Keen To Help Managers' Implicit

PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
2006, 59, 871902

KEEN TO HELP? MANAGERS IMPLICIT
PERSON THEORIES AND THEIR SUBSEQUENT
EMPLOYEE COACHING
PETER A. HESLIN
Management and Organizations Department
Southern Methodist University
DON VANDEWALLE
Management and Organizations Department
Southern Methodist University
GARY P. LATHAM
Rotman School of Management
University of Toronto
Although coaching can facilitate employee development and perfor-
mance, the stark reality is that managers often differ substantially in
their inclination to coach their subordinates. To address this issue, we
draw from and build upon a body of social psychology research that
nds that implicit person theories (IPTs) about the malleability of per-
sonal attributes (e.g., personality and ability) affect ones willingness
to help others. Specically, individuals holding an entity theory that
human attributes are innate and unalterable are disinclined to invest
in helping others to develop and improve, relative to individuals who
hold the incremental theory that personal attributes can be developed.
Three studies examined how managers IPTs inuence the extent of
their employee coaching. First, a longitudinal eld study found that
managers IPTs predicted employee evaluations of their subsequent em-
ployee coaching. This nding was replicated in a second eld study.
Third, an experimental study found that using self-persuasion principles
to induce incremental IPTs increased entity theorist managers willing-
ness to coach a poor performing employee, as well as the quantity and
quality of their performance improvement suggestions.
The rst study in this manuscript was presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of
Management, Honolulu, HI, August 2005. The third study in this manuscript was presented
at the annual conference of the Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Chicago,
IL, April 2004. It was in part based on the doctoral dissertation of the rst author. We thank
Ute-Christine Klehe, Daniel Tzabbar, and Bob Wood for valuable assistance in developing
and conducting the third study, as well as Joshua Aronson for the videos used in this study.
We also thank Bob Wood, John Slocum, Ute-Christine Klehe, Glen Whyte, and St ephane
C ot e, for helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.
Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Peter A. Heslin, Cox
School of Business, Southern Methodist University, Box 750333, Dallas, Texas 75275-
0333; heslin@cox.smu.edu.
COPYRIGHT
C
2006 BLACKWELL PUBLISHING, INC.
871
872 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
Employee coaching entails managers providing one-on-one feedback
andinsights aimedat guidingandinspiringimprovements inanemployees
work performance (London, 2003; Yukl, 2002). Inherent in this denition
is that coaching, compared to generic training programs, typically fo-
cuses more on employees specic workplace challenges (Hall, Otazo, &
Hollenbeck, 1999). Large organizations are increasingly expecting man-
agers to coach their employees (Latham, Almost, Mann, & Moore, 2005;
London, 2003). For example, employee coaching is a key managerial task
at McKinsey & Company (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 2002), YUM! Brands, Inc.
(Mike & Slocum, 2003), KPMG (Heslin & Latham, 2004), and Motorola
(Latham et al., 2005).
Coaching can facilitate learning to master altered job roles, such as
following a promotion (Goldsmith, 2000) or in response to organizational
change (Hawkins & Pettey, 2000). As coaching is provided on the job and
is tailored to the employee being coached, it is less prone to the transfer-of-
training issues that typically undermine the utility of most off-site devel-
opmental initiatives (cf., Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Tracey, Tannenbaum,
& Kavanaugh, 1995). Consistent with this notion, Olivero, Bane, and
Kopelman (1997) found that employee coaching increased productivity
over and above the effects of a managerial training program. More re-
cently, Smither, London, Flautt, Vargas, and Kucine (2003) reported that
after receiving multi source feedback, managers who worked with a coach
were more likely to set specic (rather than vague) goals, solicit ideas for
improvement fromtheir supervisors, andsubsequentlytoreceive improved
performance ratings from both their direct reports and their supervisors.
Despite the widespread endorsements of employee coaching as an
important managerial activity (e.g., Bartlett & Ghoshal, 2002), managers
vary in their willingness to coach their employees (Campbell, Dunnette,
Lawler, & Weick, 1970; Heslin & Latham, 2004; London, 2003; Smither,
London, Vasilopoulos, Reilly, Millsap, & Salvemini, 1995). Indeed, as
early as 1964, it was observed that:
Although good coaching is basic to managerial productivity, most organiza-
tions have difculty getting their managers to be effective coaches (Mahler,
1964, p. 28).
Yet, 40 years later, several scholars (e.g., Latham & Latham, 2000;
Orenstein, 2002; Smither & Reilly, 2001; Sue-Chan & Latham, 2004)
lamented that there still remains a paucity of research and empirically
validated theory about the antecedents of employee coaching.
Overview
Following Smither and Reillys (2001) proposal that social psychol-
ogy may provide a fruitful source of insights for research on employee
PETER A. HESLIN ET AL. 873
coaching, these studies explored the potential usefulness to the employee
coaching literature of Dwecks social psychological theory and research
on implicit person theory (IPT). Lab research with children and students
has established that compared to people holding the incremental IPT that
personal attributes are malleable and hence can be developed, individuals
who hold the entity IPT that personal attributes do not change are less
inclined to help others improve their performance.
Our rst study examined whether managers IPT about the stability of
personal attributes is linked to the extent to which they provide develop-
mental coaching to employees. A second eld study replicated our rst
study. Both of these studies examined employee ratings of the frequency
with which managers coach them. Our third study investigated whether the
incremental training intervention reported by Heslin, Latham, and Vande-
Walle (2005, Study 4) increased managers inclination to coach, as well
as the quality of the suggestions they provided to a hypothetical employee
whose video-recorded performance they observed.
1
The results of these
studies have practical implications for organizational initiatives aimed at
encouraging managers to coach their employees, as well as suggesting sev-
eral potentially fruitful avenues for future research. We begin by briey
examining the nature of employee coaching.
Employee Coaching
Coaching has been dened by scholars who have focused on executive
coaching by professional coaches, as well as those concerned with em-
ployee coaching by managers. Hall et al. (1999) dened executive coach-
ing as a practical, goal-focused form of personal, one-on-one learning
that may be used to improve performance, enhance a career or prevent
derailment, and work through organizational issues or change initiatives.
In contrast, based on their annotated review of the literature, Douglas and
Morley (2001) dened executive coaching somewhat more narrowly as a
short-term developmental relationship created to achieve specic, mutu-
ally agreed-upon performance goals.
2
Within the domain of employee coaching conducted by managers, Cor-
coran, Petersen, Baitch, and Barrett (1995) concluded that sales coaching
1
Although the participants and incremental intervention are common between studies,
Heslinet al. (2005, Study4) reportedonhowthe interventionaffectedchange inparticipants
initial performance appraisals. That study did not present the coaching-related data reported
in the present study.
2
In contrast to professional, external coaches, who develop an identity and income
based on their provision of coaching, coaching is just one of a wide range of managerial
functions (Yukl, 2002). This study thus investigated a potential individual difference source
of variability in managers propensity to coach their employees.
entails a sequence of conversations and activities that provide ongoing
feedback and encouragement to improve a salespersons performance.
Brocato (2003, p. 18) argued that the coach is the vehicle that facilitates
performance change.
Despite variation in the scope of these denitions, their common theme
is thatas mentioned in the opening sentencecoaching entails a man-
ager providing one-on-one feedback and insights aimed at guiding and
inspiring improvements in an employees work performance (London,
2003; Yukl, 2002). Conceptually, the performance improvement focus of
coaching suggests it may be an initiating structure leadership behavior,
whereby managers dene and organize followers roles, facilitate goal
attainment, and establish well-dened patterns and channels of communi-
cation (Fleishman, 1957). However, coaching is likely to be distinct from
initiating structure insofar as helping individuals to improve is also an ex-
pression of consideration for employees, that is, showing them concern,
respect, appreciation, and support (Fleishman, 1957). An initial empirical
test of our conceptualization of coaching as positively related to, though
distinct from, the initiating structure and consideration leadership behav-
iors is reported in the pilot study conducted in Study 1. We now address
the nature of IPT and its potential role in managers willingness to coach
their employees.
Implicit Person Theory
An IPT is ones implicit belief about the malleability of the personal
characteristics (e.g., ability and personality) that affect human behavior
(Dweck, 1999). Individuals who hold the IPT that personal attributes are
essentially a xed entity are classied by Dweck as entity theorists; those
who implicitly believe that personal attributes can change and be devel-
