-
sion zones were found in the joint area and
base metal. The brazing-affected zones can
be classified in terms of the shape and loca-
tion of each phase. The area can be divided
into three distinct zones, which are base
metal, diffusion zone, and interlayer, as
shown in Fig. 5. Compositional profiles in-
dicating the distribution of the alloying ele-
ments from the base metal and interlayer at
the centerline are taken as shown in AB line
in Fig. 5. The compositional profile for the
specimens brazed at 900, 950, and 1000C
are presented in Fig. 6.
Different rates of elemental distribution
like the distribution of Fe, Cr, and Cu along
the joint is due to the different diffusion co-
efficients. At the interlayer surface, the side
which is rich in Cu, however, only a small
amount Fe and Cr diffused from the base
metal. It can be seen that the weight-percent
of Fe and Cr in the interlayer significantly
decreased while the weight-percent of Cu
considerably increased in the base metal.
The decreasing of Fe at the interface is due
to dissolution of the base metal. To further
analyze the distribution of Fe and Cr from
the base metal to the interlayer and Cu from
the interlayer to the base metal, Cu-Fe and
Fe-Cr-C phase diagrams were applied for
describing the effect of the melting point de-
pressant on the mechanism of the brazing
process. A very low amount of Fe was de-
tected in the copper interlayer due to the
limited solubility of Fe in copper at the tem-
perature range of 900 to 1000C. The cop-
per started to dissolve a little amount of Fe
at the stainless steel/copper interlayer inter-
face and continuously diffuses into the
interlayer.
The diffusion of Cu into the
stainless steel produces a solid
solution in a very limited solu-
bility. In addition, the solubility
of Cu in Fe was enhanced when
the brazing temperature was
increased. It can be assumed
that the diffusion layer at the
braze consists of Fe + (Cu).
The element distribution analy-
sis revealed that at any of the
brazing temperatures, Cu
transfered a long distance in
the stainless steel side, while
Fe, Cr, and Ni transverse a
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Table 2 Bonding Process Parameters
Brazing Parameters
Low Brazing Temperature (C) 850, 900, and 950
Predry Time (min) 24
Rate (C/min) 25
High Brazing Temperature (C) 900, 950, and 1000
Holding Time (min) 16, 20, 24, and 72
Cooling Time (min) 10
Vacuum (mm Hg) 740
Vacuum Start (mm Hg) 740
Vacuum Release (mm Hg) 740
Table 3 Average of the Diffusion-Affected Zone Thickness in the Joints Prepared at 900,
950, and 1000C at Various Holding Times
Temperature (C) 900 950 1000
Holding Time 16 20 72 16 20 72 20 72
(min)
X
1
(m) 9.286 9.657 15.15 10.013 14.8 16.385 7.581 72
Diffusion Zone
X
2
(m) 47.129 46.933 46.05 45.113 43.357 43.24 42.355 7.854
Interlayer
X
3
(m) 7.996 8.664 11.91 6.257 9.748 13.895 5.957 8.432
Diffusion Zone
Predicted X
D.Z
8.245 8.996 13.451 8.452 13.765 14.673 6.941 41.121
(m)
Fig. 3 SEM-BSE images of the joints prepared at A 900C;
B 950C; C 1000C for 20 min holding time.
A B
C
Atabaki 3-13_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 59
comparatively smaller distance in the Cu in-
terlayer side.
Interface Characterization
For characterizing the diffusion zone
and diffusion-affected areas, images were
taken from the joint area at the stainless
steel/copper interlayer interface as shown in
Figs. 8 and 9. Moreover, a quantitative
overview of the chemical composition of dif-
ferent regions (region A to E) of the diffu-
sion zone for the specimen brazed at 900C
illustrated in Fig. 7A shows a dark-shaded
region (point B) and a light-shaded region
(point C) at the interface. By applying EDS
analysis, it is shown that regions B and C are
enriched with Fe and Cr with small quanti-
ties of Ni, Mn, and Cu. The different con-
trast occurs due to the dissimilarity in
concentration of Fe and Cr into the inter-
layer and Cu into the base metal. The white
island (region A) found in
the copper interlayer is en-
riched with Fe and Cr. Fig-
ure 7B shows a significant
difference in the joint com-
pared to the joints shown in
Fig. 7A, presenting a small
diffusion layer. Copper is
dissolved (regions D and E)
due to infiltration of the liq-
uidated copper at 1000C.
Figure 8 shows a schematic
diagram describing the pos-
sible brazing mechanism
and the changes of the phases from the be-
ginning of the process until 20 min of hold-
ing time.
At the initial stage, during the brazing
process, the copper interlayer partially liq-
uefied and then stainless steel dissolved by
migrating the liquid copper to the base
metal. As a result, some grain boundary
grooves appeared in the steel in the vicinity
of the copper interlayer, and Fe-Cr from the
base metal flows into the diffusion zone. At
the same time, Cu atoms of the melt diffuse
into the dissolved region. This is known as a
relationship of the solid metal dissolution
and liquid metal migration.
While the liquid interlayer touches the
surface of the base metal, the migration of
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A
B
C
Fig. 4 Binary alloy phase diagrams. A Cr-C; B Fe-Cu; C Cu-C. Fig. 5 Three distinct zones in the joints, showing the solute infiltrated
into the grain boundaries of the base metal. This is more obvious in the
diffusion zone.
Fig. 6 Elemental distribution for the joints brazed at A 900C; B
950C; C 1000 C for 20 min holding time.
B
A
C
Atabaki 3-13_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:37 PM Page 60
the melting point depressant to the base
metal occurs by diffusing into the grain
boundary of the base metal (Ref. 10). The
grain boundary grooving as a result of
heavy diffusion of the melting point de-
pressant adjacent to the interfacial region
caused great infiltration of copper into the
stainless steel. The liquid copper changes
into Cu phase and reacts with Fe and Cr
along the interface. As described, the dif-
fusion coefficients of Fe, Cr, and Cu are
quite different. For example, the diffusion
coefficient of Cu into Fe and Fe into Cu at
920C is 2.2 10
13
and 4.63 10
10
cm
2
/s,
respectively (Ref. 11). By increasing the
dissolution of the base metal with apply-
ing a longer time (16 min), the phase is en-
riched with Cu and Fe Fig. 8B.
On the other hand, it was observed that
the Fe and Cr atoms that flowed from the
base metal were transformed into a Fe-Cr
phase. By increasing the holding time to
20 min, the amount of Fe-Cr phase shows
a tendency to increase Fig. 8C.
Widening of Diffusion Zone
The diffusion zone was widened during
the brazing operation. The mechanism of
the diffusion zone widening is studied by
measuring the thickness of the diffusion
area on both sides of the interlayer with an
initial thickness of 50
m. The thickness of
the diffusion zones
for the joint prepared
at 950C for 16 min is
shown in Fig. 9. It
can be seen that the
diffusion zone ad-
vanced into the stain-
less steel. Table 3
shows the average
thickness of the dif-
fusion zone for the
joints fabricated at
900, 950, and
1000C for various
holding times.
As the morphol-
ogy of the diffusion
zone was not uniform, thickness of the dif-
fusion-affected zones was taken at three
different locations. It was seen that the
thickness of the diffusion zone increased
with increased holding time. Generally,
mass transfer has to be extended, depend-
ing on the brazing temperature. By in-
creasing the brazing temperature more,
atoms migrated across the interface, hence
the diffusion zone widened. By approach-
ing the melting temperature of the copper
interlayer (900950C), Cu atoms were
stimulated to move faster and in larger
quantity. Therefore, it is enough for Cu
atoms to vibrate and give possibility to Fe
and Cr atoms to diffuse into the interlayer.
If the growth of the diffusion zone as-
sumed to be parabolic, the growth can be
stated by a simple relation:
(1)
where X
D.Z
is the growth of the diffusion
zone, D
Cu Fe
is the diffusion coefficient of
Cu atoms into the stainless steel structure,
and t
b
is the brazing time. Calculating the
X D t
D Z Cu Fe b .
=
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Fig. 7 A SEM-BSE image and EDS analysis of the joints prepared at 900C; B SEM-BSE image and EDS analysis of the joint prepared at 1000C.
A
B
Fig. 8 Schematic of the brazing mechanism. Fig. 9 The thickness of the diffusion area and its measurement.
Fig. 10 The concentration profile of Cu, Cr, and Ni at the interface of the
stainless steel and interlayer brazed at 900C.
Atabaki 3-13_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:37 PM Page 61
growth of the diffusion zone implies that the
distance of the movement of Cu atoms into
the base metal can be predicted by the sim-
ple parabolic law under the condition that
other parameters like self-diffusion and
Kirkendall effect are neglected from the
evaluation (Table 3). To estimate the diffu-
sion coefficient of Cu, Cr, and Ni, the Boltz-
mann solution of Ficks second law was
applied based on the following definition:
(2)
where x is the position of the solute, t
b
is the
brazing time, and C
S
is the concentration of
the solute in the stainless steel. It was re-
ported that D
Cu Fe
at 900C is 4.67 10
15
m
2
/s for a diffusion time of 50 min (Refs. 12,
13), whereas D
Cu
calculated in this research,
despite applying lower diffusion time, is a
little higher, reaching to 1.06 10
13
. The
reason behind this difference might be the
presence of Cu in the lattice and grain
boundaries of the stainless steel. The pre-
dicted value of the Cu diffusion in the grain
boundaries of the stainless steel is 1.754
10
6
. Another main element in the stainless
steel is Ni, which for a stainless steel with 10
wt-% Ni has a predicted diffusion coeffi-
cient of 1.5 10
14
m
2
/s at 1280C with
holding specimens at 1280C (Ref. 14), al-
though the diffusion coefficient of Ni at a
brazing temperature of 900C is estimated
to be 2.65 10
14
m
2
/s. The diffusion coef-
ficient of Cr is also predicted to be 5.03
10
14
m
2
/s. Now, with having the diffusion
coefficients, the diffusion profiles of Cu, Cr,
and Ni in and out of the stainless steel can
be estimated by solving the Ficks second
law and applying an analytical model:
(3)
where C (t, x)
Cu,Cr,Ni
is the composition of
each of Cu, Cr, and Ni individually in the
joint, D is the diffusion coefficient, t is the
brazing time, x is the distance from the in-
terface of the substrate and interlayer, and
C
0
is the initial solubility of Cu, Cr, and Ni
in the stainless steel. The concentration of
Cu, Cr, and Ni can be drawn via distance
from the joint as shown in Fig. 10. It can
be seen that by increasing the brazing time
the concentration of the elements changes
considerably leading to a change in the in-
terlayer thickness. However, the thermal
activation of the solute atoms was higher
at the higher brazing temperatures caus-
ing a higher rate of mass transfer and
tougher atomic brazing.
Corrosion Test Results
Figure 11AC shows the optical mi-
crostructure of the joints prepared at 900,
950, and 1000C after corrosion test in a
3.5% NaCl solution for 12 h. Dark film de-
posits were present along the copper surface
for all joints. Chloride ions are very aggres-
sive ions to the copper interlayer, due to the
tendency of the chloride ion to form unsta-
ble films (CuCl and CuCl
3
2
) (Ref. 16).
Therefore, even a little amount of chloride
ions can cause severe corrosion attack. Fig-
ure 12 shows polarization curves for the
joints as a function of the brazing time and
temperature. It can be declared that all the
joints show the same behavior in the polar-
ization curve due to the uniform and con-
tinuous penetration of the solute and other
alloying elements. However, optical exami-
nation indicated that the corrosion mostly
attacks along the surface of the stainless
steel and copper interlayer.
Obviously, the cathodic line for the
brazing temperature of 900C exhibits
high current density indicating a hydrio-
genic reaction by reducing the holding
time. Thus, the free corrosion potential
(E
corr
) becomes more negative at the
lower holding times. Moreover, by reduc-
ing the brazing temperature from 1000 to
900C, cathodic hydrogen reactions are re-
duced and E
corr
increases negatively. The
anodic polarization curve for all joints
shows that the current density significantly
( )
=
C t x
C erf
x
D t
,
1
2
Cu Cr Ni
Cu Cr Ni b
, ,
0
, ,
D
t
x
C
x dC
1
2
S
b S
S
C
C
S
S
1
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A C B
Fig. 11 The optical microstructure of the joints prepared at A 900; B 950; C 1000C for a holding time of 20 min.
Fig. 12 A Linear polarization test results for the joints brazed at 900C for three different holding times;
B linear polarization test results for the joints prepared at three temperatures for 20 min holding time.
Fig. 13 The comparison of the shear strengths for
the joints prepared at different temperatures and
holding times.
A B
Atabaki 3-13_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:37 PM Page 62
increases as a result of dissolution of the
electrode at the beginning of the anodic
polarization, and then the current density
decreases because of the passivation
process. In the passivation region, the joint
surface is covered by the passive oxide
film. Then, the current density starts to in-
crease suddenly due to the breakdown of
the passive layer until the end of the po-
larization curve.
As mentioned, the corrosion fre-
quently occurred along the stainless steel-
copper interface and inside the copper
region. At the anodic polarization curve,
the current density was significantly in-
creased for all the joints indicating disso-
lution of some phases ( Fe + eutectic Cu
+ Cr), which resulted in preferential lo-
calized corrosion. As indicated in Fig. 12,
severe corrosion attack with a wide open-
ing (trench formation) occurred at the in-
terface because of the dissolution of the
base metal. The corrosion develops in all
the joints and preferential dissolution of
the copper interface was favored during
polarization. In this case, stainless steel is
more positive than copper, so when stain-
less steel is in contact with copper, the
copper corrodes first. The rate of corro-
sion attack is governed by the size of the
potential difference. Referring to the joint,
the surface area of the stainless steel is big-
ger than copper.
