The Concept of Law

The Concept of Law (ISBN 0-19-876122-8) is the most famous work of the legal philosopher !
"! #! art! It was first pu$lishe% i& 1961 a&% %e'elops art(s theor) of legal positi'ism (the 'iew
that laws are rules ma%e $) huma& $ei&gs a&% that there is &o i&here&t or &e*essar) *o&&e*tio&
$etwee& law a&% moralit)) withi& the framework of a&al)ti* philosoph)! I& this work+ art sets
out to write a& essa) of %es*ripti'e so*iolog) a&% a&al)ti*al ,urispru%e&*e! The Concept of Law
pro'i%es a& e-pla&atio& to a &um$er of tra%itio&al ,urispru%e&tial .uestio&s su*h as /what is
law0/+ /must laws $e rules0/+ a&% /what is the relatio& $etwee& law a&% moralit)0/! art a&swers
these $) pla*i&g law i&to a so*ial *o&te-t while at the same time lea'i&g the *apa$ilit) for
rigorous a&al)sis of legal terms+ whi*h i& effe*t /awake&e% 1&glish ,urispru%e&*e from its
*omforta$le slum$ers/!
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#s a result art(s $ook has remai&e% /o&e of the most i&flue&tial works
i& mo%er& legal philosoph)/+
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a&% is also *o&si%ere% a /fou&%i&g te-t of a&al)ti*al legal
philosoph)/+
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as well as /the most su**essful work of a&al)ti*al ,urispru%e&*e e'er to appear i&
the *ommo& law worl%/
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Background
6he $ook emerge% from a set of le*tures that art $ega& to %eli'er i& 1972+ a&% it is presage% $)
his olmes le*ture+ Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals %eli'ere% at ar'ar% "aw
S*hool! The Concept of Law %e'elope% a sophisti*ate% 'iew of legal positi'ism!
#mo&g the ma&) i%eas %e'elope% i& this $ook are8
# *riti.ue of 9oh& #usti&(s theor) that law is the *omma&% of the so'ereig& $a*ke% $) the
threat of pu&ishme&t!
# %isti&*tio& $etwee& primar) a&% se*o&%ar) legal rules+ where a primar) rule go'er&s
*o&%u*t a&% a se*o&%ar) rule allows of the *reatio&+ alteratio&+ or e-ti&*tio& of primar)
rules!
# %isti&*tio& $etwee& the i&ter&al a&% e-ter&al poi&ts of 'iew of law a&% rules+ *lose to
(a&% i&flue&*e% $)) :a- ;e$er(s %isti&*tio& $etwee& the so*iologi*al a&% the legal
perspe*ti'es of law!
6he i%ea of the <ule of <e*og&itio&+ a so*ial rule that %iffere&tiate% $etwee& those &orms
that ha'e the authorit) of law a&% those that %o &ot! art 'iewe% the *o&*ept of rule of
re*og&itio& as a& e'olutio& from a&s =else&(s /Grundnorm/+ or /$asi* &orm!/
# late repl) (1995 1%itio&) to <o&al% >worki&+ who *riti*i?e% legal positi'ism i& ge&eral
a&% espe*iall) art(s a**ou&t of law i& Taking Rights Seriously (1977)+ A Matter of
Principle (1987) a&% Laws !mpire (1986)!
Austin's "Command theory"
6he starti&g poi&t for the %is*ussio& is art(s %issatisfa*tio& with 9oh& #usti&(s /@omma&%
6heor)/8 a ,urispru%e&tial *o&*ept that hol%s that law is *omma&% $a*ke% $) threat a&% is mea&t
to $e u$i.uitous i& its appli*atio&! art like&s #usti&(s theor) to the role of a gu&ma& i& a $a&k
a&% tries to esta$lish the %iffere&*es $etwee& the gu&ma&(s or%ers a&% those ma%e $) law! (Aor
i&sta&*e+ the gu&ma& for*es us to o$e) $ut we ma) &ot feel i&*li&e% to o$e) him! Bresuma$l)+
o$e%ie&*e to the law *omes with a %iffere&t feeli&g!)
art i%e&tifies three su*h importa&t %iffere&*es8 *o&te&t+ origi&+ a&% ra&ge! I& terms of *o&te&t+
&ot all laws are imperati'e or *oer*i'e! Some are fa*ilitati'e+ allowi&g us to *reate *o&tra*ts a&%
other legal relatio&s!
#usti& $elie'e% that e'er) legal s)stem ha% to ha'e a so'ereig& who *reates the law (origi&)
whilst remai&i&g u&affe*te% $) it (ra&ge)+ su*h as the $a&k s*e&e(s gu&ma&+ who is the o&l)
sour*e of *omma&%s a&% who is &ot su$,e*t to other(s *omma&%s! art argues that this is a&
i&a**urate %es*riptio& of law+ &oti&g that laws ma) ha'e se'eral sour*es a&% legislators are 'er)
ofte& su$,e*t to the laws the) *reate!
Social habits, rules, and laws
art %raws a %isti&*tio& $etwee& a so*ial ha$it (whi*h people follow ha$ituall) $ut where
$reaki&g the ha$it %oes &ot $ri&g a$out oppro$rium - goi&g to the *i&ema o& 6hurs%a) for
e-ample) a&% a so*ial rule (where $reaki&g the rule is see& as wro&g - &egle*ti&g to take off o&e(s
hat upo& e&teri&g a *hur*h+ for e-ample)! ;e feel i& some se&se $ou&% $) so*ial rules a&% laws
fre.ue&tl) appear to $e t)pes of so*ial rule!
6here are two perspe*ti'es to this8 the e-ter&al aspe*t+ whi*h is the i&%epe&%e&tl) o$ser'a$le
fa*t that people %o te&% to o$e) the rule with regularit)+ a&% the i&ter&al aspe*t whi*h is the
feeli&g $) a& i&%i'i%ual of $ei&g i& some se&se o$ligate% to follow the rule+ otherwise k&ow& as
the *riti*al refle*ti'e attitu%e! It is from this i&ter&al se&se that the law a*.uires its &ormati'e
.ualit)! 6he o$e%ie&*e $) the popula*e of a rule is *alle% effi*a*)! No law *a& $e sai% to $e
effi*a*ious u&less followe% $) the ma,orit) of the popula*e! 6hough a& a'erage *iti?e& i& a
mo%er& state with a %e'elope% legal s)stem ma) feel the i&ter&al aspe*t a&% $e *ompelle% to
follow the laws+ it is more importa&t for the offi*ials of the so*iet)Cpeoples to ha'e the i&ter&al
aspe*t si&*e it is up to them to follow the *o&stitutio&al pro'isio&s whi*h+ if the) wish+ *oul%
ig&ore without a**ou&ta$ilit)! Det+ the offi*ials must use the i&ter&al aspe*t a&% a**ept the
sta&%ar%s as gui%i&g their $eha'iour i& a%%itio& to also gui%i&g the $eha'iour of other offi*ials!
But laws are more tha& rules of *o&%u*t! "aws *a& $e %i'i%e% up i&to two sorts8 primar) rules
(rules of *o&%u*t) a&% se*o&%ar) rules (rules a%%resse% to offi*ials a&% whi*h set out to affe*t the
operatio& of primar) rules)! Se*o&%ar) rules %eal with three pro$lems8 first the pro$lem of
u&*ertai&t) a$out what the law is (the se*o&%ar) rule for this %ilemma is *alle% the rule of
re*og&itio& a&% states the *riteria of 'ali%it) of a law)+ se*o&% the pro$lem of rigi%it) of rules
(whi*h re.uires rules of *ha&ge allowi&g laws to $e 'arie%)+ a&% thir% the pro$lem of how to
resol'e legal %isputes (from whi*h rules of a%,u%i*atio& arise)! # legal s)stem is /the u&io& of
primar) a&% se*o&%ar) rules!/
"astl)+ art lets us k&ow that laws are mu*h $roa%er i& s*ope tha& *oer*i'e or%ers+ *o&trar) to
the /*omma&% theor)/ of #usti&! Are.ue&tl) laws are e&a$li&g a&% so allow *iti?e&s to *arr) out
authoritati'e a*ts su*h as the maki&g of wills or *o&tra*ts whi*h ha'e legal effe*t!
olitical law (or political acti!ity law
213
) is a& esta$lishe% legal pra*ti*e area e&*ompassi&g the
i&terse*tio& of politi*s a&% law! Boliti*al law *omprises ele*tio& law+ 'oti&g rights law+ *ampaig&
fi&a&*e law+ laws go'er&i&g lo$$)i&g a&% lo$$)ists+ ope& go'er&me&t laws+ legislati'e a&%
e-e*uti'e $ra&*h ethi*s *o%es+ legislati'e pro*e%ure+ a%mi&istrati'e pro*e%ure+ *o&stitutio&al
law+ a&% legislati'e a&% regulator) %rafti&g!
223243
Boliti*al laws are applie% primaril) to
go'er&me&t offi*ials+ *a&%i%ates+ a%'o*a*) groups+ lo$$)ists+ $usi&esses+ &o&profit
orga&i?atio&s+ a&% tra%e u&io&s!
#t the fe%eral le'el+ the Ae%eral 1le*tio& @ommissio& e&for*es *ampaig& fi&a&*e law with
respe*t to ra*es for the E!S! ouse+ E!S! Se&ate+ a&% the presi%e&*)!
253
@ampaig&s for fe%eral
offi*e are su$,e*t to *o&tri$utio& limits a&% *ertai& *o&tri$utio&s are prohi$ite%! 6he >epartme&t
of 9usti*e(s Bu$li* I&tegrit) Se*tio& (BIN) has ,uris%i*tio& i&'ol'i&g allege% *rimi&al 'iolatio&s
of ma&) politi*al laws!
#t the state le'el+ most states ha'e a%mi&istrati'e age&*ies to e&for*e state law with respe*t to
*ampaig& fi&a&*e a&% ethi*s rules!
273
6he attor&e) ge&eral of the state ma) also pla) a role i&
e&for*eme&t! Some lo*al go'er&me&ts also mai&tai& ethi*s age&*ies! #t the state a&% lo*al le'el
these age&*ies might simpl) pro'i%e for %is*losure of *ampaig& fi&a&*e registratio& a&%
reporti&g forms (or lo$$)ist registratio& a&% reporti&g)+ or the) ma) pro'i%e a& e&for*eme&t
s*heme!
/Ba)-to-pla)/ restri*tio&s are a& e-ample of politi*al law! Aor i&sta&*e+ i& the *o&te-t of
mu&i*ipal se*urities %ealers+ rules promulgate% $) the :u&i*ipal Se*urities <ulemaki&g Boar%
effe*ti'el) prohi$it *ertai& i&%i'i%uals from *o&tri$uti&g to the politi*al fu&%s of offi*ials of
issuers!