oped are labeled as incremental theorists. Implicit theories can be domain-
specic, such that people sometimes hold different implicit theories about
the malleability of ability, personality, and morality (Dweck, 1999). How-
ever, an individuals IPT reects their implicit assumptions regarding the
stability of the collection of personal attributes that determine the overall
kind of person that someone is and howthey tend to behave (Chiu, Dweck,
Tong, & Fu, 1997).
Dweck and Leggett (1988) theorized that implicit theories create an
analytic framework for interpreting and responding to the events that an
individual experiences. Consequently, they proposed that implicit theo-
ries have important motivational implications. Considerable subsequent
research has found support for many facets of Dweck and Leggetts ar-
gument, most commonly studies conducted with grade school and un-
dergraduate students that were focused on the realm of self-regulation.
Within an organizational context, several studies have found that com-
pared to entity theorists, incremental theorists are more likely to personally
adopt learning goals (e.g., VandeWalle, 1997), develop high self-efcacy
(e.g., Martocchio, 1994), maintain their self-efcacy following setbacks
(e.g., Wood & Bandura, 1989), and exhibit high performance on complex
decision-making tasks (e.g., Tabernero & Wood, 1999).
These studies have documented implicit theory effects on an individ-
uals self-regulation(i.e., achievement strivingandresultingperformance).
To the authors knowledge, no published studies have examined the effect
of managers IPTs ontheir willingness tohelpother people toimprove their
performance. Nonetheless, an extension of Dweck and Leggetts (1988)
theory suggests that managers IPTs could affect the extent to which they
coach their employees.
Specically, Dweck, Chiu, and Hong (1995a) proposed that implicit
theories inuence how one perceives and relates to others. Viewing per-
sonal attributes as largely xed in nature sets up an emphasis on stable
traits for understanding and predicting others behavior (Erdley &Dweck,
1993). Thus, Dweck et al. argued that entity theorists view the behavior
of others as reective of their enduring, static personal qualities. In con-
trast, incremental theorists tend to view others behavior as likely to be
the product of more malleable and dynamic factors, such as effort and
strategies. Thus, Dweck et al. theorized that entity theorists belief that
human attributes are innate and unalterable makes them disinclined to in-
vest in helping others to develop and improve. Four studies have supported
Dweck et al.s theory in this regard.
First, Chiu, Dweck, et al. (1997) reported that in response to a profes-
sor who made a seemingly unfair last-minute change in grading policy,
undergraduate entity theorists primarily wanted to punish the professor. In-
cremental theorists, on the other hand, were more likely to want to educate
the wrongdoer. Second, Heyman and Dweck (1998) found that holding
an incremental IPT was associated with the extent to which students gave
a hypothetical struggling fellow student extensive and helpful suggestions
about precisely what that person should do to improve. Third, Gervey,
Chiu, Hong, and Dweck (1999) observed that entity theorists indicated
that the prime purpose of imprisonment was either punishment or retri-
bution. Incremental theorists were more likely to state that imprisonment
is also to rehabilitate wrongdoers for leading a moral and productive life,
reecting a presumption that they have potential to grow and develop.
Finally, Karafantis and Levy (2004) reported that compared to 9-
to 12-year-old entity theorists, holding an incremental implicit theory
was positively associated with active participation in collecting money
for a UNICEF event, enjoying doing so, and intending to volunteer
again.
Implications for Employee Coaching
Although quite suggestive, three characteristics of previous IPT re-
search limit the basis it provides for concluding that managers holding an
incremental IPT are more inclined to coach employees than their entity
theorist colleagues. First, with the exception of the self-reported volun-
teering assessed by Karafantis and Levy (2004), previous research on the
role of implicit theories in helping behavior has been limited to responses
to hypothetical paper people (i.e., vignettes). It cannot be assumed that re-
actions to paper people will generalize to reactions to actual people who
are seen or heard (Cook & Campbell, 1979, p. 66). Moreover, meta-
analytic research by Murphy, Herr, Lockhart, and Maguire (1986) found
that vignettes are low salience stimuli that consistently yield higher effect
sizes than studies based on observation of a persons behavior. Whether
the ndings from Chiu, Dweck, et al. (1997), Heyman and Dweck (1998),
and Gervey et al. (1999) can be replicated using a higher salience stimulus
has yet to be examined. Either smaller or nonsignicant effects from such
research would suggest that low stimulus salience may account for the
implicit theory effects reported in these studies.
Second, the extant evidence linking incrementalism and helping is
based on self-report data. Such perceptpercept research designs typically
contain a common-method bias that tends to inate the observed relation-
ship between predictor and criterion variables (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Research with independent ratings of partici-
pants actual behaviors, as a function of their IPT, is needed to address
this threat to the putative causal effect implied within the literature on how
IPT is related to subsequent helping behavior.
Third, with reference to the results of child- and adolescent-based im-
plicit theory research, Tabernero and Wood (1999, p. 124) concluded that
studies are needed to establish if the same is true for adults. Bernardin,
Buckley, Tyler, and Wiese (2000), as well as Arvey and Murphy (1998),
emphasized the importance of empirically assessing whether ndings from
studies conducted with student samples generalize to the behavior of man-
agers performing tasks that are part of their organizational role.
Study 1
Holding the entity perspective that people generally do not change
has been associated with children and students being disinclined to in-
vest in other peoples performance improvement. In contrast, holding an
incremental IPT has been found to positively predict helping behavior.
Although the generalizability of this research to the domain of employee
coaching cannot be assumed and has yet to be tested, it provides the basis
for examining:
Hypothesis 1: Managers incrementalism is positively related to the extent
to which they coach their employees.
To assess coaching, we were guided by Atkins and Woods (2002) nding
that compared to ratings provided by self, supervisors, and peers, sub-
ordinates were the best predictors of assessment center competency at
coaching people (p. 895). Thus, we used 170 subordinate observations
as the criterion of managers coaching behavior in this longitudinal eld
study. Specically, 6 weeks after we measured managers IPTs, we col-
lected subordinate evaluations of their employee coaching in order to test
Hypothesis 1.
Method
Participants. Based on the mediumlarge effect size of IPT on chil-
drens advice-giving reported by Heyman and Dweck (1998, i.e., d =.67),
3
using the power guidelines of Cohen (1992), we estimated that 42 partic-
ipants were required to achieve an acceptable level of power (.80) in this
study. The participants were 45 managers who were engaged in a 6-week
professional MBA elective module on leading organizational change at
a private, southwestern U.S. university. Participants mean age was 31.1
years (SD=4.1); 21 were women and 24 were men. On average, they had
3.0 years managerial experience (SD = 2.8) and their employee coaching
was assessed by 5.0 subordinates (SD = 1.8).
Procedure. Four weeks before beginning a 6-week professional MBA
elective module, all the managers completed a range of Web-based surveys
for the purpose of later class discussion. Given the equivalence of Web-
based and paper-and-pencil ratings (Smither, Walker, & Yap, 2004), as
well as to the convenience of the Internet, we assessed participants IPT
via the Web in order to optimize the rate of IPT survey completion.
Six weeks later, participants requested 3 to 10 of their employees to
provide themwith anonymous feedback about their effectiveness at lead-
ing organizational change, via an anonymous Web-based survey. As all
the participants worked in different organizations, this approach to rater se-
lection, which is consistent with previous upward feedback research (e.g.,
Brett &Atwater, 2001; Heslin &Latham, 2004), was necessary to identify
suitable respondents. In order to minimize the possibility that participants
would select raters who were most likely to provide them with favorable
3
Which is typical of the effect sizes reported in the extant IPT literature.
ratings, the managers and subordinates were informed that the evaluations
would have no impact on course grades and that the feedback would be
anonymous and condential. The request for feedback was framed as a
valuable learning opportunity, and thus, subordinates should be as accu-
rate and honest as possible in their feedback. Feedback providers were
also assured of their anonymity because doing so probably improves their
ability to make accurate ratings (Murphy, Cleveland, & Mohler, 2001).
We also assured subordinates anonymity by informing them that partic-
ipants would only receive a feedback report if at least three subordinates
provided their manager with feedback.
Two weeks after soliciting feedback, all participants received an up-
ward feedback report that presented their mean subordinate evaluation for
each coaching survey item. Subordinates comments were also presented
verbatim. None of the managers reported having been aware of the hy-
pothesized link between IPT and coaching, even after it was subsequently