As a result, stainless steel has a large
surface area in contact with the elec-
trolyte, while the copper interlayer has a
very small surface area in contact with
3.5% NaCl solution; therefore, the stain-
less steel generates a large corrosion cur-
rent, concentrating on a small area of the
copper interlayer. However, intergranular
corrosion cracking was found at the cop-
per surface. It is caused by interdiffusion
of Fe and Cr along the copper grain
boundary and also by Fe-Cr intermetallic
compound. The larger the area of the
stainless steel, the greater is the accelera-
tion of the copper corrosion.
On the copper side, chloride ions were
very aggressive, due to their tendency to
form an unstable film (CuCl) and soluble
chloride complexes (CuCl
2
and
CuCl
3
2
). Besides, intergranular corrosion
cracking was also found at the copper sur-
face. It is due to interdiffusion of Fe and
Cr elements along the copper grain
boundary and also to the formation of Fe-
Cr intermetallic phase. This phase dis-
solves into (Fe + eutectic Cu + Cr) along
the interface.
For the joints without an immersion
test, there was no pitting attack found on
the copper surface, as this can be seen in
Fig. 12A. Figure 12B shows a pitting at-
tack on the surface of the copper. Gener-
ally, grain boundaries; inclusions such as
sulphides, oxides, and nitrides; and local
segregation of the alloying elements can
act as irregularities, initiating the pitting
corrosion. The main alloying elements
such as Cr, Ni, and Mo were segregated
into the copper interlayer. Pitting corro-
sion attacks and propagates easily where
Cr and Mo contents are locally depleted
forming microsegregations, precipitation
of carbides, and the formation of inter-
metallic phases.
A comparison of shear strengths for the
joints is shown in Fig. 13. The shear
strength increased with the enhancing of
brazing time for different temperatures.
This increase in joint strength is related to
the diffusion of the main alloying elements
to the base metal during isothermal solid-
ification, so an optimum brazing time is re-
quired to improve the joint strength. The
highest shear strength with a value of 180
MPa was achieved for the joints prepared
at 950C for 72 min. It was noticed that the
joints prepared at 1000C showed a reduc-
tion in shear strength, confirming the li-
quation at the grain boundaries of the base
metal in the vicinity of the interface.
Conclusions
Transient liquid phase diffusion braz-
ing was applied to join stainless steel using
a copper interlayer. Brazing was carried at
900, 950, and 1000C for 16, 20, 24, and
72 min in a vacuum furnace. The impor-
tant findings are as follows:
1) The microstructure studies revealed
that Fe + eutectic Cu + Cr accumulated
along the diffusion zone. The diffusion
zone for the joints increases with increas-
ing temperature and holding time except
for the case of the highest brazing tem-
perature (1000C), which did not produce
significant changes.
2) After brazing, the joint consisted of
three distinct zones including base metal,
diffusion zone, and diffusion-affected
zone. There were no eutectic structures in
the joint and a relatively uniform distribu-
tion of the alloying elements across the
joints occurred, especially at the higher
brazing temperature.
3) It was shown that diffusion of Cu in
the lattice and grain boundary of the stain-
less steel plays a significant role in altering
the solute concentration in the joint region
during the brazing process at the brazing
temperatures. Corrosion test results
showed that the interface is the weakest
part in the resistance against the corrosive
solution.
4) The joints developed crevice corro-
sion due to a galvanic couple formed be-
tween the stainless steel and copper
interlayer. It presented preferential disso-
lution of the copper interlayer under an-
odic polarization in 3.5% NaCl solution at
room temperature. Intergranular corro-
sion was also found in the copper region.
After immersing the joints for 12 h, pitting
attack appeared at the copper surface. In
the shear test, the optimum shear strength
was attained for the joints prepared at
950C for 72 min.
References
1. Orhan, N., Khan, T. I., and Eroglu, M.
2001. Diffusion bounding of a microduplex
stainless steel to Ti-6Al-4V. Scripta Mat. 45(4):
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2. Atabaki, M. M., and Hanzaei, A. T. 2010.
Partial transient liquid phase diffusion bonding
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evolution in the partial transient liquid phase
diffusion bonding of Zircaloy-4 to stainless steel
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4. Atabaki, M. M. 2010. Recent progress in
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5. Madaah, H. R. H., Atabaki, M. M., and
Tahaei, A. 2003. Brazing and Soldering, Jahane
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95030-5-6, in Persian, p. 127.
6. Atabaki, M. M., and Idris, J. 2012. Low-
temperature partial transient liquid phase dif-
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2
Si metal matrix
composite to AZ91D using Al-based interlayer.
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aluminium. J. Mater. Sci. Eng. 60(1): 7986.
8. Ikeuchi, K., Zhou, Y., Kokawa, H., and
North, T. H. 1992. Liquid-solid interface migra-
tion at grain boundary regions during transient
liquid phase brazing. Metal. Trans. A 23A (10):
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9. Ghoneim, A., and Ojo, O. A. 2011. Nu-
merical modeling and simulation of a diffusion-
controlled liquid-solid phase change in
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Introduction
Age-hardened Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys,
especially 7075 with T6 temper (7075-T6),
have become some of the most widely
used structural materials in the aerospace,
high-speed train, and automotive indus-
tries because of their attractive mechani-
cal properties (Ref. 1). Nonetheless, the
high heat sensitivity and low eutectic liq-
uidus temperature range of 7075-T6 make
it difficult to weld with conventional arc
welding methods. Hybrid laser arc welding
(termed hybrid welding) was proposed to
achieve a sound joint in both strength and
geometry (Ref. 2). However, the welding
process readily degrades the characteris-
tics of the precipitation strengthening.
This phenomenon has been observed to
accompany a dramatic loss of static
strength, although the strength can be par-
tially recovered by elaborately designing
the postweld aging (Refs. 3, 4). Prior stud-
ies have shown that heat-induced soften-
ing is primarily caused by the intrinsic dis-
solution and growth of precipitates (Refs.
5, 6). To prevent quality loss in 7075-T6
joints, solid-state friction stir welding
(FSW) is being actively pursued as a po-
tential alternative to fusion welding. Un-
fortunately, the softening behavior of the
weld nugget zone (WNZ) and thermome-
chanically affected zone (TMAZ) remains
a major challenge (Refs. 7, 8). Therefore,
it is vital to deeply explore the softening
mechanism of fusion hybrid welds.
Physically, the softening can be attrib-
uted to three causes. First, the strengthen-
ing elements, such as zinc, magnesium,
copper, and their hybrids (intermetallic
compounds) in the 7075-T6 matrix tend to
be rearranged during welding, and this re-
distribution affects the microstructure and
strength (Ref. 9). Previous papers have
mainly focused on the evolution of precip-
itation phases in the base metals (Refs.
1012), and a number of empirical models
have been established to correlate the
strength with the precipitates, aging stage,
and compositions (Refs. 13, 14). Further-
more, the presence of various gas pores
decreases the effective load capacity and
has a detrimental effect on the mechanical
properties. The relevant literature has
paid more attention to the source, pre-
vention, and formation of gas porosity
(Ref. 15), and few works have reported the
influence of this porosity on the static
strength (Refs. 16, 17). This lack of infor-
mation exists because it is difficult to de-
tect the exact size, morphology, and distri-
bution of pores in the fusion welded joints.
Microcracks, inclusions, segregations,
tensile residual stress, and filler metal
(FM) are also responsible for the compro-
mised mechanical properties (Ref. 18).
The softening that arises from these
foregoing factors can seriously undermine
the fitness for service of welded aluminum
alloy structures (Ref. 19), in addition to
deteriorating their load-carrying capacity,
especially under variable reversed loads
(Ref. 20). The existing literature has rarely
ABSTRACT
The severe strength loss of hybrid welded Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy joints such as 7075-T6
has been characterized using high-resolution synchrotron radiation X-rays and theo-
retical modeling. To elucidate the physical causes of this static strength change, the dis-
tribution of strengthening elements such as Zn and Cu and the three-dimensional gas
porosity were mapped. The interesting findings included the following: 1) Hybrid welds
only reach approximately 53% of the ultimate tensile strength of the base phase, and
the lowest strength is situated in the central fusion zone; 2) because of the excessive
evaporation of elemental Zn and the significant inverse segregation of elemental Cu in
cenral fusion welds, the major strengthening elements gather near the heat-affected
zone; 3) the elastic modulus of hybrid welds is slightly larger than that of their base al-
loys, probably as a result of the inhomogeneity in their chemical composition, mi-
crostructure, geometry, and residual stress; 4) the pore size ranges from below 0.01 m
to approximately 107 m, and it is modeled by the Schwartz-Saltykov method to reveal
its damaging effects on the static strength; 5) a strength model of 7075-T6 welded butt
joints is established to correlate with the elastic modulus, porosity, and heat inputs, and
it coincides well with the computational and experimental results; and 6) in principle,
the porosity has little influence on the static strength of hybrid welds, and the modified
strengthening structure markedly dominates the overall mechanical properties.
S. C. WU (wushengchan@gmail.com) and,
W. H. ZHANG are with State Key Lab of Traction
Power, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu,
China. X. YU, R. Z. ZUO, and J. Z. JIANG are
with School of Materials Science and Engineer-
ing, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China.
H. L. XIE is with Shanghai Syncrotron Radiation
Facility, Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics,
Shanghai, China.
KEYWORDS
7075-T6 Aluminum Alloys
Hybrid Laser Arc Welding
Softening Behavior
Gas Porosity
Element Loss
Strength Modeling
Synchrotron Radiation X-Rays
Porosity, Element Loss, and Strength Model
on Softening Behavior of Hybrid Laser Arc
Welded Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloy with
Synchrotron Radiation Analysis
Gas porosity and alloying elements Zn, Cu, Ti, and Mn were characterized by high-
resolution synchrotron radiation analysis, and a new strength model of hybrid
welded 7075-T6 joints was formulated and validated using these results
BY S. C. WU, X. YU, R. Z. ZUO, W. H. ZHANG, H. L. XIE, AND J. Z. JIANG
Wu Supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/15/13 2:13 PM Page 64
been concerned about the softening of hy-
brid welded 7075-T6 joints. Consequently,
it is commercially and academically im-
portant to quantify the softening behavior
of hybrid welded joints.
This work presents novel elemental
composition and gas porosity results, and
their roles in the strength of 7075-T6 butt
joints are identified by measurements
taken using the high-resolution Shanghai
Synchrotron Radiation Facility (SSRF)
(Ref. 21). The elemental composition and
pores were detected using synchrotron ra-
diation micro X-ray fluorescence (SR-
XRF) at the 15U beam line (BL15U)
and synchrotron radiation X-ray microto-
mography (SR-XRM) at the 13W beam
line (BL13W), respectively. Relatively
perfect joints were obtained using hybrid
welding, and nonheat-treatable ER5356
was used as the FM. A quantitative rela-
tionship between the strength with the
porosity in hybrid welds was established
based on the elastic modulus, heat input,
and gas porosity. New insights are pro-
vided to characterize the heat-induced
softening behaviors, which are expected to
be an important complement to the recog-
nition of the softening mechanism of hy-
brid fusion welded Al-Zn-Mg-Cu joints.
Experimental
Materials
Table 1 shows the chemical composi-
tions of the high-strength 7075-T6 alu-
minum alloys and the self-developed con-
sumable ER5356 (1.2 mm) with yield
strength of 120 MPa and ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) of 260 MPa. A commercial
7075-T6 sheet was sheared into sample
sizes of 240 60 2 mm
3
. Following de-
greasing and abrading, the butting sur-
faces were carefully cleaned using a
sodium hydroxide
solution at 60C.
The samples were
then washed in a di-
lute nitric acid solu-
tion. To reduce the
hydrogen gas
porosity as much as
possible, both the
BM and FM were
placed into a dry,
clear, well-venti-
lated storage space for no more than 24 h.
Hybrid Welding
Hybrid welding was performed by incor-
porating a fiber laser (YLR-4000) with a gas
metal arc welding (GMAW, Fronius
TPS4000) power source. The parameters of
the laser were as follows: 0.4-mm focus spot
diameter, 10 kW/mm
2
maximum output
power density, 1.06-m wavelength, and
150-mm focal length of the lens. The filler
tip was 3 mm away from the laser axis, and
99.999% pure argon gas with a flow rate of
45 L/min was selected as the shielding gas.
To alleviate reflection, the laser was inclined
by approximately 10 deg, and the arc torch
was inclined to the sample plane at a 70-deg
angle. To prevent any relative movement,
the plates were fixed onto a worktable using
parallel slat clamps. Single-pass, butt-joint
hybrid keyhole welding was then performed
in the rolling direction.
For a good quality of butt joints, a large
number of hybrid welding experiments
were conducted, and the suitable parame-
ters were as follows: P
laser
= 2.5~3 kW
laser power, I
GMAW
= 90~110 A arc cur-
rent, about U
GMAW
= 23 V arc voltage,
v
torch
=2.5~3 m/min torch travel speed,
v
filler
= 5.3 m/min for the FM, and = 1
mm defocusing distance.
laser
= 0.60 and
GMAW
=0.82 were thermal efficiency for
the laser and GMAW heat source, respec-
tively, and the heat input was Q =
(
laser
P
laser
+
GMAW
I
GMAW
U
GMAW
)/
v
torch
.
