Grammar Course Book PDF

1 | P a g e O n l i n e T E F L C o u r s e s .
c o m 2 0 1 2

Grammar Course Summary

This course book contains all the unit explanations from the grammar course. You can download
this book to revise what you have done on the course or to read in preparation for an assignment or
for when you are teaching and planning grammar lessons.

Online TEFL Courses 2012
Online TEFL Courses is a part of the TEFL Scotland Group

2 | P a g e O n l i n e T E F L C o u r s e s . c o m 2 0 1 2

1. Nouns: Page 3 to 11

2. Verbs: Page 12 to 41

3. Adjectives, adverbs & others: Page 42 to 49

4. Tenses, conditionals & other goodies: Page 50 to 66


1. NOUNS
Unit 1, page 1 (in course)
A 'short' introduction to the grammar course
Whenever you mention the word 'grammar' people shift uncomfortably and their eyes
glaze over.
People associate it with hard study, hours spent poring over large, thick textbooks,
trying to understand complicated and incomprehensible expressions such as progressive
forms, gerunds, adverbial clauses and past and present participle forms. Some people
are even confused as to how to spell the word: its grammar with ar, by the way.
However, as native English speakers, we use all aspects of our language perfectly. As
English speakers we never have to think about how to use English before we speak. We
just open our mouths and say what we want to. We never have to think whether we
ought to use an auxiliary verb before a past or present participle form, do we? Isnt that
wonderful?
When non-native students learn English they have to think about how our language is
structured. They have to learn how prepositions are used, how and when to use definite
and indefinite articles and how to turn a present tense verb into a past tense verb.
This course is designed to help new English teachers understand their own language. It
is unlike any other course in that it will break up our language into its simplest forms
and show you exactly how we construct sentences and how we can teach them to our
students. This course will gently introduce you to the grammatical terms that our
students use. It will also contain lots of examples and exercises so that you can become
familiar with talking about the English language.
It is generally believed that there are just nine parts of speech, that is, there are nine
different types of words. You probably know some of them.
1. Nouns
2. Verbs
3. Pronouns
4. Adjectives
5. Adverbs
6. Prepositions
7. Conjunctions
8. Determiners
9. Interjections

This course will look at each of these in turn so that by the end of it you will have a
much greater understanding of how the English language works.
Before we look at these it would be good to ask just how many words exist in the
English language. This is not an easy question to answer. It is impossible to count the
number of words in a language because it is so difficult to decide how to count words.
Lets use one word as an example:
photograph
This word can act as both a verb and a noun as shown in the following sentences:
I like to photograph the countryside.
I like to keep a photograph of my girlfriend in my wallet.
So do we count photograph as one word or two? Also the word photograph has a
plural form, as in:
I have many photographs in a shoe box at home.
Do we count photograph three times then? Its a difficult problem for the people who
compile dictionaries.
Then there is the problem raised by all the foreign words that have been adopted as part
of our language. The English language has borrowed words from over fifty different
languages from around the world. Here are just a few examples:
Kendo (Japanese)
Hacienda (Spanish)
Zeitgeist (German)
Jodhpur (Hindi)
Amok (Malay)
Status quo (Latin)
Recipe (French)
Pasta (Italian)
The term borrowed is very interesting. Perhaps we ought to say purloined or even
stolen. We dont give these words back.
What about the many Latin terms used in science and medicine? What about dialect,
slang words, computer jargon or unusual idiomatic phrases common to only certain
parts of the world?
The second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary contains a total of 171,476 words
which are in current use and a further 47,156 words which are archaic and no longer in
use.
Of all the words we use in the English language about 50% are nouns, about 25% are
adjectives and about 15% are verbs. The rest are made up of prepositions, conjunctions

and interjections. This means that there are around 12,000 verbs that are in current use
in the English language.
We use the word current because our language is constantly changing and evolving
unlike maths which has static and unmovable laws.
This course looks at how these types of words work grammatically within sentences so
we can better understand how to teach our students to create meaning in a language that
is foreign to them. In this way we will be able to foster communication in the English
language.

Unit 1, page 2
Names of things
A noun is often referred to as a naming word. When we refer to a thing we need to
give it a name and the words we use to name things are nouns. Both book and table are
nouns.
Nouns make up around half the words in the English language. It has been estimated
that there are around 80,000 to 90,000 nouns and this figure increases every day due to
the number of things we need new names for. A noun is a name for a thing. Considering
that there are a lot of things in the world around us, there are a lot of nouns.
There is a word for almost everything in English. There is a word for when you are
sleepy and you nod off and have a sensation of falling. It is called a myoclonic jerk.
There is a word that describes the sudden breaking off of thought. It is called
aposiopesis. There is a word that is a synonym of compassion. It is ruth. The opposite
word, still in common usage, is ruthless, the opposite of compassion.
In the mid-nineties how many people would understand the meaning of the following
words?
Email
PDF
Laptop
Hard drive
USB connector
Word document
Excel sheet
Screen saver
RAM
Internet
Google
Text (as sent by mobile phones)


Within individual fields of study we need nouns. If you are a musician, perhaps you will
understand the following list of nouns:
Crotchet
Semibreve
Treble clef
Tonic note
Dominant chord
Cor anglais
Diatonic
Atonal
Andante
Appoggiatura
However, if your field of study is not music, then perhaps you wont.
All of the words we have looked at are nouns. There are many of them and indeed many
different types of nouns: concrete nouns that we can touch; abstract nouns that we cant;
proper nouns that we use to address our friends; pronouns to prevent us repeating their
names many times unnecessarily; group nouns; plural nouns; nouns that we can count
and those that we cant. We can even put two nouns together and make something
entirely different, a compound noun.
This section of the course looks at these things separately and in detail.

Unit 1, page 3
Concrete Nouns
These are things we can see and touch. They can physically affect us. Have a look at the
following list of nouns and ask yourself if you think they are concrete nouns.
1. Table 5. Wall 9. Smell
2. Chair 6. Glass 10. Heat
3. Classroom 7. Road 11. Electricity
4. Bed 8. Grass 12. Air
To determine whether a noun is concrete, ask yourself these questions:
Can I touch it?
Is it real?
Does it affect me in some way physically?
Can I see the effects of it in my life?
If you have decided that the above twelve nouns are all concrete, then you are correct.

You can physically touch nouns such as table, chair, wall, bed, car and house. They are
all real. You can feel the effects of electricity when you power up your computer or
watch TV. You can breathe air which is made up of atoms and gases such as oxygen
and nitrogen, which keeps you alive. You can feel the heat of the sun or a coal fire in
winter. You can notice the smell of the countryside after a fall of rain.

Unit 1, page 4
Proper nouns
These are the names or titles we give to people, places and things so that we can easily
identify them. Have a look at the following list and ask yourself if you think they are
proper nouns:
1. Llandudno 5. Mr. Strahan 9. The Bible 13. The Grand
Canyon
2. New York 6. MJ 10. Big Ben 14. The Yorkshire
Dales
3. Vietnam 7. The Lord of The
Rings
11. The Eiffel Tower 15. The Sahara
Desert
4. Joe 8. Gladiator 12. The Empire State
Building
16. Mount Everest
Proper nouns can be the names of places (such as towns, cities or countries), people
(including first names, family names or nicknames), books or films (such as The Lord
of The Rings, Gladiator or even The Bible), buildings (such as Big Ben, The Eiffel
Tower) and parts of the world (such as areas of natural beauty, rivers and mountains).
Proper nouns are written with a capital, though there are one or two exceptions.

Unit 1, page 5
Abstract nouns
These are things we cant see or touch and they cant physically affect us. Have a look
at the following list and ask yourself if you think they are abstract nouns:
1. Beauty 4. Knowledge 7. Impartiality 10. Wisdom
2. Truth 5. Understanding 8. Dignity 11. Love
3. Lies 6. Justice 9. Strength 12. Hatred
Many of these nouns include qualities that we cannot touch. They can affect our lives to
a huge extent but they cannot by themselves physically touch us or affect us, such as
electricity or the wind during a storm.


ABSTRACT NOUNS
There are three types of abstract noun:
1. Nouns that describe qualities, such as:
I promise to speak the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
I believe in justice and freedom, but not necessarily in the American way.
I trust you understand the importance of the matter?
2. Nouns that describe states, such as:
The employment situation in the UK is not so good.
I live in hope that the world will become a better place.
A good language teacher has a lot of knowledge about grammar.
I need at least seven hours sleep every night.
It is my belief that we are not alone.
3. Nouns that describe events or actions, such as:
I have an examination at 11.00am tomorrow.
The fall of the Roman Empire did not happen overnight.
I will write a reply to your letter later.
Her voice was low, almost a whisper.
The fight against Communism rose to a height during the 1950s in America.

Unit 1, page 6
Group nouns
Collective nouns describe nice tidy groups of things, such as:
A flock of sheep
A herd of cows

Unit 1, page 7
Plural nouns
Where there is more than one noun we usually add an -s at the end of the noun.
However there are a few irregular nouns in the English language which show their
plural form in other ways.
1. Some irregular nouns keep the same form for both singular and plural. For example:
There arent any sheep in Vietnam.
You cannot say sheeps. The plural noun is the same as the singular.
2. Some irregular nouns can use either an s or -es at the end of the word. For
example:
There are many fish in the sea. / Jesus miracle of the loaves and the fishes was
incredible.
You can say either fish or fishes for the plural form
3. Some irregular nouns change altogether. For example:
Many children come to study English at KTV English School.
You cannot say childs. The plural form is children.

Possessive nouns
When a noun is owned by another noun, we add an apostrophe and an s to the first
noun to indicate the possessive form. For example:
Marks new digital TV is cool.
Martins car is pink.
Catherines house is huge.
The first noun is not always a person. Sometimes an inanimate object can own or
possess something. For example:
The universitys academic semester begins in September.
Japans main export is cars.
Please stand away from the waters edge.


Sometimes the first noun will be neither a person nor a thing. For example:
For Petes sake will you stop that! (Pete is not a real person)
Murphys Law dictates that if something bad will happen to me, then it will.
(Murphy is not a real person either)
If the first noun already ends with an s we simply add at the end to indicate the
possessive form, although it is acceptable to write another s on the end of the noun. For
example:
Chris DVDs. (This could also be: Chriss DVDs.)
Bridget Jones diary. (This could also be: Bridget Joness diary.)
Jesus disciples. (This could also be Jesuss disciples.)