explained for pedagogical purposes.
Employee coaching measure. To assess coaching behaviors, we rst
conducted an extensive literature review to identify the fundamental el-
ements of coaching behavior (e.g., Ahern, 2003; Ellinger & Bostrom,
1999; Graham, Wedman, &Garvin-Kester, 1994; Heslin &Latham, 2004;
London, 2003; Orth, Wilkinson, & Benfari, 1987; Smither et al., 1995,
2003; Yukl, 2002). Based on our review, we conceptually derived three
integral components of coaching employees for increased performance:
1. Guidance: The communication of clear performance expectations and
constructive feedback regarding performance outcomes, as well as
how to improve.
2. Facilitation: Helping employees to analyze and explore ways to solve
problems and enhance their performance.
3. Inspiration: Challenging employees to realize and develop their po-
tential.
To operationalize coaching behavior, we next developed a 10-item behav-
ioral observation scale (BOS; Latham & Wexley, 1994) to assess these
dimensions (see Table 1). Consistent with Smither et al. (1995), subordi-
nates rated each item on a 5-point Likert-type scale with the anchors 1 =
Not at all to 5 = To a very great extent. We prefaced the items with the
following introduction, To what extent does the person to whom you are
providing feedback. Subordinates were also given the option to indicate
that their manager had no opportunity to demonstrate each behavior.
To initially assess the coaching behavior scale items, a Web-based pilot
study asked 160 MBA students about the coaching, leadership, and sup-
portive behavior of their current or most recent manager. The participants
TABLE 1
Completely Standardized Solution for Conrmatory Factor Model
of Coaching Behavior
Coaching behavior items Guidance Facilitation Inspiration
1. Provide guidance regarding performance
expectations?
.89
2. Help you to analyze your performance? .90
3. Provide constructive feedback regarding
areas for improvement?
.92
4. Offer useful suggestions regarding how
you can improve your performance?
.87
5. Act as a sounding board for you to
develop your ideas?
.85
6. Facilitate creative thinking to help solve
problems?
.90
7. Encourage you to explore and try out new
alternatives?
.83
8. Express condence that you can develop
and improve?
.93
9. Encourage you to continuously develop
and improve?
.93
10. Support you in taking on new challenges? .93
Higher-order factor loadings .83 .93 .92
Note. All parameter estimates are signicant at p < .01.
average age was 29.95 years (SD = 4.67), they had an average of 7.36
years of work experience (SD = 4.6), and 35% were women.
To analyze the coaching data, we used LISREL 8.54 for conrmatory
factor analysis (CFA). Based on our three-dimensional conceptualization
of coaching behavior, we modeled coaching behavior as a higher-order
factor with three rst-order factors. As shown in Table 1, the CFA of the
item responses indicated that the theoretical model provided a good t to
the data,
2
(32, N = 160) = 134.52, p < .01, standardized root-mean-
square residual (SRMR) = .04; comparative t index (CFI) = .96. All
of the coaching behavior item loadings were signicant at the p < .01
level. Moreover, the three coaching behavior dimensions had signicant
loadings (p <.01) with the second-order factors of .83 (guidance), .93 (fa-
cilitation), and .92 (inspiration). We next tested a three-factor model with
no higher-order factor. This second model produced t statistics that were
identical to the higher-order model. Rindskopf and Rose (1988) noted that
when a higher-order model has only three rst-order factors, it is equiva-
lent to the three-factor rst-order model. They explain that such models are
not discriminable and will have the same t statistics. Given this model
equivalency, traditional comparisons such as a chi-square difference test
do not apply. Rather, Rindskopf and Rose indicate that the choice of model
formis to be based on substantive grounds. If there are substantive grounds
for a higher-order model, then it is preferred based on parsimony. Given
that we did not a priori expect that the three coaching dimensions would
have differential relationships with our criterion variable and that we did
not empirically nd differential relationships, we selected the more parsi-
monious higher-order model for our hypothesis testing.
Using other data collected from our Web-based pilot study, we also
assessed the convergent and divergent validity of the coaching scale (see
Table 2). As expected, the composite coaching scale (as well as its three di-
mensions) had positive relationships with the initiating structure and con-
sideration leadership styles (assessed using the LBDQ-FormXII, Stogdill,
1963), as well as withsocial support fromones supervisor
4
(Caplan, Cobb,
French, Van Harrison, & Pinneau, 1980). Evidence for the divergent va-
lidity of our coaching scale was that responses to it were unrelated to
social support received from either (a) others at work, or (b) ones spouse,
friends, and relatives (Caplan et al., 1980). Finally, employee coaching
by managers was also unrelated to subordinate gender, age, or work ex-
perience. In this study, the composite coaching scale data had acceptable
reliability ( = .89).
Social support measure. The related Social Support from Supervisor
Index, the Social Support from Others at Work Index, and the Social Sup-
port from Wife, Friends, and Relatives Index (Caplan et al., 1980) each
contain four related questions such as How much does each of these peo-
ple go out of their way to do things to make your work life easier for you?
(a) your immediate supervisor, (b) other people at work, and (c) your wife
[husband], friends and relatives. Asecond sample itemfromeach scale is
Howmuch can each of these people be relied on when things get tough at
work? (a) your immediate supervisor (boss), (b) other people at work, and
(c) your wife [husband], friends and relatives. Responses are obtained on
a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 4 = very much through to 0 =
dont have any such person. Evidence for the divergent validity of these
scales, which are among the most established scales used to measure social
support in a job (Lim, 1996), has been provided by Caplan et al. (1980).
Regarding construct validity, as expected, supervisor and coworker sup-
port has been shown to correlate positively with overall job satisfaction and
work group cohesiveness (Repetti & Cosmas, 1991), as well as negatively
with job insecurity, job dissatisfaction, and noncompliant work behaviors
(Lim, 1996).
4
Using the social support measure described below.
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IPT measure. We assessed IPT using the eight-item domain-general
kind-of-person implicit theory measure adopted by Chiu, Hong, and
Dweck (1997), as well as Levy, Stroessner, and Dweck, (1998). This scale
gauges implicit beliefs that cut across the domains of ability and person-
ality, both of which are potentially relevant to employee behavior and
performance. This measure, labeled Beliefs about Human Nature, has
four items that measure incremental beliefs and four that assess entity be-
liefs. Asample incremental belief itemis People can substantially change
the kind of person they are. A sample entity belief item is Everyone is a
certain kind of person, and there is not much they can really change about
that. This scale was chosen because of evidence that it yields data with
testretest reliability of .82 over a 1-week period and .71 over a 4-week
period (Levy & Dweck, 1997), as well as high internal consistency ( =
.93; Levy et al., 1998).
Regarding the construct validity of the IPT measure, it is generally
uncorrelated with other motivational, demographic, or ability constructs.
For instance, a construct validation study by Dweck et al. (1995a) reported
that IPT was not signicantly related with optimism about human nature
(Dweck et al.), condence in intellectual ability (Hong, Chiu, & Dweck,
1995), self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967), or political attitudes (Altemeyer,
1981; Kerlinger, 1984). Dweck et al. also reported that IPT was unre-
lated to self-presentation concerns such as self-monitoring (Snyder, 1974)
and social desirability (Paulhus, 1984), as were acquiescence, age, sex,
or cognitive abilities such as quantitative and verbal SAT scores. Levy et
al. (1998) reported that IPT was distinct from other process-oriented indi-
vidual differences variables such as personal need for structure (Neuberg
& Newsom, 1993) and need for cognition (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982), and
incrementalism was correlated with attributional complexity (r = .18;
Fletcher et al., 1986), need to evaluate (r = .19; Jarvis & Petty, 1996),
and need for closure (r = .31; Webster & Kruglanski, 1994).
Participants rated each item on a 6-point Likert-type scale with the
anchors 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. Consistent with
Chiu et al. (1997b) and Levy et al. (1998), responses to the entity-worded
items were reverse scored and a mean IPT score was calculated for
each manager, such that high scores represent an incremental IPT. Re-
verse scoring the entity items to produce a single scale was based on
the substantial evidence regarding the unitary nature of incremental and
entity beliefs (Chiu, Hong, et al., 1997; cf., Dweck, 1999), as well as
Tabernero and Woods (1999) observation that in contrast to more com-
plex constructs like goal orientations, implicit theories reect a simple
belief about plasticity or xedness . . . that has a complex set of effects
(p. 125). In this study, the IPT scale data ( =.92) had acceptable internal
consistency.
TABLE 3
Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Coefcients for Study 1
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Supervisor gender 1.56 .50
2. Supervisor management experience 2.95 2.76 .17
3. Supervisor age 31.13 4.14 .02 0.47
4. Implicit person theory 3.89 .98 .06 .19 .09

