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DOI: 10.1177/1534484308318760
2008
2008 7: 339 originally published online 30 June Human Resource Development Review
Sandra L. Fornes, Tonette S. Rocco and Karen K. Wollard
Review of the Research
Workplace Commitment: A Conceptual Model Developed From Integrative

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AUTHORS NOTE: An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2004 meeting of the
AHRD Academy of Human Resource Development held in Austin, Texas.
Human Resource Development Review Vol. 7, No. 3 September 2008 339-357
DOI: 10.1177/1534484308318760
2008 SAGE Publications
Workplace Commitment: A
Conceptual Model Developed
From Integrative Review of the
Research
SANDRA L. FORNES
Hidden Angel Foundation, Inc.
TONETTE S. ROCCO
Florida International University
KAREN K. WOLLARD
Kelly, Wollard & Associates
This article investigates the previous research and theories of workplace
commitment using content analysis and concept mapping. It provides a
conceptual model of workplace commitment, integrating the literature on
organizational commitment, occupational/career commitment, and individ-
ual commitment. The significance of this article lies in the integration of
the extant literature on commitment and the development of a conceptual
model of workplace commitment and related propositions derived from the
literature. The article discusses interventions that can be used by human
resource development (HRD) researchers and practitioners to improve
organizational performance by developing workplace commitment in the
organization.
Keywords: workplace commitment; organizational commitment; performance
improvement
Performance improvement in an organization goes beyond the commonly
accepted principles of good management and effective leadership by engaging
the emotional commitment of the employee (Katzenbach, 2000). Commitment
is the differentiating factor between top-performing companies and those of
average performance (Katzenbach, 2000). Emotionally engaged employees
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are more productive and customer-focused (Callahan, 1998). High levels of
employee commitment are positively correlated with superior financial per-
formance in organizations as demonstrated by significant increases in operat-
ing and net profit margins (Gallup Organizations Survey, 2002; International
Survey Research, 2001; Watson Wyatt Global Consulting, 2003). Individuals
and teams that are committed to the organizations goals and values have
higher morale, lower turnover, increased job satisfaction, and increased pro-
ductivity (Cohen, 2003; Meyer & Allen, 1997; Mowday, Porter, & Steers,
1982). Yet, more than a third of employees worldwide admit to having low
levels of commitment to the job or company (TNS Worldwide, 2002). Only
one in twelve (8%) are company-oriented employees, predominantly com-
mitted to their company (TNS Worldwide, 2002).
Gallup (2002) estimates that uncommitted employees cost the U.S. economy
up to $350 billion per year. Even though employee commitment has a positive
impact on organizational and individual performance, productivity, turnover,
job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors; low levels of com-
mitment exist in most industries (TNS Worldwide, 2002). Whereas downsizing,
wage erosion, and productivity demands of recent years may have caused a
reduction in organizational and individual commitment, other contributing
factors may be a lack of focus by human resource development (HRD) and
organizational development (OD) practitioners to seek out and implement inter-
ventions, programs, and strategies to improve organizational commitment.
Problem Statement
The field of industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology) pro-
vides ample research that commitment in the workplace has demonstrated an
improvement in employees performance and ultimately the performance of the
overall organization (Katzenbach, 2000). The field of I/O psychology is con-
cerned with human behavior in work contexts and defined as the scientific study
of the relationship between man and the world of work (Guion, 1965,
p. 817). I/O psychology is concerned with utilizing knowledge gathered from sci-
entific inquiry to solve problems in the world of work. Example problems include
hiring better employees, reducing absenteeism, improving communication,
increasing job satisfaction, productivity, and improved performance (Muchinsky,
2002). Evident by the lack of published HRD articles around the topic of work-
place commitment, HRD lags behind in constructing interventions, strategies,
and practices to improve commitment in the workplace. Whereas I/O psycholo-
gists have illustrated that workplace commitment leads to improved employee
and organizational performance, there is little research and understanding of how
HRD practitioners can develop employees so that they are more committed to
their job and the organization. Thus there is a gap in understanding how commit-
ment is to be created and supported by individuals within the organization.