Performance Examination
Briefly, the microstructure was investi-
gated using an optical microscope (OM)
and a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The morphology and distribution of the
heat-induced particles were then examined
near the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
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Fig. 1 Typical SEM macroimage of the complete weld produced by
hybrid laser arc welding, in which solid circles on the transverse cross
section of the hybrid joint were used to illustrate the indentation points
for the microhardness and white rectangle across the left weld interface
was drawn to show triangular or polygonal particles. The black solid
line near left-curved weld interface was actually the longitudinal cross
plane as perpendicular to the x-y plane for the particle analysis by SEM.
The z-axis is normal to the transverse cross section.
Fig. 2 Microhardness distribution curves for hybrid welded 7075-T6 alu-
minum joints after 10 months natural aging under different heat inputs: low
heat input Q
1
= 65520 J/m, medium heat put Q
2
= 72080 J/m, and high heat
input Q
3
= 86496 J/m.
Fig. 3 Yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation results from
cross-tensile tests with the same gauge length of 10 mm on received base metal,
hybrid welded joints after three months of natural aging, and autogenous laser
welded joints after seven months of natural aging.
Table 1 Measured Nominal Chemical Composition (wt-%) of the 7075-T6 High-Strength
Aluminum Alloy and the Self-Developed ER5356 Filler Metal
Elements Zn Mg Cu Ti Mn Cr Fe Si Al
7075-T6 5.54 2.43 1.30 0.05 0.10 0.19 0.25 0.20 Bal.
ER5356 0.10 4.80 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.10 0.40 0.25 Bal.
Wu Supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/15/13 2:11 PM Page 65
Cross-tensile tests were conducted
with hybrid and autogenous laser welded
joints that had been naturally aged for
three and seven months, respectively. The
samples were machined to a 10-mm gauge
length with a 25-mm width based on
welded joint tensile test code (ISO 4136:
2001). The facility employed was an MTS
809 servohydraulic testing system with a
load capacity of 250 kN. The fractured
surfaces were then examined for the frac-
ture mode and distribution of gas pores
and microcracks using SEM.
To obtain the hardness, the Vickers mi-
crohardness was examined along the
transverse section with a load of 200 g for
approximately 10 s. The natural aging pe-
riod was 10 months for present hybrid
welded joints. Figure 1 demonstrates the
spatial distribution of the pressed points in
a complete joint.
Synchrotron Radiation X-Ray
The strengthening elements were
mapped in the sectioned welds with a syn-
chrotron radiation light source. The high
flux and low divergence of the SR-XRD
demonstrate its advantage in quantifying
alloying elements with less damage to the
irradiated samples (Refs. 22, 23). The sam-
ples were ground and polished to a 1.5-mm
thickness, and a maximum energy of 20
keV was selected to ensure a 30% trans-
mission rate. The spot size was 1.6 1.8
m
2
inside the sample with a focus photon
flux density of 1.8 10
11
phs/(sm
2
) at 10
keV. The fluorescent intensities were meas-
ured using a liquid-nitrogen-cooled seven-
element energy-dispersive high-purity
Si(Li) detector, and the sample was
scanned in the step-by-step mode at
BL15U. Using this method, it took a total
time of 1.5 h to pick up a total of 10,000 pix-
els. Unfortunately, the strengthening ele-
mental Mg could not be detected because
of its absorption edge limit.
The formation of pores is a problem
when joining 7075-T6. Complete avoidance
of pores is unrealistic for fusion welding.
High-resolution SR-XRM has become the
most advanced tool (Ref. 24) to determine
the exact descriptions of the gas pores, as
well as their size, morphology, position,
number, and distribution (Ref. 25). A voxel
size of 0.7 m was chosen as the sample size,
representing a compromise between the
minimum size of the gas pores and the 2048
2048 CCD detector. Successive two-
dimensional (2D) in situ slices were ob-
tained at BL13W, and these slices were sub-
sequently reconstructed using the Amira
software for three-dimensional (3D) im-
ages.
It is vital to evaluate the influence of the
pores on the mechanical properties. Many
methods have been introduced to deter-
mine the 3D size distribution of spherical
pores. Here, the classical Schwartz-Saltykov
(SS) method is selected because it is suitable
to the zero-continuity and low fraction of
the pores (Refs. 26, 27). By characterizing
the gas porosity, the damage to the static
strength can be evaluated.
Results and Discussion
Softening Behavior
Figure 2 shows the hardness distribu-
tion curves along the x-axis illustrated in
Fig. 1, for three cases of welding heat in-
puts Q
1
= 65520 J/m, Q
2
= 72080 J/m, and
Q
3
= 86496 J/m. It is clearly observed that
the welding heat input has a primary effect
on the hardness. A higher heat input re-
sults in a larger softening region, a rela-
tively wider fusion zone (FZ), and a lower
hardness (Ref. 28). Moreover, it was also
found that the hardness changes slowly
from the joint center to the weld interface
(WI) and then increases suddenly to the
level of base metal (BM). The hardness
profiles fully show that the welded joint is
mechanically and compositionally hetero-
geneous, which practically makes the FZ
the weakest part of the aluminum welded
structures.
To clearly reveal the serious softening
behavior of hybrid welded joints, cross-
tensile tests with a 25-mm gauge length
were conducted for the BM and two types
of welded joints. Tensile results show that al-
most all fractures occurred near the PMZ
rather than the central FZ. It is seen in Fig.
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Fig. 4 XRF maps of elements Zn and Cu inside hybrid welded 7075-T6 joints after five months natural aging for the case of high heat input Q
3
=86496 J/m, in
which 20-keV synchrotron radiation micro X-ray fluorescence was used at the 15U beam line. A Element Zn; B element Cu. Scale bars represent normal XRF
intensity for the respective element.
A B
A
B
Fig. 5 XRF maps of elements Ti and Mn inside hybrid welded 7075-T6 joints after five months natural aging for the case of high heat input Q
3
=86496
J/m, in which 20-keV synchrotron radiation micro X-ray fluorescence was used at the 15U beam line. A Element Ti; B element Mn. Scale bars represent
normal XRF intensity for the respective element.
Wu Supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:38 PM Page 66
3 that the hybrid joints achieve the lowest
yield strength and UTS that is only approx-
imately 53% of the strength of the base
7075-T6 material, indicating serious soften-
ing. In contrast, autogenous laser welds ob-
tain a slightly higher UTS because of the
lower heat input.
Elemental Mapping
It is known that the 7075-T6 alloy
achieves its high strength from a series of
precipitates such as typical (MgZn
2
) and
T(Al
2
Mg
3
Zn) (Refs. 29, 30). The content
and gradient of the alloying elements
change distinctly in hybrid welds and play a
primary role in the microstructure and re-
sulting properties. Few studies have exam-
ined the softening mechanism from the el-
emental perspective. Figure 4 shows the
spatial distribution of the major Zn and Cu
strengthening elements. The elemental
mappings are graded using a continuous
color bar. Each bar is assigned to an ele-
mental level, for which red is the highest,
yellow is medium, and blue is the lowest.
It can be observed that Zn and Cu have
similar distributions, and their concentra-
tion is lowest near the lower reinforce-
ment and highest near the HAZ. It is gen-
erally thought that owing to the excessive
energy accumulation during welding, less
Zn is found in the FZ because of its low
boiling point. While inverse segregation
happens for the strengthening element
Cu, that is to say, the region that solidifies
first has the higher Cu (Ref. 31). The ele-
ment-induced softening appears to be
consistent with the hardness variation
seen in Fig. 2. The relationship and mech-
anism between the change of alloying ele-
ments such as Cu and Zn with the me-
chanical performance of welded joints
were not explored in present research
mainly due to limited information. How-
ever, one important point should be noted
that the biggest effect of element variation
would come from the filler dilution. In
other words, the main contribution to the
lower content of Zn and Cu is probably
the addition of ER5356 FM into the
molten pool.
Ti and Mn are usually considered im-
purities in commercial 7075-T6 aluminum
alloys. Nevertheless, they sometimes play
useful roles in either refining grains or form-
ing dispersed second phases of MnAl
6
and
(Cr,Mn)Al
12
. A small amount of elemental
Ti in ER5356 helps to form TiAl
3
dispersion
particles smaller than 0.5 m and refine the
weld microstructure. As a dispersed precip-
itate, elemental Mn is effective in prevent-
ing the grain growth (Ref. 32). Figure 5
shows the distribution maps of Ti and Mn.
The map shows that Ti and Mn exhibit a
comparable distribution. The top region of
the weld has a slightly higher content, and a
lower content in the lower reinforcement.
The level of Zn is the highest of all other
elements, which is consistent with the alloy-
ing contents listed in Table 1. Elemental Ni
and Co are also identified by the 20-keV
synchrotron micro X-ray spectrums. No fur-
ther qualitative efforts are made to analyze
these results.
Microstructure
The strength and hardness of welded
joints always depend on the elemental re-
distribution and microstructural changes
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A
Fig. 6 Optical microscope images of the following: A PMZ (1000); B central FZ microstructures with slightly etched hybrid welded metallographic
specimen after 17 months natural aging. Scanning electron microscope micrographs of the following: C Transverse cross section or oxy plane PMZ mi-
crostructures; D PMZ microstructures of the longitudinal cross section as illustrated in Fig. 1 or the plane parallel to oyz with slightly etched hybrid welded
metallographic specimen after 10 and 11 months natural aging, respectively.
Inside PMZ (OM)
B
D C
Wu Supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:38 PM Page 67
that occur when the weld experiences an
intense thermal history. Figure 6 illus-
trates the OM and SEM images of two
mutual vertical sections denoted in Fig. 1.
These images show the typical solidifica-
tion characteristics of columnar dendritic
structures near the HAZ and equiaxed
dendritic structures in the central FZ to-
gether with the morphology of particles in-
side the partially melted zone (PMZ,
about 100 m width) near the WI.
Figure 6A shows the coarse grains con-
taining a large number of dispersed parti-
cles near the PMZ of the transverse cross
section. These particles appear as equilat-
eral triangles and polygons with the size var-
ied from 0.1 to 2.5 m when slightly etched
using Kellers reagent. Figure 6C shows
their morphology more clearly under SEM.
These types of precipitates gradually in-
crease from either side of the PMZ and few
were found in both the central FZ and BM.
Further studies show that these precipitates
contain a large amount of Zn and a little Fe,
which is basically consistent with the ele-
mental mappings seen in Fig. 4. Thorough
information concerning the chemical com-
positions of precipitated phases and their
influence on the mechanical properties will
be investigated in another work.
The FZ exhibits finely equiaxed den-
dritic structures, as seen in Fig. 6B, which
are attributed to the higher cooling rate.
The lower hardness is most likely caused by
the eutectic constituent precipitates or the
disappearance of the Guinier-Preston (GP)
zone (Ref. 33). It should be specially noted
that the FM also makes a pronounced con-
tribution to the strength of welds due to its
dilution effect of composition.
Figure 6D further shows the morphol-
ogy of particles in the longitudinal cross sec-
tion running through the PMZ. It is basi-
cally concluded that these particles exhibit
some kind of typical spatial shape. It is of
value to explore the detailed information of
composition, microstructure, and resulting
performance.
Modeling Porosity
The previous sections briefly discuss
the softening mechanism from the per-
spective of the hardness, strength, and el-
emental composition, which is mainly re-
sponsible for the lower strength and
hardness. The gas pores formed during hy-
brid welding present another problem that
contributes to the loss of mechanical be-
havior of hybrid 7075-T6 welds.
Figure 7 shows a stereogram of the gas
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Fig. 7 X-ray microtomography mapping of 3D porosity with detailed size, amount, distribution, morphology, and location inside the hybrid 7075-T6 weld with 40-
keV synchrotron radiation XRM at the 13W beam line and SEM fracture morphology micrograph of typical gas porosity under low heat input Q
1
= 65520 J/m.
Fig. 8 Size and volume distributions of 3D pore size in hybrid 7075-T6 welds derived by the Schwartz-
Saltykov analysis according to the diameters variation [D
max
10
0.1(i2)
~D
max
10
0.1(i1)
]. A The re-
lationship between percentage by number; B the correlation of maximum volume V(t) and maxi-
mum diameter t.
Fig. 9 The curve that is fit to the relationship between
elastic modulus E
s
and heat input Q of hybrid welded
7075-T6 aluminum joints measured from the cross-
tensile tests.
A
A
B
B
Table 2 The Number of Gas Pores in Each Volume Interval and Resulting Maximum Volume
Interval Porosity diameter ( m) 3D porosity Maximum volume ( m
3
)
i=1 99.90~74.04 1 1.2510
7
i=2 74.04~53.49 2 8.5010
6
i=3 53.49~37.90 7 7.0510
6
i=4 37.90~24.93 8 2.7410
6
i=5 24.93~14.64 7 6.4910
5
i=6 14.65~6.48 289 2.5910
5
i=7 6.48~0.01 184 1.7710
5
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porosity and fractured surface inside a weld.
Many voids and microcracks were observed
surrounding the pores, which might be re-
lated to the isolated particles on the den-
drite boundary. However, the voids and mi-
crocracks are treated as pores for
convenience and simplification. Voids and
microcracks can act with gas pores under
loading, affecting the performance and life
of the material as a whole (Refs. 34, 35).