5. Coaching behavior 4.06 .35 .00 .24 .15 .38
Note. N = 45.

p < .05,

p < .01.
Results
Subordinates ratings of their managers coaching behavior were aver-
aged into a single mean score for each participant. Consistent with Bliese
(2000) and Smither et al. (1995), to test the appropriateness of this av-
eraging procedure, the inter rater reliability of the feedback instrument
was assessed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to compare
the variance between and within raters. The result, F(44, 178) = 2.60,
p < .01, partial
2
= .39, indicates that there were signicantly greater
differences in subordinates perceptions of behavior between managers
than within managers. The corresponding intra class correlation coef-
cient (ICC2 = .61; Bliese, 2000) is comparable to the values of .69 and
.67 obtained by Smither et al. These results support averaging across raters
within managers and provide evidence that the employee coaching ratings
have acceptable inter rater reliability.
The means, standard deviations, and correlations among the study vari-
ables are presented in Table 3. Participants gender, years of managerial
experience, and age were not signicantly related to either their IPT or
subordinate evaluations of their employee coaching. Nonetheless, as the
latter two demographic characteristics approached signicance, they were
included in our subsequent analyses.
A regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis that managers
incrementalism is positively related to employee ratings of the extent to
which they coach their employees. The = .38 in Table 4 indicates that
after controlling for participants age and management experience, IPT
predicted 14.44%of the variance in the extent of their employee coaching.
The 95% condence interval for the R
2
was .03.24 and the observed
power, based on Cohens (1988) procedure, was .77. These results indicate
that Hypothesis 1 was supported.
This result was obtained despite the observed bivariate relationship be-
tween IPTand coaching being potentially constrained by range restriction,
TABLE 4
Hierarchical Regression Analysis of IPT on Managers Employee Coaching
Behavior for Study 1
Predictor variables Step 1 Step 2 F R

2
R
2
Step 1 .91 .04 .04
Management experience .14 .07
Supervisors age .10 .16
Step 2 7.11 .18 .14
Implicit person theory .38
Note. Standardized regression coefcients are reported. N = 45.