Unit 1, page 9
Countable and uncountable nouns
Many nouns can be counted and these are called countable nouns. Generally when we
put the word one, a, "an" or many in front of a noun it is countable. For example:
I have one apple in my hand. There are two apples on the table.
There is a desk in my room. There are many desks in the classroom.
There is one CD in my bag. There are many CDs in my house.
Some nouns cant be counted and these are called uncountable nouns. For example:
water (you cant say one water, two waters)
rice (you cant say one rice, two rices)
bread (you cant say one bread, two breads)
When we quantify a noun or put them in a box or a container the noun remains
uncountable .
For example:
Id like a glass of water.
May I have a portion of rice?
Could you cut me a slice of bread?
Here, glass, portion and slice are countable nouns but water, rice and bread
are still uncountable.
Sometimes we avoid mentioning the container but it is assumed. For example, Can I
have a cappuccino? Here a cappuccino refers to a cup of cappuccino, so in this
context the noun cappuccino is countable.

There are some nouns which can be both depending on the context in which you use
them.
Look at this example :
This recipe calls for two eggs. (Countable)
Here the word eggs is countable. However in the following sentence the word egg
is uncountable. Can you see why?
The nutritionist suggested that I avoid recipes containing egg. (Uncountable)
Here the noun egg is uncountable because the word egg is used in a non-specific or
generic way. The speaker should avoid recipes containing egg as a product, not a
particular egg or eggs.

Unit 1, page 10
Compound nouns
We often take nouns and put them with another to create a new word or phrase. For
example, alarm and clock are two separate nouns but when put together they create a
new phrase: alarm clock.


2. VERBS
Unit 2, page 1
The Infinitive Form
Verbs are very important words and are easy to identify.
Take a look at this list of ten words and check the words that you think are verbs.
Walk
Business
Write
Car
Climb
Girlfriend
Run
Mountain
Photograph
Speak
One of the easiest ways to identify a verb is to put it into its infinitive form.
All this means is that you put the word to in front of the verb. If you are able to do this
and it sounds okay then it must be a verb. You are probably familiar with Hamlets
famous soliloquy, To be or not to be. That is the question. To be is the infinitive form
of the verb. So, when you see 'are', 'is' or 'am' it is from the verb to be.
Lets look again at the words from the list above. This time these words have been put
into their infinitive form.
To walk
To business
To write
To car
To climb
To girlfriend
To run
To mountain
To photograph
To speak
It is now so much easier to identify the six verbs, isnt it?
To walk in the rain
To write an email
To climb a tree
To run a marathon

To photograph the countryside
To speak a foreign language
But you cannot say:
To business
To car
To girlfriend
To mountain
It just doesnt make sense and it sounds wrong. If you ever wonder if a sentence is
grammatically right say it out loud and ask yourself if it sounds right or not. It is
good to learn to check your own intuition or gut feeling.
As an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher you will often hear your students
speak sentences that you know are not right. Here is a good example:
I went to shopping yesterday.
You know instinctively that what your student has said is not right and although you
might not be able to explain why immediately, there is usually a reason and a
grammatical rule that explains this. As native speakers of English, however, it is good to
trust our instinctive feelings.
Lets now return to the list of words above because we can learn something very
important about the English language.
It is not the word that is important but the way the word is used.
This is a very important thing to understand, especially as a teacher of English.
For example, of the six words above that we have identified as verbs, four of them can
be used as nouns.
You can go for a walk in the rain
People who enjoy climbing can refer to a difficult climb.
My friend, who enjoys exercise, often goes for a run.
I have many photographs in my album.
But notice that there is no such thing as a speak or a write. That is because these two
words can only be used as verbs. They do not function as nouns.


Unit 2, page 2
The verb 'to be'
The first verb we teach our students is the verb be.
Look at these sentences from this dialogue:
Hello. Whats your name?
Im Michael.
The verb used in these sentences is the verb to be.
All verbs change or inflect depending on how you use them. Sometimes you can past
tense them by putting an ed on the end and sometimes you can put an ing on the end.
The verb be is an unusual verb. Thats because it changes or inflects depending on
how you use it. In fact the verb be can be used in eight different ways.
Look at these sentences and you can see how the verb changes in each sentence.
1. Im an English teacher.
2. He is my best friend. / She is beautiful. / The elephant is a big animal.
3. They are my students. / We are in the same class. / You are an interesting person.
4. I was sad last week. / He was in a difficult situation. / She was a quiet child.
5. They were in the chess club. / We were well matched. / You were in love once.
6. The man is being stupid.
Here the construction is: auxiliary verb 'be' + present participle 'being'
Remember, 'is' is a form of the verb 'be'
We will look at auxiliary verbs and present participles later.
7. Michael has been to Vietnam.
Here the construction is: auxiliary verb 'have' + past participle 'been'.
Sometimes verbs have another form. The way be is used in sentence seven, been, is
called the past participle form of the verb. We will deal with these types of verb later.
This construction uses the auxiliary verb have which we will look at in more detail
later.
8. I have always wanted to be an English teacher.

Here we see the be in its infinitive form. In this sentence the verb to be functions as
a noun. We will look at this in more detail later.
Here is a diagram showing the different forms or inflections of the verb be.

Unit 2, page 3
The conjugation of verbs
Verbs are unusual animals. They change depending on who the subject is.
Here are ten things you should know about me:
When I talk about myself I use the pronoun I. I will write my sentences in the first
person.
1. I am Mark.
2. I eat a hearty breakfast in the morning.

3. I work as an English teacher.
4. I love listening to music.
5. I go to the cinema every week.
6. I play chess with my friend Michael.
7. I have a beautiful girlfriend.
8. I ride my motorcycle into town most days.
9. I run the movie club every month at my school.
10. I teach my wonderful students.
I have highlighted the verbs in the sentences above. Notice that they are all in
their infinitive form (except for 'am'). Sometimes we refer to these as the present tense
form of the verb. The tense we are using is actually called The Present Tense.
Here are ten things you should know about my good friend Michael:
I will imagine that I am talking to him. He is similar to me and enjoys all the same
things I do. In fact, he works at the same school as me. Lets see what happens to the
verbs when I change the subject from the pronoun I to you. I will write my sentences in
the second person.
1. You are Michael.
2. You eat a hearty breakfast in the morning.
3. You work as an English teacher.
4. You love listening to music.
5. You go to the cinema every week.
6. You play chess with me.
7. You have a beautiful girlfriend.
8. You ride your motorcycle in to town most days.
9. You run the movie club every month at your school.
10. You teach your wonderful students.
Apart from the verb be, which has changed to are, there are no changes in the verbs
at all. They remain the same. The verbs havent changed or inflected.

Here are ten things you should know about my good friend Catherine:
I will imagine that I am talking about her. She is similar to me and enjoys all the same
things I do. In fact, she works at the same school as me. Lets see what happens to the
verbs when I change the subject from the pronoun you to she. I will write my sentences
in the third person.
1. She is Catherine.
2. She eats a hearty breakfast in the morning.
3. She works as an English teacher.
4. She loves listening to music.
5. She goes to the cinema every week.
6. She plays chess with me.
7. She has a handsome boyfriend.
8. She rides her motorcycle into town most days.
9. She runs the movie club every month at her school.
10. She teaches her wonderful students.
Notice what has happened to the verb. Because we are using the third person, the verbs
have changed. On most of the verbs there is an s on the end. The exception is the verb
be, which we have already dealt with. Be is an unusual verb as it inflects in unusual
ways, unlike most verbs.
So lets make this rule clear. When we use the third person we generally need to put an
s on the end of the verb.
However, I have not been entirely honest about my friends Michael and Catherine.
Michael does teach with me in our school but Catherine does something altogether
different. I will now rewrite my sentences using the truth.
Michael
1. You are indeed Michael.
2. You do eat a hearty breakfast in the morning and we often eat together.
3. You do work as an English teacher and you work with me.
4. You do love listening to music, as do I.
5. You do go to the cinema every week.

6. You dont play chess with me, though I wish you did.
7. You dont have a beautiful girlfriend, though that may change in the near future.
8. You do ride your motorcycle in to town most days.
9. You dont run the movie club every month at his school, but you support it, which is
great.
10. You do teach your wonderful students and they love you.
There are two things to note. The first is that the main verbs havent changed. They
remain the same. However, to agree or disagree with the sentence we use the auxiliary
verb do. We will deal with auxiliary verbs in more detail later. To emphasise the truth
of a statement we use the auxiliary verb do. To create a negative sentence we use the
auxiliary verb dont. Although the verb be has not changed, we do not use the
auxiliary verb do with the verb be.
Catherine
1. She is indeed Catherine.
2. She does eat breakfast in the morning but she doesnt eat a hearty breakfast.
3. She doesnt work as an English teacher, she works for the National Health Service.
4. She does love listening to music, as both Michael and I do.
5. She does go to the cinema every week.
6. She doesnt play chess with me, which is a shame.
7. She doesnt have a handsome boyfriend, she has a handsome husband.
8. She doesnt ride her motorcycle in to town most days, she drives her car.
9. She doesnt run the movie club every month at her school because she doesnt work
there.
10. She doesnt teach any students because she works for the National Health Service.
There are two things to note. The first is that the main verbs have changed back to their
base form. This is because they are preceded by the auxiliary verb do. As in the
previous set, to emphasise the truth of a statement we use the auxiliary verb do.
However, when we use the third person the auxiliary verb do inflects. It becomes
does. To create a negative sentence we use the auxiliary verb doesnt. Again,
although the verb be has not changed, notice that we do not use the auxiliary verb do
with the verb be.

