Proceedings of Combustion Institute - Canadian Section

Spring Technical Meeting

University of Windsor, Ontario
May 12-15, 2014
Determination of thermo-acoustic energy transfer in a model gas turbine
combustor using OH* chemiluminescence
Maxwell G. Adams

, Benjamin D. Geraedts

, Vincent Caux-Brisebois

, Adam M. Steinberg

University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies

4925 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario, M3H 5T6, Canada
1. Introduction and Motivation
Figure 1: Schematic of the combustor
used in the experiments, with diagnos-
tic elds of view indicated.
The pursuit of reduced NO
x
emissions in terrestrial and aerospace gas turbine engines
has led to the increased use of lean premixed (LP) combustion [1]. However, a major
obstacle in designing LP combustors is that these systems are susceptible to thermo-
acoustic oscillations. The ame, being an unsteady heat source and hence also an
acoustic source, produces pressure uctuations that, in turn, inuence the heat release
rate through a variety of possible coupling mechanisms [2, 3]. The thermo-acoustic en-
ergy transfer () resulting from these coupled oscillations is described by the Rayleigh
integral [4],
=

t
1

1
p
q

dtdv =

v
dv (1)
where q

and p

are the heat release and pressure uctuations, respectively, and v is the
combustor volume. When an appropriate phase is achieved between the ames heat
release and the uctuating acoustic eld, is positive and large-amplitude self-excited
oscillations can develop. These pressure, heat release, and ow oscillations can reduce
component lifetime and pose a threat to the structural integrity of the engine.
There are many complex mechanisms through which coupled pressure and heat-
release oscillations can develop. In many cases involving swirl-stabilized ames, it
has been shown that large-amplitude limit-cycle thermo-acoustic oscillations are asso-
ciated with the presence of a helical vortex core (HVC) that spirals around the burner
centerline and precesses around the combustor at a xed frequency [57]. Recent
research has developed a method of calculating thermo-acoustic energy transfer in
such situations based on data from high-repetition-rate stereoscopic particle image
velocimetry (S-PIV) and OH planar laser induced uorescence (PLIF) [8]. Because
the HVC precession frequency is different from the thermo-acoustic frequency, under-
standing the thermo-acoustic energy transfer processes required simultaneous consid-
eration of both the phase in the thermo-acoustic cycle and the phase in the precession
of the HVC around the combustor. It was found that periodic deformations of the HVC
over the acoustic cycle gave rise to two distinct regions of thermo-acoustic coupling: an inner coupling region (ICR) that did
not signicantly contribute to the total energy transfer, and an outer coupling region (OCR) that was primarily responsible for
thermo-acoustic energy transfer.
However, the measurements required for the aforementioned analysis are difcult to implement, data intensive, and unfea-
sible in practical high-pressure combustors. In particular, PIV and PLIF measurements require an external laser source, PIV
measurements require seeding the ow and extensive data processing to produce velocity elds, and PLIF signals decrease
at high pressure due to Doppler broadening. It therefore is desirable to establish a method for understanding and mapping
thermo-acoustic energy transfer in complex ows without the need for these complex measurements.
A more easily implemented technique for measuring the rate and distribution of heat release within a combustor is OH*
chemiluminescence (CL) measurement. In this technique, spontaneous emissions of electronically excited OH radicals (OH*)
are detected using an intensied CCD or CMOS camera. These emissions occur in high concentrations within the reaction

Undergraduate student

Graduate student, Institute for Aerospace Studies

Graduate student, Institute for Aerospace Studies

Assistant Professor, Institute for Aerospace Studies, corresponding author, steinberg@utias.utoronto.ca

zone of a ame. Unlike PIV and PLIF measurement, CL does not require an external light source, making it an easier and
cheaper alternative to laser-based diagnostics. A problem with the CL technique however is that the resulting CL images
are line-of-sight integrated rather than planar, as in PIV and PLIF. In the present study, this problem is resolved by using
tomographic reconstruction methods to deconvolve the images so that the thermo-acoustic energy characteristics can be studied.
The resultant data is used to determine the thermo-acoustic energy transfer characteristics using only high-repetition-rate OH*
chemiluminescence measurements.
2. Experiment and Diagnostics
The data analyzed in the present study was acquired in a laboratory-scale, swirl-stabilized combustor that has been the focus of
several previous studies [915] and is shown as a schematic in Fig. 1. The burner was operated in a perfectly premixed methane-
air conguration, wherein the fuel-air mixture traveled from a plenum, through a radial swirl nozzle, and into an optically
accessible rectangular combustion chamber measuring 85 85 114 mm. Flow and ame characteristics were measured at
a repetition-rate of 10 kHz using OH* CL, S-PIV, and OH PLIF, while acoustic pressure measurements were made using
calibrated microphone probes at a rate of 50 kHz.
Case P
th
, kW p

