Not In Kind Refrigeration alternatives

Paper prepared as part of submission to UK Draft Climate

Change Strategy, 2000 by:
Nicholas Cox, Managing Director, Earthcare Products Ltd
2
Earthcare Products Limited
Conbar House
Mead Lane
Hertford
SG13 7AP
United Kingdom
Tel: +44(0) 1992 551930
Fax: +44(0) 1992 558023
Email: sales@earthcareproducts.co.uk
Web: www.earthcareproducts.co.uk
Earthcare Products Ltd was created as a direct result of the demands of industrial and
commercial users for expert and impartial advice, procurement, and facilities management for
environmentally friendly refrigeration and air conditioning. Since Earthcare Products joined
the Sancroft Group in 1997, it has increasingly been regarded as the leading supplier of
environmentally friendly refrigeration and air conditioning technology in the UK. The
companys origins go back to the Managing Directors decision to mount a "greenfreeze"
project by converting his own office heat pump air conditioning unit from HCFC 22 to
propane. That was back in April 1994, before the launch of commercial brands of refrigerant
grade hydrocarbons. Earthcare leads in the use of natural refrigerants to provide businesses
with cost effective, energy efficient systems whilst causing no ozone depletion and the
minimum of global warming. Entirely independent of manufacturers or producers, Earthcare
is free to recommend the most effective and dependable solutions to clients, amongst which
are now numbered some of the worlds most respected names.
3
Introduction
Earthcare Products Ltd has never used synthetic refrigerants such as HFCs. We
satisfy our clients cooling requirements in an energy efficient manner using only
natural refrigerants and NIK technologies such as hydrocarbons (HCs), ammonia, and
absorption. In recognition of the fact that others do not yet feel able to follow our
lead we accept that HFCs have a role to play in facilitating the early phaseout of CFCs
and HCFCs but feel that they are at best only medium term interim solutions.
We believe that we should be working towards longer-term phaseout of HFCs, whilst
minimising their impact in the meantime. Containment has a crucial role to play in
minimising the environmental impact of HFCs, but was not deemed to be a valid
solution to the CFC and HCFC problems, and therefore cannot be deemed to be a
valid long-term solution to the HFC problem.
In 1995, the IPCC made the decision to exclude all substances covered by the
Montreal Protocol from the global warming figures. As a result, the quoted global
warming from halocarbons dropped from 10% to 3%. This does not reflect the
environmental acceptability of HFCs, but rather our continued reliance on substances
covered by the Montreal Protocol.
At the height of CFC emissions from all sources they accounted for about 24% of
manmade global warming. Improved working practices and the switch to lower GWP
HCFCs have resulted in a significant improvement. However, most of the good news
is already in the figures. HFCs have higher GWPs than HCFCs and therefore a move
in this direction, at a time when we are trying to expand the market for cooling into
private cars and domestic dwellings, will make it difficult to comply with global
warming abatement targets.
Most of the global warming abatement measures focus on the top three gases.
Increasing attention to the HFC issue is the most likely consequence when it is
realised that halocarbons are still a more significant source of global warming than
NOx, when the gases covered by the Montreal Protocol are taken into account.
We have been set the objective of achieving a 12.5% reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions by the year 2012. We have also agreed to achieve demonstrable progress
towards achieving this target by 2005.
4
The NIK Systems Compared
1. Absorption
Superficially, the market for gas-fired absorption refrigeration looks good. Instead of CFCs, ammonia
and water or water and lithium bromide are used. Absorption chillers have few moving parts and
therefore lower maintenance costs. They can also use natural gas as their fuel when it is more
competitively priced than electricity. In practice, however, absorption refrigeration still has some
serious problems to overcome. Although large users of electricity may be able to negotiate favourable
tariffs directly from the electricity generators, absorption systems are inherently inefficient; with
typical COPS of only 0.4 for single effect cycles and a maximum of 0.74 for double effect. It is often
found that the electrical vapour compression option offers the lowest running costs and the electrical
option almost invariably offers lower capital costs. There is also a wider range of electrically driven
equipment on the market.