Here is a basic chart that shows how verbs inflect when we collocate them. I will use
the verb be:
I am an English teacher.
You
We
They
are
He/she/it/Michael is
I will now use my favourite verb eat.
I
You
We
They
eat breakfast every morning.
He/she/it/Michael eats

Unit 2, page 4
Past tense - regular
When we talk about something that happened in the past the verb in the sentence
usually changes to show that we are talking about a past time. With many verbs we put
a simple -ed at the end of the verb. Look at the following examples:
1. Walked
2. Played
3. Intended
4. Watched
5. Loved
6. Printed
7. Talked
8. Introduced
9. Imitated
10. Smiled

These verbs are all regular verbs. This is because you are able to put an ed at the end
of the verb when you are talking about a completed event. They are different from
irregular verbs and we will deal with these later.
Now say these ten words out loud. There should be 3 different sounds: /d/, /t/, /id/. Can
you work out which verbs have which sounds?
1. I walked to the park today.
2. I played squash last week with my friend.
3. I intended to tell you when I got here.
4. I watched a great film last night.
5. I loved someone once.
6. I printed out my work.
7. I talked to her for hours and hours.
8. I introduced him to the writings of John Irving.
9. I imitated Sean Connerys accent as best I could.
10. I smiled at the pretty girl.
Notice how the ending of the ed sounds fall into three categories:
One is a clear d sound shown by the phonetic symbol /d/ and you can hear it at the end
of the following verbs:
Played
Loved
Smiled
One is a clear t sound shown by the phonetic symbol /t/ and you can hear it at the end
of the following verbs:
Introduced
Walked
Watched
Talked
One is a clear -id sound shown by the phonetic symbol / d/ and you can hear it at the
end of the following verbs:
Intended
Printed
Imitated

Unit 2, page 5
Past tense - irregular
Verbs fall into two categories: Regular verbs and Irregular verbs.
Remember that regular verbs have an -ed form on the end when we use the past tense.
Irregular verbs do not have an -ed form at the end. They change in different ways.
There are not many irregular verbs in the English language, just 245 that we use
regularly, but they happen to be the ones that we use quite often.
Irregular verbs tend to follow three basic patterns:
Verbs that dont change
Verbs that change their vowel
Verbs that change altogether
Here are some examples of irregular verbs:
1. I begin every day with a hearty breakfast.
2. My dog can give a nasty bite if provoked.
3. I buy all my vegetables at the Farmers Market.
4. I choose my friends carefully.
5. I try to be careful not to cut myself shaving.
6. I drink beer occasionally with my friends.
7. I eat out at least once a week.
8. I feed my dog the best quality dog food.
9. I fly to Vietnam often.
10. I go to the beach every day.
All of these sentences are in the Present Simple tense and they all use the base form of
the verb. When we rewrite these sentences to show that a thing has been completed we
must put these verbs in to the past tense. Notice how these verbs change.
1. I began my day with a hearty breakfast.
2. My dog gave me a nasty bite when I provoked him.
3. I bought some vegetables from the Farmers Market this morning.

4. I chose to make friends with her, but she let me down badly.
5. I cut myself shaving the other day.
6. I drank far too much beer last night.
7. I ate out last night.
8. I fed my dog this morning.
9. I flew to Vietnam last week.
10. I went to the beach yesterday.
All of these sentences are now in the Past Simple and they all use the past tense of the
main verb. But look at how the past tense is shown:
Begin becomes began
Give becomes gave
Buy becomes bought
Choose becomes chose
Cut is one of the few verbs that stays as it is and doesnt change
Drink becomes drank
Eat becomes ate
Feed becomes fed
Fly becomes flew
Go becomes went

Unit 2, page 6
Present participles
So far we have looked at present tense verbs and past tense verbs. Now we are going to
look at other ways that verbs inflect.
Verbs can also have an ing on the end of them. We often use these verbs to describe an
ongoing action. Look at the following sentences:
1. Im watching Lost at the moment. Its so compulsive!

2. My friend was telling me the other day that I ought to see a doctor.
3. They are building a new hotel in my street.
4. My son is always failing his exams. He never studies!
5. I was cooking spaghetti in the kitchen when the phone rang.
6. The greenhouse gases are polluting the atmosphere.
7. The book Im reading now is about a girl who leaves her boyfriend for a married
man.
8. Look at that car over there. Hes driving far too fast!
9. Im meeting someone for lunch later.
10. Why are you working so hard these days?
Notice that the verbs highlighted in these sentences all have two things in common:
1. The first is that they all have an ing at the end of the verb. These verbs are
called the present participle.

2. The second is that they all have an auxiliary verb in front of them. This
auxiliary verb is always the verb be.
3. We will look in detail at how auxiliary verbs function later.

Unit 2, page 7
Past participles
So far we have looked at present tense verbs, past tense verbs and present participle
forms:
The present or base form of the verb for example the verb eat
The past tense of the verb for example the verb ate
The present participle form of the verb for example the verb eating
Now we are going to look at a further way that verbs inflect. This is called the past
participle form of the verb.
It is sometimes difficult to identify the past participle form if the verb is regular. Look at
the following sentences:
1. I have watched all of season four of Lost.

2. She has failed all her exams.
3. He has cooked many types of food.
4. I have worked as a teacher for over twenty years.
5. I have travelled all over the world.
6. Many EFL teachers have studied the English language.
7. They have walked a long way today.
8. We have ignored the problem far too long now.
9. I have begged my girlfriend many times to come back to me.
10. Joe has wondered whether there is life on other planets.
The examples highlighted are all regular verbs and they all look like past tense forms,
except they are not. They are past participle forms.
There are many reasons for this. Here are a couple:
The auxiliary verb have, has or had precedes the main verb making these
sentences perfect tenses. We will look at these perfect tenses later.
They do not refer to a specific past event. We usually use the simple past tense
to do this, e.g. I visited Bob yesterday.
The past tense forms of regular verbs have a simple -ed tagged onto the end of them.
There are a few exceptions such as verbs like study that end with a y, which are
replaced with an i. Another one is the word travelled which in British English picks
up an extra l.
It is easier to identify past participle forms when the verbs used are irregular. Look at
the following sentences and notice what happens to the verb when the auxiliary verb
have or has is placed in front of it:
1. I have eaten Okonomiyaki.
2. They have built a new hotel in my street.
3. I have driven over the speed limit many times.
4. Michael has read many books on the subject of love.
5. Weve already met our next door neighbour.
6. Hes been to Vietnam.
7. Theyve run a marathon.

8. Shes swum in the Olympics.
9. My friend has done many things in her life.
10. Joe has set up his own company.
Base form of the verb Past tense of the verb Past participle form of the
verb
eat ate (have) eaten
build built (have) built
drive drove (have) driven
read read (have) read
With irregular verbs the past participle form can be treated in four different ways:
1. The irregular verb changes from the base form to the past tense then to the past
participle form. Good examples would be the verbs eat, drive, be, swim and do.
2. The irregular past tense verb doesnt change when it becomes a past participle form.
Good examples of this would be the verbs build and meet.
3. The irregular verb doesnt change at all. Good examples of this would be the verbs
read and set, though the pronunciation of the base form of read is different from both
the past tense and past participle forms.
4. The irregular verb changes from the base form to the past tense and then changes
back to its original structure for the past participle form. A good example of this is run.

Unit 2, page 8
'To' infinitive and 'bare' infinitive
There are two main types of infinitive verbs. These are called:
The to infinitive verb form and the bare infinitive verb form
In this section we will look at more complicated sentence structures where infinitive
verbs are used following a main verb. In this section we will see how infinitive forms
are used after the verbs prefer, ask and let.
Look at the following examples:
Michael prefers to watch a film at the cinema, rather than to rent a DVD from
the video store.
Michael prefers to watch a film at the cinema, rather than rent a DVD from the
video store.

There is no difference in the meaning of these two sentences. They are both correct.
Notice that the main verb is prefers and this is followed by the infinitive verb watch.
However the first sentence uses the to infinitive (to rent) while the second sentence
uses the bare infinitive (rent). There are some verbs and structures in the English
language that allow you to do this.
Lets look at another example:
Michael prefers to talk about his problems, rather than to keep silent about
them.
Michael prefers to talk about his problems, rather than keep silent about them.
Just like the previous example there is no difference in the meaning of these sentences.
They are both correct. In both of these sentences you can use either the to infinitive or
the bare infinitive form of the verb (keep).
However there are many occasions in English when you can use only one of the two.
Look at the above examples again. You cannot say:
Michael prefers watch movies at the cinema.
Michael prefers to watch movies at the cinema.
The first sentence, which uses the bare infinitive verb form sounds like something your
non-native English learner would say and indeed many of our students often make this
mistake. The second sentence uses the to infinitive verb form and by saying this
sentence out loud, you know it sounds correct.
Here is another example which shows that it is important to decide whether to use the to
infinitive form or the bare infinitive form of the verb:
Michael asked his son to put his toys away.
Michael asked his son put his toys away.
The first sentence uses the to infinitive verb form and this is the correct form. The
second sentence uses the bare infinitive verb form and this is not correct. Say the two
sentences out loud. Which feels better for you?
Look at another example:
The teachers let the students to leave school early today.
The teachers let the students leave school early today.
The first sentence uses the to infinitive verb form and this is not the correct form. Why?
Say it out loud. It sounds wrong to native speakers. The second sentence uses the bare
infinitive verb form and as you can see by reading it out loud, this is the correct form.


Unit 2, page 9
Auxiliary verbs
In the English language there are strong verbs and there are weak verbs. Strong verbs
dont need any help and can sit in a sentence without any support. However weak verbs
need the help of small minor verbs called auxiliary verbs. The weak verbs are present
participle verbs and past participle verbs which you will be familiar with by now.
There are three primary or main auxiliary verbs in the English language. They are:
Be
Have
Do
These verbs can be used as ordinary verbs in their own right. They can be used in their
base form, a past tense form, a present participle and a past participle form.
Base form Past tense form Present participle
form
Past participle form
be was / were being been
have / has had having had
do did doing done
However, their secondary function in the English language is to act as supporting verbs.
Take a look at the sentences below and see how they are used.

Be
The auxiliary verb be (am, is, are, was and were) is used to support present participle
form verbs. It appears before the main ing verbs (writing, running, doing, playing,
holding) to support them.
I am writing a very long book.
He is running the marathon next week.
People are not doing much to help the environment.
She was playing games on her computer this morning.
We were holding hands in the cinema.
Have
The auxiliary verb have (have, has and had) is used to support past participle verbs
where it appears before the main verb (written, run, done, finished, begun) to support
them.
I have written a few books.

Michael has run the marathon.
We have not done much to help the environment.
He hadnt finished his homework when I saw him this morning.
By the time I got to the cinema the film had begun.
Do
The auxiliary verb do (do, does and did) is used to support main verbs in question
forms, negative sentences and to emphasize the importance of something. It appears
before the main verb (like, love, enjoy, have, see) to support them. Notice that the main
verb is always the base form of the verb.
Dont you like music?
I do love music, but not heavy metal.
Does she enjoy dancing?
Did you have a good time last night?
I didnt see you with your girlfriend.