263
POLITICAL LAW
Basis:
1. 1987 Constitution
2. 1973 and 1935 Constitutions
3. Organic las !ad" to a##l$ to t%" P%ili##in"s&
a. P%ili##in" Bill o' 19(2
). *on"s La o' 191+
c. T$dings,-c.u/" La o' 1930
0. 1tatut"s2 "3"cuti4" ord"rs and d"cr""s2 and 5udicial d"cisions 5. 61 Constitution
Constitution
1tatut"
l"gislation dir"ct 'ro! t%" #"o#l"7
l"gislation 'ro! t%" #"o#l"8s r"#r"s"ntati4"7
stat"s g"n"ral #rinci#l"s7
Pag" 1791292((8
1co#"9.i4isions o' Political La:
1. Constitutional La&t%" stud$ o' t%" !aint"nanc" o' t%" #ro#"r )alanc" )"t""n
aut%orit$ as r"#r"s"nt"d )$ t%" t%r"" in%"r"nt #o"rs o' t%" stat" and li)"rt$ as
guarant""d )$ t%" Bill o' :ig%ts.
2. Ad!inistrati4" La,, T%at )ranc% o' #u)lic la %ic% ;3"s t%" organi<ation2
d"t"r!in"s t%" co!#"t"nc" o' ad!inistrati4" aut%oriti"s %o "3"cut"s t%" la2 and
indicat"s to t%" indi4idual r"!"di"s 'or t%" 4iolation o' %is rig%t. 3. La on -unici#al
Cor#orations
0. La o' Pu)lic O/c"rs
5. =l"ctions La
>sa$?
T%at )ranc% o' #u)lic la %ic% d"als it% t%" organi<ation and o#"rations o' t%"
go4"rn!"ntal organs o' t%" 1tat" and d";n"s t%" r"lations o' t%" 1tat" it% t%"
in%a)itants o' its t"rritor$.
#ro4id"s t%" d"tails o' t%" su)5"ct !att"r o'
%ic% it tr"ats7
int"nd"d not !"r"l$ to !""t "3isting int"nd"d #ri!aril$ to !""t "3isting
conditions conditions7
onl$7
it is t%" 'unda!"ntal la o' t%" 1tat"
it con'or!s to t%" Constitution
"L#T#CAL LA$ A%T #
&'(#)#T#")S * C")C'TS
+, &efine- a, olitical LawFis that $ra&*h of pu$li* law whi*h %eals with the orga&i?atio& a&%
operatio&s of the go'er&me&tal orga&s of the State a&% %efi&es the relatio&s of the State with the
i&ha$ita&ts of its territor)! (B1GB"1 HS! B1<A1@6G+ 54 Bhil! 887)
$! @o&stitutio&al "aw
*! @o&stitutio&
%! #%mi&istrati'e "aw
e! "aw of Bu$li* Gffi*ers
f! "aw o& Bu$li* @orporatio&s
g! 1le*tio& "aw
h! >isti&*tio& $etwee& Boliti*al "aw a&% @o&stitutio&al "aw
., %ead- /ACA%#"LA 0S, 12&3' AS2)C#"), ++4 SC%A 55
6he pro'isio& i& the @o%e of @ommer*e whi*h prohi$its ,u%ges+ ,usti*es+ et*!+ (pu$li* offi*ers)
from e&gagi&g i& $usi&ess withi& the territorial ,uris%i*tio& of their *ourts is politi*al i& &ature
a&% therefore+ sai% pro'isio& was %eeme% a$rogate% whe& there was a *ha&ge of so'ereig&t)
from Spai& to the E&ite% States at the tur& of the *e&tur)! Boliti*al laws are %eeme% a$rogate% if
there is a *ha&ge of so'ereig&t) a&% u&less re-e&a*te% u&%er the &ew so'ereig&+ the same is
without for*e a&% effe*t!
6, The Supremacy of the Constitution
%ead- +, /2T2C 0S, C"/'L'C, 67 SC%A ..8
., /A)#LA %#)C' 9"T'L 0S, 3S#S, .75 SC%A 4:8
# *o&stitutio& is a s)stem of fu&%ame&tal laws for the go'er&a&*e a&% a%mi&istratio& of a &atio&!
It is supreme+ imperious+ a$solute a&% u&altera$le e-*ept $) the authorit) from whi*h it
ema&ates! It has $ee& %efi&e% as the fu&%ame&tal a&% paramou&t law of the &atio&! It pres*ri$es
the perma&e&t framework of a s)stem of go'er&me&t+ assig&s to the %iffere&t %epartme&ts their
respe*ti'e powers a&% %uties+ a&% esta$lishes *ertai& fi-e% pri&*iples o& whi*h go'er&me&t is
fou&%e%! 6he fu&%ame&tal *o&*eptio& i& other wor%s is that it is a supreme law to whi*h all other
laws must *o&form a&% i& a**or%a&*e with whi*h all pri'ate rights must $e %etermi&e% a&% all
pu$li* authorit) a%mi&istere%!
E&%er the %o*tri&e of *o&stitutio&al suprema*)+ if a law or *o&tra*t 'iolates a&) &orm of the
*o&stitutio& that law or *o&tra*t whether promulgate% $) the legislati'e or $) the e-e*uti'e
$ra&*h or e&tere% i&to $) pri'ate perso&s for pri'ate purposes is &ull a&% 'oi% a&% without a&)
for*e a&% effe*t! 6hus+ si&*e the @o&stitutio& is the fu&%ame&tal+ paramou&t a&% supreme law of
the &atio&+ it is %eeme% writte& i& e'er) statute a&% *o&tra*t!
#%mitte%l)+ some *o&stitutio&s are merel) %e*laratio&s of poli*ies a&% pri&*iples! 6heir
pro'isio&s *omma&% the legislature to e&a*t laws a&% *arr) out the purposes of the framers who
merel) esta$lish a& outli&e of go'er&me&t pro'i%i&g for the %iffere&t %epartme&ts of the
go'er&me&tal ma*hi&er) a&% se*uri&g *ertai& fu&%ame&tal a&% i&alie&a$le rights of *iti?e&s! #
pro'isio& whi*h la)s %ow& a ge&eral pri&*iple+ su*h as those fou&% i& #rt! II of the 1987
@o&stitutio&+ is usuall) &ot self-e-e*uti&g! But a pro'isio&+ whi*h is *omplete i& itself a&%
$e*omes operati'e without the ai% of suppleme&tar) or e&a$li&g legislatio&+ or that whi*h
supplies suffi*ie&t rule $) mea&s of whi*h the right it gra&ts ma) $e e&,o)e% or prote*te%+ is self-
e-e*uti&g! 6hus a *o&stitutio&al pro'isio& is self-e-e*uti&g if the &ature a&% e-te&t of the right
*o&ferre% a&% the lia$ilit) impose% are fi-e% $) the *o&stitutio& itself+ so that the) *a& $e
%etermi&e% $) a& e-ami&atio& a&% *o&stru*tio& of its terms+ a&% there is &o la&guage i&%i*ati&g
that the su$,e*t is referre% to the legislature for a*tio&!
4, ;inds of Constitution
a) writte& or u&writte&
$) rigi% a&% fle-i$le
*) *umulati'e or *o&'e&tio&al
<, A/')&/')T "% %'0#S#") "( T9' C")ST#T2T#") =Art, >0##?
Section +, #&) ame&%me&t to+ or re'isio& of+ this @o&stitutio& ma) $e propose% $)8
213 6he @o&gress upo& a 'ote of I of all its :em$ersJ or
223 # *o&stitutio&al @o&'e&tio&!
Section ., #me&%me&ts to this @o&stitutio& ma) likewise $e %ire*tl) propose% $) the people
through i&itiati'e upo& a petitio& of at least 12K of the total &um$er of registere% 'oters+ of
whi*h e'er) legislati'e %istri*t must $e represe&te% $) at least 4K of the registere% 'oter therei&!
No ame&%me&t u&%er this Se*tio& shall $e authori?e% withi& fi'e (7) )ears followi&g the
ratifi*atio& of this @o&stitutio& &or ofte&er tha& o&*e e'er) fi'e )ears thereafter!
6he @o&gress shall pro'i%e for the impleme&tatio& of the e-er*ise of this right!
Section 6, 6he @o&gress+ $) a 'ote of 2C4 of all its mem$ers+ *al a *o&stitutio&al *o&'e&tio&+ or
$) a ma,orit) 'ote of all its :em$ers+ su$mit to the ele*torate the .uestio& of *alli&g su*h a
*o&'e&tio&!
Section 4, #&) ame&%me&t to+ or re'isio& of+ this @o&stitutio& u&%er Se*tio& 1 hereof shall $e
'ali% whe& ratifie% $) a ma,orit) of the 'otes *ast i& a ple$is*ite whi*h shall $e hel% &ot earlier
tha& si-t) %a)s &or later tha& &i&et) %a)s after the appro'al of su*h ame&%me&t or re'isio&!
#&) ame&%me&t u&%er Se*tio& 2 hereof shall $e 'ali% whe& ratifie% $) a ma,orit) of the 'otes
*ast i& a ple$is*ite whi*h shall $e hel% &ot later tha& &i&et) %a)s after the *ertifi*atio& $) the
@G:1"1@ of the suffi*ie&*) of the petitio&!
NG618 #me&%me&ts to+ or re'isio& of the @o&stitutio& is H#"I> o&l) whe& appro'e% $) a
ma,orit) of the 'otes *ast %uri&g the ple$is*ite+ &ot $) the 'otes of the :em$ers of @o&gress!
., %ead- %,A, 756<
<e.uisites for a 'ali% peopleLs i&itiati'e to ame&% the @o&stitutio&J %isti&*tio&s $etwee&
ame&%me&t a&% re'isio&!
%A2L L, LA/B#)" and '%#C" B, A2/')TA&" , together with 7,6.5,@<. registered
!oters !s, T9' C"//#SS#") ") 'L'CT#")S, 3,%, )o, +54+<6, "ctober .<, .::7, <:<
SC%A +7:
Carpio, 1,
(acts-
Betitio&ers file% a Betitio& for I&itiati'e a&% <efere&%um with the @G:1"1@ to ame&% the 1987
Bhilippi&e @o&stitutio&+ parti*ularl) #rti*les HI a&% HII to repla*e the prese&t Bresi%e&tial-
Bi*ameral s)stem of go'er&me&t to Barliame&tar)-E&i*ameral s)stem usi&g Se*tio& 2+ #rt! MHII
of the @o&stitutio&! Betitio&ers *laim that their petitio& was sig&e% $) 6+427+972 millio& 'oters
all o'er the *ou&tr) a&% the same *o&stitutes o'er 12K of all the registere% 'oters i& the e&tire
*ou&tr) a&% that more tha& 4K of the registere% 'oters i& e'er) legislati'e %istri*t sig&e% the
same i& a**or%a&*e with Se*tio& 2+ #rt! MHII of the @o&stitutio&! 6he petitio& to *ha&ge the
@o&stitutio& i&'ol'es se*tio&s 1-7 of #rti*le HIJ Se*tio&s 1-5 of #rti*le HII a&% a& #rti*le MHII
e&title% N6ra&sitor) Bro'isio&sO! 6he petitio&ers pra)e% with the @G:1"1@ that after %ue
pu$li*atio& of their Betitio&+ the @G:1"1@ shoul% su$mit the followi&g propositio& i& a
ple$is*ite for the 'otersL ratifi*atio&8
>G DGE #BB<GH1 61 #:1N>:1N6 GA #<6I@"1S HI #N> HII GA 61 1987
@GNS6I6E6IGN+ @#NPINP 61 AG<: GA PGH1<N:1N6 A<G: 61
B<1SI>1N6I#" BI@#:1<#" 6G # ENI@#:1<#"-B#<"I#:1N6#<D SDS61:+ #N>
B<GHI>INP #<6I@"1 MHIII #S 6<#NSI6G<D B<GHISIGNS AG< 61 G<>1<"D SIA6
A<G: GN1 SDS61: 6G 61 G61<0
6he @G:1"1@ %ismisse% the petitio& *iti&g S#N6I#PG HS! @G:1"1@+ 270 S@<# 106
where it was hel% that8
<# 6747 i&te&%e% to i&*lu%e the S)stem of I&itiati'e o& #me&%me&ts to the @o&stitutio&+ $ut is+
u&fortu&atel)+ I&a%e.uate to *o'er that s)stem u&%er Se*tio& 2+ #rt! MHII of the @o&stitutio&! - -
- !