, Pa f
a
, Hz
1 0.7 20 107.4 296
2 0.7 30 149.1 314
3 0.7 35 181.9 380
Table 1: Experimental test cases.
Data was collected at multiple thermal powers (P
th
) and equivalence ratios
(). The present study focuses on three cases with operating conditions pre-
sented in Table 1, which have been shown to undergo different amplitude limit-
cycle thermo-acoustic oscillations.
The line-of-sight integrated OH* CL measurements were taken using a
CMOS camera (LaVision HSS5), an external two-stage lens-coupled intensier
(LaVision HS-IRO), and a 45mm f/1.8 UV lens (Cerco). The CL measurements
had a eld of view of 84 84 mm and a resolution of 512 512. The excited
OH* state that is responsible for producing CL has a fast decay time and hence
is only present in the reaction region of the ame. A detailed description of the PLIF and PIV measurement techniques is given
in Ref. [8].
3. Analysis techniques
3.1 Doubly-phase-resolved analysis
The thermo-acoustic energy transfer analysis in swirl stabilized ames is based on resolving the temporal dynamics of the ame
and ow with respect to both the phase in the thermo-acoustic cycle and the HVC azimuthal position in the combustor. When
both of these oscillatory processes are accounted for, highly repeatable ow-ame interactions can be observed in a reference
frame rotating with the HVC [16, 17]. The phase in the thermo-acoustic cycle was obtained from calibrated acoustic probe in
the combustion chamber. In previous studies, the azimuthal phase of the HVC was calculated from the temporal coefcient of
the highest-energy mode from a proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) analysis of the measured temporally-resolved velocity
elds, which required PIV measurements [8].
Figure 2: Comparison of frequency of CL
intensity centroid x
c
(t) and frequency of
HVC as determined by POD of velocity
data.
However, it was observed that features of the chemiluminescence eld
moved in manners that were indicative of the HVC (due to the HVC-ame in-
teraction). In particular, the HVC cycle inuenced the transverse dynamics of
the CL centroid. The temporal dynamics of the HVC therefore were detected by
temporal dynamics of the intensity-weighted CL centroid, x
c
(t). As expected,
x
c
(t) was found to be roughly sinusoidal in time for all cases.
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) of x
c
(t) was used to quantify the dynamics
of this signal. Figure 2 shows the dominant frequency in the FFTs of x
c
(t) and
the velocity eld POD for each case, plus an additional 25 kW case. In all cases,
the two frequencies were found to coincide exactly. This result demonstrates
that CL is capable of capturing the oscillatory behaviour of the HVC, i.e. the
azimuthal phase.
CL measurements therefore were doubly-phase-resolved with respect to the
intensity centroid signal (x
c
(t), capturing the HVC cycle) and the acoustic pres-
sure signal, p