Because HRDs purpose is to improve organizational performance through
increased productivity, efficient work processes, and individual contributions
340 Human Resource Development Review / September 2008
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(Swanson & Arnold, 1996), organizational commitment has been overlooked
(Bartlett, 2001). Employee development, behavioral change, and organizational
performance are all issues that can be affected by organizational commitment
(Meyer & Allen, 1997). These are all in the domain of HRD using McLean and
McLeans (2001) definition, HRD is:
Any process or activity that, either initially or over the long term, has the potential
to develop adults work-based knowledge, expertise, productivity, and satisfaction,
whether for personal or group/team gain, or for the benefit of an organization,
community, and nation, or ultimately, the whole of humanity. (p. 322)
However, only two articles on HRD and organizational commitment have
been found in the four (academy sponsored) HRD journals in the last 10 years,
and these articles were focused specifically on training (Bartlett, 2001; Bartlett &
Kang, 2004). Little attention has been paid to the need for a focus on workplace
commitment by HRD professionals leaving a gap between the need to foster
organizational commitment approaches that improve performance and the knowl-
edge of HRD practitioners to effectively influence commitment. How can HRD
scholars help organizations find, consider, and incorporate workplace commit-
ment interventions to improve employee and organizational performance?
Purpose and Research Questions
The purpose of this article is to examine the practices surrounding commit-
ment in the workplace, and provide a conceptual model followed by proposi-
tions for HRD to improve workplace commitment and performance. The
research questions were (a) what are the organizational and individual out-
comes (consequences) of workplace commitment; (b) what are the antecedents
(or causes) to workplace commitment that creates positive outcomes for the
organization and the individual, and (c) what is the process through which
workplace commitment leads to positive outcomes? This article is organized
into four sections (a) the method, (b) conceptual model of workplace commit-
ment, (c) propositions and interventions for HRD practitioners and profes-
sionals, and (d) conclusions and implications.
Method
A structured review of the literature on commitment was conducted. Selection
of articles, content analysis, and concept mapping are discussed in this section.
Selection of Articles
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), PsycInfo, and ABI
Inform were selected with the assistance of a reference librarian as most
representative of education, psychology, and business fields. The databases
Fornes et al. / WORKPLACE COMMITMENT 341
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were queried using the keywords workplace commitment, organizational com-
mitment, affective commitment, employee emotional commitment, career,
profession, occupational commitment, job commitment, work group and team
commitment. The databases were searched for keywords alone and then paired
with human resource development and organizational development. Early in
the 1970s organizational structure and performance improvement became
important issues to corporate executives (Senge, 1993). For this reason we
reviewed the literature from 1970 to present.
A total of 567 peer-reviewed articles from journals were examined for rel-
evance to the project. Articles found to be nonspecific to the workplace (234),
i.e., general societal trends such as societal commitment or familial commit-
ment, were eliminated. Additionally, duplicate articles (198) were also elimi-
nated. Articles specific to commitment in the workplace (125) were included
in the analysis. Of the 125 peer-reviewed articles only two were HRD related
(Bartlett, 2001; Bartlett & Kang, 2004).
Content Analysis
Content analysis was conducted to identify and organize variables and con-
cepts related to commitment in the workplace. Content analysis is a research
tool used to determine the presence of certain concepts within text, by quanti-
fying and analyzing the presence, meaning and relationships of concepts, then
making inferences about the messages within the text to draw out conclusions
(Palmquist, 2003; Palmquist, Carley, and Dale, 1997). To conduct the content
analysis the articles were searched for categories based on the research ques-
tions (Palmquist, 2003). These categories consisted of (a) organizational and
employee outcomes of workplace commitment or the consequences of com-
mitment, (b) antecedents that are related to workplace commitment, and (c)
processes to improve employees commitment.