6he foregoi&g $ri&gs us to the *o&*lusio& that <# 6747 is i&*omplete+ i&a%e.uate or wa&ti&g i&
esse&tial terms a&% *o&%itio&s i&sofar as i&itiati'e o& ame&%me&ts to the @o&stitutio& is
*o&*er&e%! Its la*u&ae o& this su$sta&ti'e matter are fatal a&% *a&&ot $e *ure% $) Nempoweri&gO
the @G:1"1@ to promulgate su*h rules a&% regulatio&s as ma) $e &e*essar) to *arr) the
purposes of this a*t!
@o&si%eri&g the sai% %ismissal+ petitio&ers ele'ate% the matter to the Supreme @ourt o& @ertiorari
a&% :a&%amus allegi&g ra'e a$use of %is*retio& a&% to set asi%e the @G:1"1@L >e*isio& a&%
to *ompel the latter to gi'e %ue *ourse to their i&itiati'e petitio&!
The #ssues-
1! ;161< 61 "#:BING P<GEBLS B16I6IGN @G:B"I1S ;I6 S1@6IGN 2+
#<6I@"1 MHII GA 61 @GNS6I6E6IGN GN #:1N>:1N6S 6G 61 @GNS6I6E6IGN
6<GEP B1GB"1LS INI6I#6IH1J
2! ;161< 61 @GE<6 SGE"> <1HISI6 I6S <E"INP IN >1A1NSG<-
S#N6I#PG HS! @G:1"1@+ >1@"#<INP 6#6 <# NG! 6747 NIN@G:B"161+
IN#>1QE#61 G< ;#N6INP IN 1SS1N6I#" 61<:S #N> @GN>I6IGNSO 6G
I:B"1:1N6 61 INI6I#6IH1 @"#ES1 GN B<GBGS#"S 6G #:1N> 61
@GNS6I6E6IGNJ a&%
4! ;161< 61 @G:1"1@ @G::I661> P<#H1 #BES1 GA >IS@<16IGN IN
>1NDINP >E1 @GE<S1 6G 61 "#:BING P<GEBLS B16I6IGN!
9 ' L &-
6here is &o merit to the petitio&!
6he "am$i&o group misera$l) faile% to *ompl) with the $asi* re.uireme&ts of the @o&stitutio&
for *o&%u*ti&g a peopleLs i&itiati'e! 6hus+ there is e'e& &o &ee% to re'isit Sa&tiago+ as the prese&t
petitio& warra&ts %ismissal $ase% alo&e o& the "am$i&o ProupLs glari&g failure to *ompl) with
the $asi* re.uireme&ts of the @o&stitutio&! #s su*h+ there is likewise &o gra'e a$use of %is*retio&
o& the part of the @G:1"1@!
Se*tio& 2+ #rti*le MHII of the @o&stitutio& is the go'er&i&g *o&stitutio&al pro'isio& that allows a
peopleLs i&itiati'e to propose ame&%me&ts to the @o&stitutio&! 6his Se*tio& pro'i%es8
NSe*tio& 2! #me&%me&ts to this @o&stitutio& ma) likewise $e >I<1@6"D B<GBGS1> BD 61
B1GB"1 through i&itiati'e upo& a petitio& of at least twel'e per *e&tum (12K) of the total
&um$er of registere% 'oters of whi*h e'er) legislati'e %istri*t must $e represe&te% $) at least
three per *e&tum (4K) of the registere% 'oters therei&!O
6he %eli$eratio&s of the @o&stitutio&al @o&'e&tio& 'i'i%l) e-plai& the mea&i&g of the
ame&%me&t N%ire*tl) propose% $) the people through i&itiati'e upo& a petitio&O! 6hus8
:<! <G><IPG8 "et us look at the me*ha&i*s! "et us sa) some 'oters wa&t to propose a
*o&stitutio&al ame&%me&t! IS 61 ><#A6 GA 61 B<GBGS1> @GNS6I6E6IGN#"
#:1N>:1N6 <1#>D 6G B1 SG;N 6G 61 B1GB"1 ;1N 61D #<1 #S=1> 6G
SIPN0
:<! SE#<1R! 6hat *a& $e reaso&a$l) assume%+ :a%am Bresi%e&t!
:<! <G><IPG8 ;hat %oes the spo&sor mea&0 6he %raft is rea%) a&% show& to them $efore the)
sig&0 Now+ who prepares the %raft0
:<! SE#<1R8 6he people themsel'es+ :a%am Bresi%e&tS#s it is e&'isio&e%+ a&) Ailipi&o *a&
prepare that proposal a&% pass it arou&% for sig&ature!
@learl)+ the framers of the @o&stitutio& i&te&%e% that the N%raft of the propose% *o&stitutio&al
ame&%me&tO shoul% $e Nrea%) a&% show&O to the people N$efore the) sig& su*h proposalO! 6he
framers plai&l) state% that N$efore the) sig& there is alrea%) a %raft show& to them!O 6he framers
also Ne&'isio&e%O that the people shoul% sig& o& the proposal itself $e*ause the propo&e&ts must
Nprepare the proposal a&% pass it arou&% for sig&ature!O
6he esse&*e of ame&%me&ts N%ire*tl) propose% $) the people through i&itiati'e upo& a petitio&O
IS 6#6 61 1N6I<1 B<GBGS#" GN I6S A#@1 IS # B16I6IGN BD 61 B1GB"1! 6his
mea&s two (2) esse&tial eleme&ts must $e prese&t8
1! 6he people must author a&% must sig& the e&tire proposal! No age&t or represe&tati'e
*a& sig& for a&% o& their $ehalfJ
2! #s a& i&itiati'e upo& a petitio&+ 61 B<GBGS#" :ES6 B1 1:BG>I1> IN #
B16I6IGN!
6hese esse&tial eleme&ts are prese&t o&l) if the full te-t of the propose% ame&%me&ts is first
show& to the people who will e-press their asse&t $) sig&i&g su*h *omplete proposal i& a
petitio&! 6hus+ a& ame&%me&t is N>I<1@6"D B<GBGS1> BD 61 B1GB"1 6<GEP
INI6I#6IH1 EBGN # B16II6GN N GN"D IA 61 B1GB"1 SIPN GN # B16I6IGN 6#6
G@N6#INS 61 AE"" 61M6 GA 61 B<GBGS1> #:1N>:1N6S!
6he petitio&ers $ear the $ur%e& of pro'i&g that the) *omplie% with the *o&stitutio&al
re.uireme&ts i& gatheri&g the sig&aturesFthat the petitio& *o&tai&e%+ or i&*orporate% $)
atta*hme&t+ the full te-t of the propose% ame&%me&ts!
6he "am$i&o Proup %i% &ot atta*h to their prese&t petitio& a *op) of the %o*ume&t *o&tai&i&g
the propose% ame&%me&ts a&% as su*h+ the people sig&e% i&itiati'e petitio& without k&owi&g
the a*tual ame&%me&ts propose% i& the sai% i&itiati'e! I&stea% + the allege% 6!4 millio& people
who sig&e% the petitio& ha% to rel) the represe&tatio&s of #tt)! "am$i&o! @learl)+ #tt)! "am$i&o
a&% his group %e*ei'e% the 6!4 millio& sig&atories+ a&% e'e& the e&tire &atio&!
2! # peopleLs i&itiati'e to *ha&ge the @o&stitutio& applies o&l) to a& ame&%me&t of the
@o&stitutio& a&% &ot to its re'isio&! I& *o&trast+ @o&gress a&% a @o&stitutio&al @o&'e&tio& *a&
propose $oth ame&%me&ts a&% re'isio&s to the @o&stitutio&! 6his is *lear u&%er Se*tio& 1 of #rt!
MHII of the @o&stitutio&!
;here the i&te&t a&% la&guage of the @o&stitutio& u&%er Se*tio& 2 of #rt! MHIII *learl) withhol%
from the people the power to propose re'isio&s to the @o&stitutio&+ the people *a&&ot propose
re'isio&s e'e& as the) are empowere% to propose ame&%me&ts! 6he two are %isti&guishe% as
follows8
N<e'isio&O is the alteratio&s of the %iffere&t portio&s of the e&tire %o*ume&t 2@o&stitutio&3! It
ma) result i& the rewriti&g whether the whole *o&stitutio&+ or the greater portio& of it+ or perhaps
some of its importa&t pro'isio&s! But whate'er results the re'isio& ma) pro%u*e+ the fa*tor that
*hara*teri?es it as a& a*t of re'isio& is the origi&al i&te&tio& a&% pla& authori?e% to $e *arrie% out!
6hat i&te&tio& a&% pla& must *o&template a *o&si%eratio& of all the pro'isio&s of the @o&stitutio&
to %etermi&e whi*h o&e shoul% $e altere% or suppresse% or whether the whole %o*ume&t shoul%
$e repla*e% with a& e&tirel) &ew o&e!
N#me&%me&tO of the @o&stitutio&+ o& the other ha&%+ e&'isages a *ha&ge or o&l) a few spe*ifi*
pro'isio&s! 6he i&te&tio& of a& a*t to ame&% is &ot to *o&si%er the a%'isa$ilit) of *ha&gi&g the
e&tire *o&stitutio& or of *o&si%eri&g that possi$ilit)! 6he i&te&tio& rather is to impro'e spe*ifi*
parts of the e-isti&g *o&stitutio& or to a%% to it pro'isio&s %eeme% esse&tial o& a**ou&t of
*ha&ge% *o&%itio&s or to suppress portio&s of it that seem o$solete+ or %a&gerous+ or mislea%i&g
i& their effe*t!
:I<I#: >1A1NSG<-S#N6I#PG+ et al! Hs! @G:1"1@+ P!<! No! 127427+ :ar*h 19+ 1997
T 9u&e 10+ 1997
<# 6747 i&te&%e% to i&*lu%e the S)stem of I&itiati'e o& #me&%me&ts to the @o&stitutio&+ $ut is+
u&fortu&atel)+ I&a%e.uate to *o'er that s)stem! Se*tio& 2 #rt! MHII is &ot self-e-e*utor) a&%
u&less @o&gress pro'i%es for its impleme&tatio& + it woul% remai& i& the *ol% &i*he of the
@o&stitutio&! <# 6747 i& all its 24 se*tio&s me&tio&s the wor% N@o&stitutio&O o&l) i& se*tio& 2
a&% Se*tio& 4 as *ompare% to the i&itiati'e o& NstatutesO a&% lo*al legislatio&! 6he foregoi&g
$ri&gs us to the *o&*lusio& that <# 6747 is i&*omplete+ i&a%e.uate or wa&ti&g i& esse&tial terms
a&% *o&%itio&s i&sofar as i&itiati'e o& ame&%me&ts to the @o&stitutio& is *o&*er&e%! Its la*u&ae
o& this su$sta&ti'e matter are fatal a&% *a&&ot $e *ure% $) Nempoweri&gO the @G:1"1@ to
promulgate su*h rules a&% regulatio&s as ma) $e &e*essar) to *arr) the purposes of this a*t!
