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2 - F O R T N E R
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Op-Amp Parameters
Input Impedance
Impedance is calculated on one input when the other is ground.
Equal to transistor base/gate impedance with feedback.
Bipolar input (741) - 2 M.
JFET input (TL071) - 10
12
.
v
in
V
out

+
v
+
v
-
i
in
Z
in
v
in
i
in
------- =
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Input Current
Bias current = common-mode input current, I
B
= (I
+
+ I
-
)/2.
The bias current causes a voltage drop across the feedback resistor.
Typical values: Bipolar 10-100 nA, FET 10-100 pA.
With small feedback resistors, bias current can be neglected.
Offset current = differential-mode input current, I
B
= (I
+
- I
-
)/2.
Typical values: I
io
= 0.1I
B
to 0.5I
B
.
A
0
v
in
v
out
i
in
R
i
R
f
i
in
- I
B
i
-
v
out

+
v
+
v
-
i
+
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Output Impedance
Intrinsic output impedance is measured with no feedback.
Operational voltage feedback reduces the output impedance.
The output impedance is: Z
out
= v
th
/ i
s
.
The thevenin output voltage is: v
th
= -i
in
R
f
.
With v
out
shorted to ground, v
A
= i
in
R
f
.
Internally the voltage drop is i
s
Z
out
= A
0
v
A
= A
0
i
in
R
f
.
V
CC
v
1
v
out
= A
0
(v
1
- v
2
)
V
EE
v
2
Z
in
Z
out
A
0
v
in
v
out
i
in
R
i
R
f
i
in
v
A
Z
out
Z'
out
i
in
R
f
A
0
i
in
R
f
Z
out

---------------------------------
Z
out

A
0
------------- = =
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Voltage Gain
Typical A
0
= 10
4
to 10
6
, = 80 to 120 dB.
Gain is a function of frequency.
Open-loop gain is measured with no feedback. Closed-loop includes
the feedback , so the gain is limited by the feedback resistor.
Op-amps act like low-pass RC filters, including a phase shift at the
break frequency f
B
.
Typical maximum frequency is f
T
= 0.1 to 10 MHz.
For a compensated op-amp, f
B
= f
T
/ A.
log A
0
log f
open-loop
closed-loop
BODE PLOT
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Common Mode Gain
Typical CMRR = A
0
/ A
CM
= 60 to 120 dB.
Corresponding gain makes A
CM
on the order of 1.
Input bias current adds to common-mode gain, but can be corrected.
The bias current is pulled into the inverting input through both R
1
and
R
2
. If R
3
is equal to the parallel equivalent of R
1
and R
2
the voltage
drops will cancel.
Offset Voltage
If v
+
= v
-
, then v
out
usually saturates to V
CC
or V
EE
.
The difference V
io
= v
+
- v
-
needed for v
out
= 0.
Typical values are 0.1 to 10 mV, with temperature dependence 1 to 10
V/ C.
Precision op-amps have V
io
on the order of 10 V with temperature
dependence less than 1 V/ C.
V
in
V
out

+
R
1
R
2
V
+
V
-
I
2
I
1
R
3

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Slew Rate
Slew rate measures the speed that the op-amp can respond to a
changing input voltage.
Typical S = 1 to 10 V/s. High-speed op-amps have S = 100 to 1000
V/s.
An input sine wave with = 2f and amplitude A
has a maximum slope
The peak-to-peak voltage must be less than S/f.
Slew rate is particularly important in digital applications - square-
waves with rapid voltage changes.
A t cos
A 2Af =
V
p-p
log f
1/f
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Op-Amp Circuits
Op-Amps with Negative Operational Feedback
Op-amps have very high input impedance, so the input current is
nearly zero. For most circuits it can be treated as equal to zero
compared to other currents in the citcuit.
Op-amps have very large gain. Circuits that use negative operational
feedback take advantage of the large gain and feedback to keep both
input voltages at the same value compared to other voltages in the
circuit.
Two Rules for Op-amp Circuits
1. I
+
= I
-
= 0. The input currents are 0.
2. V
+
- V
-
= 0. The input voltage difference is 0.
V
out

+
feedback
V
in
V
in+
non-inv.
inverting
V
+
V

I
+
I

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General Steps for Analysis
Find the voltage at the non-inverting input and use rule two to assign
that same voltage to the inverting input.
Find the current flowing at the inverting input from any voltage
source.
Use rule one to send all the current at an input flowing into the
feedback network
Use the current through the feedback network to find a voltage drop to
the output.
The non-inverting, inverting and feedback networks can be complex
impedances, semiconductors, or other active components.
V
out

+
feedback
V
in-
V
in+
non-inv.
inverting
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Inverting Amplifier
Use a resistor for input and feedback.
From the op-amp current rule, since I

= 0, I
1
= I
2
.
From the op-amp voltage rule, since V
+
= 0, V

= 0.
Ohms law gives I
1
= V
in
/R
1
and V
out
= I
1
R
2
.
The gain for the amplifier is
Input impedance, v
-
is a virtual ground:
Output impedance using operational feedback
V
in
V
out

+
R
1
R
2
V
+
V
-
I
2
I
1
A
V
out
V
in
-----------
R
2
R
1
--------- = =
Z
in
R
1
=
Z'
out
Z
out

A
0
------------- 1 =
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Non-inverting Amplifier
Use the positive input for the signal to get positive gain.
From the op-amp voltage rule, since V
+
= V
in
, V

= V
in
.
From the op-amp current rule, since I

= 0, I
1
= I
2
.
Ohms law gives I
1
= V
in
/R
1
and V
out
= I
1
R
2
+ V
in
.
The gain for the amplifier is
Input impedance based on op-amp only
Output impedance again uses operational feedback
V
in
V
out
+

R
1
R
2
V
+
V
-
I
2
I
1
A
V
out
V
in
-----------
I
1
R
2
I
1
R
1
+
I
1
R
1
-----------------------------
R
1
R
2
+
R
1
------------------- 1
R
2
R
1
------ + = = = =
Z
in
10
8 12
>
Z'
out
Z
out

A
0
------------- 1 =