Unit 2, page 10
Modal verbs
There is a small set of eleven verbs that exist in the English language that are different
from other verbs. They are called modal verbs. We use modals to give further meaning
and use to the verb and they operate grammatically quite differently from other verbs.
These verbs are:
1. Can 4. Should 7. May 10. Ought to
2. Could 5. Will 8. Might 11. Used to
3. Shall 6. Would 9. Must
These verbs are different to other verbs and are not as versatile. Here are the
differences:
Modal verbs dont have an infinitive form. There are no such collocations as: to
can, to could, to would or to used to.
Modal verbs dont have a past tense. There is no such verb as: coulded, musted,
woulded or oughted to.
Modal verbs dont have an ing form so they can never be used as a present
participle verb. There is no such thing as: coulding, shalling, maying or oughting
to.
Modal verbs dont have a past participle form.
Modal verbs cant stand alone as main verbs. They are only used as supporting
or auxiliary verbs. There is no such thing as: I can the piano. or I ought to my
mother. or I will my girlfriend. You must have another verb after the modal
verb for the structure to make sense.

These verbs are very useful and we use most of them all the time. Here are three
examples:
Can
If we want to express that we are able to do something or have a particular skill we use
the modal verb can. Look at the following sentences and notice that the modal verb
precedes the main verb:
1. I can play the piano.
2. I can do card tricks.
3. I can ride a motorbike.
Must
If we want to give a command or an imperative we often use the modal verb must. Look
at the following sentences and notice that the modal verb precedes the main verb:
1. You must wash your hands after using the bathroom.
2. You must not eat food in the classroom.
3. You must come to class on time.
Will
We can use will in many different ways. We can express certainties, predictions, threats,
or promises to mention just a few. Look at the following sentences and notice how the
modal verb precedes the main verb:
1. I will be 28 next birthday.
2. I think it will rain next week.
3. I will thump you if you go near my car.
4. I will pay you 5 if you clean my car.
There are other verbs in the English language that sometimes act as auxiliary modal
verbs. Look at the following sentences and see what they are, how they are used and
how they function:
I dare you to ask the teacher.
I need to know what is happening next week.
I have to speak to my teacher about my project today.
Dare is sometimes used as an auxiliary verb with the function of challenging someone
to do something. Notice that it precedes the infinitive form (to ask) of the verb.

Need is sometimes used as an auxiliary verb with the function of expressing an urgent
desire to do or know about a specific thing. Notice that it precedes the infinitive form
(to know) of the verb.
Have (sometimes referred to as have to ) has a similar function to need and expresses a
responsibility on the part of the speaker. Notice that it precedes the infinitive form (to
speak) of the verb.
These verbs are not true modal verbs for the following reasons:
1. They can be used in the infinitive form
To dare
To need
To have
2. They have past tense forms
I dared him to do it.
I really needed you yesterday.
I had a great time last night.
3. They can be used as present participle verbs, though dare and need look and sound
clumsy.
I am daring you to do it.
I am needing some sustenance right now.
Im having a great time.
4. They can be used as past participle verbs though dare and need look and sound
clumsy.
I have dared you to do it.
I have needed your help for many years.
I have had a great time.
5. They can stand alone as main verbs though with dare and need the context would
need to be established.
I dare you.
I need you.
I have many things to do.

Unit 2, page 11
Transitive and Intransitive verbs
Just when you thought you had a handle on verbs!

Transitive verbs:
When an action verb directs its action toward someone or something named in the same
sentence it is called a transitive verb. The person, object or thing that receives the action
of a transitive verb is called the direct object of the verb. Look at the following
sentences. The transitive verb is highlighted.
Scott took photographs using his new camera.
The direct object of the transitive verb is photographs.
Michael cooked dinner for Scott.
The direct object of the transitive verb is dinner.
The dog bit the postman.
The direct object of the transitive verb is the postman.
How do you determine if a verb is transitive or intransitive? Its quite simple really.
You have to ask either of the following regarding the verb in question:
What?
Whom?
If there is an answer in the sentence, the verb is transitive. Look back over the previous
examples and ask:
What did Scott take? He took photographs. Therefore the verb is transitive.
What did Michael cook? He cooked dinner. Therefore the verb is transitive.
Whom did the dog bite? He bit the postman. Therefore the verb is transitive.
If no answer can be found, the verb is intransitive. More on those later!
Some verbs may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another, depending on
how they are used and depending on the context. Nonetheless there are some verbs
which are always transitive or always intransitive. A good dictionary will tell you if a
verb can be used either way or if it is always one or the other.
However things are not always as they seem. Some transitive verbs can have their
objects left out of the sentence when the meaning is clear from the context. Look at the
following examples:
Brad has smoked since he was fifteen.
The direct object (cigarettes) is understood. Therefore the verb is transitive.
She plays beautifully.
The direct object (the piano) is understood. Therefore the verb is transitive.

Intransitive verbs:
When an action verb does not direct its action toward someone or something named in
the same sentence then the verb is intransitive. Intransitive verbs do not have a direct
object. The action ends rather than being transferred to a person or an object.
To determine whether a verb is intransitive ask whether the action is done in some way,
in some direction or to some degree.
Does a noun receive the action of the verb? If it does then the verb is not intransitive
because the person or thing that receives its action is the direct object. Remember that
intransitive verbs do not have a direct object. Look at the following sentences. The
intransitive verb is highlighted.
The teacher spoke sternly.
What did the teacher speak about and to whom? No answer? Therefore the verb is
intransitive.
Brad complained bitterly.
What did Brad complain about and to whom? No answer? Therefore the verb is
intransitive.
When faced with a crowd of bullies, Michael paused.
What did Michael pause and to whom? No answer? Therefore the verb is intransitive.
There are actually two types of intransitive verbs, it's not only to do with not having a
direct object. The verb "to be" (though not an action verb) is a linking verb and all
linking verbs are intransitive. Be careful though, because not all intransitives are linking
verbs.

Unit 2, page 12
Linking verbs
A linking verb relates (or links) the subject of a sentence to the object or an equivalent
word or phrase in a sentence. These verbs describe a state rather than an action. Look at
the following examples:
Michael Strahan was the first American teacher to be employed at KTV English
Language School.
The subject (Michael Strahan) is linked to the object noun (teacher) that is descriptively
equal.
Michael = teacher

The roads to Llandudno from Penrhyn Bay were a slushy mess on Wednesday
due to the heavy storms.
The subject (the roads) is linked to the object noun (a mess), that is descriptively equal.
Roads = a mess
It was a sad day for all of us.
The subject (it) is linked to the object noun (day), which restates the subject.
It = a day
This book could be his.
The subject (book) is linked with the pronoun (his) indicating its state of belonging.
The book = his (or belongs to him)
Thats him!, shouted the woman who had just had her purse snatched.
The subject (that) is linked with the pronoun (him) which restates the subject.
That = him
Mark was proud of his efforts.
The subject (Mark) is linked with the adjective (proud), his state of being.
Mark = proud
Citizens of Llandudno were far safer in 1975 than they were in 2005.
The subject (citizens) is linked with the adjective (safer), their state of being.
Citizens = safer
When teaching English to non-native students almost every first lesson is the
same.
The subject (the first lesson) is linked with the object noun (the same) which indicates
the state of the lesson. It is not receiving the action of the verb as with a transitive verb.
Every first lesson = the same
The teachers job is to plan the best lessons for their students
The subject (the teachers job) is linked to a predicate nominative (to plan).
The job = to plan a lesson

Batman said, I am the Dark Knight.
The subject (I) is linked to a predicate nominative (the Dark Knight)
I = Dark Knight
Notice that the main verb highlighted in all the examples above uses the verb be. In
fact every time we use any form of be in a sentence (is / am / are / was / were / being /
been) as a main verb the verb is always used as a linking verb. Please note that that is
not so when be is used as an auxiliary verb. In these cases the main verb could be a
transitive verb.
Linking verbs are always intransitive verbs.
The verb be is not the only linking verb. There are other words in the English
language which act as linking verbs. Look at the following examples:
An electrical fault appeared to be the cause of the fire.
The subject (an electrical fault) is linked to the object noun (the cause), which restates
the subject.
An electrical fault = the cause of the fire
Before his class, Michael seemed confident.
The subject (Michael) is linked to the adjective (confident), which is descriptively
equal.
Michael = confident
When Michael shaved his head, he became indistinguishable from Mark.
The subject (he) is linked to the adjective (indistinguishable). There is no real action in
the verb became.
Michael = indistinguishable
If you leave uneaten food on the table for one week, the room will smell terrible.
The subject (the room) is linked to the adjective (terrible or the state of being terrible). It
is not engaged in the action of smelling.
The room = terrible smell
Michael grew discouraged with the number of students who missed their
classes.
The subject (Michael) is linked to the adjective (discouraged or the state of being
discouraged). He is not engaged in the action of growing.

Michael = discouraged
Scott doesnt like anything that tastes spicy.
The subject (anything, though the context indicates that food is what we are talking
about) is linked to the adjective (spicy). Scott is not engaged in the action of tasting.
Anything (food) = spicy
If an area of teaching methodology proves inadequate in a certain class, the
teacher should change the way he teaches.
The subject (teaching methodology) is linked to the adjective (inadequate). There is no
real action in the verb proves.
The teaching methodology = inadequate
Even though the students are lazy and never do their homework, Michael
appears unwilling to give up.
The subject (Michael) is linked with the adjective (unwilling). Nothing in reality
actually appears physically. The linking verb appears simply links Michael with his
state of being (unwilling).
Michael = unwilling
We got tough on the students, explained Michael.
The subject (we) is linked with the adjective (tough). The linking word got is not an
action verb.
We = tough
Other common linking verbs are:
Appear Get Look Seem
Become Grow Prove Smell
Feel Sit Remain Sound

There are some verbs in the English language that are versatile. They may be used as
linking verbs, transitive verbs or intransitive verbs. It depends on their function within a
sentence. The verb turn is a good example of this:
The teachers mood turned suddenly when the students misbehaved.

The main verb (turned) is a linking verb.
The subject (the teachers mood) is not engaged in an action. The linking verb links
mood and a state of being (sour).
The teacher turned the pages quickly.
The main verb (turned) is a transitive verb.
The subject (the teacher) was engaged in an action (turned) and that action transferred to
an object (pages).
The teacher turned suddenly towards his students.
The main verb (turned) is an intransitive verb.
The subject (the teacher) engaged in an action (turned) and that action was done in a
particular way (suddenly) but not to someone or something.
It is good for a teacher to understand how verbs are used in sentence constructions. It
will help to understand how to teach their meaning and provide suitable contexts to help
the students understand and learn English.