1&umerate the steps to $e followe% a&% the re.uisites to $e met i& or%er that the people ma)
propose% the ame&%me&ts+ repeal+ ame&% or e&a*t a law or pro'isio& of the @&stitutio&!
4! ;hat are the %iffere&t mo%es of ame&%i&g the *o&stitutio&0 >isti&guish N<e'isio&O from
Name&%me&tO of the @o&stitutio&!
N<e'isio&O is the alteratio&s of the %iffere&t portio&s of the e&tire %o*ume&t 2@o&stitutio&3! It
ma) result i& the rewriti&g whether the whole *o&stitutio&+ or the greater portio& of it+ or perhaps
some of its importa&t pro'isio&s! But whate'er results the re'isio& ma) pro%u*e+ the fa*tor that
*hara*teri?es it as a& a*t of re'isio& is the origi&al i&te&tio& a&% pla& authori?e% to $e *arrie% out!
6hat i&te&tio& a&% pla& must *o&template a *o&si%eratio& of all the pro'isio&s of the @o&stitutio&
to %etermi&e whi*h o&e shoul% $e altere% or suppresse% or whether the whole %o*ume&t shoul%
$e repla*e% with a& e&tirel) &ew o&e!
N#me&%me&tO of the @o&stitutio&+ o& the other ha&%+ e&'isages a *ha&ge or o&l) a few spe*ifi*
pro'isio&s! 6he i&te&tio& of a& a*t to ame&% is &ot to *o&si%er the a%'isa$ilit) of *ha&gi&g the
e&tire *o&stitutio& or of *o&si%eri&g that possi$ilit)! 6he i&te&tio& rather is to impro'e spe*ifi*
parts of the e-isti&g *o&stitutio& or to a%% to it pro'isio&s %eeme% esse&tial o& a**ou&t of
*ha&ge% *o&%itio&s or to suppress portio&s of it that seem o$solete+ or %a&gerous+ or mislea%i&g
i& their effe*t! (SIN@G+ Hi*e&te+ BI"IBBIN1 BG"I6I@#" "#;)
5! <ea%8 a" MA#A$AG vs% L&P!' ()T&* +, Phil% -
." G&$'AL!S vs% C&M!L!C* /- SCRA ++0
There is no prohi.ition for Congress to propose amendments to the Constitution and
at the same time call for the convening of a Constitutional Convention to amend the
Constitution% The word 1or2 in the provision 13Congress* upon a vote of 4 of all its mem.ers5
&R 6/7 A constitutional Convention2 under Section -* Art% 8()) also means 1A$92%
c" T&L!$T)$& vs% C&M!L!C* 0- SCRA +:/
19octrine of Proper Su.mission2 means all the proposed amendments to the Constitution
shall .e presented to the people for the ratification or re;ection at the same time* not piecemeal%
d" SA$)9A9 vs% C&M!L!C* +< SCRA <<<
e" ALMAR)& vs% AL#A* -/+ SCRA =>
)f the ?uestion regarding the proposed amendment to the Constitution deals with its
1necessity* e@pediency or wisdom2* the same is political in nature and .eyond the power of the
courts to decide%
f" M)R)AM 9!A!$S&R SA$T)AG& (S% C&M!L!C* /+: ACRA -:=
The urpose and (unction of the
Constitution
Post"d )$ T%" Con'"d"rat" A!"rican on *un 29t%2 2(11 in ?ounding .ocu!"nts2
Politics @ Parti"s A ( co!!"nts
6he @o&stitutio& is ,ust what it sa)s it is+ a *ompa*t %eli&eati&g the $asis upo& whi*h a u&io&
$etwee& the so'ereig& States+ a&% a&) future States a%mitte%+ woul% $e *o&stitute% a&% *arrie%
out! ItLs fu&*tio& was &ot so mu*h to empower the fe%eral go'er&me&t to rule as it was to spe*if)+
limit+ a&% rule the age&*) of the fe%eral go'er&me&t i& *arr)i&g out itLs %elegate% %uties o&
$ehalf of the States i& u&io&! Batri*k e&r)+ o&e of our most illustrious fou&%i&g fathers+ sai% it
this wa)8
NThe Constitution is not an instrument for the government to restrain the people* it is an
instrument for the people to restrain the government B lest it come to dominate our lives and
interests%N
Dou woul% thi&k the e-pla&atio& for this woul% $e sta&%ar% k&owle%ge to the
*ommo& #meri*a&+ espe*iall) *o&si%eri&g most igh S*hool stu%e&ts are re.uire% to take a
*ourse i& #meri*a& *i'i*s a&% e*o&omi*s! Sa%l) howe'er+ &ot o&l) %o most #meri*a&s &ot
u&%ersta&% the true fu&*tio& of the @o&stitutio& of these u&ite% States+ e'i%e&tl) &either %o most
of our ele*te% offi*ials! 6hat+ or the) ,ust %o &ot *are!
>espite his total mo*ker) of the same+ a&% the &o'elt) of his sa)i&g so upo& the o**asio& a&% i&
the *o&te-t whi*h he %i%+ "i&*ol& a*tuall) e-presse% (however hypocritically) the truth of this
pri&*iple whe& he pe&&e% those i&famous wor%s Ngovernment of the people* .y the people* for
the peopleN+ whi*h the te&th ame&%me&t to the @o&stitutio& *larifies+ NThe powers not delegated
to the Cnited States .y the Constitution* nor prohi.ited .y it to the States* are reserved to the
States respectively* or to the people%O 6hat is to sa)+ amo&g other thi&gs+ that the states a&% Nthe
peopleO are legall) s)&o&)mous+ 'ia our %emo*rati* repu$li*a& (or representative) s)stem!
I& short+ the purpose a&% fu&*tio& of the *o&stitutio& is to tell the fe%eral go'er&me&t what it *a&
a&% *a&&ot %o o& $ehalf of the states! 6here$) pro'i%i&g a&% affirmi&g that Nthe peopleO are i&
*harge of the go'er&me&t+ &ot the other wa) arou&%!
Classi;cation o' Constitutional :ig%ts BArt. IIIC
1. Political rig%ts D t%os" rig%ts o' t%" citi<"ns %ic% gi4" t%"! t%" #o"r to
#artici#at"2 dir"ctl$ or indir"ctl$2 in t%" "sta)lis%!"nt or ad!inistration o' t%"
go4"rn!"nt.
2. Ci4il rig%ts D t%os" rig%ts %ic% t%" la ill "n'orc" at t%" instanc" o' #ri4at"
indi4iduals 'or t%" #ur#os" o' s"curing to t%"! t%" "n5o$!"nt o' t%"ir !"ans o'
li4"li%ood.
3. 1ocial and "cono!ic rig%ts D t%os" rig%ts %ic% ar" int"nd"d to insur" t%" "ll,
)"ing and "cono!ic s"curit$ o' t%" indi4idual
0. :ig%ts o' t%" accus"d D t%os" rig%ts int"nd"d 'or t%" #rot"ction o' a #"rson %o is
accus"d o' an$ cri!".
Classi;cation and ?or!s o' Constitution
1. According to Origin:
Con4"ntional or =nact"d , on" %ic% is "nact"d )$ a constitu"nt ass"!)l" or
grant"d )$ a rul"r to %is su)5"cts.
Cu!ulati4" or "4ol4"d , on" %ic% is a #roduct o' grot% or a long #"riod o'
d"4"lo#!"nt origination in custo!s2 traditions2 5udicial d"cisions2 and ot%"rs2 rat%"r
t%an 'ro! a d"li)"rat" and 'or!al "nact!"nt
2. According to 'or!:
Writt"n , on" %ic% %as )""n gi4"n d";nit" ritt"n 'or! at a #articular ti!".
6nritt"n , on" %ic% is "ntir"l$ t%" #roduct o' #olitical "4olution2 consisting larg"l$
o' a !ass o' custo!s2 usag"s and 5udicial d"cisions2 and statutor$ "nact!"nts.
3. According to di/cult$ o' a!"nd!"nt or r"4ision:
:igid or in"lastic , on" %ic% cannot )" a!"nd"d or alt"r"d "3c"#t )$ so!" s#"cial
!ac%in"r$ !or" cun)rous t%an t%" ordinar$ l"gislati4" #roc"ss.
?l"3i)l" or "lastic , on" %ic% !a$ )" alt"r"d in t%" sa!" a$ as ot%"r las.
phil constitutional law +A4:
philippi&e *o&stitutio&al law re'iew
1. Constitution
@o&stitutio& is the $o%) of rules a&% ma-ims i& a**or%a&*e with whi*h the power of so'ereig&t)
are ha$ituall) e-er*ise%!
2. W%at ar" t%" #ur#os"s o' t%" ConstitutionE
1! to pres*ri$e perma&e&t framework of a s)stem of go'er&me&t
2! to assig& to se'eral %epartme&ts their respe*ti'e powers a&% %uties
4! to esta$lish *ertai& first pri&*iples o& whi*h go'er&me&t is fou&%e%
Classi;cation o' Constitution
1! writte& or u&writte&
2! e&a*te% or e'ol'e%
4! rigi% or fle-i$le
5! &ormati'e
7! &omi&al
6! sema&ti*
=ss"ntial #arts o' a good ritt"n constitution:
1! *o&stitutio& of li$ert)
2! *o&stitutio& of go'er&me&t
4! *o&stitutio& of so'ereig&t)
1tat"
@ommu&it) of perso&s+ more or less &umerous+ perma&e&tl) o**up)i&g a %efi&ite portio& of
territor)+ i&%epe&%e&t of e-ter&al *o&trol+ a&% possessi&g a go'er&me&t to whi*h a great $o%) of
i&ha$ita&ts re&%er ha$itual o$e%ie&*e!
=l"!"nts o' 1tat"
1! people
2! territor)
4! go'er&me&t
5! so'ereig&t)
classi;cation o' go4"rn!"nt
1! %e ,ure - has rightful title $ut &o power or *o&trol $e*ause same has $ee& with%raw& from it+ or
$e*ause same has &ot )et a*tuall) e&tere% i&to e-er*ise thereof
2! %e fa*to - a*tuall) e-er*ises power or *o&trol $ut without legal title
Finds o' d" 'acto go4"rn!"nt
1! %e fa*to proper - go'er&me&t that gets possessio& a&% *o&trol of+ usurps+ $) for*e or $) the
'oi*e of the ma,orit)+ the rightful legal go'er&me&t a&% mai&tai&s itself agai&st the will of the
latter
2! go'er&me&t of paramou&t for*e - esta$lishe% a&% mai&tai&e% $) militar) for*es who i&'a%e
a&% o**up) a territor) of the e&em) i& the *ourse of war
4! i&%epe&%e&t go'er&me&t esta$lishe% $) the i&ha$ita&ts of the *ou&tr) who rise i& i&surre*tio&
agai&st the pare&t state!