According to the SS approach, the num-
ber of 3D pores is represented as n volume
intervals of N
V
(i), where i=1,2n,
and the diameters are
[D
max
10
0.1(i2)
~D
max
10
0.1(i1)
] for the ith
interval, where D
max
is the diameter of the
largest 3D pore (Ref. 36). Table 2 lists the
volume distribution of the gas pores shown
in Fig. 7.
The 3D size distribution of the total
porosity can be readily derived, and the
best-fit curve for the size was created as a
function of the step plot of percentage, as
shown in Fig. 8A.
Special attention should be paid to the
negative number of pores in the 3D size dis-
tribution, which is primarily caused by in-
herent cumulative error (Ref. 37). Based on
the fitted function of v(x), the correlation of
the maximum volume V(t) and maximum
diameter t can be established as shown in
Fig. 8B. The total pore volume V(t) can be
calculated using the product NvV(t).
Thus, the porosity p(t) of the hybrid welds
under a set of suitable welding parameters
is simply expressed as follows:
p(t)=V(t)/V=N
v
V(t)/V (1)
where V is the volume of the specified
welds. It is assumed that V is solely related
to the welding parameters instead of the
size of the pores. It is suggested that a
longer weld pool results in a lower poros-
ity inside the welded joints.
Two assumptions are made to correlate
the total porosity p(t) with the effective
heat input (Q =(
1
P
1
+
2
P
2
)/v, where
1
and
2
are the energy efficiencies of the
laser and arc heat source, respectively; P
1
and P
2
are the total output laser power and
arc heat source power; and v is the weld-
ing speed): V=a
1
Q, and N
V
=a
2
, where a
1
and a
2
are undetermined constants, and
is the total retention time of weld pool. By
substituting these equations into Equation
1, the following alternative relationship
can be obtained:
p(t)=cQ
2
V(t) (2)
where c is an undetermined constant re-
lated to the welding process.
It can be clearly seen that Q not only
can trigger the elemental redistribution in
welds, but it can also drive the production
of gas pores and voids. Therefore, the
welding heat input Q is the principal fac-
tor that determines the mechanical prop-
erties of welded joints. The following sec-
tion is focused on the detailed quantifica-
tion of this relationship between the
tensile strength with the heat input Q and
the porosity p(t).
Strength Model
Different models have been estab-
lished to nondestructively determine the
mechanical properties of commercial Al-
Zn-Mg-Cu alloys (Refs. 3841). However,
little research has been published on the
relationship of the strength to variations in
the strengthening alloying elements,
porosity, and welding heat inputs.
Elastic Modulus-Tensile Strength
Relationship
In the present formulation, the true
stress-strain responses of the 7075-T6
alloy and its hybrid welded joints are as-
sumed to obey similar exponential func-
tions; therefore, the offset yield strength
0.2
at =0.002 is
0.2
= B(0.002)
n
(3)
0.2
= 0.002E (4)
where B and n are the strength coefficient
and the hardening parameter, respec-
tively.
At the uniaxial UTS, the differential of
the load P is zero, which gives an analyti-
cal relationship between the tensile
strength and the spot area A in the form
of dA/A=d/ when necking occurs. Ad-
ditionally, the volume constraint gives the
correlation dL/L=dA/A, where L is the
specimen length. Then the strain at the
necking point
b
can be obtained as
follows:
b
= n (5)
Based on the strain energy theory at a
given strain, is
= Bn
n
/1+n (6)
The relationship of the tensile strength
with the elastic modulus E is given by
/E= n
n
/(1+n)0.002
n1
(7)
Modeling Weld Strength
The mechanical properties of engi-
neering materials are generally deter-
mined by their chemical composition and
microstructure, but the properties are also
sensitive to various macro- and microdis-
continuities. Gas porosity is considered to
be this type of damage. Therefore, we can
establish a strength model by dividing the
overall property into two main parts: one
part arises from the metallurgical aspect in
the absence of discontinuity, and the other
arises only from microdamage, including
gas porosity, voids, microcracks, and in-
clusions, in the absence of metallurgical
modification of the structures and ele-
ments. Therefore, the elastic modulus can
be rewritten as follows:
E
d
/E
p
=[(1p(t))]
2
(8)
where E
d
is the corresponding measure of
weld flaws induced by gas pores, and E
p
is
the value of the BM. Thus, the practical
elastic modulus E
s
is expanded as follows:
E
s
=E
p
+(E
d
/E
p
1)E
p
+(E
m
/E
p
1)E
p
(9)
where E
m
is the contribution of the mi-
crostructure in terms of chemical compo-
sition, and E
s
can be measured through
tensile tests, as shown in Fig. 9.
The correlation coefficient (R
2
, with a
value of 0.9230) suggests a good correlation
between the measured E
s
with the given
heat inputs. By incorporating Equations
79 and establishing a best-fit equation, we
can obtain the following:
E
E
E
E
p t
E
E
cQ V t
m
p
s
p
s
p
= + ( )
= + ( )
1 1
1 1
2
2
'
2
10 ( )
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Table 3 Computed Mechanical Properties of the Hybrid 7075-T6 Welds Based on Strength
Model of Hybrid Welds
Q (J/m) E
m
(GPa)
m
(MPa)
m
/
p
(%)
d
(MPa)
d
/
p
(%)
Q
1
70.18 266.68 50.79 517.98 98.64
Q
2
72.43 275.23 52.42 519.14 98.86
Q
3
77.49 294.46 56.08 521.01 99.22
Mean 73.37 278.79 53.10 519.38 98.91
Table 4 Predicted Properties of the Hybrid 7075-T6 Welds
Q (J/m)
s(p)
(MPa) Error (%) Weakening (%)
Q
1
259.56 0.46 49.43
Q
2
269.27 0.12 51.28
Q
3
290.37 0.39 55.30
Wu Supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:38 PM Page 69
If Equation 7 is applied to the mi-
crostructure-induced strength, the gas
porosity-induced strength of the welds,
and base 7075-T6 materials, the practical
tensile strength can eventually be ex-
pressed as follows:
s
=
p
(
p
m
)(
p
d
) (11)
Verification of Strength Model
To verify the proposed strength model,
three sets of hybrid laser arc welds were
conducted. The corresponding porosity
p(t) from Equation 1, the maximum gas
pore diameter t, and the measured ulti-
mate strength
s(m)
were conveniently ac-
quired. For the first heat input Q
1
,
p
1
(t)=0.0117, t
1
=102 m, and
s1(m)
=260.77 MPa. For the second heat
input Q
2
, p
2
(t)=0.0038, t
2
=84 m, and
s2(m)
=269.60 MPa. For the third heat
input Q
3
, p
3
(t)=0.0024, t
3
=107 m, and
s3(m)
=289.23 MPa. The UTS of the BM
is
p
=525.10 MPa, and this UTS corre-
sponds to E
p
=66.21 GPa. By substituting
the data from the above three cases into
Equation 2, the corresponding constants
can be obtained: c
1
=2589.00, c
2
=1017.68,
and c
3
=925.55. As a result, the mean con-
stant is c=1510.74.
Based on this empirical constant c, we
can expediently predict the porosities for
the three heat inputs: p
1
(t)=0.0068,
p
2
(t)=0.0056, and p
3
(t)=0.0039. Finally,
we can compute the mechanical strengths
of the welded joints by combining Equa-
tions 7 and 8 with 10, in which the harden-
ing parameter n is 0.18 for the welded
7075-T6 joints. Table 3 lists the calculated
data for E
m
,
m
, and
d
.
The alloying-element-induced mi-
crostructure plays the dominant role in
defining the static properties of hybrid
welds, compared with porosity-induced
discontinuities. In other words, the essen-
tial change of the strengthening phases in-
side the welds produces the softening be-
havior. However, the mechanical
performances of the welds are sensitive to
internal discontinuities, such as gas pores,
voids, microcracks, inclusions, segrega-
tions, and impurities when undergoing re-
versed loading and unloading (Refs.
4244).
By using the experimental data from
Table 3, the practical ultimate tensile
strength
s(p)
and softening behavior can
easily be predicted in terms of the com-
puted UTS, as given in Table 4.
It is apparent that the predicted mate-
rial performance agrees with the experi-
mental results, which validates the pro-
posed strength model in terms of the
elements and porosities, as analyzed from
SR-XRF and SR-XRM, respectively.
There is a nearly linear relationship be-
tween the elastic modulus and heat input
for the hybrid welds, compared to that of
the base 7075-T6 material. It is thought
that the inhomogeneity and complex
residual stress leads to greater stiffness.
This type of asymmetry might be visible
from the weld geometry, mechanical prop-
erties, chemical composition, and mi-
crostructure. Furthermore, the disconti-
nuities resulted from the microcracks are
susceptible to significant stress concentra-
tions, which easily generate localized yield
zones, even when the load level is small.
It would be of interest to clarify the fol-
lowing issues in the future. First, the
mechanism of the larger elastic modulus
of welded joints is not clear and requires
further metallurgical proof and character-
ization. Second, the composition and
structure parameters of the newly ob-
served phases or particles should be iden-
tified, characterized, and related to the
complex mechanical behaviors inside the
PMZ near the HAZ. Finally, the accumu-
lated elemental Zn and Cu might corre-
late with the evolution of the strengthen-
ing phases and microsegregations,
formation of hot cracks, and variation of
the hardness. Relevant results will be pre-
sented in subsequent research.
Conclusions
This paper systematically reports a new
quantitative perspective on the softening
behavior of hybrid 7075-T6 butt joints. Sig-
nificant physical softening is observed as a
steep loss in hardness and strength as a re-
sult of the welding process. Elements and
gas pores in the welds are measured using
SR-XRF and SR-XRM, respectively. A
new strength model is then formulated
and validated using the experimental re-
sults. From the present study, the follow-
ing conclusions are obtained:
1. The heat input has great influence on
the strength loss due to welding. A greater
heat input produces a wider softening re-
gion, a wider FZ, and, thus, a lower hard-
ness. The FZ has the lowest hardness at
approximately 95 HV, which produces a
notable decrease in mechanical proper-
ties. This trend is consistent with the
strength variation in terms of the UTS.
2. The strengthening elements Zn and
Cu change dramatically inside the hybrid
7075-T6 welds. The HAZ contains the max-
imum content, and the minimum is found in
the center of the FZ. Because of its higher
melting temperature, Zn evaporates rap-
idly, whereas less Cu collects in the FZ
probably because of inverse segregation. It
is generally thought that the dilution of FM
plays a pronounced effect on the redistrib-
ution of strengthening elements.
3. There are a great number of un-
known grown precipitates found inside the
columnar dendritic grain on the PMZ with
about 100 m width. Either side of the
PMZ has few such triangular particles
whose size varies from 0.1 to 2.5 m.
These precipitated phases contain a large
amount of Zn and a little Fe.
4. The largest size of the metallurgical
pores varies from 0.1 to 0.2 mm. The for-
mulated porosity, p(t)=cQ
2
V(t), was
found to be proportional to the negative
square of the heat input and maximum di-
ameter of the gas pores.
5. The microstructure-induced
strength without discontinuity and poros-
ity-induced strength without structural
changes are treated independently to es-
tablish a new strength model. It is found
that this model is in agreement with the
experimental data from the heat inputs
and porosity.
6. The predicted results show that the
porosity-induced strength loss has little in-
fluence on the overall strength of the 7075-
T6 joints, whereas the variation in ele-
ment-induced microstructures dominates
the strength.
7. The elastic modulus of the hybrid
welds is greater than that of the base 7075-
T6 aluminum material. Additionally, the
elastic modulus appears to linearly in-
crease with the increase in the heat input.
Acknowledgments
Financial support from the National
Nature Science Foundation of China
(Grant No. 51005068), the National Basic
Research Program of China (973 Pro-
gram, Grant No. 2011CB 711105-1) and
the Open Research Fund Program of the
State Key Lab of Advanced Design and
Manufacturing for Vehicle Body (Grant
No.: 31115030) is gratefully acknowl-
edged.
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Introduction
Dissimilar metal welds (DMWs) be-
tween ferritic low-alloy steels and
austenitic alloys are commonly used in
power-generation plants. The less-expen-
sive low-alloy steels are used in the low-
temperature regions of the plant, while
the higher temperatures in the super-
heater regions require the superior corro-
sion resistance and greater creep strength
of more-expensive austenitic alloys. In a
typical power plant, there can be thou-
sands of DMWs, which are frequently cy-
cled between room temperature and
650C (Ref. 1). The DMWs are prone to
premature failure due to differences in
chemistry, thermal expansion, and creep
strength between the two alloys (Refs. 1,
2). Premature failure of these DMWs can
result in forced plant outages that can cost
a power company $250,000$850,000 per
day in lost revenue (Ref. 3). The failures
occur from simultaneous metallurgical
and mechanical factors, including devel-
opment of strength gradients during both
welding and service, formation of a weak
carbon-depleted zone due to carbon mi-
gration, and concentration of stress from
thermal cycling that causes accelerated
creep failure.
The microstructure of DMWs in the
as-welded condition consists of a sharp
concentration gradient across the weld in-
terface that separates the ferritic and
austenitic alloys. During fusion welding,
the combination of the high alloy content
of the austenitic filler metal and fast cool-
ing rate produces a hard martensite band
in the partially mixed zone (PMZ) (Refs.