(t). Mathematically, any dynamic quantity was decomposed

into an average component , a doubly phase-resolved component
ah
(
a
,
h
),
and a turbulent uctuation
t
(t), so that
(x, t) = (x) +
ah
(x,
a
,
h
) +
t
(x, t). (2)
The CL intensity centroid signal and the acoustic signal were divided into N
h
and N
a
sections, respectively. Figure 3 shows this
conceptually for a simple case of N
h
= N
a
= 6; in reality, N
h
= 23 and N
a
= 6 was used for this analysis as described below.
A measurement of at any time t was then assigned a double-phase combination corresponding to its closest two single-
phase angles,
h
and
a
. Measurements at each double-phase angle were then averaged, producing the doubly-phase-averaged
quantity at each HVC and acoustic phase.
Figure 3: Example schematic of two sinusoidal signals,
each separated into 6 phase numbers. The different fre-
quencies of the two signals give repeating phase combi-
nations at times 0 and 2, respectively (indicated by ar-
rows). These measurements may be averaged to obtain
doubly phase resolved statistics.
To demonstrate the double-phase-resolution of the CL elds,
these elds were compared to doubly-phase-resolved ame surface
density elds (FSD, ) calculated from the OH PLIF. That is, the
OH PLIF was converted to topological ame contours and the FSD
was computed as the average ame surface area per unit volume at
each point in space and each double-phase combination. A com-
parison between doubly-phase-averaged CL and FSD is shown in
Fig. 4 for two phase combinations corresponding to the same acous-
tic phase (peak pressure uctuation) but opposite phases in the HVC
cycle. It can be observed that both the doubly-phase-averaged CL
and FSD elds successfully capture the oscillatory nature of the
heat release eld. However, the FSD is resolved in the measure-
ment plane, whereas the CL is integrated along the camera line of
sight.
3.2 Reconstruction of thermo-acoustic energy transfer
In previous work, the thermo-acoustic energy transfer elds were
reconstructed from the doubly-phase-resolved FSD elds and the
pressure signal as planar slices at each HVC phase using the Rayleigh integral of Eq. 1, written in its doubly-phase resolved
form, viz.
=
1

1
p

a
p
a
(
a
)
a
(x,
h
,
a
)d
a
d
h
(3)
Figure 4: Comparison of doubly-phase-averaged CL
(top) and FSD (bottom) at same acoustic phase
a
= 1,
corresponding to peak acoustic pressure uctuation, but
different HVC phases at
h
= 1 and
h
= 7, correspond-
ing to opposite locations in the precession cycle, where
N
a
= N
h
= 12. Dimensions are in millimeters.
where p
a
and
a
denote the doubly-phase-resolved pressure and
FSD uctuations, with the uctuation of a measurement dened as

a
(x,
a
,
h
) =
ah
(x,
a
,
h
)
1
n

a
n
a

a
=1

ah
(x,
a
,
h
) (4)
where

ah
(x,
a
,
h
) = (x) +
ah
(x,
a
,
h
). (5)
Furthermore, previous work has shown that since the HVC
phase is analogous to the azimuthal position of the HVC in its pre-
cession cycle, the doubly-phase-averaged planar velocity and FSD
elds can be used to reconstruct their respective 3D elds at each
phase in the thermo-acoustic cycle [8]. For example, by revolving
the doubly-phase-averaged planar velocity elds around the central
axis of the burner and interpolating between these planes, recon-
structed vorticity isosurfaces revealed the three-dimensional struc-
ture of the HVC. Similarly, the planar elds were used to recon-
struct the 3D thermo-acoustic energy transfer.
In summary, the process described above requires spatially re-
solved measurements of the heat release oscillations at different az-
imuthal locations along the HVC, along with pressure measurements. The spatially resolved heat release measurements were
achieved from slices of the FSD, which could be interpolated to obtain 3D reconstructions.
The present study aims to replace the slices of FSD with data from OH* chemiluminescence. However, whereas the
FSD data were planar and spatially resolved, the chemiluminescence measurements were line-of-sight integrated. In order to
generate spatially resolved elds, tomographic reconstruction was employed.
Often in medical imaging, 1D projections of a planar cross-section of an object described by f (x) are taken from different
angles and used to tomographically reconstruct a 2D slice. These projections are described by the Radon transform,
Rf (L) = P(X

) =

L
f (x)|dx| (6)
Figure 5: The object domain is discretized with N pixels.
The weighted contribution w
i j
of a pixel to projection p
i
is the intersection of the space-lling projection ray with
the pixel. Figure taken from [18].
where L is the space of parallel projection lines at a xed angle
with respect to some arbitrary coordinate system, and X

is the
axis orthogonal to L, along which the projection P varies. In x-ray
computed tomography, for example, P(X