. =G"ct o' )"llig"r"nt occu#ation
#8 No *ha&ge i& so'ereig&t)! owe'er+ politi*al laws+ e-*ept those of treaso& are suspe&%e%J
mu&i*ipal laws remai& i& for*e u&less *ha&ge% $) the $elligere&t o**upa&t! #t the e&% of the
o**upatio&+ politi*al laws are automati*all) re'i'e%!
1(. In%"r"nt #o"r o' t%" stat"
1! poli*e power - power promoti&g pu$li* welfare $) restrai&i&g a&% regulati&g the use of li$ert)
a&% propert)
2! power of emi&e&t %omai& - power of the state to a*.uire pri'ate propert) for pu$li* purpose
upo& pa)me&t of ,ust *ompe&satio&
4! power of ta-atio& - power $) whi*h State raises re'e&ue to %efra) &e*essar) e-pe&ses of
go'er&me&t
11. 1i!ilariti"s o' t%" #o"rs o' t%" 1tat"
1! i&here&t i& the stateJ &o &ee% for *o&stitutio&al gra&t
2! &e*essar) a&% i&%ispe&sa$le
4! mea&s $) whi*h state i&terferes with pri'ate propert)
5! presupposes e.ui'ale&t *ompe&satio&
7! primaril) legislati'e i& &ature
12. .istinctions o' t%" #o"rs:
1! Boli*e power8 regulates life a&% li$ert)! 1mi&e&t >omai& a&% Bower of 6a-atio&8 effe*ts o&l)
propert) rights
2! BB a&% B68 e-er*ise% $) the go'er&me&t+ 1>8 ma) $e e-er*ise% $) pri'ate e&tities
4! BB8 propert) take& is &o-ious or i&te&%e% for &o-ious purposes a&% %estro)e%! 1> a&% B68
propert) is wholesome a&% %e'ote% to pu$li* use or purpose
5! BB8 *ompe&satio& i&ta&gi$leJ altruisti* feeli&g of ha'i&g *o&tri$ute% somethi&g to pu$li*
goo%! 1>8 full a&% fair e.ui'ale&t of propert) take&J B68 prote*tio& a&%Cor pu$li* impro'eme&ts
i&stitute% $) the go'er&me&t for ta-es pai%!
13. T"sts 'or 4alid "3"rcis" o' Polic" #o"r
1! lawful su$,e*t
2! lawful mea&s
a%%itio&al limitatio&s
4! e-press gra&t of law
5! withi& territorial limits
7! must &ot $e *o&trar) to law
10. :"Huisit"s o' taFing
1! e-propriator must e&ter a pri'ate propert)
2! e&tr) must $e for more tha& a& mome&tar) perio%
4! e&tr) must $e u&%er warra&t or *olor of authorit)
5! propert) must $e %e'ote% for pu$li* use
7! utili?atio& of propert) must $e i& a wa) so as to oust ow&er a&% %epri'e him of $e&efi*ial
e&,o)me&t of propert)!
15. :"Huisit"s o' "!in"nt do!ain
1! &e*essit)8 if e-er*ise% $) *o&gress+ politi*al .uestio&J if e-er*ise% $) %elegate+ ,usti*ia$le
.uestio&
2! pri'ate propert)
4! taki&g
5! pu$li* use
7! ,ust *ompe&satio&
1+. W%"n is t%"r" taFingE
1! ow&er is a*tuall) %epri'e% of his propert)
2! there is pra*ti*al %estru*tio& or material impairme&t of the 'alue of propert)
4! ow&er is %epri'e% of or%i&ar) use of his propert)
5! ow&er is %epri'e% of ,uris%i*tio&+ super'isio& a&% *o&trol of his propert)
17. W%at ar" t%" r"Huisit"s 'or 4alid ta3ation
1! ta- must $e for pu$li* purpose
2! ta- shall $e u&iform
4! either the perso& or propert) ta-e% shall $e withi& the ,uris%i*tio& of ta-i&g authorit)
5! that i& assessme&t a&% *olle*tio& of *ertai& ta-es+ *ertai& guara&tees agai&st i&,usti*es to
i&%i'i%uals+ espe*iall) $) wa) of &oti*e a&% opportu&it) for heari&g shall $e pro'i%e%!
18. W%at co!#ris"s t%" t"rritor$ o' t%" P%ili##in"sE
6he &atio&al territor) *omprises the Bhilippi&e ar*hipelago+ with all the isla&%s a&% waters
em$ra*e% therei&+ a&% all other territories o'er whi*h the Bhilippi&es has so'ereig&t) or
,uris%i*tio&+ *o&sisti&g of its terrestrial+ flu'ial a&% aerial %omai&s+ i&*lu%i&g its territorial sea+
the sea$e%+ the su$soil+ the i&sular shel'es+ a&% other su$mari&e areas! 6he waters arou&%+
$etwee&+ a&% *o&&e*ti&g the isla&%s of the ar*hipelago+ regar%less of their $rea%th a&%
%ime&sio&s+ form part of the i&ter&al waters of the Bhilippi&es!
19. Arc%i#"lagic .octrin"
I&tegratio& of a group of isla&%s to the sea a&% their o&e&ess so that together the) *o&stitute o&e
u&it+ o&e *ou&tr) o&e state! #& imagi&ar) si&gle $aseli&e is %raw& arou&% the isla&%s $) ,oi&i&g
appropriate poi&ts of the outermost isla&%s or ar*hipelago with straight li&es a&% all the waters
a&% isla&%s e&*lose% withi& the $aseli&es from part of the territor) of the #r*hipelagi* State!
2(. T"rritori"s "3"!#t 'ro! t"rritorial 5urisdiction
1! foreig& states+ hea% of states+ %iplomati* represe&tati'es a&% to a *ertai& %egree+ *o&suls
2! foreig& state propert)+ i&*lu%i&g their em$assies+ *o&sulates+ a&% pu$li* 'essels e&gage% i&
&o&-*ommer*ial a*ti'ities!
4! a*ts of states
5! foreig& mer*ha&t 'essels e-er*isi&g the rights of i&&o*e&t passage or i&'olu&tar) e&tr)+ su*h
as arri'al u&%er stress
7! foreig& armies passi&g through or statio&e% i& its territor) with its permissio&s
6! su*h other perso&s a&% propert)+ o'er whi*h the state ma)+ $) agreeme&t+ wai'e ,uris%i*tio&!
21. C%aract"ristic o' a r"#u)lican stat".
1! e-iste&*e of a $ill of rights
2! ma,orit) rule go'er&s
4! go'er&me&t of law &ot of me&
5! &o&-sua$ilit) of state without its *o&se&t
7! state *a&&ot pass irrepeala$le laws
6! a**ou&ta$ilit) of pu$li* offi*ials
7! separatio& of powers
8! %elegatio& of powers
22. C%"cF and )alanc" !"c%anis!
1! Heto power of the Bresi%e&t
2! Bower of the @o&gress to o'erri%e the 'eto of the Bresi%e&t
4! power of ,u%i*ial re'iew 'este% i& @ourt
5! par%o&i&g power of the Bresi%e&t
7! power of @o&gress to ame&% or repeal a&) law
6! power of @o&gress to appropriate mo&e)
7! @ommissio& o& #ppoi&tme&t
8! Impea*hme&t
9! Bower of the Supreme @ourt to test suffi*ie&*) of fa*tual $asis for suspe&sio& of writ of
ha$eas *orpus!
10! @o&gress ma) re'oke su*h suspe&sio& a&% %e*laratio&
23. P"r!issi)l" d"l"gation
1! 6ariff powers to the Bresi%e&t
2! 1merge&*) Bowers
4! >elegatio& to the Beople
5! >elegatio& to lo*al go'er&me&t u&its
7! >elegatio& to #%mi&istrati'e $o%ies
20. T"st 'or 4alid d"l"gation
1! *omplete&ess test
2! suffi*ie&*) sta&%ar% test
25. =l"!"nts o' cri!inal du" #roc"ss
1! a**use% has $ee& hear% i& a *ourt of *ompete&t ,uris%i*tio&
2! a**use% is pro*ee%e% agai&st u&%er the or%erl) pro*esses of law
4! a**use% is gi'e& &oti*e a&% opportu&it) to $e hear%
5! ,u%gme&t re&%ere% withi& authorit) of *o&stitutio&al law
2+. =l"!"nts o' Ad!inistrati4" .u" Proc"ss
1! right to heari&g+ whi*h i&*lu%es right to prese&t o&e(s *ase a&% support e'i%e&*e a%%u*e%
2! tri$u&al must *o&si%er e'i%e&*e a%%u*e%
4! %e*isio& must ha'e somethi&g to support itself
5! e'i%e&*e must $e su$sta&tial
7! %e*isio& must $e $ase% o& e'i%e&*e a%%u*e%+ or at least *o&tai&e% i& the re*or%s a&% %is*lose%
to the parties
6! i&%epe&%e&t trial or ,u%ge
7! tri$u&al shoul% i& all *o&tro'ersial .uestio&s+ re&%er its %e*isio& i& su*h a ma&&er so that
parties *a& k&ow the 'arious issues i&'ol'e% a&% reaso& for the %e*isio&
27. =Hual #rot"ction o' la.
#ll perso&s or thi&gs similarl) situate% must $e similarl) treate% $oth as to rights *o&ferre% a&%
respo&si$ilities impose%!