However, the economics for absorption refrigeration look much more favourable when coupled with a
combined heat and power (CHP) system. By combining the on-site generation of electricity with the
provision of refrigeration, heating and hot water services, combined heat power and refrigeration
(CHPR) systems provide a total energy service which can dramatically reduce overall running costs
Illustration
Principle of Combined Heat, Power and Refrigeration
Exhaust to
Atmosphere
Natural Gas
Air
Gas Engine Alternator
Electricity
Heat Recovered from
Engine and Exhaust
Hot Water
Chiller
By applying detailed knowledge and some very effective software it is possible to identify where
absorption is the most viable option. A typical recent example in the UK is the provision of single
packaged gas-fired chiller delivering 12kW of refrigeration as a water/glycol mix at -5
o
C. This unit is
particularly useful for chilling small cold stores, extensions and loading bays where the operator does
not wish to increase the electricity capacity of the site but in all probability will have spare gas
5
capacity. Absorption chilling is also viable when combined with air cycle refrigeration. (See next
heading.)
2. Air Cycle Refrigeration
Air-cycle refrigeration (ACR) based on the reverse Joule cycle, or Brayton cycle, was conceived in the
early 1800s and first applied as early as 1874. Since that time ACR has found a niche market
providing air-conditioned pressurised cabins for high-altitude aircraft.
Air (NIK729) has a number of special performance characteristics that are ideally suited to the cold
storage of food products
Illustration
Principle of Air Cycle Refrigeration
Carcass Chiller
Atomised Mist
Air Jet
Cooler
Cooling
Water
Expander
Compressor
Drive
Motor
For example, when chilling or freezing meat using a conventional vapour compression system, both
sensible cooling (temperature reduction) and latent cooling (dehumidification) occur. The latter causes
evaporative weight loss from the meat, which reduces its market value as meat, is generally sold by
weight. The weight loss may be worth between 20 and 50 times the cost of the energy consumed in the
cooling cycle. By using air-cycle refrigeration, supersaturated air at low temperatures can be produced,
extending the range of conditions and enabling greater overall cost savings than when using
conventional refrigeration without damaging quality. At low temperatures ACR becomes more
efficient than vapour compression alternatives and more rapid freezing rates can be attained.
Current designs for air-cycle applications based on aircraft air-conditioning do not result in the levels
of energy efficiency, which ought to be required for static systems. We therefore require modern
efficiency optimised designs. The key is to increase the amount of work recovered between the
expander and compressor. A most promising development appears to be the use of pressure wave
machines for this purpose.
The pressure wave machine has a belt-driven rotor consisting of small chambers that are located
concentrically around the shaft on a certain diameter. On the left-hand side there is the housing for the
compression side and on the right-hand side, the expansion side housing. Both housings have inlets
and outlets. When the rotor is turning, the chambers pass the inlets and outlets. Compressed air
passing the compressor inlet is expanded, giving its energy to the air that is to be compressed. This
direct contact energy transmission works with very few losses.
It is possible to make use of the very high-grade heat of rejection from air-cycle plant operating on a
low temperature application to drive an absorption chiller providing chilled water for higher
6
temperature applications on the same site. The combined operation becomes highly efficient and cost-
effective.
3. Water Vapour
Water vapour (NIK718) as a refrigerant is utilised in vacuum ice generation. This process requires no
evaporator or condenser. A centrifugal compressor is used to subject a flash vessel containing water to
a sub-atmospheric pressure of 0.0061 bar. Flash evaporation occurs, producing a suspension of
microscopic ice crystals in water known as binary ice
Illustration
Principle of A Vacuum Ice Machine
Vapour
Binary Ice Outlet
Compressor
Mechanical
or Thermal
Energy
Cooling
Water
Condensate Out
Condensor
Non-
Condensable
Gases
This vacuum process yields excellent COPS unmatched by any other refrigeration cycle. The
compressor vapour is liquefied by spraying cooling water directly into an empty condenser vessel,
thereby avoiding the heat exchanger completely. The ice/water slurry can be used in place of chilled
water or stored overnight in an ice bank for use the following day.
Due to the very low volumetric capacity of water vapour refrigerant, the compressors used in this cycle
are physically very large and to date have only been used for cooling capacities in excess of 760 kW,
although systems as small as 500 kW are available. This process should be given serious consideration
for very large chilled water applications.