p < .05, for the full
model: F(3, 42) = 3.06.
as suggested by the relatively high mean and low standard deviation (M=
4.06, SD = .36) in the coaching measure.
Discussion
The scholarly (e.g., London, 2003) and practitioner (e.g., Mike &
Slocum, 2003) literatures alike contain widespread calls for managers
to coach their employees. However, it is axiomatic that managers are
unlikely to enact any behaviors, including those that involve coaching em-
ployees, unless they appreciate the benets of doing so (Latham, 2001).
More specically, believing that people do not change could prevent en-
tity theorists from investing effort in striving to help them to improve their
performance (Dweck et al., 1995a).
This study provides initial evidence regarding the generalizability of
Dwecks research on the relationship of IPT to helping others in several
ways. Specically, the ndings of previous studies (i.e., Chiu, Dweck,
et al., 1997; Gervey et al., 1999; Heyman & Dweck, 1998; Karafantis &
Levy, 2004) appear to generalize beyond common-method evidence of
children and adolescents advising paper people, to independent ratings
of managers organizational rolesalient employee coaching behaviors.
This nding has practical importance in light of the signicant role that
coaching plays in effective managerial performance (Borman & Brush,
1993; Yukl, 2002), together with the absence of prior knowledge regarding
which managers are most inclined to coach their employees.
There are, however, several characteristics of Study 1 that are impor-
tant to note. First is the modest sample size. Second, all the managers in
Study 1 were MBA students in an elective course on change leadership.
Given that these managers had chosen to be in such a learning context, it
is possible that they were more inclined to both (a) endorse an incremental
IPT and (b) coach their employees, thereby limiting the generalizability of
Study 1 results to the general population of managers. Third, the partici-
pants selected the subordinates who rated their coaching. It is possible that
the managers selected subordinates whom they perceived would provide
coaching assessments that were consistent with managers personal be-
liefs and self-image (Farr &Newman, 2001). Finally, demand effects could
have been created by raters knowing that their manager would receive a
copy of their (albeit anonymous) coaching ratings (London, 2003).
Study 2
This study sought to replicate Study 1 using a different methodology.
First, instead of examining the coaching behavior of managers who were
engaged in a leadership-related MBA elective, this study was conducted
with managers who were not necessarily students. In particular, part-time
MBA students evaluated the coaching behavior of their current or most
recent manager, as a function of that managers IPT. Second, in contrast
to Study 1, the managers who participated in this study did not choose
those who rated the extent to which they engaged in employee coaching.
Third, to reduce potential demand effects, raters in this study knew that a
coaching feedback report would not be provided to the managers whose
coaching they evaluated.
Under these conditions, though using the same coaching instrument as
Study 1, we again tested the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: Managers incrementalism is positively related to the extent
to which they coach their employees.
Method
Participants. Based on the mediumlarge effect size of IPT on man-
agers engagement in coaching found in Study 1 (i.e., =.38), and using
the power guidelines of Cohen (1992), we estimated that 64 participants
would be required to achieve an acceptable level of power (.80) in this
study. There were two sets of participants. First, 105 subordinates who
were enrolled in a 7-week professional MBA module on Organizational
Behavior at a private, southwestern U.S. university rated the extent to
which their current or most recent manager engaged in employee coach-
ing. The subordinates mean age was 28.9 years (SD =5.2), and they had
an average of 6 years work experience (SD =4.8). Second, 92 managers
of the subordinates, with an average age of 42.9 years (SD = 7.8), an
average work experience of 20.6 years (SD = 8.3), and 9.6 years (SD =
7.4) of management experience, chose to participate in this study.
Procedure. During the second week of the class, the 105 class mem-
bers were given an individualized Web link to send the survey for com-
pletion by his/her current or most recent manager. This survey, which
included the IPT measure, was completed by 92 of the subordinates man-
agers. The 105 class members also completed a condential Web-based
survey on the coaching behavior of their managers. The class members
were encouraged to be as accurate as possible and were also assured that
their manager would not receive a copy of their ratings. Thus, 92 matched
managersubordinate pairs were used for the present data analysis.
5
In
the sixth week of the class, when the underlying theoretical model and
the results of the data analysis were presented for pedagogical reasons,
students indicated that they had had no prior knowledge of the hypotheses
being tested.
Employee coaching scale. To assess employee coaching, we used the
10-item employee coaching scale and response protocol developed in
Study 1. A CFA of the data found a good t with the higher-order three-
factor model,
2
(32, N = 106) = 140.09, p < .01, SRMR = .04, CFI =
.96. As in Study 1, all of the coaching behavior item loadings and the
rst-order composite coaching factor loading were signicant at the p <
.01 level.
IPT measure. To assess the IPT of the managers, we used the
eight-item domain-general kind-of-person implicit theory measure and
response protocol adopted in Study 1.
Results
The descriptive statistics, correlation coefcients, and alpha coef-
cients for each of the scales are presented in Table 5. Aregression analysis
was again used to test the hypothesis that managers incrementalism is
positively related to employee ratings of the extent to which they coach
their employees. The =.48 in Table 6 indicates that after controlling for
participants age and management experience, IPT predicted 23% of the
variance in the extent of their employee coaching. The observed power,
based on Cohens (1988) procedure, was .99, and the 95% condence
interval for the R
2
was .26.62. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported.
It is noteworthy that there was a relatively lower mean and higher
variance in the coaching measure in this study (M = 3.38, SD = .90),
compared to that observed in Study 1 (M=4.06, SD=.36), t(148) =5.06,
p < .001. As managers in Study 2 did not select their raters or receive
5
It is interesting to note that the 13 managers who did not participate in the IPT survey
had mean coaching behaviors of 3.09, as opposed to 3.43 for the 92 survey participants.
However, this was not a statistically signicant difference, t(103) = 1.27, p = .21.
TABLE 5
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Study 2
Variable M SD 1 3 4 5
1. Supervisor age 42.82 7.81 ()
2. Supervisor management experience 9.62 7.48 .62
()
3. Implicit person theory 3.77 .94 .00 .03 (.95)
4. Coaching behavior 3.43 .91 .14 .02 .46
(.94)
Note. N = 92.

p < .01.
TABLE 6
Hierarchical Regression Analysis of IPT on Managers Employee Coaching
Behavior for Study 2
Predictor variables Step 1 Step 2 F R

2
R
2
Step 1 1.09 .02 .02
Age .20 .18
Management experience .10 .08
Step 2 24.07 .23
.21
Implicit person theory .48
Note. Standardized regression coefcients are reported. N = 92.