28. :"Huisit"s o' 4alid classi;cation
1! su*h *lassifi*atio& rests upo& su$sta&tial %isti&*tio&s
2! it is germa&e to the purpose of the law
4! it is &ot *o&fi&e% to e-isti&g *o&%itio&s
5! it applies e.uall) to all mem$ers of the same *lass
29. :"Huisit"s o' 4alid s"arc% and arrant
1! pro$a$le *ause
2! %etermi&atio& of the pro$a$le *ause $) the ,u%ge
4! after e-ami&atio& u&%er oath or e-ami&atio& of the of the *omplai&a&t a&% the wit&ess he ma)
pro%u*e
5! parti*ular %es*riptio& of the pla*e to $e sear*he% a&% the thi&gs or perso& to $e sei?e%
3(. Warrantl"ss arr"st: %"n 4alid
1! whe& the perso& to $e arreste% ha *ommitte%+ is a*tuall) *ommitti&g+ or is attempti&g to
*ommit a& offe&se
2! whe& a& offe&se has $ee& *ommitte% a&% arresti&g offi*er has perso&al k&owle%ge of the fa*ts
i&%i*ati&g that the perso& to $e arreste% has *ommitte% it
4! whe& perso& to $e arreste% is a& es*apee or %ete&tio& priso&er
5! whe& right has $ee& 'olu&taril) wai'e% su*h as posti&g of $ail $o&%
31. Warrantl"ss s"arc%7 %"n 4alid
1! whe& right has $ee& 'olu&taril) wai'e%
2! as a& a**i%e&t to a lawful arrest+ pro'i%e% sear*h is *o&tempora&eous to arrest a&% withi&
permissi$le area of sear*h
4! sear*hes of 'essel a&% air*raft for 'iolatio& of fisher)+ immigratio& a&% *ustoms laws
5! sear*hes of automo$ile at $or%ers or *o&stru*ti'e $or%ers for 'iolatio& of immigratio& laws
7! i&spe*tio& of $uil%i&gs a&% other premises for the e&for*eme&t of fire+ sa&itar) a&% $uil%i&g
regulatio&s
6! where prohi$ite% arti*les are i& plai& 'iew
7! *o&%u*t of areal target ?o&i&g a&% saturatio& %ri'e i& the e-er*ise of militar) powers of the
Bresi%e&t
32. T"st 'or 4alid go4"rn!"ntal int"r'"r"nc" B'r""do! o' "3#r"ssionC
1! *lear a&% prese&t %a&ger rule
2! %a&gerous te&%e&*) rule
4! $ala&*i&g of i&terest test
33. :ig%ts o' a #"rson sus#"ct"d and su)s"Hu"ntl$ c%arg"d )"'or" t%" cas"
is ;l"d in court:
Before the *ase is file% i& *ourtCprose*utor for prelimi&ar) i&'estigatio& $ut after $ei&g put i&to
*usto%) or otherwise %epri'e% of li$ert)+ a&% or $ei&g i&terrogate% $) poli*e
a! to remai& sile&t
$! to $e i&forme% thereof
*! &ot to $e su$,e*te% to for*e+ 'iole&*e+ threat+ i&timi%atio& whi*h 'itiates free will
%! to ha'e e'i%e&*e o$tai&e% i& 'iolatio& of these rights i&a%missi$le i& e'i%e&*e
30. :ig%ts o' a #"rson sus#"ct"d and su)s"Hu"ntl$ c%arg"d a't"r t%" cas" is
;l"d in court:
a! to refuse to $e a wit&ess
$! &ot to ha'e pre,u%i*e impute% o& him as result of su*h refusal
*! to testif) o& his ow& $ehalf
%! to *ross- e-ami&atio&
e! while testif)i&g+ to refuse .uestio&s whi*h te&%s to i&*rimi&ate him for some *rime other tha&
the prese&t *harge
35. Constitutional rig%ts o' t%" accus"d2
1! *rimi&al %ue pro*ess
2! presumptio& of i&&o*e&*e
4! right to $e hear% $) himself or $) *ou&sel
5! right to $e i&forme% of the &ature a&% *ause of a**usatio& agai&st him
7! right to spee%)+ impartial a&% pu$li* trial
6! right to meet wit&ess fa*e to fa*e
7! right to *ompulsor) pro*ess to se*ure atte&%a&*e of wit&esses a&% pro%u*tio& of e'i%e&*e
8! trial i& a$se&tia - ma&%ate% o&l) after arraig&me&t
3+. Ia)"as cor#us
;rit issue% $) the *ourt %ire*te% to a perso& %etai&i&g a&other *omma&%i&g him to pro%u*e the
$o%) of the priso&er at a %esig&ate% time a&% pla*e+ with the %a) a&% the *ause of his *apture a&%
%ete&tio&+ to %o+ a&% to su$mit to+ a&% to re*ei'e whate'er *ourt or ,u%ge awar%i&g writ shall
*o&si%er i& his $ehalf
37. Transactional i!!unit$ statut"
6estimo&) of a&) perso& or whose possessio& of %o*ume&ts or other e'i%e&*e &e*essar) or
*o&'e&ie&t to %etermi&e the truth i& a&) i&'estigatio& *o&%u*te% is immu&e from *rimi&al
prose*utio& for a& offe&se to whi*h su*h *ompelle% testimo&) relates!
38. =3c"#tions to in4oluntar$ s"r4itud"
1! pu&ishme&t for a *rime whereof o&e has $ee& %ul) *o&'i*te%
2! ser'i*e i& %efe&se of state
4! &a'al e&listme&t
5! posse *omitatus
7! retur& to work or%er i& i&%ustries affe*te% with pu$li* i&terest
6! patria potestas
39. :"Huisit"s o' dou)l" 5"o#ard$
1! 'ali% *omplai&t
2! file% $efore *ompete&t *ourt
4! to whi*h %efe&%a&t has plea%e%
5! %efe&%a&t was pre'iousl) a*.uitte% or *o&'i*te% or the *ase %ismisse% or otherwise termi&ate%
without his e-press *o&se&t
0(. Finds o' "3 #ost 'acto la or )ill o' attaind"r.
1! law *rimi&ali?i&g the a*t %o&e $efore passage
2! law aggra'ati&g pe&alt) for *rime *ommitte% $efore passage
4! law i&fli*ti&g greater or more se'ere pe&alt)
5! law alteri&g legal rules of e'i%e&*e a&% re*ei'es less or %iffere&t testimo&) tha& law re.uire%
at the *ommissio&+ i& or%er to *o&'i*t the a**use%
7! law assumi&g to regulate *i'il rights a&% reme%ies o&l)+ i& effe*t imposes pe&alt) for
%epri'atio& of right for somethi&g whi*h whe& %o&e was lawful
6! law %epri'i&g a**use% of some lawful prote*tio& to whi*h he ha% $ee& e&title%+ su*h a
prote*tio& of a former *o&'i*tio& or a*.uittal+ or of pro*lamatio& of am&est)
Bri&*iples of @o&stitutio&al @o&stru*tio&
@o&stitutio&al interpretation+ or *o&stitutio&al construction+ the term more ofte& use% $) the
Aou&%ers+ is the pro*ess $) whi*h mea&i&gs are assig&e% to wor%s i& a *o&stitutio&+ to e&a$le
legal %e*isio&s to $e ma%e that are ,ustifie% $) it! Some s*holars %isti&guish $etwee&
/i&terpretatio&/ F assig&i&g mea&i&gs $ase% o& the mea&i&gs i& other usages of the terms $)
those the writers a&% their rea%ers ha% pro$a$l) rea%+ a&% /*o&stru*tio&/ F i&ferri&g the
mea&i&g from a $roa%er set of e'i%e&*e+ su*h as the stru*ture of the *omplete %o*ume&t from
whi*h o&e *a& %is*er& the fu&*tio& of 'arious parts+ %is*ussio& $) the %rafters or ratifiers %uri&g
%e$ate lea%i&g to a%optio& (/legislati'e histor)/)+ the $a*kgrou&% of *o&tro'ersies i& whi*h the
terms were use% that i&%i*ate the *o&*er&s a&% e-pe*tatio&s of the %rafters a&% ratifiers+
alter&ati'e wor%i&gs a&% their mea&i&gs a**epte% or re,e*te% at %iffere&t poi&ts i& %e'elopme&t+
a&% i&%i*atio&s of mea&i&gs that *a& $e i&ferre% from what is not sai%+ amo&g other metho%s of
a&al)sis!
6here is also a .uestio& of whether the mea&i&gs shoul% $e take& from the pu$li* mea&i&gs
share% amo&g the literate popula*e+ the pri'ate mea&i&gs use% amo&g the %rafters a&% ratifiers
that might &ot ha'e $ee& wi%el) share%+ or the pu$li* legal mea&i&gs of terms that were $est
k&ow& $) more a%'a&*e% legal s*holars of the time! :ost of the E!S! @o&stitutio& appears to
ha'e $ee& writte& to $e u&%erstoo% $) or%i&ar) people of that era+ although people the& were
mu*h more literate i& the law tha& people are &ow! owe'er+ ma&) of its wor%s a&% phrases are
fairl) %eep legal terms that were o&l) well u&%erstoo% $) a few of the legall) e%u*ate% Aou&%ers+
e'e& though the ge&eral populatio& pro$a$l) ha% a ru%ime&tar) u&%ersta&%i&g of them!
6here is a pro$lem with the /origi&al pu$li* mea&i&g/ formulatio&+ $e*ause while the mea&i&gs
of *o&stitutio&al terms were /pu$li*/ i& the se&se that the) were &ot /pri'ate/ or /se*ret/+ the)
were &ot &e*essaril) familiar to or%i&ar) people of the era! :ore a**urate woul% $e /legall)
e%u*ate% a&% still lear&i&g pu$li* mea&i&g/+ $e*ause ma&) of the Aou&%ers themsel'es use%
terms that the) ha% to resear*h to fi&% the mea&i&gs of! #& e-ample of this *a& $e see& i& the
*omme&ts $) >i*ke&so& i& the Ae%eral @o&'e&tio& #ug! 29+ 1787+ a$out e@ post facto o&l)
appl)i&g to *rimi&al *ases+ after resear*hi&g the topi* i& Bla*ksto&e(s Commentaries! So si&*e
we *a& presume the Aou&%ers mostl) agree% o& the writers the) *o&si%ere% authoritati'e o& legal
usages+ we *a& reaso&a$l) refer to the writi&gs of those other writers to fi&% the mea&i&gs the
Aou&%ers i&te&%e% e'e& if the Aou&%ers themsel'es ha% &ot )et %o&e the resear*h to full) master
the *o&*epts!
Aor *o&stitutio&al terms the denotata are &ot empiri*al o$,e*ts so mu*h as i%eas+ that is+ me&tal
mo%els+ that %o &ot+ for the most part+ ha'e the a%'a&tage of some formal s*ie&tifi* mo%els of
$ei&g represe&ta$le i& mathemati*al or *omputer formalisms that we *a& e-ami&e e-ter&all)! I&
parti*ular+ the) are i%eas that e-iste% i& the mi&%s of perso&s lo&g %ea%+ so we ha'e to %e'elop
me&tal mo%els of their me&tal mo%els (/theor) of mi&%/) $ase% o& the thi&gs the) rea% a&%
wrote! 6hat *a& $e %o&e! 6he 'erifi*atio& *omes with $ei&g a$le to pre%i*t what o&e of them will
sa) i& a writi&g o&e has&(t rea% )et! Be*omi&g a%ept at %oi&g so *a& reassure o&e that o&e has
/gotte& i&to their hea%s/! But that is &ot somethi&g o&e *a& %emo&strate to others!
6his lea%s to the a%mo&itio& that the 1&glish use% i& the @o&stitutio& a&% other legal %o*ume&ts
of the 18th *e&tur) shoul% $e rea% as a foreig& la&guage+ putti&g asi%e to%a)(s mea&i&gs of what
seem to $e the same wor%s we use to%a)+ a&% attempti&g to %e*o%e the mea&i&gs from 'arious
*lues we *a& fi&%! 6his is &ot o&l) wise for 18th *e&tur) 1&glish+ $ut for almost a&)
*ommu&i*atio&s+ e'e& amo&g people who *ommu&i*ate with o&e a&other %ail)+ $e*ause &o two
people mea& pre*isel) the same thi&g $) the same wor%s o& e'er) o**asio&! ;he& $oth speaker
a&% liste&er are ali'e the) are a$le to i&terrogate o&e a&other to arri'e at a *ommo& mea&i&g+ $ut
whe& the author is %ea% we ha'e to fi&% e'i%e&*e i& other thi&gs he or his *orrespo&%e&ts wrote!
@o&stitutio&al *o&tro'ersies are a$out whether a& offi*ial a*t is *o&siste&t with+ a&% authori?e%
$)+ a *o&stitutio& or *o&stitutio&al statute or *ourt %e*isio&! Si&*e a *o&stitutio& is a law+ a&% the
supreme law withi& its %omai&+ a&% authori?es statutes a&% other offi*ial a*ts whi*h ha'e a
te-tual e-pressio&+ the pri&*iples of *o&stitutio&al i&terpretatio& are esse&tiall) the same as the
pri&*iples of statutor) or ,u%i*ial i&terpretatio&!