Recent developments in ejector technology may lead to a new generation of heat driven cooling
equipment using lower temperature heat sources than absorption for example. This could give rise to
simple low cost solar powered air conditioning small enough for the domestic market. The potential
market in the Mediterranean region in particular is enormous.
4. Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide (NIK744) has been called the forgotten refrigerant; it was commonly used in the last
century but fell out of favour in the 1930s. Recent developments suggest that the time is now right for
its reapplication with modern technology.
7
As well as being environmentally friendly, carbon dioxide is both non-toxic and non-flammable, and
therefore has advantages over both ammonia and the hydrocarbons. Furthermore, it is inexpensive and
compatible with normal equipment and lubricants. Its relatively high pressure is well suited to modern
equipment design and gives a dramatic reduction in compressor volumes and pipe dimensions. Its
excellent heat transfer characteristics at high pressure are yet another advantage. All this should lead to
a considerable reduction in equipment cost when a reasonable production volume is attained.
Making use of the special properties of NIK744, it is possible to achieve the glide in temperature,
which is required in applications such as central plant rooms with remote and diversified cooling loads.
The high-pressure differential and relatively small flash-gas volume allow the recovery of the
expansion energy in a compact expander.
Systems using NIK744 have been developed for commercial refrigeration with heat recovery. They
have the advantage of very simple controls and robust evaporator liquid supply. Running costs are well
below those of conventional plant with heat recovery, providing there is a reasonable hot water demand
on site. This is due to better compressor and cooler efficiency and because water temperatures
approaching 100
o
C can be achieved without artificially raising condensing temperatures.
A perceived drawback of carbon dioxide is its relatively low critical temperature of 31
o
C. For most
applications this therefore implies a transcritical refrigeration process. Transcritical refrigeration is
loved by refrigeration academics but largely shunned by refrigeration contractors on the grounds that
they do not really understand what is going on. In fact, transcritical cycles operating on NIK744 in the
pressure range 90-100bar are especially efficient at hard-working conditions with low heat source
temperatures and high condensing temperatures.
Is NIK744 the miracle refrigerant that we have been waiting for? Unfortunately, very few compressor
manufacturers supply units for operating pressures in the region of 100bar. The problem may be
overcome by using a blend of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons. The carbon dioxide reduces the
problem of flammability and the hydrocarbons reduce the problem of high-pressure level. To achieve
this the carbon dioxide has to be mixed with hydrocarbons with significantly lower vapour pressure.
This leads to a high temperature glide, which can be used to advantage. Isobutane (HC600A) and also
propanone (acetone) have been proposed for this application.
5. Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons have very similar physical properties to CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs, however they have
zero ozone depleting potential and minimal global warming potential. Hydrocarbons may be used as
substitutes and in many cases as direct drop in replacements for CFC12, CFC502 and HCFC22. There
are no particular material problems and hydrocarbons are compatible with traditional mineral oil
lubricants. Generalisation of mineral oil/hydrocarbon mixture viscosity suggests that an ISO grade
mineral oil 22 to 32 will best match present viscosities. Plant operating with hydrocarbons has been in
operation worldwide for many years, they are proven refrigerants. Due to favourable temperature
behaviour, single stage compressors can be used down to minus 49
0
C using hydrocarbons. Energy
efficiency is invariably improved when hydrocarbons are used in place of traditional halocarbons.
With regards to a CFC12 replacement, the single component hydrocarbon that most closely matches
the required physical properties is Cyclopropane (HC

C270). The trend, however, is towards using
saturated alkanes, and it has been found that a blend of 50% propane (HC290), 50% isobutane
(HC600A) gives equally good results.
For CFC502 replacement the single component choice would be Propene (HC1270), this is one of the
few hydrocarbons with a pungent smell, a useful aid to leak detection! A blend of propane and ethane
(HC170) gives equally good results using saturated alkanes.
HCFC22 could be replaced with propane, although this would result in a slight capacity reduction
when used as a drop in. When a blend of propane and ethane is used, there is no capacity reduction.