2, 4, 5). High temperatures encountered
during either postweld heat treatment
(PWHT) or service provide the activation
energy for carbon diffusion to occur down
the chemical potential gradient from the
ferritic steel toward the austenitic alloy
(Refs. 1, 611). This can lead to formation
of a soft carbon denuded zone near the in-
terface on the ferritic steel, and nucleation
and growth of carbides on the austenitic
side that have very high hardness. These
large differences in microstructure and
hardness occur over very short distances
across the weld interface (~ 50100 m)
(Refs. 2, 6, 12). A band of carbides also
forms along the weld interface in the fer-
ritic side of the joint (Ref. 8). The differ-
ence in hardness across the weld interface
increases with increasing aging time due to
nucleation and growth of the interfacial
carbides (Ref. 6). At the same time, strain
is localized along the carbon denuded
zone due to differences in creep strength
(Refs. 1315) while localized stresses de-
velop due to differences in thermal expan-
sion coefficients of the steels (Refs. 16,
17). As a consequence of the hardness and
strength gradients, these stresses are con-
centrated in the weak carbon-depleted
zone, generating creep voids around car-
bides that lead to eventual creep rupture
(Refs. 16, 18).
There are two distinct morphologies of
these carbides that can evolve in DMWs
during aging (Refs. 1, 1822). Type I car-
bides are the ones most frequently ob-
served. These carbides form very close to
the weld interface (~ 1 m) in the HAZ of
the ferritic steel. These carbides initially
form with a spherical shape, but gradually
acquire a lenticular morphology and can
eventually form regions of continuous or
semicontinuous carbides as they grow and
coalesce. The Type II carbides generally
form as a wide band and are associated
Fabrication and Characterization
of Graded Transition Joints for
Welding Dissimilar Alloys
A GTAW system employing dual wire feeders was used to fabricate graded joints
between 2.25Cr-1Mo steel and three austenitic alloys, and all cases showed a
relatively smooth transition in composition
BY G. J. BRENTRUP and J. N. DUPONT
ABSTRACT
Functionally graded materials have potential for joining dissimilar materials in
many applications. In this work, graded transition joints were fabricated for joining
ferritic and austenitic alloys. A gas tungsten arc welding system employing dual wire
feeders was used to fabricate graded joints between 2.25Cr-1Mo steel and three
austenitic alloys, including IN800, IN82, and 347 stainless steel. All three joint com-
binations were characterized to determine compositional variations, microhardness
profiles, and microstructural evolution. Tensile tests were also performed to evaluate
the high-temperature mechanical properties. In all cases, a relatively smooth transi-
tion in composition was achieved over ~ 50 mm, which represents an increase in
length of approximately three orders of magnitude compared to composition gradi-
ents observed in traditional dissimilar metal welds. Measured composition data from
the transition joints were converted to Ni and Cr equivalents and used with the
Schaeffler diagram to predict the phase distribution along the joints, and good agree-
ment was obtained between the observed and predicted results. Peaks in hardness
were observed along the joints and attributed to the formation of martensite. The ten-
sile properties from 20 to 650C were generally within the range of those expected
for the end member alloys except for the T22-IN82 joint, which exhibited slightly
lower yield and tensile strengths. Solidification cracking was observed in the T22-800
joints in the region that exhibited a fully austenitic solidification mode.
KEYWORDS
Cr-Mo Steels
Stainless Steels
Fracture
Graded Transition Joints
G. J. BRENTRUP and J. N. DUPONT
(jnd1@lehigh.edu) are with the Dept. of Materi-
als Science & Engineering, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pa.
MARCH 2013, VOL. 92
Bentrup supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 72
with the martensite region that forms
within the PMZ. For DMWs prepared
with nickel-based filler metals, the Type I
carbides that form along the interface pro-
vide sites for nucleation and growth of
creep cavities that eventually lead to pre-
mature cracking. For older DMWs made
with stainless steel filler metals, cracking
typically occurs along the prior austenite
grain boundaries (PAGBs) in the ferritic
HAZ at a location of about one or two
grains away from the weld interface.
Several different approaches have been
taken to extend the service life of DMWs.
Nickel-based filler metals reduce the coef-
ficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mis-
match between the austenitic and ferritic
steels. Due to the low solubility and low dif-
fusivity of carbon in Ni-based alloys, carbon
migration is reduced over the service life of
the weld (Refs. 6, 9, 19, 23, 24). The Ni-
based fillers can improve the weld lifetime
by a factor of five compared to austenitic
filler metals (Ref. 23).
Another approach is to separate the
carbon and stainless steels with a material
of intermediate thermal expansion,
known as a trimetallic joint. Several
nickel-based alloys, notably Inco Alloy
800/800H, have a CTE intermediate be-
tween the two steels and have been used
as suitable candidates. Studies on
trimetallic joints (Refs. 19, 25, 26) have
shown a fourfold increase in the lifetime
and a 38% reduction in stress compared to
traditional DMWs. However, failure has
still been observed, indicating that the
steep CTE, microstructure, and property
gradients are still problems.
Building on the idea of the trimetallic
joint, graded transition joints could be de-
veloped to replace
DMWs with an inter-
mediate section in
which the composition
varies continuously
along its length. The
graded joint smoothly
transitions from the
ferritic steel composi-
tion to the stainless
steel composition, allowing two similar
welds to replace the one dissimilar weld.
By continuously grading the composition,
the sharp changes in both composition
and properties of traditional DMWs
would be extended over the whole length
of the component, potentially eliminating
many of the factors that promote failure.
Functionally graded steels have been
produced by a number of different re-
search groups. Mohandesi et al. (Refs. 27,
28) have used transport processes, specif-
ically diffusion of alloying elements, to
produce functionally graded steels with
layers of ferrite, austenite, bainite, and
martensite. Coco et al. (Ref. 29) created
graded Fe-C and Fe-Mn-C steels by par-
tial decarburization. While these tech-
niques appear to work well for low-alloy
and carbon steels, compositional control
of high-alloy steels and other alloys re-
quires other methods. A preliminary study
by Farren et al. (Ref. 30) demonstrated
that a functionally graded material
(FGM) that transitioned from carbon to
stainless steel could be fabricated by the
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
process. The FGM exhibited a gradual
change in microstructure and hardness,
indicating the sharp gradients in DMWs
can be eliminated.
This paper describes the fabrication,
characterization, and testing of graded
joints with a smooth transition in composi-
tion, microstructure, and properties that
can be used for joining ferritic alloys to
austenitic alloys. The transition joints were
fabricated by a dual-wire gas tungsten arc
welding process and characterized by opti-
cal and electron microscopy, hardness test-
ing, and high-temperature tensile testing.
Future applications of the graded joints are
joining ferritic and austenitic alloys in the
power generation industry.
Procedure
Three types of graded transition joints
were fabricated: T22 steel to IN82, T22
steel to IN800, and T22 steel to 347 stain-
less steel. These combinations were se-
lected based on previous experience and
their use in fossil-fired power plants. Most
DMWs are currently welded with IN82
filler metal, and IN800 is often used as an
intermediate section between ferritic and
austenitic steels to reduce the CTE gradi-
ent. The T22 - 347 grade was explored to
understand the behavior of a direct transi-
tion between a ferritic and austenitic steel.
Although the LENS system is useful
for making graded transition joints (Ref.
73-s
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WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 1 Picture of a T22 plate that had 50 layers of T22-Alloy 800 graded
material added through the GTAW process to create graded joints, which were
subsequently machined into the tensile bar geometry shown on the right.
Fig. 2 EDS composition (top) and hardness traces of traditional DMW
demonstrating the sharp gradients in composition and properties (Ref. 4).
Bentrup supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 73
30), several significant drawbacks of the
LENS process have been recognized dur-
ing the course of this work. First, the sys-
tem is only capable of producing alloys
from powders. Unfortunately, many alloys
are not readily available in powder form,
particularly for the size ranges required by
the LENS powder feeders. Thus, fabrica-
tion of custom powders is typically re-
quired, which can be quite expensive. Sec-
ond, previous research with the LENS
process (Ref. 31) has shown that only
about 514% of the powder is actually de-
posited, with the remaining being wasted.
As a result, it is difficult to control the heat
flow and deposit composition with pow-
ders because the precise amount of pow-
der that enters into the liquid pool is un-
known. Last, the
deposition rate of
the LENS process
is extremely slow,
making fabrica-
tion of large parts
impractical. Thus,
a gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW)
process using dual
wire feeders was
developed. In this
system, wires
rather than pow-
ders are used, so
all of the material
is fed directly into
the melt pool and
the composition
can be more pre-
cisely controlled.
In addition, the
wires are more
readily available
and generally less
expensive. The
use of wire feeders
also allows for much higher deposition
rates of ~3 kg/h compared to the LENS
system with a deposition rate of only ~0.2
kg/h.
All wire compositions are listed in
Table 1. The diameter of the wires was
0.035 in. (0.9 mm). A 6.35 76.2 610
mm (0.5 3 24 in.) plate of T22
(2.25Cr-1Mo) steel (composition pro-
vided in Table 1) was clamped between
two water-cooled copper plates. Material
was deposited onto the edge of the T22
plate, and after each layer the copper
plates were raised to ensure repeatable
welds were made for each layer. The total
feed rate of the two wires was maintained
at a constant 1.27 m/min (50 in./min), and
individual wire speeds were varied with
each new layer to adjust the composition
and manufacture the grade. The first layer
was deposited with the T22 and austenitic
wire feed rates at 1.25 and 0.025 m/min (49
and 1 in./min), respectively. The second
layer was deposited with the T22 filler
metal at 1.22 m/min (48 in./min) and
austenitic filler metal at 0.05 m/min (2
in./min). These changes continued until 50
layers were deposited. Once the grade was
complete, two inches of additional pure
austenitic material was deposited so that
tensile bars could be machined with the
entire grade contained in the gauge length
of the test sample. A wire brush and
ethanol were used to clean each layer after
cooling. The welding parameters were a
travel speed of 1 mm/s, a total wire feed
rate of 1.27 m/min (50 in./min), a current
of 250 A, a voltage of 13 1 V, and a root
opening of 6.35 mm (0.25 in.).
All graded joints were examined by ra-
diographic X-ray analysis to detect any
cracks or other defects. As shown in Fig. 1,
tensile bars were machined from the
plates so that the entire grade was con-
tained in the reduced section. Tensile tests
were performed at 20, 250, 350, 450,
550, and 650C in air using an exten-
someter at a strain rate of 0.127
mm/mm/min (0.005 in./in./min) through
yield and then 1.27 to 2.54 mm/mm/min
(0.05 to 0.10 in./in./min) to fracture. Two
samples were tested at each temperature.
Additional samples were cut from the
graded transition joints for metallo-
graphic analysis. The samples were
mounted in cold-setting epoxy, ground
using SiC papers, and polished using 6-
and 1-m diamond and 0.05-m colloidal
silica. The T22 half of the grade was
etched using 2% Nital for 57 s. The alloy
IN800 and IN82 halves were immersion
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MARCH 2013, VOL. 92
Fig. 3 Plot of EDS and microhardness data as a function of distance for an
as-welded T22-347 graded joint. Vertical lines correspond to phase boundaries
from the Schaeffler diagram (A austenite, F ferrite, M martensite).
Fig. 4 EDS composition data for each of the three graded joint combi-
nations plotted as nickel and chromium equivalents on the Schaeffler dia-
gram, which was used to determine the positions of the phase boundaries
drawn as dark vertical lines in Fig. 3.
Fig. 5 Plot of EDS and microhardness data for as-welded T22-IN82 graded
joint. Vertical lines correspond to phase boundaries from the Schaeffler diagram
(A austenite, M martensite). Lettered arrows correspond to locations of pho-
tomicrographs shown in Fig. 6.
Bentrup supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 74
etched with Marbles reagent for 510 s,
while the 347 half was electrolytically
etched using Lucass reagent at 3 V for 15
s. Photomicrographs were recorded using
an Olympus BH-2 optical microscope and
Pax-It software. Microhardness measure-
ments were performed on the graded
joints using a Leco M400-FT hardness
tester with a 10-g load, 15-s dwell time, and
50-m spacing between indents.
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
(EDS) composition analysis was con-
ducted using a Hitachi 4300 FE scanning
electron microscope (SEM) with an
EDAX X-ray detector. An accelerating
voltage of 20 kV was used for line scan
measurements with 100-m spacing and
20-s dwell time. A set of standards of each
material (T22, 347, 800, IN82) whose com-
position had been confirmed by wet chem-
ical analysis was used for calibration of the
EDS measurements.
Results and Discussion
As described previously, the sharp gra-
dient in the composition, microstructure,
and properties across the weld interface of
DMWs between ferritic and austenitic al-
loys is the primary cause of premature fail-
ure. An example of the sharp concentra-
tion gradients in a conventional DMW is
shown in Fig. 2 as a basis for comparison,
where composition data are plotted as a
function of distance across the weld (Ref.
4). The primary alloying elements, nickel
and chromium, both decrease sharply
from 12 and 17 wt-% in the stainless steel
to <1 wt-% in the ferritic steel. These
composition changes occur over a distance
of only ~80 m. The abrupt compositional
changes lead to steep property gradients
as well, as seen in the microhardness tra-
verse in Fig. 2. The hardness increases
from 200 Knoop in the ferritic steel to a
maximum of 600 Knoop in the partially
mixed zone before decreasing back to 250
Knoop in the stainless steel. The peak in
hardness is associated with a band of
martensite that forms along the weld
interface.