:ost legal s*holars re*og&i?e se'e& mai& methods of ,u%i*ial %e*isio&maki&g8 te@tual*
historical* functional* doctrinal* prudential* e?uita.le* a&% natural+ although the) ma) %iffer o&
what ea*h i&*lu%es+ a&% there is some o'erlap amo&g them!
1! TeBtual! >e*isio& $ase% o& the a*tual wor%s of the writte& law+ if the mea&i&g of the
wor%s is u&am$iguous! Si&*e a law is a *omma&%+ the& it must mea& what it mea&t to the
lawgi'er+ a&% if the mea&i&g of the wor%s use% i& it ha'e *ha&ge% si&*e it was issue%+
the& te-tual a&al)sis must $e of the wor%s as u&%erstoo% $) the lawgi'er+ whi*h for a
*o&stitutio& woul% $e the u&%ersta&%i&g of the ratif)i&g *o&'e&tio& or+ if that is u&*lear+
of the %rafters! Some "ati& ma-ims8 A ver.is legis non est recedendum% Arom the wor%s
of the law there is &ot a&) %eparture! 7 @oke 118! $oscitur D sociis% :ea&i&g of wor%s
ma) $e as*ertai&e% $) asso*iate% wor%s! 4 6!<! 87!
2! 9istorical! >e*isio& $ase% less o& the a*tual wor%s tha& o& the u&%ersta&%i&g re'eale%
$) a&al)sis of the histor) of the %rafti&g a&% ratifi*atio& of the law+ for *o&stitutio&s a&%
statutes+ sometimes *alle% its legislati'e histor)+ a&% for ,u%i*ial e%i*ts+ the *ase histor)! #
te-tual a&al)sis for wor%s whose mea&i&gs ha'e *ha&ge% therefore o'erlaps histori*al
a&al)sis! It arises out of su*h "ati& ma-ims as Animus hominis est anima scripti%
I&te&tio& is the soul of a& i&strume&t! 4 Bulst! 67!
4! (unctional! #lso *alle% structural! >e*isio& $ase% o& a&al)sis of the stru*tures the law
*o&stitute% a&% how the) are appare&tl) i&te&%e% to fu&*tio& as a *ohere&t+ harmo&ious
s)stem! # "ati& ma-im is $emo ali?uam partem recte intelligere potest ante?uam totum
perlegit% No o&e *a& properl) u&%ersta&% a part u&til he has rea% the whole! 4 @oke <ep!
79!
5! &octrinal! >e*isio& $ase% o& pre'aili&g pra*ti*es or opi&io&s of legal professio&als+
mai&l) legislati'e+ e-e*uti'e+ or ,u%i*ial precedents+ a**or%i&g to the meta-%o*tri&e of
stare decisis+ whi*h treats the pri&*iples a**or%i&g to whi*h *ourt %e*isio&s ha'e $ee&
ma%e as &ot merel) advisory $ut as normative! Some "ati& ma-ims are8 Argumentum D
simili valet in lege% #& argume&t from a like *ase a'ails i& law! @oke+ "ittleto&+ 191!
Consuetudo et communis assuetudo %%% interpretatur legem scriptam* si le@ sit generalis%
@ustom a&% *ommo& usage !!! i&terpret the writte& law+ if it $e ge&eral! 9e&k! @e&t! 274!
Cursus curiE est le@ curiE% 6he pra*ti*e of the *ourt is the law of the *ourt! 4 Buls! 74!
Fudiciis posteriori.us fides est adhi.enda% @re%it is to $e gi'e& to the latest %e*isio&s! 14
@oke 15! Res ;udicata pro veritate accipitur% # thi&g a%,u%i*ate% is re*ei'e% as true!
@oke+ "ittleto&+ 104!
7! rudential! >e*isio& $ase% o& fa*tors e-ter&al to the law or i&terests of the parties i& the
*ase+ su*h as the *o&'e&ie&*e of o'er$ur%e&e% offi*ials+ effi*ie&*) of go'er&me&tal
operatio&s+ a'oi%a&*e of stimulati&g more *ases+ or respo&se to politi*al pressure! G&e
su*h *o&si%eratio&+ a'oi%a&*e of %istur$i&g a sta$le $o%) of pra*ti*es+ is also the mai&
moti'atio& for the %o*tri&al metho%! It also i&*lu%es su*h *o&si%eratio&s as whether a
*ase is /ripe/ for %e*isio&+ or whether lesser or a%mi&istrati'e reme%ies ha'e first $ee&
e-hauste%! # "ati& ma-im is #oni ;udicis est lites dirimere% 6he %ut) of a goo% ,u%ge is to
pre'e&t litigatio&! 5 @oke 17!
6! 'Cuitable! #lso *alle% ethical! >e*isio& $ase% o& a& i&&ate se&se of ,usti*e+ $ala&*i&g
the i&terests of the parties+ a&% what is right a&% wro&g+ regar%less of what the writte&
law might pro'i%e! Gfte& resorte% to i& *ases i& whi*h the fa*ts were &ot a%e.uatel)
a&ti*ipate% or pro'i%e% for $) the lawgi'ers! Some s*holars put 'arious $ala&*i&g tests of
i&terests a&% 'alues i& the pru%e&tial *ategor)+ $ut it works $etter to %isti&guish $etwee&
prudential as $ala&*i&g the i&terests a&% 'alues of the legal s)stem from e?uita.le as
$ala&*i&g the i&terests a&% 'alues of the parties! It arises out of the "ati& ma-im+ G?uitas
est perfecta ?uEdam ratio ?uE ;us scriptum interpretatur et emendat5 nulla scriptura
comprehensa* sed sola ratione consistens% 1.uit) is a sort of perfe*t reaso& whi*h
i&terprets a&% ame&%s writte& lawJ *omprehe&%e% i& &o *o%e+ $ut *o&siste&t with reaso&
alo&e! @oke+ "ittleto&+ 25!
7! )atural! >e*isio& $ase% o& what is re.uire% or a%'ise% $) the laws of &ature+ or perhaps
of huma& &ature+ a&% o& what is ph)si*all) or e*o&omi*all) possi$le or pra*ti*al+ or o&
what is a*tuall) likel) to o**ur! 6his has its origi& i& su*h a&*ie&t "ati& ma-ims as8 Fura
naturE sunt immuta.ilia% 6he laws of &ature are u&*ha&gea$le! 9a*o$! 64! )mpossi.ilium
nulla o.ligatio est% 6here is &o o$ligatio& to %o impossi$le thi&gs! >! 70+ 17+ 187! Le@
non cogit ad impossi.ilia% 6he law %oes &ot *ompel the impossi$le! o$! 96! Le@
neminem cogit ad vana seu inutilia peragenda% 6he law re.uires &o o&e to %o 'ai& or
useless thi&gs! 7 @oke 21! Legi.us sumptis desinenti.us* lege naturE utendum est% "aws
of the state faili&g+ we must a*t $) the law of &ature! 2 <ol! <ep! 98!
Gf these+ o&l) the first three+ te-tual+ histori*al+ a&% fu&*tio&al+ are metho%s of i&terpreti&g or
*o&stru*ti&g the written constitution of government+ a&% the histori*al a&% fu&*tio&al metho%s
ma) $e more a matter of *o&stru*tio& tha& i&terpretatio&! 6he last+ &atural+ is *o&stru*tio& (&ot
i&terpretatio&) of the u&writte& constitution of nature+ or the u&writte& constitution of society+
whi*h form a hierar*h) of authorit)+ with the *o&stitutio& of &ature superior to the *o&stitutio& of
so*iet)+ a&% the *o&stitutio& of so*iet) superior to the writte& *o&stitutio& of go'er&me&t! 6he
%o*tri&al+ pru%e&tial+ a&% e.uita$le metho%s are &ot i&terpretio& or *o&stru*tio& of a&) of these
*o&stitutio&s+ although ,u%ges ofte& *laim the) are! 6here is a& misgui%e% te&%e&*) amo&g
mo%er& ,u%ges to misreprese&t what are esse&tiall) pru%e&tial or e.uita$le %e*isio&s as
*o&stitutio&al *o&stru*tio&s! 6oo ma&) law)ers are *ompli*it i& this $) *asti&g what are
esse&tiall) pru%e&tial or e.uita$le argume&ts i&to *o&stitutio&al terms! 6here is &othi&g
i&here&tl) wro&g with maki&g pru%e&tial or e.uita$le %e*isio&s! 6he E!S! @o&stitutio& *o&fers
$oth law a&% e.uit) ,uris%i*tio&s o& fe%eral *ourts+ as %o the state *o&stitutio&s! 6he pro$lem
*omes with treati&g su*h %e*isio&s as esta$lishi&g pre*e%e&ts+ espe*iall) $i&%i&g o&es! It is o&e
thi&g to treat a %e*isio& as a pre*e%e&t that *larifies some am$iguit) i& the *o&stitutio&+ $ut .uite
a&other to esse&tiall) i&sert a pru%e&tial or e.uita$le %e*isio& i&to the *o&stitutio& as a ki&% of
ame&%me&t! Su*h %e*isio&s must &ot *o&fli*t with *o&stitutio&s or *o&stitutio&al statutes+ $ut
ofte& %o! >o*tri&al a&% pru%e&tial %e*isio&s are more trou$lesome! 6he %o*tri&al metho% ma) $e
*ompati$le with the writte& *o&stitutio& of go'er&me&t if it merel) i&'ol'es *larifi*atio&s of
am$iguities i& the origi&al te-t+ $ut &ot whe& those %o*tri&es %epart from origi&al legal
u&%ersta&%i&g+ as the) sometimes %o!
213
6he pru%e&tial metho% ma) $e ,ustifia$le as &e*essar) to
ha&%le large *aseloa%s+ $ut ofte& &egle*t to re&%er ,usti*e i& parti*ular *ases+ espe*iall) whe&
the) i&'ol'e a'oi%a&*e of *o&tro'ers) rather tha& a %esire to settle all issues $rought $efore the
*ourt!
;ithi& these metho%s+ we *a&+ $) stu%) of the writi&gs of the Aou&%ers+ a&% the writi&gs the)
rea%+ eli*it su*h pri&*iples for i&terpreti&g or *o&stru*ti&g the @o&stitutio& for the E&ite% States
as the followi&g8
1! The Constitution is the written document! #lthough it ma) $e *o&si%ere% to i&*lu%e
the u&%ersta&%i&gs of its wor%s as of the time of ratifi*atio&+ it %oes &ot i&*lu%e the
su$se.ue&t $o%) of pra*ti*es or pre*e%e&ts upo& whi*h *o&stitutio&al %e*isio&s might $e
$ase%+ whi*h ma) or ma) &ot $e *o&siste&t with it+ or authori?e% $) it! 6he writte&
%o*ume&t refers to itself as /this @o&stitutio&/+ a&% pro'i%es for o&l) four metho%s $)
whi*h it ma) $e ame&%e%+ all of whi*h appl) o&l) to the writte& %o*ume&t!
2! The authority for pro!isions of the Constitution is the ratifications and state
admissions! @urre&t *o&se&t or a*.uies*e&*e+ or la*k thereof+ to the @o&stitutio& or a&)
pra*ti*e+ %oes &ot affe*t the origi&al *o&stituti'e a*ts+ a&% has &o authorit)+ u&less
e-presse% through a%optio& of ame&%me&ts as pro'i%e% i& #rti*le H!