Unit 2, page 13
Verbs that are not verbs
Gerunds
There are three things that you should know about gerunds:
1. First and foremost, a gerund has the form of a verb, but it is not a verb.
2. Secondly, it is always a noun.
3. And finally, it ends in -ing.
Even though a gerund looks like a verb, the context within which the word is used
dictates that it acts or functions as a different kind of word, in this case a noun
functioning as either the subject or object of the sentence. We will deal with gerunds in
this section simply because the word is the form of a verb.
Look at the following sentences to see why this is so. The steps to finding a gerund in a
sentence is first find the subject and the verb to eliminate any confusion and then decide
what part of the sentence the gerund belongs to. Remember that a form of a verb that
ends in ing and acts as a noun is a gerund .

The subject and object are underlined and the verb is highlighted in the sentences. The
gerund (which can be either the subject or the object) is underlined and highlighted.
1. Our students enjoy surfing the internet as its a great way to find information
quickly.
The subject is students
The main verb is enjoy
The direct object is surfing and therefore a noun
A form of a verb that ends in ing and acts as a noun is a gerund
2. I love swimming every morning before teaching my students.
The subject is I
The main verb is love
The direct object is swimming and therefore a noun
A form of a verb that ends in ing but acts as a noun is a gerund
3. Michael hated playing sports when he was at school.
The subject is Michael
The main verb is hated
The direct object is playing and therefore a noun
4. Many English language schools forbid releasing student information to any outside
organisation.
The subject is English language schools
The main verb is forbid
The object of the verb is releasing and therefore a noun
5. Burning oil and splitting atoms are not good for the environment.
The subjects are burning and splitting and are therefore nouns
The main verb is from the verb be ( are )
6. Smoking in class is forbidden.
The subjects is smoking and is therefore a noun
The main verb is from the verb be ( is )

Participles
There are three things that you should know about participles.

1. First and foremost, a participle has the form of a verb, but it is not a verb.
2. Second, it can act as an adjective, an adverb or form part of a tense.
3. And finally, it ends in -ing or -ed or -en. A form of a verb that ends in -
ing or -ed or -en and acts as an adjective is a participle.
Even though a participle looks like a verb, the context within which the word is used
dictates that it acts or functions as a different kind of word, in this case an adjective. We
will deal with participles in this section simply because the word is the form of a verb.
Look at the following sentences to see why this is so. The steps to finding a participle in
a sentence is first find the subject and the verb to eliminate any confusion and then
decide what part of the sentence the participle belongs to.
participle is underlined and highlighted.
1. The teachers at KTV School of English became a new force in Vietnam dedicated to
the effective teaching of their students.
The subject is teachers
The verb is became
The object of the verb is a new force
With that done, we can see that the participle dedicated is not the subject -
rather, it describes a new force, therefore it is an adjective
2. Transformed by the new Director of Studies, KTV School of English developed a
need for more interesting English lessons.
The participle is transformed which describes KTV School of English,
therefore it is an adjective
The subject is KTV School of English
The main verb is developed
The object is a need
3. Learning to solve grammatical problems in groups, the students began to understand
how the English language works.
The participle learning is attached to the subject (it describes the students) so it
is a form of the verb acting as an adjective
The subject is students
The verb is began
The object of the verb is to understand
4. The idea of having a canteen, knocked around by the teachers, is becoming
increasingly popular among the students.
The subject is idea

The participle knocked describes or modifies the subject and acts as an
adjective in this sentence
is becoming is the verb
The object is popular
5. The statement issued by the Director of Studies noted that a current weakness of the
students was their inability to speak fluently.
The subject is statement
The participle issued is part of the complete subject, it is a form of the verb,
therefore acting as an adjective
The verb is noted
The object is a weakness

Infinitives
There are three things that you should know about infinitives:
1. First and foremost, an infinitive has the form of a verb, but it is not a verb.
2. Second, an infinitive can be a noun, an adjective or an adverb.
3. And finally, it is always to plus a verb.
Even though an infinitive looks like a verb, the context within which the word is used
dictates that it acts or functions as a different kind of word, in this case a noun,
adjective or adverb. We will deal with infinitives in this section simply because the
word is the form of a verb.
Look at the following sentences to see why this is so. Finding an infinitive in a sentence
is quite simple. First find the subject and the verb to eliminate any confusion and then
look for a verb with to in front of it. Then decide what part of the sentence the
infinitive belongs to.
infinitive is underlined and highlighted.
1. People, who hail the Internet as one of the greatest inventions, fail to mention that it
contains a lot of useless information.
The subject is people
The main verb is fail
The infinitive to mention is the object of the verb
Therefore, it is a noun
2. Non-native students of English need to learn grammar.
The subject is non-native students

The main verb is need
The infinitive to learn is the object of the verb
Therefore, it is a noun
3. Michael has arrived to grab whats left from the picnic.
The subject is Michael
The main verb is has arrived
The infinitive to grab is an adverb explaining why or where they have arrived
4. Everyone has the right to defend themselves in a court of law.
The subject is everyone
The main verb is has
The object of the verb is the right
The infinitive to defend is an adjective because it describes what kind of right
5. Teachers Guides are useful to help teachers teach English effectively.
The subject is Teachers Guides
The main verb is from the verb be (are)
The object of the verb is useful and is an adjective
The infinitive to help is an adverb that modifies the adjective useful
6. Scientists are splicing genes and manipulating seeds to create plants that are
impervious to insects.
The subject is scientists
manipulating and are splicing are the main verbs
The objects of the verbs are genes and seeds
The infinitive to create tells us why they are doing this
Therefore, it is an adverb

Unit 2, page 14
Quick review and Compound verbs
So far we have learned many things about verbs and there is no doubt about it, the
subject of verbs is complicated. Native English speakers use verbs whenever they speak
without giving them a second thought.
Lets have a quick review of what we have learned so far.
1. We have learned that there are two main types of verb: regular verbs and irregular
verbs. Regular verbs have an -ed ending when they are used in past tense constructions.
2. We have learned that there is one main verb in every clause. A clause can be a
complete sentence. Complex sentences can contain two or more clauses.

3. We have learned that you can easily identify a verb by putting it into its infinitive
form, as in to eat.
4. We have learned that there are two types of infinitive form, the to infinitive and the
bare infinitive form.
5. We have learned that verbs can have two participle forms, that is, the end of the verb
changes or inflects. These are the present participle form (-ing) and the past participle
form (-ed for regular verbs, other forms for irregular verbs).
6. We have learned that weak verbs need support using the auxiliary verbs. There are
three primary auxiliary verbs: be, have and do.
7. We have learned that there are a set of eleven verbs called modals, which can only be
used as auxiliary verbs.
8. We have learned that verbs can be used as nouns, adjectives and as adverbs,
depending on the context of the sentence and how the verb is used.
9. We have learned that verbs can also be called participles when they are used as
adjectives and gerunds when they are used as nouns.
10. We have learned that verbs can describe an action or a state of being.
My, havent we learned a lot!
This is the last section on verbs and it will concentrate on compound verbs. This simply
means that some verbs need a lot of help and are sometimes supported with one or more
auxiliary verbs.
Look at the following sentences for examples of these.
1. I have eaten a lot of food today.
2. I am teaching tomorrow.
3. I must prepare for my classes tomorrow.
4. Do you know what the longest river in the world is?
5. I would have written to you earlier had I known.
Can you see that these sentences need auxiliary verbs that support the main verbs?
We use have to support past participle verbs.
We use be (am) to support present participle verbs.
We use modals to modify main verbs and give them a precise meaning.
We use the auxiliary verb do for questions forms.
Sometimes we use modals and primary auxiliary verbs to support a main verb.

3. ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS & OTHERS
Unit 3, page 1
Describing words
Opinion Fact Noun
A wonderful brown suitcase
A nice sunny day
A smelly rugby sock
If we are using a range of facts to describe an adjective they go in a particular order. Not
that you would ever use this many adjectives!
OPINION - SIZE AGE SHAPE COLOUR ORIGIN MATERIAL USE
e.g. a beautiful, big, antique, round, red, Italian, wooden dining table.
You would need to practise sentences containing 2 or 3 adjectives and refer to this. You
would also start at a lower level with OPINION then FACT before tackling more
complex rules.
We also use adjectives after verbs that describe sensations and perception, such as
be/get/become/feel/smell/taste/sound/seem/and look, for example.
Are you hungry? I am thirsty. Be careful. I feel tired. That soup smells delicious. That
sounds great.
We need to make sure that students use adverbs after other verbs. And that they say
Drive carefully! (And not Drive careful!)

Also, with verbs like look, it can be a little confusing. If look means seem then we use
an adjective, e.g. He looks happy. But if look means the more active see, then we need
an adverb, e.g. He looked happily at everyone.

Unit 3, page 2
Adverbs
These words modify a verb, adjective or another adverb. They can talk about how, when
and where we do things. Often we make adverbs by putting ly on the end of an
adjective.
Adjective Adverb
Quick Quickly
Slow Slowly
Careful Carefully
Serious Seriously
Beautiful Beautifully
Warm Warmly
However, life is not that easy. Some adjectives are also built in the same way. Students
may find the following adjectives confusing: friendly, lonely, lively. These are
adjectives that just happen to end in ly.
Generally, adjectives describe nouns (apart from those few exceptions)
The big house.
The tall boy.
The red kite.
and adverbs talk about verbs. This is probably the simplest way to think about it.
He walked slowly.
He went yesterday.
You speak French fluently.
Adverbs can also be used to describe adjectives and other adverbs.
I am really sorry.
He drove amazingly quickly.
Some more exceptions
Some of the easiest words can cause the greatest difficulty like good, fast and hard.
He is a good guitarist.

He is a fast runner.
He is a hard worker.
Fine. But when we use them as adverbs they can be a bit tricky for students.
He plays the guitar well. (not goodly!)
He runs fast. (not fastly)
He works hard. (not hardly, this means something else)
Students just need lots of practice activities to get it fluent, so expect a few slip ups.
Recently it has become fashionable to use good as an adverb.
How are you? Im good. (rather than well or fine). As a teacher, you need to teach the
correct way of saying things first. At a later stage it would be a good idea to mention
that good is often used in this way, especially among young people.
Adverbs of frequency
This is a lesson in itself. You may not teach all of them in one lesson in fact. But here
are some examples.
IMAGINE

Never, hardly ever, rarely, sometimes, often, usually, nearly always, always.

