Book of Abstracts.110903b PDF

Book of abstracts
The 19th Conference of the European Association for Sport Management

Madrid 2011, 7-10 September
Spain

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The 19
th
Conference
of the European Association
for Sport Management
Madrid, Spain
September 7-10, 2011
www.easm2011.com
3

19
th
Conference of the European Association for Sport Management
4
Editors
Hallgeir Gammelsaeter & Gerardo Bielons
Publisher
GB Creation & Advice Consulting, Madrid, Spain
Design and realisation
Aimar Design. info@aimara.es
ISBN: 978-84-694-7336-8
N REGISTRO: 11/86321
2011 GB Creation & Advice Consulting, Madrid, Spain.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher.
Dear Delegate,
We are happy to present the latest edition of abstracts
from the 19th EASM Annual Conference held in Madrid
this year from 710 September.
On behalf of the European Association for Sports
Management I would like to thank everybody who
contributed to the book: the authors and their institutions
for their efforts in developing knowledge in our field, the
Scientific Committee and its team of reviewers for all their
support and, finally, the Local Organising Committee for
their good job putting all together in time.
Some of the papers will be published, as full articles, in
future issues of our official journal, the European Sports
Management Quarterly (ESMQ) which has recently been
accepted by the 2011 Thomson Social Sciences Index.
One of the papers submitted by a new researcher will be
awarded the New Researchers Award (NRA), sponsored
by our publisher, Routledge Journals.
Since the first annual EASM Conference in Groningen in
1993 we have produced a book of abstracts, available at
easm.net, where you can find invaluable information for
your research as well as the latest in sport management.
We are confident that the book will provide a useful
reference for the study of sport management as well as
assisting sport managers to maximise the value of their
work.
We look forward to receiving your contributions to the next
20th EASM Conference entitled The Business Aspect of
Sport to be held in Alborg next year, from 18 21
September.
Mikel Urdangarin
President of EASM
Vitoria-Gasteiz, Basque Country, Spain
September 2011
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Conference of the European Association for Sport Management 5
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On behalf of the EASM Scientific Committee I welcome
you to take part in the 19th EASM conference. EASM aims
to develop opportunities for teachers, researchers,
students, and organizers in the field of sport management
to cooperate and enhance effectiveness, creativity, and
reflexivity in managing sport. Over the last years EASM
has increasingly developed its event products to
accomplish these aims, and the 19th EASM conference
clearly reflects our endeavour to rely on different means in
building a viable sport management community. The
conference comprises presentations given by keynote
speakers, journal editors, new researchers competing for
the New Researchers Award, researchers engaging in the
special issue invited by our own journal, ESMQ, student
from the master seminar, and not to forget the researchers
and practitioners presenting and commenting at the many
theme sessions and workshops.
In 2011 the number of workshops is the largest ever. This
reflects a need to develop sub-theme communities that
facilitate working relationships enduring the single
conference itself. It is EASMs desire to works as an
incubator for the emergence of viable networks of people
that enhances EASMs goals. Note that the workshop
mode also gives you the opportunity, upon application for
the next conferences, to gather colleagues engaged in the
same sub-theme as you are under the auspices of EASM
(see Call for Workshops 2012, page 587).
To the 19th EASM conference a record 330 abstracts were
received for assessment, to the workshops, theme
sessions and posters. 76 reviewers, including the
workshop conveners, have volunteered to assess the
abstracts. The Scientific Committee is very satisfied with
this increase in the EASM activities and is very grateful
that so many of you have engaged in it to make the 19th
EASM conference an inspiring event for all us. Thank you
very much - and enjoy the experience of sharing and
increasing knowledge in the fabulous context prepared by
the Madrid organizing committee!