4! ro!isions of the Constitution are mutually consistent! 6here are &o i&ter&al logi*al
*o&tra%i*tio&s+ e-*ept that a pro'isio& of a& ame&%me&t i&*o&siste&t with a pre'ious
pro'isio& superse%es that pro'isio&!
5! )one of the words are without force and effect, eBcept those superseded by
amendments, unless such amendments are repealed! 1-*ept for the stateme&t of
purpose i& the pream$le+ e'er) wor% was i&te&%e% $) the Aramers to $e legall)
&ormati'e+ a&% &ot ,ust a%'isor)+ %e*larator)+ aspiratio&al+ or e-hortator)! (er.a intelligi
ut ali?uid operantur de.ent% ;or%s shoul% $e i&terprete% to gi'e them some effe*t!
7! %ights and powers are complementary! 1'er) right re*og&i?e% $) the @o&stitutio& is
a& immu&it)+ that is+ a right agai&st a positi'e a*tio& $) go'er&me&t+ a&% is e.ui'ale&t to
a restri*tio& o& %elegate% powers! @o&'ersel)+ e'er) %elegate% power is a restri*tio& o&
immu&ities! #& immu&it) ma) $e e-presse% either as a %e*laratio& of the right+ or as a
restri*tio& o& powers!
6! There are no redundancies within the original unamended Constitution! owe'er+
ame&%me&ts ma) $e alter&ati'e wa)s of e-pressi&g e.ui'ale&t *o&te&t i& the origi&al
u&ame&%e% @o&stitutio& or pre'ious ame&%me&ts! :ore spe*ifi*all)+ the Bill of <ights
a%%e% &o &ew *o&te&t &ot impli*it i& the origi&al u&ame&%e% @o&stitutio&+ e-*ept the
twe&t) %ollar rule of the Se'e&th #me&%me&t!
7! The Constitution was intended to define a functionally complete and harmonious
system! 6hat %oes &ot mea&+ howe'er+ that all powers a&)o&e might thi&k the &atio& or
a&) $ra&*h+ le'el+ offi*e or %epartme&t shoul% ha'e+ were a*tuall) %elegate%!
8! "riginal "intent" is functional, not moti!ational! 6he pri'ate moti'es of the Aramers
or Aou&%ers are irrele'a&t a&% largel) u&k&owa$le+ a&% likel) to ha'e $ee& %i'erse! 6he
*ommo& law rule of i&terpretatio& u&%erstoo% $) the Aou&%ers was to %is*er& the
fu&*tio&al role of eleme&ts of the law+ &ot the pri'ate purposes of the lawgi'ers!
9! The ratification debates are the best e!idence of original understanding! 6he
argume&ts of those oppose% to ratifi*atio& are &ot ,ust the positio&s of the losers i& the
%e$ates+ whi*h some might %ismiss as &ot i&%i*ati'e of origi&al u&%ersta&%i&g! #s the
%e$ates pro*ee%e%+ u&%ersta&%i&gs e'ol'e% a&% *larifie%+ a&% positio&s *ha&ge%! :ost
oppo&e&ts were satisfie% $) a%optio& of a Bill of <ights+ a&% $) assura&*es $) the
propo&e&ts *o&*er&i&g how the wor%s of the @o&stitutio& woul% $e i&terprete%+ a&% those
assura&*es must $e *o&si%ere% part of the origi&al u&%ersta&%i&g! 6hat mea&s that a
*o&stru*tio& to whi*h the more sig&ifi*a&t /a&ti-fe%eralists/ woul% o$,e*t is almost
*ertai&l) i&*orre*t!
10! owers are narrow, rights broad! 6he e&tire theme a&% te&or of the ratifi*atio& %e$ates
was that %elegate% powers were to $e i&terprete% as stri*tl) as possi$le+ *o&siste&t with
the wor%s+ a&% rights as $roa%l) as possi$le+ with the presumptio& i& fa'or of the right+
a&% the $ur%e& of proof o& those *laimi&g a power! Potestas stricte interpretatur% # power
is stri*tl) i&terprete%! )n du.iis* non prEsumitur pro potentia% I& *ases of %ou$t+ the
presumptio& is &ot i& fa'or of a power!
11! &elegated powers cannot be subdelegated! 6he E!S! @o&stitutio& 'ests all legislati'e
powers i& @o&gress+ a&% all ,u%i*ial powers i& the Supreme @ourt a&% i&ferior *ourts+
e-*ept as spe*ifi*all) e-presse%! 1-e*uti'e $ra&*h offi*ials ma) su$%elegate $ut must
remai& respo&si$le for the a*tio&s of their su$or%i&ates! 6here *a& $e &o authorit)
e-er*ise% that is &ot a**ou&ta$le through *o&stitutio&al offi*ials!9elegata potestas non
potest delegari% # %elegate% power *a&&ot $e %elegate%! 9 I&st! 797!
12! The power to regulate is not the power to prohibit all modalities of something! It is
o&l) the power to issue pres*riptio&s to /make regular/+ e&for*ea$le o&l) $) %epri'atio&s
of propert) or pri'ileges+ &ot of life+ lim$+ or li$ert)! 6here must alwa)s $e some
mo%alit) that is &ot prohi$ite%!
14! #mplied powers are only to "carry into 'Becution" an eBpressed power and not to
do whate!er is necessary to achie!e the intent for which a power might be eBercised!
>elegatio& of a power is %elegatio& of the right to make a *ertai& ki&% of effort+ &ot to %o
whate'er is &e*essar) to get a %esire% out*ome!
15! There can be no common law crimes! 6he) are i& *o&fli*t with the prohi$itio&s o& e@
post facto laws a&% $ills of attai&%er!
17! %ights may not be disabled or unduly burdened by legislati!e or eBecuti!e process!
/>ue/ pro*ess is ,u%i*ial o&l)+ i&'ol'i&g the gra&ti&g of a petitio& to %isa$le a right of the
%efe&%a&t+ with the $ur%e& of proof o& the plai&tiff or prose*utor+ a&% with the %efe&%a&t
ha'i&g at least those mi&imum prote*tio&s that pre'aile% %uri&g the Aou&%i&g! with
similar %isa$leme&ts ha'i&g similar sta&%ar%s of proof a&% prote*tio&!
16! There is no right without a remedy! C.i ;us i.i remedium% 6here must alwa)s $e a&
a**essi$le forum i& whi*h a *omplai&a&t has oyer a&% terminer for a&) petitio&!
17! The (ounders were learning! /Grigi&al mea&i&g/ is &ot ,ust a$out what the Aou&%ers
*o&s*iousl) mea&t at the mome&t of ratifi*atio&+ $ut i&*lu%es what the) woul% %is*o'er
with further stu%) of the legal tra%itio& the) i&'oke% i& the wor%s the) *hose! 6hus+ the)
referre% to authors like Bla*ksto&e a&% @oke whe& the) were u&sure what the) mea&t+
a&% so must we!
18! 'arly practice indicati!e but not dispositi!e! 1arl) pra*ti*e $) the Aou&%ers ma)
pro'i%e e'i%e&*e of their aspiratio&s i& the wor%s the) *hose+ $ut shoul% &ot $e regar%e%
as perfe*t e-pressio&s of their i&te&t! Bra*ti*e *a& represe&t *ompromise with pra*ti*al
*o&*er&s a&% ma) lag $ehi&% the i%eals *o&tai&e% i& the wor%s!
19! /ental models of mental models! 1a*h of us has a me&tal mo%el of the worl% that
i&*lu%es a mo%el of the me&tal mo%els others ha'e of the worl%! @ommu&i*atio& is
possi$le o&l) to the e-te&t that our me&tal mo%els of the me&tal mo%els of others are
somehow a**urate or *o&grue&t! ;he& a lawgi'er issues a law+ a *omma&% to others for
future *omplia&*e+ he is rel)i&g o& others to u&%ersta&% his wor%s the wa) he %oes+ a&%
those others are rel)i&g o& him to use wor%s with the mea&i&gs the) ha'e for them! But
wor%s are a& imperfe*t wa) to *o&'e) mea&i&gs+ a&% if the re*ipie&t of the *omma&%
*a&&ot i&terrogate the lawgi'er for his mea&i&g+ he must tr) to impro'e his me&tal mo%el
of the lawgi'er(s me&tal mo%el $) su*h mea&s as lear&i&g to a**uratel) pre%i*t what the
lawgi'er will write a$out matters the re*ipie&t has &ot pre'iousl) rea%!
20! (ind the right le!el of abstraction! It was *ommo& for the Aou&%ers to use somewhat
more *o&*rete wor%s to mea& $roa%er pri&*iples! 6hus+ /press/ or /arms/ is &ot limite% to
the te*h&olog) of the time+ $ut refers to the ge&eral fu&*tio& the) ser'e%! /:ilitia/ %oes
&ot mea& merel) those legall) o$lige% to respo&% to a& offi*ial *all-up+ $ut %efe&se
a*ti'it) ge&erall)!
Three approaches
;e ha'e three mai& approa*hes to i&terpretatio& or *o&stru*tio&8
1! Seek origi&al i&te&t+ or what the lawgi'er hope% the wor%s woul% a**omplish+ whi*h i&
tur& *a& $e %i'i%e% i&to8
1! :oti'atio&al i&te&t
2! Au&*tio&al i&te&t
2! Seek origi&al pu$li* (legal) mea&i&g of the lawgi'er!
4! Ese the (*ommo& law) rules of i&terpretatio& a**epte% $) the lawgi'ers!
6he pro$lem with the origi&al metho%s approa*h is to i%e&tif) a&% state su*h metho%s+ whi*h at
the time of the Aou&%i&g were mostl) &ot e-pli*it+ $ut a& art pra*ti*e% $) law)ers a&% ,u%ges+
somethi&g the) lear&e% to %o $ut pro$a$l) &ot to e-plai&+ like horse ri%i&g or ar*her)! 6he mai&
e'i%e&*e we ha'e of what the) were are the :a-ims+ some of whi*h are liste% here!
It is importa&t to keep i& mi&% that the mea&i&g we seek is &ot our mea&i&g+ $ut the mea&i&g the
wor%s ha% for the lawgi'ers+ to the e-te&t we *a& %is*er& what what was+ a&% that it was the
pu$li* legal mea&i&g+ &ot the la) mea&i&g of the streets! 6hat is reall) a %iffere&t la&guage+ the&
as &ow!
It is o&l) importa&t to fo*us o& those wor%s a&% phrases+ a$out 80+ that prese&t the i&terpretati'e
pro$lems! :ost of the @o&stitutio& %oes &ot! 6here are 74 i& the origi&al @o&stitutio&+ 25 i& the
Bill of <ights+ a&% 4 i& the later ame&%me&ts+ although others might *ou&t them %iffere&tl)! 6he)
are highlighte% here! 6hat is a small &um$er+ whi*h it shoul% $e possi$le to thoroughl) a&%
*a&o&i*all) e-plore a&% %is*o'er the origi&al pu$li* legal mea&i&gs of through histori*al
li&guisti* resear*h+ a&% prese&t our reports to ,u%ges so the) %o&(t ha'e to $e*ome e-pert legal
historia&s! If we were to $ear %ow& o& *he*ki&g off e'er) o&e of those+ we might e'e&tuall)
settle most of the i&terpretati'e %isputes+ or at least u&til someo&e fou&% more histori*al
e'i%e&*e!