Concept Mapping
The categories were then processed using concept mapping. Concept map-
ping is a structured process focused on a topic or construct of interest that pro-
duces an interpretable pictorial view or concept map of ideas and concepts and
how these are interrelated (Novak, 1990). The links between the concepts can
be one-way, two-way, or nondirectional (Novak, 1977). Concept mapping
lends itself to the comparison of semantic connections across texts and
attempts to represent the relationship(s) between ideas, beliefs, attitudes, and
information available to an author within a text. These relationships can be
represented as logical, inferential, causal, and/or sequential relationships
(Crooper, Eden, & Ackerman, 1990).
In concept mapping the information gathered from the content analysis was
sorted into three clusters consisting of the (a) antecedents, (b) consequences or
342 Human Resource Development Review / September 2008
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outcomes, and (c) processing of workplace commitment. For example, if a
statement in an article was specific to an outcome of workplace commitment,
it was added to the cluster referred to as consequences or outcome and viewed
as an outcome construct. A map was then developed from the clusters by using
relational analysis to determine the relationships among concepts in the text
(Palmquist, 2003).
Concept mapping was used to create a conceptual model of the overall
meaning of the categories and create a map of the relationships, or links,
between concepts. The final step involved using the maps to help address the
original focus of the problem and purpose statement. Then the map can be
used as a visual framework or model for operationalizing interventions for
HRD professionals to improve workplace commitment and performance.
Conceptual Model of Workplace Commitment
A conceptual model of workplace commitment evolved as a result of the
concept mapping process and is discussed as follows. Workplace commitment
includes both organizational commitment and individual commitment.
Commitment is central to the understanding of both human motivation and
system maintenance (Kanter, 1968) and is one of the key requirements to
become a learning organization (Senge, 1993). Workplace commitment con-
sists of organizational commitment, individual commitment, and outcomes of
workplace commitment. This is followed by a summary of the antecedents to
workplace commitment leading to Figure 1: A Conceptual Model of Workplace
Commitment.
Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment involves both organizational and supervisory
commitment and is directed by organization attributes such as values and orga-
nizational behaviors (Morrow, 1993). Supervisory commitment is defined as
the strength of identification with the supervisor and the internalization of the
supervisors values. Identification occurs when the subordinate admires cer-
tain attributes of the supervisor, such as attitudes, behaviors, and accomplish-
ments. Internalization occurs when the subordinate adopts the attitudes and
behaviors of the supervisor because the supervisors attitudes and behaviors
are congruent with the subordinates value systems (Becker, 1992; Gregersen
& Black, 1993).
Commitment to the organization is related positively to a variety of desir-
able work outcomes including employee job satisfaction, motivation, and per-
formance, and related negatively to absenteeism and turnover (Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990). Organizational commitment is defined as the psychological and
emotional attachment of employees to their organizations (Mathieu & Zajac,
1990; Meyer & Allen, 1991; Morrow, 1993). Organizational commitment is
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the measure of strength of the employees identification with the goals and val-
ues of the organization (Mowday et al., 1982). Individuals committed to the
organization exert extra effort, desire organizational membership (Morrow,
1993), protect company assets, and share company goals and values (Meyer &
Allen, 1997).
Organizational commitment can be measured as either attitudinal or calcu-
lative. Attitudinal commitment is the employees emotional attachment and
identification with the organization (Cohen, 2003; Meyer & Allen, 1997;
Mowday et al., 1982; Porter, Steers, Mowday & Boulian, 1974). Attitudinal
commitment is referred to as affective commitment (Meyer, Allen, & Smith,
1993), or internalization and identification (OReilly & Chatman, 1986).
Employees continue with the organization because they want to do so (Meyer
& Allen, 1997; Mowday et al., 1982) and feel proud to be part of the organiza-
tion, respecting its values and accomplishments (OReilly & Chatman, 1986).
The calculative or side-bet (Becker, 1960), also referred to as continu-
ance (Meyer & Allen, 1997) and compliance (OReilly & Chatman, 1986),
signifies the extent to which employees feel committed to their organization
by virtue of the cost that they feel is associated with leaving it and their need
to remain with the organization (Becker, 1992; Meyer & Allen, 1997).
Employees remain with the organization because of the perceived cost of leav-
ing (Meyer & Allen, 1997).