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Table 1 Certified Compositions (wt-%) of the Alloy Wires Used to Construct the Graded Joints
Material Al C Cr Cu Mn Mo Nb Ni Si Ti Fe
2.25Cr-1Mo 0.01 0.07 2.39 0.14 0.59 0.94 0.00 0.05 0.47 0.00 95.33
Alloy 800H 0.42 0.09 20.97 0.27 1.03 0.16 0.15 34.65 0.44 0.56 41.12
347 0.00 0.05 19.43 0.13 1.68 0.20 0.63 9.13 0.46 0.00 68.23
Inconel 82 0.00 0.10 20.00 0.50 3.00 0.00 2.50 67.00 0.50 0.75 3.00
A
C
D
B
Fig. 6 Representative photomicrographs from the T22-IN82 graded joint. Letters correspond to arrows in Fig. 5: A Tempered martensite; B transition
between tempered martensite and lath martensite; C transition between martensite and austenite; D austenite.
Bentrup supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 75
The goal of graded transition joints is
to eliminate these sharp composition and
property gradients. Figure 3 shows micro-
hardness and composition data for a T22-
347 graded joint as a function of distance.
Note the composition changes gradually
over a distance of ~50 mm, compared to
~50100 m that is typically observed for
conventional DMWs. The microhardness
data also show that the sharp changes in
hardness have been elongated over a
much greater distance compared to tradi-
tional DMWs.
The expected distribution of phases
along the joint can be understood by con-
verting the composition data to chromium
and nickel equivalents for use on the
Schaeffler diagram (Ref. 32). For this, the
concentration of major alloying elements
was measured directly via EDS. Concen-
trations of carbon and minor alloying ele-
ments were determined with the approach
previously described by DuPont and
Kusko (Ref. 4). The dilution within each
location was first calculated with the
measured composition data of the major
alloying elements. The concentration of
carbon and minor alloying elements was
then estimated by backcalculation from
knowledge of the known dilution and filler
metal compositions. Figure 4 shows the re-
sults plotted on the Schaeffler diagram
(composition data for the other grades are
also provided on this plot). Combination
of the results shown in Figs. 3 and 4 per-
mit estimation of the phase distribution
within the joints, and these locations are
shown on the compositional plot in Fig. 3.
Note that the increase in hardness that be-
gins at ~9 mm corresponds reasonably
well to the point in the grade where
martensite is expected to form. The hard-
ness then gradually decreases across the
martensite region from ~400450 HV at
20 mm to ~200 HV at 55 mm, which is the
nominal hardness for T22.
Similar trends in the composition and
microhardness data were observed for the
T22-IN82 and T22-800 graded joints as
shown in Figs. 5 and 7, respectively. These
graded joints also have a gradual change
in composition over ~50 mm. Light opti-
cal photomicrographs are provided in Fig.
6 for the T22-IN82 joint as an example of
the microstructures observed in the
graded joints. Each photomicrograph cor-
responds to one of the phase fields pre-
dicted by the Schaeffler diagram. The mi-
crostructure shown for the 50-mm
location (Fig. 6A) consists of tempered
martensite, as expected for the T22 end of
the joint. The photomicrograph at 43 mm
(Fig. 6B) shows the transition between the
tempered martensite of the T22 base
metal and the as-quenched lath marten-
site that forms where the composition be-
gins to change. Figure 6C, at 38 mm, shows
the transition between the austenite +
martensite to the single-phase austenite
region. Finally, the micrograph from 8 mm
(Fig. 6D) corresponds to the austenitic mi-
crostructure observed for IN82. Similar
microstructures were observed for the
T22-347 and T22-800 joints.
Hardness peaks correspond to regions
of the joints where the martensite phase is
stable. The width of the martensite-
containing regions varies for all three
joints, from ~35 mm for the T22-347 to
only ~10 mm for the T22-IN82. As de-
scribed in previous work (Ref. 4), this is
due to the variations in the width of the
compositional gradients for each transi-
tion joint. The steepest concentration gra-
dient occurs for the T22-IN82 joint, where
the nickel and chromium contents de-
crease from 67 and 20 wt-%, respectively,
in the IN82 down to <1 and 2 wt-% in the
T22. This steep concentration gradient re-
sults in a relatively narrow martensite
band, as seen in Fig. 5. Conversely, the
T22-347 joint has a smaller gradient in
composition and a wider martensite band
Fig. 3. The variation in the width of the
martensite band is due to the variation in
martensite start (Ms) temperature with
composition (Ref. 4). It is known that al-
loying elements such as Ni, Cr, Mn, and
Mo reduce the Ms temperature (Ref. 34).
Thus, for the IN82, the large composition
gradient pushes the Ms temperature
below room temperature at a relatively
short distance from the T22/graded joint
interface. This stabilizes the austenite at a
concomitantly short distance from the in-
terface, producing a relatively thin
martensite layer. In contrast, the relatively
small concentration gradient of the
T22/347 grade causes the Ms temperature
to drop below room temperature at a
larger distance from the interface, thus
producing a larger martensite layer.
The hardness gradients observed in the
transition joints occur over distances of
~510 mm and are considerably less se-
vere than those observed in conventional
DMWs in which the same hardness gradi-
ents occur over ~240 m (Refs. 4, 6). The
effect of the local hardness changes needs
to be determined with long-term creep
testing. Any possible detrimental effect
may be minimized by more gradual
changes in composition across the graded
joint in the regions where martensite is
known to form. This will be evaluated in
future work.
Figures 810 show the tensile proper-
ties as a function of temperature for each
of the graded joints. Also shown on the
plots are minimum values (shown as solid
lines) for the T22, 347, 800, and IN82 ma-
terials (elongation data are not available
for the IN82 as deposited filler metal). A
schematic tensile bar shows the failure lo-
cations as dotted lines for each test tem-
perature, and the phase boundaries based
on the variation in composition from the
Schaeffler diagram are also indicated as
solid vertical lines.
The ductility and yield strength results
for the T22-347 and T22-IN800 grades fall
within the range for the end member al-
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Fig. 7 Plot of EDS and microhardness data as a function of distance for as-welded T22-800 graded
joint. Vertical lines correspond to phase boundaries from the Schaeffler diagram (A austenite, M
martensite).
Bentrup supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 76
loys, while the tensile strength is close to
that of the lower strength material at each
temperature. In general, yielding followed
by eventual fracture is expected to occur in
the weakest region of the joint. However,
there are other factors to consider when
interpreting tensile data from graded ma-
terials. For example, the overall yield
strength can be increased due to con-
straint of deformation in a soft region
from a hard neighboring region that re-
stricts plastic flow. This could account for
the yield strength of the graded joint being
above that of the weaker alloy for the
T22/347 and T22/800 transition joints. In
addition, work hardening of the soft re-
gion can produce a shift of the fracture
from the region of initial deformation to
another region.
The data in Fig. 9 for the T22-IN82
joint demonstrate that this alloy combina-
tion exhibits yield and tensile strengths
slightly below the nominal alloy proper-
ties. All of the failures occurred close to
the T22 side of the joint, which may be at-
tributed to the reduced tensile strength of
T22 relative to IN82. The 20C results
shown in Fig. 9 are similar to those ob-
served by Slaughter (Ref. 35) in DMWs
between T22 and 304 stainless steel made
with IN82 filler metal. The conventional
T22-IN82-304 DMW exhibited yield and
tensile strengths of 298 and 503 MP and
failed in the T22 base metal. This is simi-
lar to the values of 300 and 490 MPa for
the T22-IN82 graded joint that also failed
very close to the T22 side of the joint.
The T22-800 graded joint exhibited
solidification cracking as shown in the ra-
diographs in Fig. 11 and light optical
photomicrographs in Fig. 12. (Samples
for tensile testing were extracted from
crack-free locations.) The cracks are
concentrated in an area of the X-ray that
appears the lightest, indicating higher
density associated with the fcc austenite
phase. This light (high-density) region
extends from 11 to 22 mm along the
grade and, as shown in Fig. 7, occurs in
the fully austenitic region. Also note that
the cracks are located along the grain
boundaries, which is typical for solidifi-
cation cracks. It is well known that alloys
that solidify as primary austenite are
more prone to solidification cracking.
Alloy 800 is not commonly used in filler
metal form as done in this research. The
results presented here indicate that fur-
ther work would be required to identify
the cause of cracking. Composition mod-
ifications may be needed before this
alloy is used in a transition joint. At this
point, it appears more appropriate to uti-
lize the T22-IN82 transition joint in favor
of the T22-800 combination in order to
avoid this problem, since the IN82 end of
the transition is compatible with many
other austenitic alloys.
Conclusions
Functionally graded transition joints
were fabricated using a dual-wire GTAW
process and used for microstructural and
mechanical property characterization.
The following conclusions can be drawn
from this work.
1. The transition joints exhibited a
smooth transition in composition over a
distance of ~50 mm, which is significantly
longer than the concentration differences
typically observed in traditional dissimilar
metal welds that occur over distances of
~50100 m.
2. Measured composition data from the
transition joints were converted to Ni and
Cr equivalents and used with the Schaeffler
diagram to predict the phase distribution
along the joints, and good agreement was
obtained between the observed and pre-
dicted results.
3. Peaks in hardness were observed
along the joints and were attributed to
the formation of martensite.
4. The tensile properties from 20 to
650C were generally within the range of
those expected for the end member alloys
except for the T22-IN82 joint, which ex-
hibited slightly lower yield and tensile
strengths.
5. Solidification cracking was ob-
served in the T22-800 joints in the region
that exhibited a fully austenitic solidifica-
tion mode.
Work is in progress to evaluate the
aging and creep-rupture behavior of
these joints and will be reported in future
papers.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge fi-
nancial support through National Science
Foundation Grant No. CMMI-0758622,
the NSF Center for Integrated Materials
Joining Science for Energy Applications,
Grant IIP-1034703, PPL Corp., Contract
00474836, The Idaho Engineering Labo-
ratory through Contract IIP-1034703, and
the Pennsylvania Infrastructure Technol-
ogy Alliance. Useful technical discussions
with Ruben Choug and Robert Schneider
of PPL Corp. and Ron Mizia and Mike
Patterson of INL are also gratefully ap-
preciated.
References
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Fig. 8 Plots of percent elongation, yield strength, and tensile strength as a function of temperature for a
graded transition joint between T22 and 347. The minimum nominal alloy data (Refs. 13, 14, 36) are shown
for comparison. The failure locations for each temperature are shown by the dotted lines on the schematic
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Bentrup supplement March 2013_Layout 1 2/14/13 4:36 PM Page 77
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Fig. 9 Plots of percent elongation, yield strength, and tensile strength as a function of temperature for graded
transition joints between T22 and IN82. The minimum nominal alloy data (Refs. 13, 37) are shown for com-
parison (except percent elongation data for IN82). All failures occurred between the dotted lines on the
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Fig. 10 Plots of percent elongation, yield strength, and tensile strength as a function of temperature for
a graded transition joint between T22 and Alloy 800. The minimum nominal alloy data (Refs. 13, 3840)
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for Heat Exchanger Seamless Tubes (NCF 800H
TB). 1998. 1-2 (National Research Institute for
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B
Fig. 11 X-ray radiographs of as-welded T22-800 graded joint showing evidence of so-
lidification cracking: A Light-colored (more dense) region showing cracks through-
out that region of the grade; B close-up view of the cracks.
A
Fig. 12 Light optical photomicrographs of solidi-
fication cracks in T22-800 graded joint.
A B
C
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Introduction
Grade 91 steel, known as the modified
9Cr-1Mo-V, designated as P91 for pipe
and plate (ASTM A335 P91), and T91 for
tube (ASTM A213 T91), is a creep-en-
hanced ferritic steel that has been widely
used in power-generating applications as a
header, superheater, and reheater. Ini-
tially developed by Sikka et al. (Ref. 1), the
alloy was to have an improved strength
and toughness for liquid metal fast
breeder reactor. Then the alloy was mod-
ified by adding vanadium, nickel, alu-
minum, niobium, and nitrogen to become
the modified 9Cr-1Mo-V steel. Properties
such as high thermal conductivity, better
resistance to stress corrosion cracking,
lower thermal expansion coefficient, and
high resistance to thermal fatigue made
Grade 91 a better replacement for lower
alloy steels for piping and vessels. With su-
perior mechanical properties such as
yield, ultimate tensile, and creep rupture
strengths matching or exceeding that of
9Cr-1Mo, 2
1
4Cr-1Mo, HT9, EM12, and
304 stainless, Grade 91 was identified
(Ref. 2) as a material of choice in the
petrochemical and nuclear industry.
The as-received material of Grade 91
undergoes normalizing-and-tempering
heat treatment to achieve better mechan-
ical properties. The ASME code requires
that the steel be normalized at
10381149C and tempered at a mini-
mum temperature of 732C. A fully tem-
pered martensite matrix, with finely dis-
persed carbides, and carbo-nitrides pre-
cipitation on the grain boundaries, is the
typical microstructure. The carbides are of
M
23
C
6
-type, M being metallic elements,
mainly Cr and Fe, Mn, and Mo if present;
and the grain boundary carbonitrides are
of MX-type, M being Nb and V, and X
being C and N (Ref. 3).
When the as-received material under-
goes manufacturing processes such as weld-
ing, the mechanical properties will change
due to phase transformations, including the
formation of fresh martensite. It becomes
necessary to conduct a postweld heat treat-
ment (PWHT) below the A
C1
temperature
for some period of time to temper the
martensite and achieve the desired mi-
crostructure and mechanical properties.