Dr. Hallgeir Gammelster
Chair of the Scientific Committee
19th EASM Conference
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LOCAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Chair of the 19th EASM Conference Madrid
Gerardo Bielons
Director GB Consulting
Senior Lecturer Universidad Autnoma de Madrid
chair2011@eventsgb.com
Members
Ana M. Lpez Garca
Dean of the Faculty of Economic and Business Sciences
Universidad Autnoma de Madrid
Fernando Casani Fernndez de Navarrete
Director of the Department of Business Organisation
Jess Rodrguez Pomeda
Department of Business Organisation
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Steering Committee
Chair
Hallgeir Gammelster
Molde University College, Norway
sc.chair2011@eventsgb.com
Vice-chair
Veerle De Bosscher
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
Members
Anne Bourke
UCD Dublin, Ireland
Simon Shibli
Sheffield Hallam University, UK
Jolanta Zysko
Jozef Pilsudski University of Physical Education, Warsaw,
Poland
Guido Schafmeister
Macromedia University, Munich, Germany
NEW RESEARCHERS AWARD PANEL
MEMBERS
Head of NRA panel 2011
Marijke Taks
Members
Dimitra Papadimitriou
Holger Preuss
Berit Skirstad
Harry-Arne Solberg
Tracy Taylor
Joerg Koenigstorfer (First NRA Winner)
Panel members 2011 ESMQ editors workshop
Tracy Taylor (Editor Sport Management Review)
Lucie Thibault (Former Editor Journal of Sport
Management)
Barrie Houlihan (Editor International Journal for Sport
Policy
Mike Weed (Editor Journal of Sport and Tourism)
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LIST OF REVIEWERS
Adams Andy
Southampton Solent University, UK
Anagnostopoulos Christos
University of Coventry, UK
Andersen Svein S.
Norwegian School of Management, NOR
Andreff Wladimir
University of Sorbonne-Paris, FRA
Barajas Angel
University of Vigo, ESP
Bottenburg Maarten van
University of Utrech, NED
Bourke Anne
UCD Dublin, IRE
Breuer Christoph
German Sport University Cologne, GER
Bhlke Nikolai
Sport England, UK
Casani, Fernando
Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, ESP
Chalip Laurence
University of Texas, USA
Chappelet Jean-Loup
Institut de Hautes tudes en Administration Publique, FRA
Chatziefstathiou Dikaia
University of Canterbury, UK
Chelladurai Packianathan
Ohio State University, USA,
Danylchuk Karen
University of Western Ontario, CAN
Darcy Simon
University of Technology, Sydney, AUS
Davies Larissa
De Bosscher Veerle
Vrije Uniiversity, BEL
Doherty Alison J.
University of Western Ontario, CAN
Dolles Harald
Heilbronn Business School, SWE
Ellert, Guido
Macromedia University of Applied Science, GER
Fahln, Joseph
Ume University, SWE
Fahlstrm, PG
Linnaeus University, SWE
Ferrand Alain
University of Lyon, FRA
Forslund, Magnus
Linnaeus University, SWE
Gammelster Hallgeir
Molde University College, NOR
Garca Marta
Universidad Pablo de Olavide, ESP
Girginov Vassil
Brunel University, UK
Gratton Chris
Hanstad Dag Vidar
Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, NOR
Henry Ian
Loughborough University, UK
Hoecke Jo Van
Vrije Universiteit Brussel/Faculty of Physical Education
and Physiotherapy, BEL
Horch Heinz-Dieter
German Sport University Cologne, GER
Houlihan Barrie
Loughborough University, UK
Kelly, Seamus
Dublin Institute of Technology, IRE
Kihl Lisa A
University of Minnesota, USA
Klein Marie-Luise
Ruhr-Universitt Bochum, GER
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Lera Fernando
Universidad de Navarra, ESP
Mignon Patrick
Inst. Nac du Sport, de l'Expertise et de la Performance,
FRA
Morrow, Stephen
University of Stirling, UK
Nicholson Matthew
University of Ballarat, Australia, AUS
Papadimitriou Dimitra
University of Patras, GRE
Parent Milena
University of Ottawa, CAN
Petroczi Andrea
Kingston University, UK
Pitts Brenda
Georgia State University, USA
Pomeda, Jess Rodrguez
Universidad Autnoma de Madrid, ESP
Preuss Holger
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, GER
Puronaho Kari
Haaga-Helia University of Applied Sciences, FIN
Richardson, David
Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Robinson Leigh
University of Stirling, UK
Rodrguez Plcido
University of Oviedo, ESP
Ronglan Lars Tore
Rubingh Berend
Manage to Manage, NED
Snchez Patricio
University of Vigo, ESP
Santos Jos Manuel Snchez
University of A Corua , ESP
Schafmeister Guido
University of Bayreuth, GER
Scheerder Jeroen
University of Leuven, BEL
Seguin Benoit
University of Ottawa, CAN
Senaux Benot
University of Coventry, UK
Sherry Emma
La Trobe University, AUS
Shibli Simon
Shilbury David
Deakin University, AUS
Skille Eivind
Hedmark University College, NOR
Skirstad Berit
Solberg Harry Arne
Trondheim Business School, NOR
Taylor Tracy
University of Technology Sydney, AUS
Thibault Lucie
Brock University, CAN
Tiel Ansgar
Universitt Tbingen, GER
Turco Douglas Michele
Drexel University, USA
Turner Brian
The Ohio State University, USA
Walters, Geoff
Birkbeck, University of London, UK
Weed, Mike
Canterbury University, UK
Vilanova Anna
Institut Nacional d'Educaci Fsica de Catalunya, ESP
Wilson Robert
Woratschek Herbert
University of Bayreuth, GER
Zysko Jolanta
Jozef Pilsudski University of Physical Ed., Warsaw, POL