The correlation between antecedents and attitudinal measures is stronger
than those measures of the calculated approach (Hrebiniak & Alutto, 1972;
Meyer & Allen, 1997; OReilly & Chatman, 1986) therefore the attitudinal
commitment approach provides a clear and focused measurement of organiza-
tional commitment and performance outcomes (Cohen, 2003). Thus, in this
article organizational commitment is used simultaneously with attitudinal
measures of commitment.
Individual Commitment
Individual employee commitment is guided by attributes that directly affect
the person and is defined as the psychological and emotional attachment of
individuals to their jobs, careers, work groups or teams, and peers (Cohen,
2003). Individual commitment is the strength of the employees identification
with the values of other individuals and peers within the organization (team
commitment), and his/her work (job commitment) and careers (career com-
mitment). Team commitment is an individuals identification and sense of
cohesiveness with other members of a group. Team commitment enhances
social involvement and reinforces the ties that the individual forms with the
organization (Randal & Cote, 1991). Job commitment is the degree to which
a person identifies psychologically with his/her work. The importance of work
is the degree to which work performance and internalization of organizational
values affects self-esteem and self-image (Lodhal & Kejner, 1965; Rabinowitz
344 Human Resource Development Review / September 2008
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& Hall, 1977). Career commitment (professional and occupational commit-
ment) is the employees devotion to a craft or occupation (Blau, 1995;
Morrow, 1983). Career commitment is defined as the magnitude of an indi-
viduals motivation, attitude, affect, belief, and behavioral intentions toward an
occupation or vocation (Blau, 1995; Hall, 1971) or the degree of centrality of
ones career to ones identity (Gould, 1979).
Outcomes of Workplace Commitment
The outcomes of workplace commitment are the effects that result from
organizational and individual commitment and are also referred to as the con-
sequences. Outcomes include lower absenteeism, increased work effort
(Mathieu & Zajac, 1990), and improved production (Randal & Cote, 1994)
and overall performance on the job (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Managers with
strong organizational commitment report higher levels of compliance with
strategic decisions and better financial planning (DeCotiis & Summers, 1987;
Kim & Mauborgne, 1993). These managers are more willing to engage in
organizational citizenship and extra-role performance (Meyer et al., 1993).
Employees with strong organizational commitment are emotionally attached
to the organization and have a greater desire to contribute meaningfully to the
organization. The willingness to go above and beyond the call of duty (extra-
role performance) includes things such as providing extra help to coworkers,
volunteering for special work assignments, being considerate of coworkers
and customers, working additional hours, and making suggestions when prob-
lems arise (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Organizational commitment leads to
increased competitiveness, accountability, and the desire to improve overall
job performance (Konovsky & Cropanzano, 1991). Higher levels of organiza-
tional commitment are associated with lower turnover (Camp, 1993) and
improved organizational effectiveness. Furthermore, employees that have high
levels of organizational commitment experience lower stress levels even
though they work longer and harder than those not committed. Organizational
commitment encourages motivation (Meyer & Allen, 1997) and lower psy-
chological and physical work-related stress (Reilly & Orsak, 1991), less emo-
tional exhaustion and depersonalization (Jamal, 1990). Employees committed
to the organization, their jobs and careers appear happier, and are able to exert
more quality time with their families and hobbies (Reilly & Orsak, 1991).
Individual employees commitment and commitment to work groups
improves team performance, pro-social behavior and group cohesion, and
enhances individual job performance and satisfaction (Bishop & Scott, 1997).
Job characteristics or interesting work, such as task identity, skill variety, task
significance, and autonomy, increase motivation, job satisfaction, and perfor-
mance (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Those committed to their jobs and/or
careers are absent less and have lower intentions to quit (Bishop & Scott, 1997),
increased job satisfaction, and increased intrinsic motivation (Hackman &
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Oldham, 1976). Career commitment and job involvement affect professionals
job satisfaction, turnover intention, role stress, productivity, and job migration
(Aranya & Ferris, 1984; Gunz & Gunz, 1994). Employees who receive formal
career management help form their employers reported higher levels of orga-
nizational commitment (Sturges, Guest, Conway, & Mackenzie Davey, 2002).