) is the x-ray absorption

prole detected at a linear array of sensors separated from a par-
allel x-ray source by the object to be scanned. By repeating this
procedure at incremental locations along an axis of the object, a
3D reconstruction can be formed by stacking up the reconstructed
planar slices.
Established techniques to achieve planar tomographic recon-
structions from 1D projections include the method of ltered back
projection and closely related methods in Fourier space. These
methods are based on the invertibility of the Radon transform,
which maps a compactly supported continuous function f (x, y),
representing the object density (or ame heat release rate), onto
integrals of itself along parallel straight lines [19]. Non-parallel
beams (for example fan-beams) and circumferential sensor arrays
can also be accounted for. While relatively computationally inex-
pensive, these transform-based techniques assume perfect scanner
and beam properties, which leads to numerical artifacts and high
susceptibility to noise. Furthermore, these techniques require a
large number of projections at high angular resolution.
Algebraic reconstruction techniques (ART) are more computa-
tionally expensive algorithms, but are more robust to the shortcom-
ings of ltered back projection. In ART, the reconstruction prob-
lem is treated by solving a system of linear equations of the form
Ax = b [18]. A square grid is imposed over a cross-section of the
3D object, as shown in Fig. 5. Assuming the value f
j
(x, y) is con-
stant within the jth cell of a total N cells, the projection sum (line
integral) p
i
along the ith ray of a total M projection rays, each of
width , is given by
p
i
=
N

j=1
w
i j
f
j
i = 1, 2, ..., M (7)
where w
i j
denotes the area of intersection between the ith projection ray and the jth cell. If the grid consists of 200 200
cells, as in the present study, then W has dimensions 40, 00040, 000, making direct matrix inversion highly computationally
expensive. Note that the matrix W is sparse since, for each projection sum p
i
, most of the w
i j
are zero. Furthermore, if the
projections are not all consistent then no exact solution of f may exist. This could occur if the projections contain noise, or
as is also the case in the present experiments, if the doubly-phase-averaged CL elds have imperfect statistical convergence.
Therefore, in practical situations, the linear system in Eq. 7 must be solved using iterative methods in which the norm |f
(k)
f
s
|
is minimized, where f
(k)
is the approximation at the kth iteration and f
s
is the unique solution [20]. In this study, the Kaczmarz
method for iteratively solving linear systems of this form was employed, which has been proven to converge to the unique
solution when M < N [21].
A major difference between typical tomographic reconstruction and that performed in the present study is that the recon-
struction is performed using only one sensor. That is, tomography typically takes many different views of a static object from
different angles to obtain the required projections. However, this is unfeasible in an optically restricted environment or when
using very expensive sensors. Moreover, the object of interest (viz. the ame) was not rotationally static, but had a spiraling
asymmetry that rotated with the HVC and changed over the thermo-acoustic cycle. The projected views for the tomographic
reconstruction at a particular phase in the thermo-acoustic cycle (
a
) therefore consisted of the mean doubly-phase-resolved
chemiluminescence elds at the different
h
. This can be thought of as rotating the ame with respect to the detector.
To calculate the thermo-acoustic energy transfer elds, 3D CL elds were rst reconstructed from the line-of-sight inte-
grated doubly-phase-averaged images. In the context of ART, these images comprised the projection data. In particular, at a
given thermo-acoustic phase, each row of pixels in a doubly-phase-averaged CL image at a given HVC phase comprised a 1D
projection of a horizontal slice through the chamber at an angle corresponding to
h
. Thus, using ART, N
h
projections of each
horizontal slice were used to reconstruct a horizontal plane through the ame. This was repeated for each row of pixels in the
CL observation window to reconstruct the 3D CL eld for each of N
a
acoustic phases. To have a sufcient number of effective
0
-20
-40
20
40
0
-20
-40
20
40
0 -20 -40 20 40 0 -20 -40 20 40 0 -20 -40 20 40
F
S
D

R
e
v
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

R
e
c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s
C
L
T
o
m
o
g
r
a
p
h
i
c

R
e
c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Figure 6: Isosurfaces of volumetric thermo-acoustic energy transfer () for the three test cases. Green and blue iso-surfaces are
positive and negative , respectively. Solid arrows indicate similar features between the reconstruction techniques and dashed
arrows indicate disagreement between the techniques. Dimensions are in millimeters.
projections used in the ART, N
h
= 23 HVC phase angles were used. It was important also that N
h
be chosen so that no two
projections were coincided from opposite angles. To ensure acceptable statistical convergence in the double-phase averaging,
N
a
was reduced to 6 acoustic phases to compensate for the large number of HVC phases. Note that a source of error in this
analysis was that the ART algorithm assumed parallel beam projections rather than the actual 3D fan-beam projection formed
by the light-paths from OH* emission at all points in the ame to the focal point of behind the CMOS camera. However, the
inuence of this approximation is more severe towards the edges of the CL observation window and less severe near the centre,
where the HVC is located.
4. Results
Once the 3D CL elds had been tomographically reconstructed for each phase in the thermo-acoustic cycle, the thermo-acoustic
energy transfer eld was calculated by integrating the CL eld convoluted with the acoustic pressure uctuation p