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Themes Sessions
CSR in Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Drugs & Deviance in Sport . . . . . . . . . 21
Sport Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Sport Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Leadership in Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Lifestyle & Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Sport Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Mixed Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Sport & Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Spanish Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Sport Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Sport For Good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Sport Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Workshops
The Contribution
of Sport Economics
to Sport Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
The Organisation
and Management
of Elite sport Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
The Contribution
of Science
to Practice in Football . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Managing
the Olympic
Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Sport Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
University Teaching
in Sport Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
The Governance
of Professional
European Team Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
New Perspectives
on Sport Volunteerism . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
New Researchers Award . . . . . . . . . . 499
Posters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Table of Contents
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CSR in Sport
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Themes
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CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITy
IN SPORT: TOWARDS A CONTExT-
INTENSIVE AND SECTOR-SPECIFIC
EMPIRICAL ExAMINATION
Author:
Christos Anagnostopoulos
email:
c.anagnostopoulos@coventry.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Neville Clements
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Sport & Event Management Department
Abstract
Introduction
The term corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been
discussed in academic literature for decades, but lately it
has become significantly more popular. The sport field
has not been immune to this development. Despite the
proliferation of empirical research examining CSR in sport
industry (e.g. Babiak and Wolfe, 2009; Sheth and Babiak,
2010; Walters and Tacon, 2010; Babiak, 2010), in most
empirical CSR studies the social context of the
organisations within which CSR is developed and
implemented has not enjoyed sufficient attention. A notable
exception is the work of Babiak and her colleagues (Wolfe,
2009 and Trendafilova, 2011) who explicitly incorporate
social context in their analysis by drawing on the
institutional perspective, albeit without explicitly
acknowledging the limitations of this approach. The point
of departure of this paper is that a critical assessment of
organisation theorys perspectives is of paramount
importance to better understanding the social context of
sport organisations in relation to the development and
implementation of CSR.
The paper draws on a research-in-progress that looks at
CSR within a specific business sector, namely English top-
tier football. It provides a critical assessment of
organisation theorys perspectives on social context and,
with this sector-specific research in mind, demonstrates
that, in order for an empirical CSR-focussed research in
the sport management field to be regarded as context-
intensive, the social context surrounding it should be
thoroughly and explicitly addressed at the outset.
The first approach to be scrutinised is the institutional
perspective, where CSR engagement may be seen as the
product of isomorphic behaviour within the English football
industry. Although the pursuit of legitimacy as a driver
behind CSR cannot be overlooked, the problem with this
perspective lies in its tendency to assume that managerial
actions within football clubs make little difference to the
social context, focussing instead on external environment
as the key to CSR development and implementation.
The population ecology perspective assumes that
environmental constraints dominate organisational
behaviour, thus putting emphasis on macro-issues while
neglecting individual actors roles (in this case too, the
CSR managers in their respective football clubs) that may
shape the organisational reality.
Unlike the abovementioned perspectives on context,
through the cultural perspective organisational context can
be defined based upon a set of individuals (i.e. the CSR
manager in each club) or groups (i.e. the twenty Premier
Leagues CSR managers collectively) perceptions of that
context. A possible sticking point here is that this
perspective does not adequately acknowledge other
influences, particularly external ones (e.g. the English
political landscape, pressures from football governing
bodies legislation and so on).