Summary of Antecedents
In summary (see Figure 1), the antecedents to workplace commitment are pre-
sented in terms of organizational and individual commitment. Antecedents of
commitment are actions or elements that cause commitment to occur. These
antecedents produce employee perceptions that lead to positive consequences for
the organization and individual. Organizational commitment antecedents (clarity
of purpose, equity and fairness, empowerment, congruency, feedback and recog-
nition, autonomy, and interesting work) lead to an employees perception of
support received which creates an emotional attachment to the organization
(organizational commitment). The antecedents to individual commitment (con-
gruency, feedback and recognition, autonomy and interesting work) lead to
meaningfulness of work, career, peers, and self, creating an attachment to the job,
career, and work teams (individual commitment). Organizational and individual
commitment results in positive outcomes and implications for the organization
and the individual (both proximal and distal outcomes of commitment). Figure 1
illustrates the relationship among employees perceptions and of workplace com-
mitment by illustrating the relationship between the antecedents and outcomes.
Antecedents precede the employee perception stimulating commitment and out-
comes which influence individual and organizational success. For example, clar-
ity of purpose leads to an emotional commitment to the organization.
The conceptual model suggests that antecedents promote organizational com-
mitment (including the organization and its supervisors) and individual commit-
ment (including ones job, career, and team) by fostering working conditions that
stimulate positive outcomes benefiting both the organization and individual.
Propositions and Interventions for HRD to
Enable Workplace Commitment
Understanding the antecedents to commitment allows HRD practitioners to
build and maintain highly effective organizations. Swanson (1995) defines
HRD as a process of developing and unleashing human expertise through
organization development and personnel training and development for the pur-
pose of improving performance (p. 208). Swanson and Arnold (1996) state
that HRDs principle purpose is to improve organizational performance through
increased productivity, efficient work processes, and individual contributions.
Katzenbach (2000) describes an energized and committed workforce as high-
performing (those that perform better than industry norms) and whose work
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commitment enables them to make and deliver products or services that con-
stitute a sustainable competitive advantage. Workplace commitment is an
essential factor for organizational survival and effectiveness (Buchanan, 1974).
Commitment has been defined as the degree of pledging or binding of the
individual to a set of behaviors that motivates one to act (Kiesler, 1971). Once
identification with the organization begins, individuals are likely to become
concerned with the broader interests of the organization including its reputa-
tion, survival, and continued success. This broader interest will generate activ-
ity and resource exchanges between firm and employee (Rousseau, 1998).
Organizational and individual commitments are means to optimize individual
and organizational efficiencies and productivity through interventions focused
on commitment antecedents. A framework for operationalizing interventions
for HRD professionals to improve workplace commitment and performance
emerged from the concept mapping process. The concept mapping process
produced the following seven propositions and interventions based on the
antecedents of workplace commitment: congruency, interesting work, clarity
of purpose, equity, feedback, empowerment, and autonomy.
Congruency
Congruency is the quality of agreement that exists between the employees
values and interests, and those of the organization. If congruency exists
Fornes et al. / WORKPLACE COMMITMENT 347
FIGURE 1: A Conceptual Model of Workplace Commitment
Employee perceptions












Interesting work
Equity and fairness
Empowerment
Congruency
Individual
Employee Commitment
Perceived Meaningfulness of
Organizational
Commitment
Perceived Support of
Organizational and
Feedback & recognition
Clarity of purpose
Autonomy
Outcomes
Individual and organizational Success
Antecedents
Emotional Attachment
Willing to engage in organizational citizenship
Extra-role performance
Accountability
Increased job satisfaction and work motivation
Improved Performance
Improved Production
Lower Absenteeism
Lower Turnover
Reduced work-related stress
Improved Self-esteem/Self image
Congruency
Interesting work
Feedback & recognition
Autonomy
Increased employee Well-being
Self-Awareness
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between a persons interests, preferences, abilities (Holland, 1985), and values
(Katzenbach, 2000), and organizational factors in the work environment,
employees become more emotionally committed to the organization leading to
improved performance (Czander, 2001; Holland, 1985; Katzenbach, 2000).