(
a
) accord-
ing to Eq. 3. To evaluate the capabilities of the CL-based technique, the thermo-acoustic energy transfer elds calculated using
tomographically reconstructed CL were compared to the equivalent elds calculated using revolution-reconstructed FSD. These
elds are compared in Fig. 6 for Cases 1-3 given in Table 1, corresponding to increasing oscillation amplitude. Regions of pos-
itive (green) and negative (blue) are visualized by iso-surfaces taken at percentage values of the maximum and minimum
values of in each eld, which are chosen to reveal the general features of the coupling distribution.
Caux-Brisebois et al. identied two distinct features in the reconstructed thermo-acoustic energy transfer elds: an inner
coupling region (ICR) that was bound by the HVC and an outer coupling region (OCR) surrounding the HVC [8]. The change
in net with the different cases was associated with different balances between in these regions. For the quieter cases,
was mainly positive in the ICR and mainly negative in the OCR. For the louder cases, the ICR featured positive and negative
regions of that largely balanced and in the OCR became net positive. The high-amplitude oscillations therefore were
associated with large positive in the outer regions of the combustor.
Many similar observations can be made based on the tomographically reconstructed thermo-acoustic energy transfer elds.
The increase in oscillation amplitude from Case 1 to 3 is accompanied by a change from net negative to net positive in the
OCR (viz. the outer regions of the combustor). Similarly, the positive and negative in the ICR for Case 3 essentially balance.
However, differences also are apparent, the most obvious of which is associated with the ICRat lower oscillation amplitudes.
For Case 1, the FSD-based reconstructions show net positive in the ICR while the CL-reconstructions show slightly negative
. For Case 2, the FSD-based reconstructions show net negative in the ICR while the CL-reconstructions show a near
balance between positive and negative regions. At present, it is unclear which of the reconstructions is better at replicating the
thermo-acoustic energy transfer in this region. Regardless, the main mechanism driving the instabilities is captured by both
reconstruction techniques, namely the increase in in the outer regions of the combustor.
5. Conclusions
A method to determine thermo-acoustic energy transfer characteristics using only OH* chemiluminescence was presented for
the case of a thermo-acoustically unstable model gas turbine combustor featuring a precessing helical vortex core. Because the
HVCs precession frequency differed to the acoustic frequency, measurements had to be considered as functions of the phase
in both cycles. By doubly-phase-resolving instantaneous CL images to discrete phase angles in both the acoustic cycle and
the cycle of the transverse dynamics of the CL intensity centroid (rather than the dominant temporal coefcient of the velocity
POD), the oscillatory behaviour of the heat release eld in the ame was captured. Replacing ame surface density from
PLIF measurements with line-of-sight integrated CL, the three-dimensional CL eld was tomographically reconstructed using
an algebraic reconstruction technique. The resulting 3D CL eld was used as an indicator of the ames heat release in the
calculation of a statistical analogue to the Rayleigh integral. This calculation allowed the volumetric thermo-acoustic energy
transfer eld to be determined. The tomographically reconstructed energy transfer elds were compared to the equivalent elds
reconstruced from ame surface density (from PLIF) by revolving the planar images around the chamber axis and interpolating.
Many of the same general features were identied, including inner and outer coupling regions with respect to the HVC. These
results conrm the utility of OH* chemiluminescence measurements as a replacement of laser-based diagnostics such as PIV
and PLIF for calculating thermo-acoustic energy transfer characteristics in gas turbine combustors. Future work will rene the
CL tomographic reconstruction technique to account for fan-beam properties and rigorously handle noise in the measurements.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by NSERC through Grants RGPIN 413232 and STPGP 43036. The authors would like to thank C.
Arndt and W. Meier, German Aerospace Center Institute for Combustion Technology, for their assistance with the measure-
ments, and Tse-Chiang Chen for helpful discussions regarding tomographic reconstruction techniques.
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