A scale is an effective way to represent these. You also need to help students with how
we use these in a sentence, i.e. where they go.
Some adverbs go after the verb and some before.
I never go to the doctor. (before the main verb)
I won the lottery recently. (time phrases often go at the end of the sentence)
I can hardly see you. (before the main verb and after the modal verb)
Rarely do I sing in the bath. (at the beginning for emphasis, need an extra
auxiliary verb like do to do this)

Unit 3, page 3
Comparatives and superlatives

Comparatives
It's easier to show you what these are.
Scotland is warmer than Iceland.
Iceland is more expensive than Scotland.
But Scotland is a lot friendlier than Iceland.
Here are the rules, with their inevitable exceptions:
Adjectives or adverbs with ONE syllable take er. Except for fun, bad and good,
they just do their own thing.
warmer/colder/hotter/wilder/safer etc.
Adjectives and adverbs with TWO syllables ending in y and some other random
TWO syllable words, also take er.
friendlier/prettier/lovelier/narrower/simpler/quieter/cleverer
Other TWO syllable words take more and not er as do adjectives longer than TWO
syllables.
more modern/more ancient/ more tiring/more boring/more expensive/more
efficacious
There are also other ways we can express comparatives.
He drove a little/lot/bit more quickly than before.
The bigger they are, the harder they fall.
The more they scream, the less they get.
Hes as mad as a hatter.
Its just as quick to walk as it is to cycle.
Superlatives
The rules for these are the same as comparatives.
The biggest building in the world.
The most modern architecture I have ever seen.
The friendliest person I have ever met.
The most expensive wine in the restaurant.
The irregular adjectives:
Adjective/adverb Comparative Superlative
Good/well Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Far Further/farther Furthest/farthest

When doing comparative and superlative in the classroom, dont try and do everything
at once. Spread it over 2 or 3 lessons. You might teach the more advanced expressions
like as...as etc. at a higher level.
Also remember you need three things to show the meaning of superlatives. So, if you
are using countries to talk about the comparatives and superlatives, you will need three,
e.g. Moscow, Los Angeles and Aberdeen. Aberdeen is colder than Los Angeles, but
Moscow is the coldest.

Unit 3, page 4
Prepositions
Prepositions are those little words like at, in, on, with, of, to, by, about, into, against,
after, for, into, onto. Thats enough!
These are tricky, especially when students try to find the same in their own language.
One dictionary states 18 main uses for at. So the students will just have to learn that its
I go home and not I go to home or I am playing shinty at the weekend and not in the
weekend.
Again, you cant do everything at once. You need to drip feed. You might spend one
lesson looking at time, e.g. on Monday, at night, at the weekend, at six oclock.
Another lesson at another level might be prepositions of place, e.g. The pen is on/next
to/under/behind the chair.
You might look at style. For example, as Winston Churchill said, Never use a
preposition to end a sentence with. So, Winnie would say To whom are you
speaking? and not Who are you speaking to?
Another area, which is vast, is phrasal verbs. There are tons of them.
But first, a question. What is the difference between a preposition and an adverb?
The mouse ran up the clock. (Preposition since up has an object, clock)
The mouse ran off. (Adverb since off has no object and talks about the verb ran)
OK, now thats clear. When we are talking about phrasal verbs, we are not talking about
prepositions as such, they are in fact adverbs. This is down to the use, the words havent
changed!
Here are just a few examples of the thousands of phrasal verbs.
Turn in Get up Come on Bring on
Turn on Get on Come under Bring up
Turn up Get down Come up Bring down

We use these a lot. As an English teacher you will know the different uses. Also, as a
teacher, you need to make sure the students learn them and get plenty of opportunity to
practise them.

Unit 3, page 5
Conjunctions
These are words that join things together. In sentences, they join clauses together.
I stayed up late (clause) since I had a grammar course to write (clause).
Since is the conjunction here. Others are because, and, but, therefore, when, although,
where, despite etc.
You want your students, certainly higher level students, to be able to express themselves
with more sophistication so they are able to write more varied and complex sentences.
Rather than
I was not feeling tired and I went to bed. (conjunction = and)
we want to see
Although I wasnt tired, I went to bed.(conjunction = although)
Relative pronouns, such as, who, which, that are also types of conjunction.
I have a friend. She works at TESCO. This now becomes I have a friend who works at
TESCO.
Interjections
These are a part of speech. But little time is needed here on them. Examples of
interjections are Ouch!, Oops!, Oh my! etc. These are words and phrases that come with
strong emotion and an exclamation mark.

Unit 3, page 6
Articles
Articles are determiners, but we'll treat them by themselves here. Were looking at these
three little words now because they are a bit of a mine field. Most western European
languages use a, an, the like English and some of the rules are the same and some are
not. Other languages will have great difficulty in knowing when to use an article and

when not. The use of definite and indefinite articles is one of the hardest areas of
English grammar.
A/an is the indefinite article and some/any is often used as the plural of a/an. Generally
used when the speaker and listener dont know the thing talked about.
Can you pass me a hammer? (Any hammer, not a specific one)
Can you get me some nails? (Again, this is not specific)
The is the definite article. Generally used when the speaker and listener know the thing
talked about or when we are talking about something specific rather than general.
Can you pass the hammer? (Both the speaker and listener know which hammer)
Can you get me the nails? (Again, both know which nails are being talked about)
Uncountable nouns and plurals dont take a/an but can take the and exist without the if
they want. Singular nouns take a/an.
Rice is good for you. (Uncountable noun)
The rice from India is the best./Rice from India is the best. (Either)
A grain of rice is a start. (Singular noun)
Oil is scarce. (Uncountable)
We use the to talk about unique things and with a number of expressions referring to
our physical environment or other features of our lives and to mean something/someone
that is well-known.
The world is not enough.
The French are stylish dressers.
The town is less preferable to the country.
The weather can be a little wet in Scotland, but the mountains make up for it.
Thats Brad Pitt, the actor.
We dont use the for proper names or things in general.
My names Bond (Not the Bond)
Coffee is delicious. (The does not mean all, so we leave it out)
We use a/an to talk about one thing when it doesnt matter which one it is, or is not
known. Or to talk about any one member of a class.
Lend me a pen. (Dont care which pen)
I live in a beautiful cottage. (The listener doesnt know which one)
An octopus has eight tentacles. (Any octopus)
This is by no means every single application of articles, but gives you a fair taste of the
different rules and also how different learners from different countries could have
difficulties simply because the rules are a little different in their own language.

More on determiners
As we said before, articles are a form of determiner. Here are some more, in fact, lets
split them into two groups.
1. Those that help us identify what something is, whether we are being specific or
general.
Articles: a/an, the
Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, ones, whose
Demonstratives: this, these, that, those

2. These are quantifiers, telling us how much or how many we are talking about. Here
are some examples.
Some, any, no
each, every, either, neither
much, many, more, most
all, both


4. TENSES, CONDITIONALS and OTHER
GOODIES
Unit 4, page 1
Present Simple and Present Continuous
In this, the final unit, we will have a look at building sentences. We shall see all those
lovely sounding tenses plus some lesser known specimens of grammar such as passive
voice and relative clauses (nothing to do with cutting your family out of your will!).
Youll also get some practical tips to help you in the classroom.
First lets jump straight into the tenses.
There are three times: past, present and future and 4 tenses for each of those times. (Plus
one little oddity!)
Theres no time like the present so ...
Present Simple
Lets first look at the form, that is, how the tense is built.
Affirmative/Positive Negative Interrogative/Question
I work
You work
He/she/it works
We work
They work
I dont work
You dont work
He/she/it doesnt work
We dont work
They dont work
Do I work?
Do you work?
Does he/she/it work?
Do we work?
Do they work?
The form
Add 's' to the base form of the verb (sits, looks, hits, fits)

Verbs ending in a consonant plus y, change y to i and add es (tries, fries,
cries)
Verbs ending in o, s, z, x, ch and sh, add es (washes, watches, does,
buzzes)
Note in the negative form the auxiliary verb doesnt has the s so the main verb
doesnt need an s.
E.g. She doesnt work. The same applies with does in questions. Does she work?
Some uses of the Present Simple
Habits or routines (On Monday I play tennis. I shower every morning)
Permanent situations, as opposed to temporary. (I live in Scotland rather than I
am living)
Facts (The sun rises in the East. Water boils at 100 degrees.)
Imperatives, like directions and instructions (Turn left, go straight on, walk over
the bridge...)
Newspaper headlines (Joe jumps over the moon is actually reporting a past
action, but uses the present simple)
Dramatic narrative (My mate goes into the room, the piano stops and then...
Here, we are using the present tense to make a story more exciting by bringing it
into the present)
Timetables and planned future events (The plane leaves at 10 tomorrow. The
show starts on Tuesday evening.)
Typical errors
Many languages have just one simple present tense used for Present Simple (I
walk) and Continuous (I am walking).
The s on the third person is often left off by a lot of levels, e.g. He eats
Some teaching ideas
Use timetables or pictures to talk about habits and routines.
Find someone who students ask and answer questions about what they do
every day/week etc.
Quiz for facts.
Get some video footage to practise commentaries.
Who am I? Students ask questions in the Present Simple to find out the famous
personality.
Where am I? Students give directions on a map.
Present Continuous
This is also known as the Present Progressive and learners often confuse it with the
Present Simple.
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I am playing (Im playing) I am not playing (Im not Am I playing?

playing)
You are playing (Youre playing) You are not playing (You
arent playing or Youre not
playing)
Are you playing?
He/she/it is playing (Hes playing) He is not playing (He isnt
playing or Hes not playing)
Is he playing?
We are playing (Were playing) We are not playing (Were not
playing or We arent playing)
Are we playing?
They are playing (Theyre playing) They are not playing (They
arent playing or Theyre not
playing)
Are they playing?
Some uses of the Present Continuous
Action at time of speaking (I am writing at my computer).
Temporary state or action (I am working in Milan this week. If it was a
permanent situation, we would be more likely to use Present Simple).
Used with always for a regrettable habit (He is always picking his nose!
Students would expect to use present simple to express habits, so this can be
confusing).
For future arrangements (I am playing tennis at 2pm tomorrow. The future is
arranged between two people and the time set.)
Some exceptions
Action verbs are generally used in the Continuous and stative verbs, even if they fit into
the uses above, will still need to be expressed in the Present Simple rather than
Continuous. Poor students!
For example,
I have a pen (state), I am having a ball. (action)
I see what you mean (state), I am seeing things! (action)
I smell fish. (This is a verb of perception, like see, taste, hear etc. and cant be
used in the Continuous.)
Typical errors
Using contractions is usual for native speakers, students may be reluctant to use
them though.
Contractions can be confusing, e.g. Hes sounds like His
It can be confusing for verbs like have. This can be an action or a state. If it is an
action we can use the Continuous, e.g. I am having dinner, but not for when it
describes a state, e.g. I am having a cold, when we need to say I have a cold
instead.
Some teaching ideas
Using pictures, flash cards, video etc. to describe what people are doing.
Role plays on the topic of a temporary stay.