Another, rather dynamic perspective from which the social
context can be examined is the political perspective which
recognises that individuals and groups have the ability to
shape their social context. However, by explaining CSR
development and implementation as primarily a product of
power relationships, other important elements of CSR (e.g.
ethics) run the risk of being sidelined.
The structural contingency perspective can provide a
sound platform for the discussion of CSR development and
implementation through its acknowledgment that football
clubs adjust themselves to contextual changes, especially
market dictates. The fact that this perspective stresses the
role of leadership and power in shaping the organisational
context is one of its key strengths. However, its failure to
acknowledge any cultural variations renders attempts to
utilise it for building CSR theory problematic.
Approaching CSR theorisation in football from the cognitive
perspective moves the discussion away from managerial
doing and towards managerial interpreting. The
emphasis here is on the potential of personal cognition to
shape organisational context and the recognition that
formal and informal organisational structures co-exist.
Given that this empirical research-in-progress departed
from the assumption that managers perceptions of CSR
are key to understanding its development and
implementation in English football, it seemed most suitable
to adopt the cognitive approach to social context. However,
while developing substantial theory on CSR in football it
became clear that the aforementioned contextual
approaches have no clear-cut boundaries and that a
strong overlapping has frequently been observed between
them. The paper at hand recognises, therefore, that the
task of defining the social context within which CSR
unfolds is complicated by delving into these various
organisation theory perspectives. Such an exercise,
however, is crucial especially when discussions
concerning CSR and sport are at their current embryonic
stage. It is perhaps through more context-intensive and
sector-specific research endeavours that scholarly
discussions on CSR and sport can advance.
References:
Babiak, K. and Trendafilova, S. (2011) CSR and environmental
responsibility: motives and pressures to adopt green management
practices. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental
Management, 18, 11-24.
Babiak, K. (2010). The role and relevance of corporate social
responsibility in sport: A view from the top. Journal of Management
and Organisation. 16(4), 528-549.
Babiak, K. and Wolfe, R. (2009). Determinants of corporate social
responsibility in professional sport: Internal and external factors.
Journal of Sport Management. 23(6), 717-742.
Sheth, H. and Babiak, K. (2010) Beyond the game: Perceptions
and practices of corporate social responsibility in the professional
sport industry. Journal of Business Ethics. 91(3), 433-450.
Tacon, R. and Walters, G. (2010) Corporate social responsibility in
sport: Stakeholder management in the UK football industry. Journal
of Management and Organisation. 16(4), 566-586.
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IN EUROPEAN SPORT CLUBS:
ANALySIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF
ACTIVITIES/PROGRAMS
Author:
Sylvia Trendafilova
email:
sylviat@utk.edu
Co-authors:
Vassilios Ziakas, Emily Sparvero, Anthony Brown
University:
University of Tennessee
Faculty:
Dept. of Kinesiology, Recreation & Sport Studies
Abstract
Aim of paper and research questions:
This study seeks to understand Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) in European sport clubs by analysing
and classifying the CSR activities and programs.
Specifically, the study had two objectives: (1) To conduct a
web-based analysis of documents, articles, and reports of
the European sport clubs that already have CSR programs
in place and (2) To determine the attributes and the type of
those CSR programs.
Literature review:
Academic research on CSR in the realm of sport has
begun to examine the discrete benefits that philanthropy,
community outreach, cause-related marketing, employee
volunteer programs and other socially beneficial activities
have on the organization and its constituents (Babiak &
Wolfe, 2006, 2009; Walker & Kent, 2009). A growing
number of professional teams and leagues in North
America have demonstrated high commitment to CSR by
investing substantial organizational resources into
developing different programs (Babiak & Trendafilova,
2011). Similarly, professional sport clubs in Europe have
adopted CSR programs as a means to achieving strategic
organizational goals (Brietbarth and Harris (2008). The
European club system is traditionally community-driven
(Brown, 2000), which helps foster socially-responsible
efforts. Moreover, the European Union constitutes an
active trading block promoting CSR, which cultivates a
framework for establishing partnerships that provide
opportunities to European sport clubs to benefit from
adopting sustainable business models and integrate CSR
in their long-term planning (Brietbarth & Harris, 2008).