Because the degree of martensitic harden-
ing depends upon the material chemical
composition and welding conditions, the
correct control of time and temperature for
the PWHT becomes critical. Instead of only
performing tempering, it would be better to
do both normalizing and tempering after
welding to achieve better creep properties
as suggested by Santella et al. (Ref. 4).
The impact toughness as influenced by
PWHT becomes important when control-
ling the delayed weld cracking during man-
ufacturing, the room-temperature pressure
testing, and startup of a unit after installa-
tion and maintenance. Although various
papers have been published on impact
toughness of the weld metal Grade 91
(Refs. 57), the toughness of the heat-
affected zone (HAZ) has not been studied
in detail. The objective of this paper is to
study the impact toughness of the HAZs in
Grade 91 joints as affected by PWHT both
below and above the A
C1
temperature.
Experimental Procedure
Welding and Heat Treatment
ASTM A335 P91/ASME SA335 P91 pipe
Effect of Postweld Heat Treatment on
the Toughness of Heat-Affected Zone
for Grade 91 Steel
After investigating the impact toughness of the heat-affected zone for
Grade 91 steel welds, it was discovered that 760C for 2 h
postweld heat treatment can significantly increase the cross-weld toughness
of the heat-affected zone
BY B. SILWAL, L. LI, A. DECEUSTER, AND B. GRIFFITHS
KEYWORDS
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
Grade 91
Postweld Heat Treatment
(PWHT)
A
C1
Temperature
B. SILWAL, L. LI (leijun.li@usu.edu), A. DE-
CEUSTER, and B. GRIFFITHS are with the De-
partment of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering,
Utah State University, Logan, Utah.
Presented during the AWS Professional Program at
FABTECH 2012, Las Vegas, Nev.
ABSTRACT
The impact toughness of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) for Grade 91 steel welds
has been experimentally investigated. The as-welded multipass HAZ has a significant
scatter in toughness, due to variations in the Charpy notch location and the path of
fracture propagation. The cross-weld Charpy specimen gives a toughness value that
can be attributed to contributions by the weld metal, various HAZ regions, and the
base metal. The microstructure evolution of various HAZ regions during postweld heat
treatment (PWHT) has been investigated and used to explain the toughness changes.
A 760C for 2 h PWHT can significantly increase the cross-weld toughness of the HAZ.
The measured weld HAZ toughness can be understood using a linear additive model
that employs as the inputs the toughness values of various HAZ regions reproduced
on the Gleeble. The toughness of the coarse-grained heat-affected zone (CGHAZ)
recovers the slowest as a function of increasing PWHT temperature, and remains low
until a 730C heat treatment. To guarantee an adequate HAZ toughness, a PWHT of
at least 730C is recommended. Postweld heat treatment above the A
C1
temperature
will result in the formation of fresh martensite, which decreases the toughness and in-
creases the hardness of all HAZ regions. Postweld heat treatment 20C below the A
C1
temperature for 2 h has produced the highest toughness and lowest hardness of all
HAZ regions.
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was used as base metal. The as-received
pipe had an 8.625 in. (219 mm) outer di-
ameter, 1.143 in. (29 mm) thickness, and
was normalized for 8 min at 1060C and
tempered for 45 min at 786C. The chem-
ical composition of the material is given in
Table 1.
Two 5-in.- (127-mm-) long pipes were
welded together by gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) and flux cored arc welding
(FCAW) processes. The double-V weld
groove had a 60-deg included angle with a
1.5-mm root face. The same process was re-
peated eight times to conduct a full factorial
design of the welding process parameters of
maximum and minimum preheat tempera-
ture, interpass temperature, and heat input
(as mentioned maximum being high and
minimum being low hereafter). Gas tung-
sten arc welding was used for the root pass
with 300 A DC and 1.27 m/min wire feed
speed, and FCAW was used for the filling
passes with 26.1 and 27 V arc voltage and
6.35 and 7.62 m/min wire feed speed. The
0.14 m/min linear travel speed was main-
tained by a stepper motor controlled fixture.
Pure argon shielding was used for GTAW
and mixed 75/25 argon/CO
2
shielding was
used for FCAW. The filler metal was 1.2-
mm-diameter ER90S-B9 for GTAW, and
ER91T1-B9 for FCAW. The linear travel
speed was 0.292 m/min.
Sixteen Type-K thermocouples were
placed on different locations from the
edge of the weld groove to measure the
temperature profile. Two 8-channel data
loggers were used to record the tempera-
ture measurements with a sampling fre-
quency of 5 Hz. After welding, the loca-
tions of the thermocouples were
remeasured relative to the weld interface
line, which was assumed to have experi-
enced the melting temperature. The mi-
crostructure from the HAZ of the as-
welded specimen was then analyzed, and
the HAZ locations were identified and
measured from the weld interface. For in-
stance, the intercritical heat-affected zone
(ICHAZ) was identified to be about 2.1
mm from the weld interface for weld #5.
The thermocouple located at or near 2.0
mm from the weld interface was then iden-
tified as that representing the ICHAZ
thermal cycle.
The interpass temperature was also
maintained with the use of a ceramic pad
heater and surface temperature probe
Fig. 1 Schematic of the Charpy coupon extraction and location of the
notch relative to the weld metal on the left and HAZ in the base metal.
Fig. 2 Measured and Gleeble-simulated thermal cycle for the
CGHAZ. P
temp
is programmed temperature that duplicates the
measured temperature, and TC1 is the actual temperature achieved
in the specimen on the Gleeble.
Table 1 Chemical Composition of Grade 91Base Material and Filler Metals (wt-%)
ER90S-B9 E91T1-B9 Base Metal
GTAW FCAW
C 0.097 0.1 0.11
Mn 0.56 0.79 0.37
Si 0.25 0.28 0.37
S 0.004 0.008 0.002
P 0.006 0.02 0.016
Cr 8.83 9.1 8.47
Ni 0.307 0.55 0.08
Mo 0.928 0.88 0.94
Nb 0.064 0.03 0.071
N 0.03 0.05 0.0476
O
2
47 ppm
Ti 0.001
Al 0.002 0.001 0.002
V 0.197 0.2 0.19
Cu 0.013 0.04
As 0.003 0.002
Sn 0.003 0.008
Sb 0.003 0.002
B 0.0007
Zr 0.001
CO 0.028
Ca 0.003
Ta 0.001
W 0.005
H
2
3 ppm
Ni+Mn 0.867 1.34
Table 2 Average Impact Energy Values for Various Simulated HAZs, and the Base
and Filler Metals in Both the As-Welded and Heat-Treated Conditions
Condition As-welded (J) PWHT: 760C-2H (J)
Base Metal (BM) 229 242
Weld Metal (WM) 7 56
CGHAZ 10 184
FGHAZ 75 246
ICHAZ 180 239
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with an accuracy of temperature control at
10C. The preheat temperature before
welding was between 150 and 250C. The
interpass temperature during welding was
between 200 and 300C. A pneumatic
descaler and wire brushing were used for
slag removal. A postweld bake-out at
250C temperature for 4 h was conducted
with temperature-controlled ceramic heat
pads. Subsequently, the as-welded joints
were PWHT in a furnace for 2 h at various
temperatures.
Impact Test
Charpy impact specimens were ex-
tracted in the pipes longitudinal direction
from the middle thickness of both the as-
welded and PWHT joints. Standard Charpy
impact V-notch specimens (10 10 25
mm) were prepared according to ASTM
A370 (Ref. 8). All specimens were
macroetched to reveal the fusion boundary,
which served as the location for the notch so
that the fracture path would traverse the
HAZ Fig. 1. Three specimens in the as-
welded condition and four specimes in the
PWHT condition were impact tested at
room temperature. Standard metallo-
graphic procedure was followed to prepare
the specimens for optical microscopy. The
polished specimens were etched with the
Nital (10% nitric acid in methanol) or Le
Pera reagent (4% picric acid in ethanol
mixed with a 1% sodium metabisulfite in
distilled water in an 1:1 volume ratio) to an-
alyze the microstructure.
Microstructure Simulation
To magnify the small HAZ regions so
that large samples of similar microstruc-
ture can be tested, a Gleeble 1500D was
used to simulate the multipass welding
process. The measured thermal cycle for
each individual HAZ was reproduced in
three smooth Charpy specimens. As an ex-
ample, the thermal cycle for the as-welded
coarse-grained heat-affected zone
(CGHAZ) is shown Fig. 2. The simu-
lated samples were then heat treated at
different temperatures from 600 to 840C
with a temperature difference of 40C.
Notches were machined in the middle of
the test specimens. Two specimens for
each tempering temperature were tested
and both results were reported.
The average energy values for these
pure metals (of the simulated HAZ re-
gions, fusion zone, and base metal) are
listed in Table 2. This method of creating
simulated samples by using the thermal
cycle is different from most previous stud-
ies, because not only the first peak tem-
perature but also the subsequent temper-
ature peaks by multipasses were applied to
achieve similar properties of the as-
welded samples. The transformation tem-
peratures A
C1
, A
C3
, M
s
, and M
f
tempera-
ture for the Grade 91 base metal were also
measured using dilatometry on the Glee-
ble. The specimen was heated at a rate
of 100/min from room temperature to
728C, then the heating rate was switched
to 28/h to heat to 1300C, at which point
the specimen was allowed to naturally cool
to room temperature. A precise exten-
someter measured the diameter change
Fig. 3 Charpy impact test results from specimens in the as-welded condition for different welding parameters.
Fig. 4 Fracture path of an example of Charpy impact-tested, as-welded
specimen. The fracture originated from the notch (in the lower-left cor-
ner), passed through the weld metal, HAZ, and base metal.
Fig. 5 Charpy impact test results for joints heat treated at 760C for 2 h. The
joints were made using different welding parameters.
Table 3 Sample Calculation of Contributions of Base Metal and HAZ to the Total Impact
Energy
As-welded PWHT: 760C-2H
L
CGHAZ
(mm) 0.5 0.7
L
FGHAZ
(mm) 0.7 0.8
L
ICHAZ
(mm) 0.3 0.5
L
BM
(mm) 6.0 6.0
E
CGHAZ
(J) 0.6 16
E
FGHAZ
(J) 9 24
E
ICHAZ
(J) 6 15
E
BM
(J) 203 187
E
Calc
(J) 220 243
E
Exp
(J) 210 257
Difference (%) 5 5
The L
CGHAZ
value is the measured fracture length, E
CGHAZ
value is the calculated contribution to impact
energy by CGHAZ, E
Calc
is calculated total impact energy, and E
Exp
is the measured total impact energy from
the welded sample.
Fig. 9 Average Vickers hardness values of different HAZ zones
after PWHT at various temperatures for 2 h.
Fig. 10 The microstructure of ICHAZ heat treated at 840C for 2 h and air cooled. Etched
with Le Pera reagent, the microstructure constituents include white-etching martensite (M), tan-
etching ferrite (F), and dark-etching tempered martensite (TM).
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spectively. Experimentally measured im-
pact toughness data from the simulated
HAZ, base metal, and pure weld metal are
listed in Table 2 for the as-welded and
760C-2H heat-treated conditions.
Tested Charpy toughness specimens
were polished and etched to reveal the mi-
crostructure along the fracture path as
shown in Fig. 4. Measurements of the length
of fracture path that falls in each mi-
crostructure zone were taken. Sample cal-
culations to predict the total Charpy impact
energy are shown (Table 3). Impact energy
data shown in Table 2 and measured frac-
ture length fractions are used as input pa-
rameters for the calculations. Compared
with the experimental impact energy value
(E
Exp
), the calculated total energy (E
Calc
) is
within 5% difference. Using this linear
summation method, a cross-weld HAZ
toughness test result can be understood if
the test specimen is measured metallo-
graphically for the fracture length and
toughness of individual HAZ zones are
determined.
Evolution of Microstructure during PWHT
The as-received material of Grade 91
has undergone a normalization at 1060C
and tempering at 786C. The as-received
microstructure consists of fully tempered
martensite and ferrite along with finely
dispersed M
23
C
6
-type carbide. Figure 8A
and B show the XRD analysis of the as-
received material, indicating the ferritic
(bcc) crystal system for the tempered
martensite and existence of M
23
C
6
-type
carbide.
The transformation temperatures iden-
tified by dilatometry for slow heating and
air cooling are A
C1
= 818, A
C3
= 925, M
s
= 394, and M
f
= 230C for the as-
received base material. The equilibrium
A
1
temperature based on Mn and Ni con-
tent is also estimated using the following
formula (Ref. 12)
A
1
(C) = 845.5 43.9 (Mn + Ni)
9 (Mn + Ni)
2
(3)
and found to be 822C,
which is very close to
the slow-heating A
C1
identified by dilatome-
try. If the PWHT tem-
perature is above the
A
C1
temperature,
austenite will start to
form, which on-cooling
will transform to fresh
martensite. A reduc-
tion in toughness will
be observed because of
such untempered
martensite. Figure 7
shows the significant
reduction in the meas-
ured toughness for all
HAZ regions following
an 840C PWHT. Since
840C is above the A
C1
temperature, this
toughness reduction is due to martensite
formation. Figure 8C provides the evidence
of martensite formation in a specimen air
cooled from 840C. Fresh martensite and
tempered martensite in Grade 91 share
most of the XRD signatures, except the sub-
tle broadening of the peaks near their bases
(Ref. 3). Comparison of Fig. 8A and C does
show a broadening of peak bases due to
fresh martensite. The arrows in Fig. 8C in-
dicate the traces of fresh martensite in the
specimen.