The hydrocarbons outperform traditional halocarbon refrigerants in all aspects other than one, namely
flammability. It is this one single issue which has to date prevented their widespread adoption. This is
not entirely logical as hydrocarbons are extensively used in industry. Mains gas is used as boiler fuel
8
and the higher hydrocarbons are used as fuel for vehicles. Furthermore, aerosols are stored in dry
goods stores without undue problems.
The use of hydrocarbon refrigerants involves risk, although it is possible to understand the risks,
identify mitigating strategies, and further consider how the risks can be managed. In the UK, risk
analysis should be carried out under the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994,
(C.D.M.), which came into effect on 31st March 1995.
The UK legislation introduces two specific activities: To develop a health & safety plan, and maintain a
health & safety file. Health & Safety responsibilities placed on the client include the obligation to
appoint a competent planning supervisor who will obviously need to be familiar with flammable
refrigerants. More specific guidance can be obtained from the European standard EN378 covering the
safety and environmental aspects of the design, construction and installation of refrigerating appliances
and systems.
Ammonia
Ammonia is the only one of the original refrigerants that was able to stand up to the onslaught from the
halocarbons. It has been used for decades in industrial refrigeration plants, and its continued popularity
throughout the CFC era amply demonstrates its unique benefits.
It has no ozone depletion potential and no global warming potential. Its energy efficiency is at least as
good as, and in most applications better than, HCFC22.
There are however, a number of drawbacks. The high compressor discharge temperature restricts the
use of single stage compression to evaporating temperatures above -10
0
C, unless screw compressors
are utilised. Ammonia is not compatible with conventional lubricants and is highly corrosive to
copper. It cannot therefore be used with hermetic or semi-hermetic compressors unless aluminium
windings are used, and leakage from shaft seals is difficult to eliminate.
A Japanese manufacturer claims to have overcome the shaft seal problem by using an airtight can
between the motors rotor and stator. No seal is needed, and it is said to be possible to completely
prevent leakage of ammonia.
The developments of ammonia soluble lubricants now allow fully automated operation and direct
expansion evaporators. These will be very similar to HCFC22 systems, although pipework and
materials will be predominantly mild steel, stainless steel, and to a lesser extent, aluminium.
The ammonia industry has an excellent opportunity to increase its market share and to grow into a
major industrial activity. It is apparent that user industries are on the threshold of making major policy
decisions, and they need to be persuaded to consider ammonia as their preferred refrigerant.
The question is when and how quickly will the ammonia refrigeration industry change into a major
global industrial player in the market sectors which have been lost to halocarbons?
There is an urgent need to embark on a sophisticated strategic plan for the promotion and wider
acceptance of ammonia technology as a valid commercial, and environmentally superior, alternative to
halocarbons.
However, it must be recognised that there are three major obstacles:
1. The halocarbon chemical industry has fought a highly successful marketing campaign for
many years and will not easily relinquish market share.
2. Any large-scale return to ammonia will be hampered by an acute skill shortage among
refrigeration engineers. Ammonia conversion courses for halocarbon engineers are expensive,
time consuming, and intellectually demanding. So far very few have made the change.
3. Finally, there are the safety issues. Ammonia is both toxic and flammable and must be kept
away from people and products. In the UK new projects will be covered by the C.D.M.
Regulations, accidents must be reported to the Health & Safety Executive, and EN378 should
be adhered to.
9
LONGER RANGE FORMS OF NIK REFRIGERATION
1. Absorption Heat Pumps and Air Conditioners
These systems use sorption modules in place of the compressor of a conventional system. Gas is
absorbed into a solid sorbent at low pressure and temperature. Energy is then used to desorb the gas at
high temperature and pressure. To provide continuous cooling, systems need to cycle between multiple
sorption modules. Practical applications include reverse cycle heat pump air conditioning units and car
air conditioning using waste heat from the engine to drive the process. Commercial equipment is just
starting to become available. Current systems utilise either hydrogen and metal hybrids or water and
zeolites. It is claimed that the systems may be up to 50% more efficient than conventional systems, and
are well suited to solar powered refrigerators and for electrical vehicle air conditioning.