However, there has not been undertaken to date a
systematic examination of the attributes and types of CSR
programs that are adopted by European clubs. An analysis
of the variety of CSR programs in different European
countries, which are under the common EU framework,
can reveal effective CSR attributes/types.
Research design and data analysis:
Data were collected based on the website information the
sport clubs provided. A total of 19 sport clubs websites
were analyzed. The sample included professional elite-
level football clubs from five countries: France, Germany,
Italy, Spain and UK. These countries have some of the
most successful and popular football clubs worldwide and
represent the different administration CSR practices
existent in Europe. In addition, those clubs also had the
best performance record as well as the best CSR practices
among clubs. Analysis was conducted in two stages. First,
a preliminary analysis identified the clubs that had
implemented CSR programs. The second stage of analysis
included the web-based content analysis of documents,
articles, and reports. The advantage of this method is that
it is systematic and inter-subjectively comprehensible and
provides for a detailed content of the nature and types of
CSR efforts and initiatives the clubs are currently
addressing. Given the strong allegiances of fans and the
connection between team and community, this would be an
appropriate vehicle for a team to communicate their efforts
in this area. Each author independently classified the CSR
programs, and then the authors discussed their individual
findings to determine the specific categories of CRS
programs.
Results:
The analysis indicated the following categories:
education/youth development, community/social inclusion,
environment/sustainability, health, urban regeneration,
international projects, and racism. Although there were
some differences in the CRS activities among the clubs
from different countries, results indicated that most CSR
efforts were focused on programs related to
education/youth development, community/social inclusion,
health, and international projects. CSR initiatives
associated with environmental sustainability, racism and
urban regeneration were present but less emphasized.
Results also indicated that some of the categories were
not mutually exclusive but rather interrelated.
Discussion and conclusion:
This study represents an initial exploration of CSR
programs in order to reveal the agendas of European
football clubs that direct CSR efforts. The categories
identified in this project are consistent with the EUs
statement on the societal role of sport, which suggests that
the CSR activities of sport clubs both influence and are
influenced by broader environmental and cultural factors in
the European context. By understanding the foci of CSR
programs we can grasp their nature and outcomes.
Additionally, this can illustrate the motives that lie behind
the adoption of those programs, and improve our
understanding of the distribution of benefits. Future
research should extend this line of inquiry to a more
comprehensive population of European sport clubs, which
would allow for cross-continent comparisons with
professional sport clubs in the United States. Additionally,
this study sets the stage for future research to investigate
the following critical issues related to these findings: (1)
how organizations highly committed to social change differ
from organizations with low commitment on the identified
dimensions; and (2) patterns of adoption and reporting of
CSR practices among teams that have shown little regard
for social issues.
References:
Babiak, K., & Trendafilova, S. (2011). CSR and environmental
responsibility: Motives and pressures to adopt sustainable
management practices. Journal of CSR and Environmental
Management, 18(1), 11-24.
Babiak, K., & Wolfe, R. (2009). Determinants of corporate social
responsibility in professional sport: Internal and external factors.
Journal of Sport Management, 23(6), 717-742.
Brietbarth, T., & Harris, P. (2008). The role of corporate social
responsibility in the football business: Towards the development of
a conceptual model. European Sport Management Quarterly, 8(2),
179-206.
Brown, A. (2000). European football and the European Union:
Governance, participation, and social cohesion Towards a
research policy agenda. Soccer and Society, 1, 129-150.
Walker, M., & Kent, A. (2009). Do fans care? Assessing the
influence of corporate social responsibility on consumer attitudes in
the sport industry. Journal of Sport Management, 23(6), 743-769.
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GETTING THE MESSAGE ACROSS:
WEBSITE PRESENCE AND
IN ENGLISH FOOTBALL
Author:
Ian Webster
email:
i.webster@coventry.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Christos Anagnostopoulos, Kane Hudson
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Sport and Event Management
Abstract
Football is more often than not deplored for its negative
business practices such as corruption, astronomical
transfer fees, illegal betting, poor governance, player
behaviour and controversial take-overs to name but a few.