Further evidence of fresh martensite
formation for PWHT at temperatures
higher than the A
C1
is provided by the hard-
ness of microstructure. Figure 9 shows the
changes in hardness of various HAZ re-
gions as a function of the PWHT tempera-
ture. Because the microstructure is hetero-
geneous, a 1000-g load has been used during
the Vickers hardness measurements to
maximize the indentation size, so that an
average hardness is obtained. Compared
with the toughness results shown in Fig. 7,
the hardness curves show an inverse trend
as a function of the PWHT temperature
the minimum hardness at 800C PWHT
corresponds to the maximum toughness.
The significant increase in hardness follow-
ing the 840C PWHT can be attributed to
the fresh martensite. Microstructural evi-
dence for martensitic transformation for
PWHT above the A
C1
temperature is avail-
able after etching the specimens with the Le
Pera regent, which reveals the fresh marten-
site in white, ferrite in tan, and tempered
martensite and bainite in a dark color (Ref.
9). In Fig. 10, the microstructure of ICHAZ
following an 840C, 2-h PWHT is shown to
contain approximately 15 vol-% fresh
martensite, 25 vol-% ferrite, and 60 vol-%
tempered martensite.
The CGHAZ has experienced a peak
temperature between 1100C and the
melting temperature of 1382C, during
which there is a complete dissolution of
carbides and significant grain growth of
the high-carbon and high-alloy-containing
austenite. Fresh martensite that forms
upon cooling is strong and brittle. Al-
though it has been tempered by subse-
Fig. 11 Microstructure of CGHAZ after heat treatment at the following
for 2 h: A 640C; B 800C; C 840C. Nital etching.
A B
C
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quent thermal cycles in the multiple welds,
the tempered martensite microstructure
in the CGHAZ is still brittle Fig. 6.
With a PWHT at 640C, more tempering
of martensite has occurred, but the mi-
crostructure is virtually identical with that
of the as-welded CGHAZ Fig. 11A.
Therefore, the toughness of CGHAZ re-
mains low until the PWHT temperature is
further increased to above 720C Fig. 7.
The microstructure of 800C heat-treated
CGHAZ shows the tempering of marten-
site to ferrite with associated carbide pre-
cipitation. Although the grain size re-
mains the same as the as-welded condition
(average 30-m), there are new finer fer-
rite subgrains and annealing twins formed
Fig. 11B. The CGHAZ in this mi-
crostructure has the highest impact tough-
ness. The PWHT at 840C refines the
grain size and coarsens the carbide parti-
cles but produces the brittle fresh marten-
site, as explained earlier Fig. 11C. The
toughness decreases from the 800C
PWHT value.
The fine-grained HAZ has experienced
a peak temperature above A
C3
(925C) but
below the temperature for austenitic grain
growth. The austenitized FGHAZ has an
average grain size of 8 micrometers that
transforms to martensite on-cooling. The
as-welded microstructure following multi-
bead welding is tempered martensite Fig.
12A. A PWHT at 640C produces tempered
martensite and some ferrite with dispersed
carbide particles Fig. 12B. Toughness is
recovered to above 100 J following the
PWHT at 640C. The FGHAZ also shows
the maximum toughness and minimum
hardness following a PWHT at 800C due to
a microstructure of fine-grained ferrite with
fine dispersed carbide particles Fig. 12C.
The PWHT at 840C increases the grain size
and coarsens the carbide particles but pro-
duces the brittle fresh martensite Fig.
12D. The toughness therefore decreases
from the 800C PWHT value.
The intercritical HAZ has experienced
a peak temperature between the A
C1
and
A
C3
, therefore is partially austenitized on-
heating. The multibead as-welded mi-
crostructure is a mixture of base metals
ferritic constituent and newly formed and
tempered martensite Fig. 13A. The
180-J toughness of ICHAZ is contributed
mostly by the base metal, which has a
toughness of 230 J. A PWHT at 640C fur-
ther tempers the martensite, but since the
toughness is governed by the dominating
base metal, no significant changes in the
toughness are observed Fig. 13B. The
ICHAZ also shows the maximum tough-
ness and minimum hardness following a
PWHT at 800C due to a microstructure
of fine-grained ferrite with fine dispersed
carbide particles Fig. 13C. The PWHT
at 840C increases the grain size and
coarsens the carbide particles but pro-
duces the brittle fresh martensite Fig.
13D. The toughness decreases from the
800C PWHT value.
Conclusions
The impact toughness of the HAZ for
Grade 91 steel welds has been experimen-
tally investigated via measured thermal cy-
cles, Gleeble simulations, and microstruc-
tural analysis. The as-welded multipass
HAZ has a significant scatter in toughness
due to variations in the Charpy notch loca-
tion and path of fracture propagation. The
cross-weld Charpy specimen gives a tough-
ness value that can be attributed to contri-
C
D
B
Fig. 13 Microstructure of ICHAZ in the following conditions for 2 h: A As-welded; B after heat
treatment at 640C; C 800C; D 840C. Nital etching.
Fig. 12 Microstructure of FGHAZ in the following conditions for 2 h: A as-welded; B after heat
treatment at 640C; C 800C; and D 840C. Nital etching.
A
C
A
D
B
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butions by the weld metal, various HAZ re-
gions, and the base metal. The microstruc-
ture evolution of various HAZ regions dur-
ing PWHT has been investigated and used
to explain toughness changes.
1. A 760C for 2 h PWHT can signifi-
cantly increase the cross-weld toughness of
the HAZ.
2. The measured weld HAZ toughness
can be understood using a linear additive
model that employs as the inputs the tough-
ness values of various HAZ regions repro-
duced on the Gleeble.
3. The toughness of the CGHAZ recov-
ers the slowest as a function of increasing
PWHT temperature and remains low until
a 730C heat treatment. To guarantee an ad-
equate HAZ toughness, a minimum PWHT
temperature of 730C for 2 h is recom-
mended. This recommendation agrees with
the ASME code required 732C minimum
tempering temperature for the base metal.
4. The upper bound temperature for
HAZ toughness seems to be the A
C1
tem-
perature. Postweld heat treatment 20C
below the A
C1
temperature for 2 h has
produced the highest toughness and low-
est hardness of all HAZ regions. Post-
weld heat treatment above the A
C1
tem-
perature for 2 h will result in the
formation of fresh martensite, which de-
creases the toughness and increases the
hardness of all HAZ regions.
Acknowledgments
This work has been financially spon-
sored by the Department of Energy
NEUP program. Technical guidance by
Dr. Richard Wright is also gratefully
acknowledged.
References
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Advertising Sales
Advertising Production Manager
Frank Wilson
fwilson@aws.org, Extension 465
Advertising Production
Peer Review Coordinator
Melissa Gomez
mgomez@aws.org, Extension 475
Peer Review of Research Papers
Welding Journal Dept.
8669 Doral Blvd. #130
Miami, FL 33166
(800) 443-9353
FAX (305) 443-7404
SILWAL ET AL SUPPLEMENT MARCH 2013layout_Layout 1 2/15/13 2:08 PM Page 87
MARCH 2013 88-s
The six winners were profiled in the magazine. The partici-
pants completed an application in 2012 that involved a lengthy
description and data supporting the plants accomplishments,
improvements, and operations in multiple categories.
The company was notified it would receive the recognition
shortly after the on-site review by one of the magazines editors.
This incredible honor is a credit to our entire team. They are
committed to doing their best and to being the best, every day,
said The Harris Products Group President David J. Nangle.
Industry Notes
Sciaky, Inc.s Direct Manufacturing system, based on additive
manufacturing principles, was featured at Pennsylvania State
Universitys Technology Showcase on Additive Manufactur-
ing. The event took place January 8 and 9 at the Penn Stater
Conference Center and Center for Innovative Materials Pro-
cessing through Direct Digital Deposition facility.
Allegheny Technologies Inc.s lean duplex stainless steel, ATI
2003, has been selected as the material of choice for offshore
topside structural components on an offshore project in the
Norwegian North Sea.
The Welder Training & Testing Institute, Allentown, Pa., has
received its initial accreditation to ISO/IEC 17025 through the
American Association for Laboratory Accreditation in me-
chanical testing. This allows acceptance of test and calibration
data internationally, plus it will enable conducting PED test-
ing that meets the European standard.
Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., has acquired AccuStream, a wa-
terjet cutting products manufacturer. All positions, including
manufacturing, will remain in New Brighton, Minn., and no
workforce reductions or consolidations are planned.
The next-generation Nissan Murano will be assembled by work-
ers at the car companys Canton Manufacturing and Assembly
Plant in Mississippi starting next year.
CRC-Evans Pipeline International, Inc., Houston, Tex., has
recently been awarded an International Safety Award by the
British Safety Council for 2012.
Joining Technologies, Inc., East Granby, Conn., a welding serv-
ices and component manufacturing company founded by
Michael Francoeur, celebrated its 20th anniversary last year.
The welding department at Savannah Technical College, Sa-
vannah, Ga., has been designated a Level 1 and Level 2 SENSE
school by the American Welding Society.
Curtiss-Wright Corp., Parsippany, N.J., acquired the assets of
F.W. Gartner Thermal Spraying, Ltd., which has approximately
115 employees at two facilities in the Houston, Tex., area.
The Bug-O Systems segment on the Viewpoints with Terry
Bradshaw TV program, part of its American Industry Series,
will air depending on the region over the next several months.
The Canonsburg, Pa., company offers operator-controlled
mechanization for welding and cutting.
The Pflugerville Community Development Corp., Texas, has
granted the Pflugerville Education Foundation with $30,000
for the Pflugerville Independent School Districts welding pro-
gram. It will be used to purchase new welding equipment.
Shirin Lakdawala and husband Sabeer Cherawala of Lemont,
Ill., recently opened the newest Metal Supermarketsstore, a
large supplier of small quantity metals, in the Chicagoland area.
Students in the welding and materials joining program at
Columbiana County Career & Technical Center, Lisbon, Ohio,
have settled into their renovated lab and started studying a
new curriculum.
The Independent Welding Distributors Cooperative coordi-
nated Hurricane Sandy relief supplies with Industrial Welding
Supply, Sayreville, N.J., with help from vendor networks and
member distributors in North America, to fill pallets and ship
everything to needed areas.
Tech Air, Danbury, Conn., a distributor of industrial, medical,
and specialty gases and related welding supplies, recently ac-
quired Connecticut-based Esquire Gas Products Co.
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
continued from page 11
dual-density Mini Lug II sole, while the
4216 has an oil-resistant, rubber/PU auger
sole and nonmetallic toe cap.
Red Wing
www.redwingshoes.com
(800) 733-9464
Device Safely Collects
Finished Parts
The Econo-Rack collects finished
parts as they come off any bar-fed CNC
lathe. By feeding products onto a
turntable covered by a low-friction, ultra-
high molecular weight material instead of
into an oil-filled collection bucket, it pre-
vents damage to the finished parts and re-
duces mess. The product, which has a 28-
in. diameter and 100-lb load capacity, en-
ables manufacturers to let machine tools
run unattended for extended periods.
Freestanding with adjustable height, it can
be moved from machine to machine and
is useful for Swiss-type applications.
Royal Products
www.royalprod.com
(800) 645-4174
Mini Catalog Showcases
Wheel Products
The manufacturer of caster and wheel
products has published an updated ver-
sion of its mini catalog, which provides
a quick overview of its popular products.
This 16-page compact version of its full
line catalog is a primer on selecting the
proper caster and wheel types, and a snap-
shot of product options offerings. The
three-hole punched, 8- 11-in. catalog
can be used for research, inclusion in pro-
posals, and as a reference for facility and
material handling planning files and proj-
ect books.
Colson Caster Corp.
www.colsoncaster.com
(800) 643-5515
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
continued from page 31
NI March 2013_Layout 1 2/15/13 10:35 AM Page 88
Arcos, The Standard of Excellence in
Covered Electrodes and Bare Wire,
offers two outstanding welding
products designed to withstand
critical temperature extremes.
Arcos 625 and Arcos 1N12 (625) are
nickel-chromium-molybdenum products
which are designed to be virtually immune to chloride-
ion stress-cracking. They feature moderate strength,
good fabricability and excellent oxidation resistance.
Each is military-approved and provides superior
corrosion resistance, over a range of temperatures
from cryogenic to extremely elevated (up to 1,800F).
Arcos 625 is ideal for welding alloys 625, 601, 802
and 9% nickel. This wire is well suited for welding
piping systems and reactor components in the power
generation industry and for high temperature service
in a wide variety of other engineering applications.
Arcos 1N12 (625) is utilized for welding alloys such
as 625, 800, 801, 825 and 600.
This covered electrode is the smart
choice for applications including
petrochemical plants, reactor
components, furnace equipment,
heat exchangers and offshore
marine environments.
To learn about the many advantages of specifying Arcos
625 and Arcos 1N12, call us today at 800-233-8460
or visit our website at www.arcos.us.
Arcos Industries, LLC
39- Arcos lrivc - \t C+rmcl, lA 17S1
lnonc (70) 339-200 - l+x (70) 339-20o
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arcos_FP_TEMP 2/12/13 7:08 AM Page C3
Rugged, ra Durable
Production Monitoring with Chec
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able Design
itoring with Ch
eld Process Control
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lincoln electric_FP_TEMP 2/11/13 1:51 PM Page C4