p < .01, for the full
model: F(3, 88) = 8.93.
feedback, perhaps managers selecting their raters and receiving a feedback
report induced demand effects that led to the higher mean coaching ratings
and apparent range restriction observed in Study 1.
Discussion
As with Study 1, we found support for the hypothesized relationship of
IPT with coaching behavior. Study 2 establishes that the results of Study 1
are unlikely to be attributable to Study 1 being conducted in the context
of (a) managers undertaking an MBA program, (b) managers choosing
their raters, or (c) demand effects resulting from employees managers
receiving feedback on how their coaching was rated. Research is needed
onwhether the higher meancoachingratings andlower variance inStudy1,
relative to that observed in Study 2, is primarily attributable to managers
(a) selecting their raters or (b) receiving a feedback report. Evidence for the
former possibility could provide reason to question this standard practice
(e.g., Brett & Atwater, 2001; Heslin & Latham, 2004) within the upward
feedback literature.
There is a limitation of our rst two studies that also characterizes Chiu
et al. (1997a), Heyman and Dweck (1998), Gervey et al. (1999), as well
as Karafantis and Levy (2004). Specically, the correlational design of all
these studies limits the scope for ruling out alternative plausible expla-
nations, such as an unidentied third variable (cf., Cook & Campbell,
1979) which could account for the potentially causal relationship between
managers IPTs and their subsequent coaching behavior. Consequently,
experimental research is required to address this issue.
The value of coaching discussed in the literature, as well as the positive
relationship of IPTwith coaching behavior across our rst two studies, also
raises a theoretically and practically important question. Specically, can
managers withanentityIPTbe trainedtoadopt a sustainedincremental IPT
that increases their proclivity to coach employees? This issue is explored
in our third study.
Study 3
This experimental study examined whether persuading entity theorist
managers to adopt an incremental IPTstimulates their employee coaching-
related behaviors. Regarding the plasticity of implicit theories, Dweck
et al. (1995a) theorized that implicit theories should be viewed as rela-
tively stable but malleable personal qualities, rather than as xed dispo-
sitions (p. 279). Robins and Pals (2002) provided empirical support for
Dwecks assertion regarding the relative stability of IPT. Specically, they
reported a signicant, corrected (for unreliability) correlation between un-
dergraduates implicit theories of ability from one year to the next (r =
.72), as well as over a 3-year period (r = .64).
However, anexperiment byHeslinet al. (2005) demonstratedthat using
principles of self-persuasion (Aronson, 1999; cf., Aronson, Fried, &Good,
2002), entity theorist managers can be trained to adopt an incremental
IPT that is maintained over a 6-week period. Heslin et al. found that
entity theorists who had received the incremental induction subsequently
recognizedchanges inemployee performance toa greater extent thanentity
theorists assigned to a placebo control. This study reports on whether the
entity theorists who received the incremental induction in the Heslin et al.
study provided a higher quantity and quality of performance improvement
advice to a poor performing employee, than those in the placebo-control
condition.
Overview and Hypotheses
Consistent with Dweck et al.s (1995a) theory that implicitly believing
people dont change reduces motivation to help themdevelop and improve,
Studies 1 and 2 established that managers IPTs predict the extent to which
they coach their employees. Other research, reviewed earlier, found that
incrementalismincreases the quality of the developmental advice provided
by children (Heyman & Dweck, 1998) and undergraduates (Chiu, Dweck,
et al., 1997). This probably reects incremental theorists inclination to
make attributions and suggestions regarding modiable determinants of
performance, such as effort and the quality of ones strategies (Heyman
& Dweck, 1998), rather than the rigid, categorical judgments of others
that are the hallmark of an entity IPT (Dweck, 1999). This study reports
on whether Heslin et al.s (2005) incremental intervention increases en-
tity theorist managers willingness to coach an employee, as well as the
quantity and quality of developmental suggestions they provide.
Hypothesis 3: Compared to entity theorists in a placebo-control condition,
entity theorist managers who are trained to adopt an incremental IPT will:
(a) indicate more willingness to provide coaching,
(b) provide more performance improvement suggestions, and
(c) provide higher quality performance improvement suggestions.
Use of the quantity and quality of suggestions as criteria of coaching effec-
tiveness reects Hall et al.s (1999) nding, based on interviews with 75
executives who had been coached, that a hallmark of effective coaching is
good action ideas (p. 44). More specically, as providing useful devel-
opmental insights is central to guiding and inspiring improvements in em-
ployees work performance, coaching effectiveness was operationalized
in this study by expert evaluations of the quality of coaching suggestions
that participants provided.
Method
Participants. Given the large effect size of induced IPT on entity theo-
rist managers recognition of change in employee performance (i.e., partial
2
= .24) reported by Heslin et al. (2005), using the power guidelines of
Cohen (1992), we estimated that 34 participants were required to achieve
an acceptable level of power (.80) in this study. The participants were
115 managers engaged in an executive MBA program at a large, public
Canadian university who volunteered to participate in a study on how
managers motivate and evaluate employees. The employee coaching task
in this study was likely to be role-salient to these participants, owing to the
requirement for them to evaluate and coach peers in their respective MBA
study groups, as well as the employees they manage. Of the participants,
47 were women and 68 men, aged between 23 and 45 years (M = 30.9,
SD = 4.8). Their mean managerial work experience was 5.1 years.
It order to identify prototypical entity theorists, following Chiu, Hong,
et al. (1997) and Butler (2000), the 62 participants with a mean IPT of 3.0
or below were designated as entity theorists. Thirty of the entity theorists
were women and 32 were men. Their ages ranged between 24 and 45
(M = 31.7, SD = 4.5). Their mean managerial work experience was
5.1 years.
We randomly assigned the participants to either the incremental in-
duction (n = 33) or the control (n = 29) condition. Two participants in
the incremental induction condition and one in the placebo control did
not complete the performance rating task, as they were working out of the
country when these tasks were administered.
Procedure. We informedparticipants that the purpose of this studywas
to investigate how managers evaluate and motivate employees. During the
process of gathering informed consent, we emphasized that participants
were free to discontinue their participation at any time without penalty.
Rhodewalt and Agustsdottir (1986) found that doing so increases the effect
of self-persuasion procedures.
In order to identify the entity theorists who were the focus of this study,
we assessed IPT using the eight-item IPT scale employed in Studies 1 and
2. Entity theorists were then randomly assigned to receive either the incre-
mental inductionor the placebo-control workshop. Aweeklater, bothtypes
of workshop were administered by a different experimenter, as well as in a
different room, than the assessment of IPT. We did this because temporal
and contextual separation between pretest and treatment administration
minimizes both common-method (Podsakoff et al., 2003) and demand
effects (Aronson, Ellsworth, Carlsmith, & Gonzales, 1990). At the end
of each workshop and again 2 weeks afterward, participants completed a
workshop evaluation survey in which IPT items were embedded.
Six weeks after the workshops, participants were asked to help us eval-
uate the usefulness of a BOS for making accurate appraisal ratings and for
providing feedback to employees. To reduce potential context-dependent
demand effects, this request was made by an experimenter who had not
been involved in delivering either the incremental or placebo interventions,
in a completely different class context; specically, at the conclusion of
a required strategy class when participants were seated among peers who
had not participated in the present experiment. Consistent with Aronson
et al. (1990), we framed this study in terms of evaluating a rating scale in
order to reduce demand effects due to participants guessing the hypotheses
of the study. In doing so, we solicited participants help in order to reduce
personal evaluation apprehension and other self-image concerns (Aronson
et al., 1990).
Participants viewed two videotaped instances of poor negotiation per-
formance and were then given 5 minutes (a) to evaluate the employees be-
havior using a BOS, (b) to indicate their willingness to coach the employee,
and (c) to provide, in bullet-point format, suggestions regarding how the
employee they observed may improve his negotiation performance.
Finally, we probed participants for their ideas regarding the purpose
and hypotheses of the study. Although a lively discussion ensued, no par-