Congruency between the individual and his or her job/career increases com-
mitment to the career and/or job (OReilly, Chatman, & Cadwell, 1991).
Proposition 1: Aligning employees values, abilities, skills, and interests with orga-
nizational values and culture will have a positive impact on organizational and
individual commitment improving organizational and performance outcomes.
Interventions to achieve the proposition are to design selection processes
which prescreen potential employees based on congruency between individual
and organizational values; to create work environments consistent with orga-
nizational values; and to provide orientation and initial training consistent with
organizational values and make the organizational values explicit.
Interesting Work
Interesting work holds the individuals attention, is challenging and reward-
ing, is significant to the organization, and allows utilization of a variety of
skills and knowledge. Job characteristics such as job challenge, skill variety
(different activities and talents the job requires), task identity (doing a job from
beginning to end with visible results), task significance (the jobs impact on
the lives of workers and the organization), and degree of autonomy (freedom,
independence, and discretion in scheduling work and determining procedures)
all improve commitment to the organization (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Nelson,
1999), to the job (Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Varona, 2002), and to the career
(Person, 1997). The more important a task or job component (job significance)
is the greater the level of job commitment and job satisfaction, motivation, and
job performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Job enrichment which involves
modifying jobs so that employees can experience more of the motivator fac-
tors (Sachau, 2007) can be utilized to form more interesting work. Enriched
jobs offer frequent opportunities for opportunities to take responsibility and
opportunities to be autonomous (Sachau, 2007). When jobs are enriched,
employees are more interested in their work, exercise greater responsibility,
and produce higher quality output (Herzberg, 1982).
Proposition 2: Organizations that ensure interesting work and allow for job variety,
independence or discretion in sequence, methods, procedures, and quality con-
trol will improve organizational, individual, and job commitment.
Interventions to achieve the proposition are to develop an organizational
culture which is horizontal and less hierarchical to create a work environment
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that provides job variety and job enrichment to provide cross-training in a vari-
ety of positions.
Clarity of Purpose
Clarity of purpose provides a clear identification of the intentions, ideas,
goals, and plans of the organization allowing employees to be informed, ask
questions, share information, and provide a clear sense of direction. Lack of
clarity about purpose lies at the core of organizational ineffectiveness and inef-
ficiency (Katzenbach, 2000; Kaufman, 2000).
Proposition 3: Organizations that develop systems that provide a clear sense of
direction and adequate explanation of new policies and procedures will have
high levels of organizational commitment, team commitment, and individual
commitment.
Interventions to achieve the proposition are to supply employee manuals
that are written in clear, concise, and explicit language; to involve employees
in discussions of new policies and procedures; and to provide timely training
programs on new policies and procedures that provide a clear sense of direc-
tion consistent with organizational values.
Equity and Fairness
Equity and fairness maintain a balance between and within the organization
and its employees. Affective commitment and commitment between peers and
supervisors is strengthened when employees perceptions are of a fair, trusting,
and equitable environment (Kim & Mauborgne, 1993; Konovsky & Cropanzano,
1991; Rhodes & Steers, 1981).
Proposition 4: Organizations that build systems that provide for equal and fair treat-
ment of all employees will improve organizational commitment.
Interventions to achieve the proposition are to create transparent policies for
discipline, meritorious service, time off, etc., which are known and understood by
all employees; to train supervisors in fair and consistent policies concerning dis-
cipline and rewards; and to provide training programs on the roles and responsi-
bilities of good cooperative citizens consistent with organizational values.
Feedback
Feedback is the degree to which employees receive information that reveals
how well they are performing on the job. Feedback that promotes continuous
improvement and constant communication with employees leads to the
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development of organizational commitment (Luthans, 1998) and enhanced
performance (Katzenbach, 2000; Nelson, 1999; Varona, 2002).
Organizations that build systems that promote continuous feedback for improved
and constant communication will increase both organizational and individual
commitment leading to improved performance.