Using diaries to make arrangements between business people or famous
personalities.
Using graphs and charts to talk about changes.

Unit 4, page 2
Present Perfect
This is a great tense and requires a lot of practise with the students. Very basically, this
tense links the past with the present.
The form
Subject Auxiliary verb Past participle
I, you, we, they have/havent walked
drunk
broken
He, she, it has/hasnt
Some uses of the Present Perfect
An action that started in the past and continues to the present (I have lived in
Beauly for 3 years. I still live there now.)
An action that has recently finished and the results are still present (I have
dropped the glass. There are still bits of glass on the floor.)
An action that happened in the past, but with no time frame (I have visited
Japan, I have eaten octopus. We dont know when this happened. If we do talk
about a time frame then we would say I visited Japan in 2001 or I ate octopus 2
years ago).
Used with words like yet, still, just, already (I have just cleaned that! I
have already started. These indicate different attitudes of the speaker).
Other points
Hes been to Spain. (He went and has come back)
Hes gone to Spain. (Hes still there)
Typical errors
Though there are problems with pronunciation and getting the past participle right, most
problems occur with using the Present Perfect in the right way.
Gone and been are a little tricky, this is mentioned above.
In American English, the tense is used a little differently, e.g. I did it already.
Students may have picked this up.

Particularly in Western Europe, they have a tense with a similar form, but
different uses, so you may find students saying I have cooked the dinner
yesterday.
For an action that starts in the past and continues to the present, they may use
Present Continuous, e.g. I am living here for 3 years.
Some teaching ideas
Find someone who students ask questions about past experience Have you
visited Spain? and follow up with Past Simple questions When did you go? Who
did you go with?
Show pictures of faces expressing emotion. Students need to guess what has just
happened.
Guess my secret. Each student submits something unusual they have done and
other students have to ask questions to find out the secret.
Role play a job interview, this is good for Present Perfect and Past Simple.
Changing rooms, send out a group of students, move a few things in the room,
they come back in and need to find out what has changed.
Present Perfect Continuous
A few similarities with the previous tense, the Present Perfect (Simple), but tends to
focus on continuous or repeated activity.
The form
No need for tables now, you get the picture of the form, so heres a brief version.
Subject + have/has + been + verb + ing
E.g. I have been shopping all afternoon.
Use of the Present Perfect Continuous
A past activity with present results (Ive been baking all afternoon. You can tell
by all the flour. Using continuous emphasises the length of time.)
Action that started in the past and is continuing (Ive been living here all my life.
Again the continuous emphasises the duration of the action.)
Both of the examples above would work with the simple version of the Present Perfect,
so the continuous tense is generally used more to emphasise the duration.
Typical errors
The most common error is that students often avoid using it altogether and substitute
other tenses, particularly the Present Perfect Simple.
For example, instead of I have been painting the walls (Im covered in paint), they may
use I have painted the walls (they are a different colour).

Some teaching ideas
Use pictures, e.g. of different messy situations, and students say things like His
hands are dirty because he has been changing a tyre. Anything can be used
where there is physical evidence of a very recent past activity.
Guess the activity, give one student the action and result, he tells his partner
the result and his partner has to guess the action.
A: I am out of breath
B: Have you been running?
Compare sentences, this is good to really practise and consolidate the meaning.
Write the sentences on the board and get students to discuss the meanings in
pairs and then feedback.
I have read 4 books (all the books are finished, but we dont know when)
I have been reading 4 books (all at once!)
This same activity could be used to compare the Present Perfect Continuous and
other tenses like the Present Continuous.

Unit 4, page 3
The past tenses
Before we go on, lets have a look at we have learnt about tenses so far.
1. Simple tenses seem to have just one verb (e.g. I go)
2. Continuous tenses have the auxiliary verb to be with ing stuck on the end of the
main verb (e.g. I am going)
3. Perfect tenses have the auxiliary verb have and attempt to link two times together
(e.g. I have gone)
4. The meaning or use of the tenses doesnt always match up with the name of the tense.
5. The name of a tense (Present Continuous, Present Simple etc) is dictated by the form
of the verb not the meaning or use. For example, Present Continuous is so named
because it has am/is/are + verb + ing no matter if it has a present meaning or a future
meaning. It has that form, it has that name.
So, on to the past.
Like the present, there are 4 past tenses. Past Simple, Past Continuous, Past Perfect and
Past Perfect Continuous.
Past Simple
The form

You put -ed on the end of verb. (I visited, He shopped, We travelled)
Unless the verb is irregular of course (I saw, He went, We broke)
We dont want to look at all the irregular verbs, you should know them all. Just keep in
mind the only verb that changes with the person is the verb to be, that is, I/He/She/It
was and You/They/We were.
Some uses of the Past Simple
For a past action with a time marker (I ate octopus yesterday). Compare this to I
have eaten octopus. Here there is no time marker.
For past events that are discontinued (I rode a skateboard when I was young. I
dont anymore. Dinosaurs roamed the Earth. They dont now. We can also use
used to for this)
For polite requests or suggestions (I wondered if I might...)
For hypothetical present/future situations (If I won the lottery, I would...)

Typical errors
Pronunciation is something that will need work, notice the different ways to say
-ed in visited (id), shopped (t) and travelled (d). You will need to drill this with
students.
Students will need time to get to know the irregular forms well. So be prepared
for runned and buyed.
They may even adopt patterns and apply them wrongly. You say drink, drank,
drunk so why not think, thank, thunk.
Some teaching ideas
Start with pictures of daily routines, I wash/cook/walk etc. and then ask the students to
convert them into what they did yesterday. You can control the verbs so one lesson you
do regular and the next, irregular verbs.
Chain story: you set the scene and start the story, each student has a verb and they have
to continue the story using their verb, which they have to convert into the past.
There are also lots of discussions and role plays, whether its interviewing for a job,
famous personalities when they are old, or even talking about your holiday last year.
Past Continuous
The form
Like the Present Continuous, but we put the verb to be into the past.
was/were + verb + ing or wasnt/werent + verb + ing
E.g. I was walking, You were walking etc.

Some uses for the Past Continuous
An action in progress at a specific time in the past (I was eating octopus at 10
oclock yesterday evening. I was eating octopus between 9.30 and 10.30 last
night.)
An action in progress interrupted by another action (I was eating octopus when
the phone rang.)
Two simultaneous actions (I was eating octopus while she was eating squid.)
Setting the scene (The sun was shining and the birds were singing, Jack pulled
out his gun.)

Typical errors
This tense is often compared to similar tenses in the students own language, especially
imperfect tenses in Latin languages. So you may see mistakes that have something to do
with extended time but actually talk about habits and need the Past Simple.
I was skateboarding every day when I was young.
I was walking a long way to school every day.
Some teaching ideas
Whodunnit: a crime has been committed at a specific time, each student has a past
simple action (I started reading at 9.50), only one student has an action that cant be
corroborated. The students have to find the killer. They will ask questions like What
were you doing at 10 oclock? I was reading my book.
Pictures can be good, set in the past. Particularly if it is an event like the Titanic sinking
and the students can comment on what people were doing when the ship hit the
iceberg. You will need to find or draw the right pictures.
Story writing can be good. You can also use the chain story idea by giving each student
a verb which they have to use in the Past Continuous.

Unit 4, page 4
Past Perfect
The form

Had + past participle
E.g. I had eaten half an octopus before the phone rang.
Some uses of the Past Perfect
To talk about an action that happened before another in the past (By 10.30, Id
eaten a whole octopus. I had eaten half an octopus when the phone rang.)
To express regret (If only I hadnt eaten so much octopus.)
Typical errors
It can be hard for students to use the contraction, for example, try When I got there, the
concertd started. When native speakers use Past Perfect it is often contracted and -d
is barely audible. It will need lots of drilling.
Some students avoid using it altogether and prefer to stick with Past Simple where
possible. This is fine in some cases, e.g. I knocked after he left means the same as I
knocked after hed left. When we use when we need the Past Perfect, e.g. I knocked
when he left doesn't mean quite the same as I knocked when hed left.
Some teaching ideas
Create a series of past events using pictures, the board, establish the series using Past
Simple and then get the students to talk about the events in relation to each other. After
X had done Y, Z did ...
You could do the same as above but get a popular story and tell it in reverse. When the
three bears entered the house, Goldilocks had tasted all their porridge.
Past Perfect Continuous
The form
Had + been + verb + ing
E.g. I had been eating octopus for 50 minutes.
Some uses of the Past Perfect Continuous
This is similar to other uses of continuous in that we talk about an action in progress.
With Past Perfect Continuous you are simply looking at a past action that continues up
to another time in the past.
I had been eating for 2 hours before she came home. (Emphasising the duration of the
action)
Typical errors

Like the Past Perfect Simple, students like to avoid using this one so you will need to
provide clear contexts where they can see a use for it.
Some teaching ideas
Predicting results: students are given statements in the Past Perfect Continuous and
asked to predict the results of the statements. He wanted to use my mobile but Id been
talking on it for 2 hours. Students may predict the result The battery was flat. Now give
them results and the students need to come up with statements.
Simple pictures with activities and times or clocks on them can help students build
sentences like Hed been painting for 2 hours when the bell rang.

Unit 4, page 5
The Future
We have already seen a few ways to talk about the future, heres a reminder.
The train leaves early tomorrow morning. (Present Simple for planned or fixed
events in the future)
Im playing golf with Tom at 2pm tomorrow. (Present Continuous for future
arrangements)
If I won the lottery, I would buy a yacht. (Past Simple used for future/present
hypothetical situations)
But none of these are future tenses, they just have future meanings in certain
circumstances.
There are four future tenses as there are for the present and past. We also have one more
that really isnt a tense, and well deal with this little oddity first.
Future going to
Its not really an official tense, but we need to cover it here.
The form
Subject + am/is/are + going to +verb
I am going to take the train to London.
Are you going to take a year out after university?
It isnt going to rain.