As a consequence, questions concerning the legitimacy of
football clubs and their position in society have proliferated
(Slack and Shrives, 2008). It is only recently that the
football world has started using parlance to denote the
positive side of the sports business life. Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) is concerned with grasping the power
of football and channeling it into society for intended good
cause business agenda.
One CSR-related activity that has yet to be systematically
examined is the way in which sport organisations use the
internet to communicate their initiatives and programmes.
A notable exception is the recent work of Walker et al.
(2010), who analysed CSR-related content distributed by
North American sport teams to their stakeholders via
electronic newsletters. In the European sport context,
however, the website content associated with CSR actions
has not enjoyed sufficient attention. This is rather
surprising given that football clubs have now established
official websites as their primary communication medium
(Kriemadis et al., 2010).
The purpose of our research (in progress), therefore, is to
provide a preliminary descriptive account of the online
features associated with CSR practices employed by top-
tier football clubs in England.
This research draws on the institutional perspective and as
such is primarily informed by legitimacy theory, which
assumes that a social contract exists between society and
the organisation. Those organisations (in this case, football
clubs in the English Premier League) which appear to
damage that contract need to restore it if they are to regain
societal approval. This type of reaction does not limit itself
to repairing the image but also generates opportunities
closely associated with relationship-building and
promotional activities. Consequently, although the authors
initially approached the matter through legitimacy theory,
analysis soon showed that marketing-related features play
a prominent role in these websites and hence cannot be
overlooked.
Direct website observation was used to identify the content
of those online pages devoted to CSR practices. This
methodological technique is consistent with that of Beech
et al. (2000) and more recently Kriemadis et al. (2010),
and in the current study involved a detailed examination of
the web pages dedicated to CSR practices across the
twenty clubs in the PL during the 2010-2011 season.
Observations were conducted from November 2010 to
March 2011, and the overall preliminary findings are
outlined in Table 1.
The trend towards an arms length organisational
independence is not reflected in online CSR presence.
Only four trusts/foundations have an independent webpage
and therefore the ability to control both the content and the
frequency of uploading this information. This can be seen
as a missed (business) opportunity for those
trusts/foundations whose online presence is only realised
through the clubs official webpage. It is not surprising
therefore that online content is dominated by programmes
that follow the organising bodys (the PLs) four major
concerns of social inclusion, education, health and
equality. Interestingly, however, not all of those PL
shareholders devote space or time (i.e. resources) to the
effective communication even of those programmes.
Moreover, inclusion of text translators or redirection to
translated web pages for global viewers is frequently seen
in those clubs with a global brand (or foreign owner).
Although findings did identify, for example, Manchester
United using language features on its official club site, this
does not extend to the content of its foundation. This
perhaps reflects the emphasis these foundations put on
local needs and synergies with local businesses and/or
public organisations. On the other hand, an international
programme called Premier Skills (part of the PLs wider
CSR agenda) demonstrates that PL clubs global reach
may require more internationally-based communication
practices. One way to respond to the previous point is
through the use of social networking sites. Our findings
indicate that trust and foundation web pages incorporate
links to social networking sites such as (most frequently)
Facebook as well as Twitter, Myspace and Bebo. The
integration of these sites provides a(nother) platform to
communicate CSR programmes to a wide demographic
audience both domestically and internationally.
This research-in-progress aims to establish the current
state of e-communication of CSR practices employed by
football organisations. Our preliminary findings indicate an
emphasis on themes strongly associated with the PLs
institutionalised CSR agenda, but they also highlight
several features that can be linked with marketing
practices hence potential business opportunities.
References:
Beech, J., Chadwick, S. and Tapp, Al. (2000) Surfing in the Premier
League: key issues for football club marketers using the Internet.
Managing Leisure, 5 pp. 51-64.
Kriemadis, T., Terzoudis, C. and Kartakoullis, N. (2010) Internet
marketing in football clubs: a comparison between English and
Greek websites. Soccer & Society, 11(3), pp. 291-307.
Slack, R. and Shrives, P. (2008) Social disclosure and legitimacy in
Premier League football clubs: the first ten years. Journal of
Applied Accounting, 9(1), pp. 17-28.