Interventions to achieve the proposition are to create transparent policies
for evaluation, promotion, merit pay, and communications that are known and
understood by all employees; to train supervisors in fair, consistent, and con-
tinuous evaluation and feedback processes (such as 360-degree performance
appraisals); and to provide training programs on the roles and responsibilities
of productive employees consistent with organizational values.
Empowerment
Empowerment gives authority to the employees to make decisions about
their work. Organizational commitment is stronger among employees who are
allowed to participate in decision-making and empowered to carry out their
work (DeCotiis & Summers, 1987; Meyers & Allen, 1997; Rhodes & Steers,
1981). Giving people latitude, flexibility, and power to make decisions
increases the chance that they will perform as desired bringing additional ini-
tiative, ideas, and energy to their jobs (Nelson, 1999).
Proposition 6: Organizations that allow employees to participate in decision-
making and allow employees latitude and flexibility to make decisions will
increase organizational and individual commitment.
Interventions to achieve the proposition are to create an organizational
culture which is horizontal and less hierarchical to develop an organizational
culture where supervisors encourage employee latitude in decision making;
and to provide training programs which develop employee decision making,
conflict resolution, and consensus-building skills.
Autonomy
Autonomy is the degree of freedom, independence, and discretion an
employee is allowed in scheduling work, determining procedures, and job
involvement. Job involvement allows employees to select jobs that are con-
gruent with their interest and talent (Carbery & Garavan, 2007). Job involve-
ment is the degree to which an employee identifies with his job, actively
participates in it, and considers his job performance important to his self-worth
(Lance, 1991). Increased autonomy strengthens organizational commitment
(Mathew & Zajac, 1990), increases job satisfaction, and contributes to job
commitment (Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Person & Chong, 1997). Both
350 Human Resource Development Review / September 2008
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empowerment and autonomy focuses employees on doing a job well and
encourages them to lend a hand to a coworker or department that needs help
(Katzenbach, 2000).
Proposition 7: Organizations that design work environments that allow for inde-
pendence and discretion in scheduling work and determining procedures
improves organizational and individual commitment.
Interventions to achieve the proposition are to create an organizational cul-
ture which allows for independence and discretion in scheduling work, work
procedures, and job involvement; and to develop a work environment that
allows employees to choose flextime, job sharing, and telecommuting options.
These propositions and HRD approaches will lead to positive outcomes for
both the organization and employee. HRD practitioners developing interventions
that focus on all antecedents of commitment at both the organizational and
individual level will assure an increase in positive organizational outcomes.
When undertaking such initiatives, HRD practitioners can partner with HRD
researchers to examine the impact of these initiatives focusing on future research
and theory-building which lead to providing greater expectation of meaningful
work and employee involvement (McLagan, 1989). Optimization of organiza-
tions produces outcomes of improved individual job performance, organiza-
tional performance, as well as increased job satisfaction and motivation.
HRD and Performance Implications
HRD Implications
Improved workplace commitment leads to various consequences that con-
tribute to overall improvement in employee and organizational performance.
The propositions provide HRD with approaches that can be implemented to
develop work and job environments that are conducive of individual and orga-
nizational commitment. For example, career development (an HRD function)
can make a contribution to making sure the job and work environment is con-
gruent with an employees interest and abilities. This congruency leads to
improved commitment and improved performance.
Performance Implications
A conceptual model of workplace commitment including the antecedents,
processes, and outcomes of commitment, can guide HRD performance
improvement (see Figure 2). If commitment behavior is not transferred from
individuals and subgroups to the total organization, dysfunctional behavior can
exist among individual employees whose goals are in conflict with the goals of
the organization (Cohen, 2003; Vandenberg & Scarpello, 1994). One example
of this is the possible inverse relationship between career commitment and
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organizational commitment. If the organization is not in line with the
employees career goals, the employee may be more committed to his or her
career rather than to the organization, which may have an inverse effect on
organizational performance (Cohen, 2003).
Consequences occur that maximize organizational and individual perfor-
mance such as increased productivity, reduced work-related stress, and lower
absenteeism and turnover. When the employee is committed at both levels, opti-
mal organizational and individual performance occurs and individual employee
satisfaction increases. When employees are neither committed to the organiza-
tion nor to the job, career, or work group, distress within the organization leads
to organizational performance problems and low-performing workers.