Some uses of future going to
I am going to take a year out next year. (Expressing an intention, i.e. you have decided,
but we do not know if you have made arrangements yet. If you had, then we might want
to use Present Continuous to express that.)
Look at those clouds, its going to rain. (Prediction based on evidence. Different from
using will, this is more certain because of evidence we have.)
Well compare this to will in the next section.
Typical errors
Students will naturally produce I am going to go to France or I am going to come home
afterwards. This is correct, though native speakers would use Im going to France and
Im coming home afterwards (same form as Present Continuous).
Pronunciation can be tricky if learners are exposed to native tongues. They may hear
Im gonna or Im guna and then try to spell it accordingly. You would need to focus on
the form and drill natural sounding pronunciation so they can differentiate.
Some teaching ideas
Holidays: give students a destination and a budget, brainstorm holiday activities and
then in pairs or groups get students to decide how they are going to spend their 2 weeks
and their money.
Pictures and videos are good, even something like Mr Bean: use the pictures or freeze
frame video to predict what is going to happen next. Emphasise that students need to
come up with evidence for their predictions.
Personal plans: this can be done for all sorts of contexts such as Christmas; after
university; next summer; when you grow up (for younger learners).

Unit 4, page 6
Future Simple
The form
Person Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative
interrogative
I/We I will/shall go
Ill go
I will/shall not
go
I wont/shant go
Will/Shall I go? Will/Shall I not
go?
Wont/Shant I
go?
You/They/He/She/It You will go
Youll go
You will not go
You wont go
Will you go? Will you not go?
Wont you go?

Things can get a little confusing with shall since it has become quite an archaic form.
So we have put it where it is more often used, with I and we. It is possible with other
persons but they are rare and likely to be out of place in modern speaking. We also have
to be careful since will and shall are not always interchangeable no matter what the
person.
Some uses of Future Simple
Ill be 21 next year. (To express certainty in the future. Also, we could use
Present Simple here, I am 21 next year.)
Ill have an octopus please. (Decision at time of speaking, especially for
volunteering, e.g. Ill do it! This is different from going to where the decision
was made well before and is an intention.)
I think itll rain tomorrow. (Prediction. But less certain than going to since it is
not based on evidence, but experience or knowledge.)
Ill do it if it kills me / Clean my car and Ill give you a fiver/Touch my car and
Ill smack you. (Expressing varying levels of commitment and determination,
here we have very determined, a promise and a threat.)
Ah, thatll be the postman now. (We hear the letter box and make a deduction.
This is actually a present meaning!)
Typical errors
Some students strongly believe that will is the proper way to express the future! And
they'll only use will regarding all other attempts at the future as second rate and too
informal. The same students are not going to be happy about contracting either!
Students might interchange will and shall on all occasions, but this doesnt always
work, .e.g. That shall be the postman (deduction) or I shall do it! (decision at the time of
speaking).
Some teaching ideas
Role play: organising a party, students volunteer their contribution Ill bring the
cups etc.
Imagine the future: what do you think transport/health/schools/food etc. will be
like?
Election manifesto to express promises and determination.
Reading palms or predicting the weather.
You could even use graphs and charts to predict trends for business English
students.
Future Continuous
Subject + will + be + verb + ing
Shall can be used for I and We
Some uses of the Future Continuous

Shell be coming round the mountain at 12 oclock. (An action in progress at a
given time in the future)
Ill be arriving in town at 4pm. (Again, for a fixed arrangement, but it gives
more reassurance than Im arriving in town at 6pm)
Hell be eating octopus now, I bet. (Speculating about a present situation)
Typical errors
Students often try and avoid this tense altogether since there are a lot of verbs in
use and a lot to get wrong or forget to put in.
The idea of using the tense to reassure and emphasise a future event is a tricky
one.
Some teaching ideas
Diary: give students diaries and arrangements. Ill be having lunch at 2pm, Ill
be looking around the new factory at 5pm.
What will you be doing on Christmas day?
Travel arrangements: Well be arriving at the airport at 6, well be checking in
at 7. Good for the reassuring function.

Unit 4, page 7
Future Perfect
Form
Subject + will + have + past participle
E.g. I will have eaten 3 plates of octopus by the end of the evening.
Some uses of the Future Perfect
It is generally used for an action finishing before a future time (I will have eaten
3 plates of octopus by the end of the evening.)
Or when the future time is unstated or implied (Whatever happens, we will have
given them a good run for their money.)
When we make a deduction about actions that have already taken place (Hell
have finished the octopus by now.)
Typical errors
Students may get confused between the time of the action and the time of the result of
the action, especially where it is used to express the results of an action that has already
begun.
Like other perfect tenses, there could be confusion between the simple and continuous
tenses. Here continuous is used to emphasise the duration of the action.

Some teaching ideas
Using diaries, students talk about what they will have done by certain days and times.
Imagine: students invent their future and tell each other what they will have done by
different ages. You could even give them famous personalities.
Using pictures of situations, students use Future Perfect to guess deductions about it.
E.g. You call at a friends house in the evening (give students a picture of a darkened
house, with an open garage. An outline of his lifestyle/interests are written on the back).
Hes gone out. Where is he? Hell have gone to the pictures. Hell have taken Lisa etc.
Future Perfect Continuous
Form
Subject + will +have + been + verb + ing
E.g. I will have been eating octopus for 3 hours.
Some uses of the Future Perfect Continuous
The continuous form is used to emphasise the duration of the action (He will have been
eating for 3 hours).
Typical errors
These are generally the same as the ones for the Future Perfect. Students can struggle
with the concept of the tense.
Students may make mistakes with the form since it has 4 verbs to get right.
Some teaching ideas
Any situation that involves prolonged actions, for example, give students flight
schedules and then choose a time of day and students have to give sentences like By
2pm I will have been travelling for 2 hours and get them to compare completed actions
and I will have flown over France and Spain.
Now lets look at some activities to test our understanding.

Unit 4, page 8
Conditionals
These are statements using if and can refer to the past, present and future.
Much easier to show you than explain! There are four types of conditionals:

0. If you boil water, it evaporates.
1. If it rains, I will stay at home.
2. If I won the lottery, I would buy a big yacht.
3. If I had gone to Greece, I would have seen many beautiful places.
You dont always need to use if, you can replace it with other words or phrases like
provided, as long as, when etc.
Lets look at the detail:
Zero Conditional
If + present tense + present tense
This is used to express facts, e.g. If/When you freeze water, it becomes ice.
First Conditional
If + present tense + future tense
This talks about something that is possible or probable in the future. You can also use
may, might, can etc. E.g. If you come over tonight, we will have a party.
Second Conditional
If + past tense + would/could/might + infinitive verb
Used for when something is very unlikely in the present or future.
E.g. If you went into space, you would float about.
If it was snowing, would you build a snowman?
Third Conditional
If + past perfect + would/could/might + have + past participle of the verb
This is used to talk about a past action and its result. E.g. If I hadnt gone to the ceilidh,
I would not have met my sweetheart.
Variations and Mixed conditionals
The conditionals are quite flexible in the form that they can take so dont be surprised to
see forms such as:
If you dont go, Im going to call the police. (going to instead of will)
If you took some money, you could buy something nice. (using could, might,
should etc instead of would)
This is the most common form of mixed conditional.
If I hadnt eaten that octopus (past), I wouldnt feel so ill. (present)
Typical errors
Common mistakes are:
If I won the lottery, I bought a yacht. (Using the past tense rather than would buy)

If I win the lottery, I will buy a yacht. (This is hypothetical and should really use the
second conditional. Students sometimes find it hard to know when to use the first and
when to use the second conditional.)
Some teaching ideas
Dilemma: give the students a hypothetical situation like being on the moon or on a
desert island. What 5 things would you take with you if you were stuck on?
Regrets: students write down regrets about themselves (or famous people) and the
teacher collects them and the other students have to guess whose regret is whose.
Guess the substance: give students a list of common substances and a list of questions.
(What happens if you heat it?) Others guess the substance from the properties If you
heat it, it melts. If you put it in water, it dissolves.
Arrange a programme for an imaginary visitor: the students dont know anything about
the visitor (country, gender, age etc.) If the visitor is a man, I will take him to

Unit 4, page 9
Passive voice
Look at the differences below in the sentences and think about why we use passive
voice rather than active voice.
Active Passive
Harry broke the window. > The window was broken by Harry.
Someone will find the answer soon. >
The answer will be found soon (by
someone).
People drink tea in China. > Tea is drunk in China.
Agatha Christie wrote Murder on the
Orient Express. >
Murder on the Orient Express was written
by Agatha Christie.
We use the passive voice when we dont know who did the action or dont really care,
or when it is blindingly obvious who did the action, e.g. I was born rather than My
mother bore me! The passive voice can also be used to emphasise the result of the
action, e.g. Murder on the Orient Express was written rather than who wrote it. Passive
voice is also used when we want to sound more formal.
The form
To change from active voice to the passive voice, use the past participle of the main
verb. The object usually moves to the beginning of the sentence. The tense is described
by the verb to be.
For example, in the active voice: They speak English in Scotland.

becomes: English is spoken in Scotland.
English is the object.
Is in the Present Simple (as was the active voice speak)
Spoken is the past participle of speak
Another example in the active voice: They will be speaking English all over the world in
2050.
Becomes: English will be spoken all over the world in 2050.
English is the object
Will be is in the Future Simple tense since it cannot go into the Future Continuous, it
would have to be will be being spoken, which is one instance of the verb to be too
many!
Spoken is the past participle of speak
Typical errors
As you can imagine, getting the verbs and objects in the right place and in the right
tense can be a little tricky at first.
Some students will misuse the passive voice, like I am died, not understanding which
verbs can go into the passive and which cant.
Some may avoid it altogether and regard it as only scientific or academic in usage.
However as students develop they need to be able to form more complex sentences and
will need to practise using the passive.
Some teaching ideas
Explain a process: how things are made or how things operate all lend themselves to
passive expression.
Quizzes can be good: Who was the television invented by? You could give 2 teams
questions in the active voice and then ask the teams to put them into the passive and
then hold a quiz between the 2 teams.
Write a police or newspaper report or an event that you describe.


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