2. Magnetic Heat Pumps
This is a longer-range technology based on the magneto-caloric effect. Design studies have now
progressed to prototype equipment. As high temperature superconducting materials become available,
they will spur development of magnetic refrigeration equipment. Capital costs may be high due to the
need for magnetic shielding and this would limit the technology to niche markets. Low temperature
supermarket display cases may be a viable application. Gas liquefaction, particularly hydrogen
liquifiers are another exciting industrial application. Full-scale prototypes have operated for six months
without problems, and practical magnetic heat pump air conditioners could be ready for commercial
distribution within six years. Theoretically the maximum energy efficiency of the magnetic refrigerator
is 60% compared with 40% for a commercial refrigerant. It was recently that Gadolinium - Silicon -
Germanium alloys have been developed with twice the cooling effect of pure Gadolinium, which is
used in current prototypes.
3. Thermoelectric Refrigeration
This is a solid-state technology that employs the peltier effect to cool with no moving parts. It is a
proven technology with small refrigeration systems commercially available. Efficiencies will remain
low until there is a significant improvement in materials technology. Thermoelectric cooling is being
developed for both car air conditioning and domestic refrigeration applications.
4. Thermoacoustic Refrigeration
This principal uses sound waves to compress a refrigerant. Prototypes have been developed and have
attracted interest among manufacturers. High efficiencies are potentially possible with sufficient
development. Helium will be used as the working fluid. Commercialisation is expected soon after
2000. Although the sound levels inside the system reach 180 decibels, outside it is claimed to be as
quiet as a conventional system.
5.Hydraulic Refrigeration
Prototypes have been developed and shown to be effective. Size and weight limit commercialisation
potential. Typically a 20m high, 0.3m diameter vertical pipe is required. Simple components are used
to force a falling stream of water to compress a refrigerant. This may be an attractive technology for
the developing world where there is a limited supply of skilled labour to deploy conventional systems.
Butane (HC600) will be used as the working fluid.
6. Stirling Cycle Refrigeration
The Stirling cycle is being used in cryogenic applications and in other niche uses such as space-based
applications where its performance is not affected by low gravity. A prototype domestic freezer has
been developed in the UK and is currently awaiting commercialisation. Minimum energy savings of
12% over conventional systems have been demonstrated. Development work is continuing on
prototype Stirling cycles for car air conditioning and supermarket display case applications.
7. Malone Refrigeration
Malone refrigeration uses a liquid near its critical point as a working fluid operating through a Brayton
or Stirling cycle. Analyses have shown that the theoretical efficiency of the Malone cycle is almost as
high as for the Rankine cycle. However, a good deal of applied research will be needed to reach this
potential. It is unlikely that this technology can be commercialised in the foreseeable future.
10
Refrigerants beyond the Crisis
BANNED
CFCs
High Ozone
Depletion
High Global
Warming
SHORT TERM
HCFCs
Low Ozone
Depletion
High Global
Warming
MEDIUM TERM
HFCs
Ozone Friendly
High Global
Warming
LONG TERM
NIKS
Ozone Friendly
Low Global
Warming
R11 R123
R141B
R134A
R245CA
R718 (WATER)
R12 R401A + B
R405A
R409A
R142B
R134A
R152A
R413A
R407D
R729 (AIR)
R717(AMMONIA)
R744 (CARBON
DIOXIDE)
CARE 30(HC
BLEND)
R600A
(ISOBUTANE)
RC270 (CYCLO-
PROPANE)
R13/R503 R23
R14
R508B
R170 (ETHANE)
R114 R124 R236FA R717(AMMONIA)
R744 (CARBON
DIOXIDE)
R500 R401B
R409B
R134A
R407D
R413A
R717(AMMONIA)
R744 (CARBON
DIOXIDE)
R502 R402A + B
R408A
R403A + B
R411B
R404A
R407A + B
R507
R32
R717(AMMONIA)
R744 (CARBON
DIOXIDE)
CARE 50 (HC
BLEND)
R1270 (PROPENE)
R13B1 R403B R125
R32
R410A
Isceon 89
R170 (ETHANE)
R1270 (PROPENE)
Practical drop
in replacement
refrigerants are
shown in light
italic type
R22 R407C
R410A
R32
Isceon 59
HR50
G2032
R717(AMMONIA)
R744 (CARBON
DIOXIDE)
R290 (PROPANE)
CARE 50 (HC
BLEND)