ticipants revealed any knowledge of the hypotheses being tested.
Incremental induction and placebo-control workshops. These two 90-
minute workshops had an identical time frame, format, and exercises,
with the only differences being that although the incremental induction
video and subsequent exercises emphasized how people can change, the
placebo control emphasized how people typically have multiple abilities
withstrengths andweakness indifferent areas. Specically, eachworkshop
contained parallel counter-attitudinal idea generation, counter-attitudinal
reection, counter-attitudinal advocacy, and dissonance induction com-
ponents. For a detailed description and rationale for the content of these
workshops, see Heslin et al. (2005, Study 4).
IPTcriterion scale. The immediate-week, 2-week, and 6-week postin-
tervention measure of IPT was made using the scale adopted by Chiu,
Hong, et al. (1997) and Levy et al. (1998), which is made up of three
items from the eight-item IPT scale outlined previously. Consistent with
Aronson et al. (1990), we used this shortened scale to lessen the demand
effects that could have resulted from re-administering the eight-item IPT
scale, particularly immediately after the IPTinduction. This scale has good
internal consistency ( = .90.96; Chiu et al., 1997b) and is signicantly
correlated with the eight-item IPT scale (r = .83; Levy & Dweck, 1997).
To further decrease the chance of the IPT re-assessment creating demand
effects, consistent with Aronson et al. (1990), the three IPT items were
embedded within the following measure.
Workshop satisfaction. Following Levy et al. (1998), we assessed par-
ticipants satisfaction with the extent to which the workshop they attended
was useful, interesting, thought-provoking, and worthwhile, us-
ing a Likert-type scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.
The response scores had acceptable internal consistency, both immediately
( = .80) and 2 weeks ( = .86) after the intervention workshops.
Stimulus video. Negotiation skills with peers, subordinates, and su-
pervisors are a core competency for managerial effectiveness (Yukl,
2002). Consistent with Mero and Motowidlo (1995), we showed an em-
ployees negotiating performance on videotape in order to hold employee
performance constant. The video featured two incidents in which an
employee exhibited poor negotiation performance, as validated using
the method advocated by Borman (1978), as well as Smither, Barry,
and Reilly (1989; see Heslin et al., 2005, Study 1, for details of this
procedure).
Behavioral observation scale. We used the 12-item negotiation per-
formance BOS developed by Heslin et al. (2005, Study 1) to substantiate
our cover story for this study. The anchors were 1 =almost never through
5 =almost always. Sample items include: Inuences others in a way that
results in agreement, and Adapts personal style to the needs of differ-
ent situations. In this study, the internal consistency of the performance
rating BOS response scores ( = .95) was high.
Willingness to coach scale. The three items used to measure willing-
ness to coach were: To what extent would you be willing to coach this
person to help him improve his performance?, If you were this persons
boss, howinclined would you be to guide this person regarding howto ne-
gotiate more effectively?, and To what extent is it likely that you would
coach this person? The anchors on this Likert-type scale were 1 = to
a minimal extent to 5 = to a large extent. The resulting scale data had
acceptable internal consistency ( = .83).
Coaching suggestions. Participants were to list improvement sugges-
tions for the employee they observed, using the following instructions:
Please provide this individual with some suggestions, in bullet-point for-
mat, for improving his negotiation performance.
The quantity and quality of coaching suggestions provided were eval-
uated by two independent raters who were blind to the hypotheses of the
study. These raters counted the number of improvement suggestions. They
also rated the quality of the suggestions using the following two items:
These suggestions will enable this individual to know precisely what
he needs to do to negotiate more effectively, and These suggestions
are likely to instill in this person a desire for continuous improvement.
The anchors on the Likert-type scale were 1 = strongly disagree to 5 =
strongly agree. These items were combined to form a composite measure
of the quality of coaching suggestions. The intraclass correlation indi-
cating interrater agreement regarding the quality of coaching suggestions
was .88.
Analysis
We rst conducted a manipulation check on the nature of the incremen-
tal intervention. This was done by analyzing the difference between the in-
cremental intervention and placebo-control conditions in IPTas well as
on each of the coaching-related measuresusing all the 115 participants,
rather than just the focal 62 participants initially identied as entity theo-
rists. These analyses revealed no signicant difference in incrementalism
between the incremental intervention versus the placebo-control condi-
tions either immediately after the respective interventions, F(1, 114) =
2.22, p = .14, partial
2
= .02, 2 weeks afterward, F(1, 107) = .01,
p = .93, partial
2
= .00, or 6 weeks after the interventions, F(1, 108) =
2.47, p = .12, partial
2
= .02. There was also no signicant difference
between the incremental intervention and the placebo-control conditions
in either willingness to coach, F(1, 108) = .74, p = .39, partial
2
=
.01, number of suggestions, F(1, 108) = .66, p = .65, partial
2
= .00,
or the quality of suggestions provided, F(1, 108) = .49, p = .65, partial
2
= .00. These results suggest that the incremental intervention did not
inadvertently function as a coaching motivation or skills training program.
Thus, our subsequent analyses were conducted using only data collected
from the entity theorists who were the intended focus of Study 3.
Results
A 2 2 repeated measures ANOVA revealed no signicant differ-
ences in satisfaction with the incremental induction and placebo-control
workshops, either between conditions, F = .01, df = 55, p = .92, partial
2
< .01, or over time, F = .50, df = 55, p = .48, partial
2
= .01. Thus,
any postintervention differences in coaching intentions or suggestions, as
a function of condition, are not attributable to differences in participants
satisfaction with the type of workshop they attended.
Table 7 provides the means, standard deviations, and the correlations
among the study variables. Participants gender, managerial experience,
and age were all unrelated to either IPT or any of the outcome variables.
Thus, these demographic characteristics are not included in our ensuing
analyses.
As reported in Heslin et al. (2005), a 2 3 repeated measures ANOVA
revealed that across the 6-week postintervention period, the IPT of entity
theorists who engaged in incremental self-persuasion was signicantly
more incremental than the IPT of entity theorists in the placebo control,
F(2, 52) =31.19, p <.01, partial
2
=.38. Thus, the incremental induction
was successful.
The present hypotheses were that compared to those in the placebo
condition, the entity theorists who engaged in incremental self-persuasion
would (a) indicate more willingness to coach a hypothetical employee,
(b) provide more performance improvement suggestions, and (c) pro-
vide higher quality performance improvement suggestions. As shown in
Table 7, these three dependent variables were signicantly correlated.
Thus, we used a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to test
overall effects. The results indicated a signicant effect of treatment con-
dition, Wilks, lambda = .78, F(3, 55) = 5.21, p < .01, partial
2
= .22.
Thus, three univariate ANOVAs were conducted.
Willingness to coach. There was a signicant difference in willingness
to coach as a function of condition, F(1, 58) =7.67, p < .01, partial
2
=
.12, observed power =.78. Specically, entity theorists in the incremental
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self-persuasion condition were more willing to coach the employee whose
poor performance they had just observed (M=4.04, SD=0.78), than their
entity counterparts in the placebo condition (M=3.33, SD=1.15). Thus,
Hypothesis 3a was supported.
Number of coachingsuggestions. The number of suggestions provided
by entity theorists who engaged in incremental self-persuasion (M=3.38,
SD = 1.74) was signicantly greater than that provided by those in the
placebo (M =2.19, SD=1.67; F(1, 58) =7.23, p <.01, partial
2
=.11,
observed power = .75). Thus, Hypothesis 3b was supported.
Quality of coaching. The quality of improvement suggestions pro-
vided by entity theorists who were given the incremental induction
(M = 3.10, SD = 1.39) was signicantly greater than those provided
by the entity theorists in the placebo condition (M = 1.88, SD = 1.33;
F(1, 58) =11.93, p <.01, partial
2
=.17, observed power =.92). Thus,
Hypothesis 3c was supported.
6
In summary, these results suggest that the incremental intervention did
not motivate the participants in it to coach more frequently or effectively,
unless they were entity theorists who (a) Studies 1 and 2 showed are
disinclined to coach, and (b) adopted a more incremental IPT after being
exposed to the incremental intervention.
Discussion
This study provides the rst experimental test of whether induced in-