When employees are committed to the organization, but not committed at
the individual level (i.e., to their jobs or careers) or committed at the individ-
ual level, but not committed at the organizational level, conflict between orga-
nizational and individual values and goals leads to stagnant or lower than
expected performance.
Conclusion
Potential spillover into other areas such as commitment to ones family and
nation may affect society at large (Cohen, 2003). If the quality of an
352 Human Resource Development Review / September 2008
FIGURE 2: Performance Implications of Workplace Commitment
CONFLICT
Low individual job performance,
Low satisfaction and motivation.
High organizational performance
CONFLICT
High individual job
performance, satisfaction and
motivation,
Low or average organizational
performance
OPTIMIZATION
High individual job
performance, High
organizational performance,
High satisfaction and motivation
HIGH
Organizational
(Affective)
Commitment
DISTRESS
Low job performance,
Low satisfaction, motivation.
Low organizational performance
HIGH
Individual Employee Commitment
LOW
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employees attachment to work organizations is low, this will carry certain
implications for the basic fabrication of society (Cohen, 2003). Without
employee commitment, individuals would lose one very basic source of iden-
tity and belonging. The identification of people with the organization can cre-
ate a larger whole that is often a driving force behind a firms performance,
and its employees well being (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001).
The objective of this review of the literature was to examine factors of
workplace commitment as a performance improvement model for HRD.
Further research is needed to examine these factors and their influence on
commitment. The Conceptual Model of Workplace Commitment presented
here demonstrates the inputs, processes, and outcomes currently described in
the workplace commitment literature. Further investigation of each of the find-
ings would be necessary to determine which inputs and processes are most
influential in improving outcomes. Scholars need to investigate successful and
unsuccessful organizations, looking for causes of the outcomes. As the model
is refined, revised, and expanded, it will need to also be tested in a range of
different settings. The importance of organizational commitment to the bottom
line of the organization needs to be considered one of the determining factors
in whether the organization will make the changes needed to increase it.
HRD practitioners need to take ownership of the approaches suggested
here, and to begin using, testing, and evaluating the inputs and processes
shown here to contribute to increased commitment. Furthermore, HRD practi-
tioners must help their organizational leaders understand the importance of the
outcomes of commitment: improved performance, improved production,
higher employee effort, and satisfaction. Once leaders understand that com-
mitment can and must be increased, it will be essential to make changes in the
organizations culture (Rashid, Sambasivan, & Johari, 2003). If HRD practi-
tioners fail to step up and command the approaches that build commitment,
they may be hijacked by business processes that quickly undermine the hard
work of building commitmentcreating equity, fairness, autonomy, giving
feedback and recognition, designing interesting work, and having clear con-
gruency between organizational mission and values and personal ones.
The concept map (model) is a work in process. As more research is done,
the implications of various types of leadership styles, work arrangements, and
cultural influences may be shown to affect organizational and individual com-
mitment. Organizational commitment may even be affected by market forces
and by the ways various industries structure their employee relationships, as is
being suggested in the nursing literature (Gould & Fontenla, 2006).
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Sandra L. Fornes, EdD, is the executive director of the Hidden Angel Foundation
as well as an HRD professional focused on organizational performance through
the development of improved selection and placement systems, team development,
and organizational climate. Her research interests include workplace develop-
ment and improved quality of life for individuals with disabilities.
Tonette S. Rocco, PhD (Ohio State University), is associate professor in the Adult
Education and Human Resource Development Program. Research interests
include continuing professional education, equity and privilege (specifically in
terms of race, sexual minorities, age, and disability), teaching for social justice,
and employability/career development.
Karen K. Wollard, EdD, is a Human Resource Development Practitioner/ Scholar.
Her research interests include employee engagement, retention, and commitment;
organizational strategies for performance improvement; and the relationship
between service quality and organizational culture.
Fornes et al. / WORKPLACE COMMITMENT 357
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