crementalism is positively related to entity theorist managers coaching
intentions, as well as the quantity and quality of improvement suggestions
they provide. Consistent with prior research (e.g., Chiu, Dweck, et al.,
1997a; Heyman & Dweck, 1998), including the present Studies 1 and 2,
these results suggest that variance in the extent and helpfulness of man-
agers coaching is explained by their IPTs.
The present preliminary evidence that induced incrementalism can
increase managers incrementalism and subsequent employee coaching
provides a basis for future research to explore when it is likely to do so.
For instance, 6 weeks after participating in the incremental intervention,
managers were asked to provide coaching suggestions after only a couple
of brief observations of a video person who was not really their em-
ployee. One potential moderator here could be time. For instance, does
the present incremental intervention last longer than a 6-week period?
How is the duration of induced incrementalism affected by factors such as
6
Supplementary reanalysis of the results regarding the three hypotheses in this study
were almost identical when participants initial level of IPT was included as a covariate in
each analysis.
organizational culture or having a boss who fervently advocates an entity
perspective?
Relatedly, howmight induced incrementalismbe undermined by man-
agers ongoing interactions with their employees, especially those whose
performance does not improve even after numerous coaching sessions and
other developmental interventions? Research is needed on howquickly the
effects of an incremental intervention disappear in the face of repeated ev-
idence that coaching does not lead to employee behavioral change.
Finally, employees often bitterly resent managers highlighting their
shortcomings (Kay, Meyer, & French, 1965), as could be inferred from
managers offering to provide performance coaching. Research is needed
on whether IPT interacts with managers concern for maintaining cor-
dial relationships with their employees in determining the extent to which
managers coach. Such research could fruitfully explore conditions under
which potentially smaller effects might be obtained when the present in-
cremental intervention is applied in eld settings. In doing so, this research
could reveal important boundary conditions to the practicality of applying
the present incremental induction to enhance the provision of coaching by
managers in organizations. It will also hopefully inspire investigations into
follow-up initiatives with potential to sustain induced incrementalism.
General Discussion
In order to facilitate progress in organizational scholarship, Eden
(2002) called for programmatic replication research rather than one-time
minitheories that . . . are never revisited (p. 171). These studies build on
Dwecks extensive program of theory and research by empirically estab-
lishing that managers IPTs appear to affect the extent to which they coach
their employees. The converging results from our eld (Studies 1 and 2)
and lab (Study 3) research establish that prior IPTresearch ndings are not
merely an artifact of the trait ratings, paper people stimuli, and the child
or adolescent samples that have largely characterized the extant implicit
theory literature. Specically, they generalize to managers engagement
in a task that is widely viewed as a key part of their organizational role
(Drucker, 2002; Yukl, 2002).
Together, these results strengthen the present evidence about the effect
of IPT on employee coaching. This nding is practically important in light
of the previously cited signicant role that coaching plays in managerial
performance (Borman & Brush, 1993; Yukl, 2002), especially with regard
to enhancing the effectiveness of other employee development initiatives
(Olivero et al., 1997; Smither et al., 2003).
Practical Implications and Future Research
The notion that a training intervention may improve the frequency and
quality with which managers coach their employees is not new. Indeed,
Hoppock (1958, p. 24) concluded that:
The art of coaching is something that some men will never learn and others
do not need to be taught. But between these extremes, we can count the vast
majority of managers who can be trained to do a better job of counseling
their subordinates.
Although there has been an accumulation of advice about how managers
ought to coach their employees (e.g., London, 2003; Whetton &Cameron,
2002; Yukl, 2002), the effectiveness of management development initia-
tives is often limited by insufcient attention to trainees motivation to
implement what they have learned (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Goldstein &
Ford, 2002).
Dweck et al. (1995a) theorized that entity theorists implicit belief
in the rigidity of human attributes makes them disinclined to invest in
helping others to improve. The present results show that IPT is a moti-
vational variable likely to affect whether managers enact what they are
taught about how to coach employees. By virtue of providing a theoreti-
cal explanation that enables both behavioral prediction (Studies 1 and 2)
and change (Study 3), IPT appears to constitute a useful theory (Miner,
2005) for guiding the development of organizational initiatives aimed at
increasing managers motivation to coach their employees.
Field research within organizational settings is needed regarding
whether anincremental self-persuasioninterventioncanincrease the effec-
tiveness of management development initiatives aimed at leading entity-
oriented managers to coach their employees. There are two potential
incrementalism-building routes that such training/management develop-
ment initiatives may fruitfully focus on: rst, by self-persuading managers
who hold an entity theory that they are personally capable of more change
in their managerial style and behavior than they had previously imagined
possible and, second, by self-persuading such managers that each of their
employees is also potentially capable of substantial positive change and
improvement, given the appropriate coaching and needed support through
their developmental process. Both routes draw upon what is probably the
essence of the present incremental intervention: having managers recall
when they have observed substantial, often unexpected positive change
in themselves, as well as others, before inviting them to seriously pon-
der why the developmental paths undertaken in such instances could not
be similarly viable and productive regarding the performance challenges
presently being encountered by their employees.
Study 2 has shown that these results generalize beyond MBAstudents.
Further research is needed on practical questions such as whether they
generalize to coaching by entity theorists who are responsible for coaching
employees to improve based on 360-degree or upward feedback results,
as well as facilitating their transfer of training from other developmental
experiences.
Positive ndings in this regard would reinforce the present initial evi-
dence that encouraging incrementalism is a practical avenue for fostering
the employee coaching of managers who hold an entity IPT. Such re-
search could fruitfully explore an expanded criterion space by examining
whether changes in managers IPTs and subsequent coaching are linked
to key outcomes suggested by the extant coaching literature, such as em-
ployee motivation, learning, and performance (London, 2003; Smither
et al., 2003).
Potential interactions between preexisting IPT and incremental train-
ing interventions could also be fruitfully explored. For instance, an issue
of practical signicance is whether incremental training leads managers
with an entity IPT to coach all their employees comparably to incremen-
tally oriented managers, or do they focus their coaching efforts more on
a select few employees who they consider to have the right stuff to be
able to improve?
Although these studies add to the substantial literature regarding
the positive outcomes likely to result from holding an incremental IPT
(Dweck, 1999), research may protably examine potential costs of man-
agers holding an extremely incremental IPT. For instance, an incremental
theory may serve managers poorly if their implicit belief in the potential
for growth and change leads them to grossly over estimate the likelihood
of an employee making the behavioral changes needed to improve his or
her performance. As Dweck, Chiu, and Hong (1995b) observed the pos-
sibility and probability of change are two separate things (p. 324, italics
inserted). Thus, research is needed on whether a resolutely incremental
theory prevents managers from coming to terms with any limitations in
the potential or likelihood of employees performance improvement. Such
research may begin to uncover possible boundary conditions to the con-
siderable evidence regarding the benets of holding an incremental IPT.
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Keen To Help Managers' Implicit

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PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY

2006, 59, 871902

4. Implicit person theory 3.89 .98 .06 .19 .09

Predictor variables Step 1 Step 2 F R

Implicit person theory .38

Note. Standardized regression coefcients are reported. N = 45.

Predictor variables Step 1 Step 2 F R

Implicit person theory .48

Note. Standardized regression coefcients are reported. N = 92.

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