Walker, M., Kent, A. and Vincent, J. (2010) Communicating socially
responsible initiatives: an analysis of U.S. professional teams.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 19, pp. 187-195.
Walters, G. (2009) Corporate social responsibility through sport: the
community trust model as a CSR delivery agency. Journal of
Corporate Citizenship, 35, pp. 81-94.
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Drugs & Deviance
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Themes
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ATHLETES AND COACHES ATTITUDES
TOWARDS DRUGS IN SPORT
Author:
Terrry Engelberg
email:
t.engelberg@griffith.edu.au
Co-authors:
Stephen Moston, James Skinner
University:
Griffith University
Faculty:
Centre for Tourism, Sport and Service Innovation
Abstract
Literature review
Until very recently, research on doping in sport was
confined to biological studies aimed at detecting drug use.
The potential role of research into the attitudes of potential
users was largely ignored (World Anti-Doping Agency,
2003) and has only recently begun to be explored. The
noted lack of athlete participation in international anti-
doping policy development is not unusual. Some would
suggest it reflects a lack of athlete participation in decision-
making processes affecting their lives more generally. Anti-
doping policy researcher Barrie Houlihan (2004)
summarizes the literature on international world-class anti-
doping policy when he writes that "anti-doping policy is
generally made for, or on behalf of, athletes, rarely in
consultation with athletes, and almost never in partnership
with athletes" (pp. 421-422).
One of the first steps in engaging athletes in the decision
making process on drug policy is to understand their
attitudes towards the control of drugs in sport. The
attitudes that athletes have towards the use of
performance enhancing and recreation drugs are also
shaped by the attitudes of those who are key in their lives,
in particular coaches. For example, research via
questionnaire from the University College of Dublin
suggests that athletes who said their coaches frequently
criticized them, punished them for mistakes, encouraged
rivalries and gave unequal recognition to teammates had
the most favourable attitudes towards doping (Aldhous,
2008). It is clear then that investigating the attitudes of
athletes and coaches towards doping in sport can provide
valuable information that may help shape future anti-
doping policy and play a pivotal role in deterring such
behaviours.
This project involves the investigation of interactions
between athletes and coaches in coming to understand
these attitudes and how these attitudes might be shaped
by biography of circumstances that athletes and coaches
experience in their quest for sporting success. Such a
project required a broad data-collection and analysis
process to:
Examine athletes and coaches attitudes toward doping
in sport.
Determine the factors that athletes considering in
relation to decisions about doping in sport.
Determine the athletes and coaches expectations of
suitable responses of government and sporting
organisations to anti-doping.
Methodology
The research comprised two main parts: a quantitative
phase, involving a survey of athletes and coaches, and a
qualitative phase, involving focus group discussion with
athletes and coaches.
Quantitative data were collected via an online survey and
direct recruitment at sporting venues (athletes and
coaches). The survey covered topics such as: perceived
incidence of drug use; identification of sports where drug
use is common; deterrents and punishments; and
expectations of suitable responses of government and
sporting organisations to anti-doping issues. Athletes and
coaches also completed a short knowledge test. A total of
626 athletes and coaches from Queensland Australia
participated in this phase of the research.
Qualitative data were collected via focus group interviews
with a subsample of athletes and coaches who had
participated in the quantitative phase. A total of 48 athletes
and coaches participated in this phase of the research.
Results
The results of the research clearly show that athletes and
coaches believe that the use of performance-enhancing
and recreational drugs is extensive and a serious problem
for sport. However, somewhat paradoxically, current anti-
doping controls are seen as effective in deterring such
conduct. Respondents generally expressed more negative
attitudes towards performance-enhancing drugs than
recreational drugs. In addition, sports where performance
enhancing drug use was perceived to be common (mainly
individual sports such as athletics) were different from
those where recreational drug use was perceived as
common (mainly team sports such as rugby).
Although athletes saw banned drug use as highly
prevalent, within their own sports such drug use was seen
to be relatively rare. Athletes/coaches were harsh in their
attitudes towards the punishments for banned drug use,
with the majority supporting both fines and bans.
Nearly half of the athletes and coaches agreed with a
statement that the use of PEDs should be criminalised;
with only a quarter disagreeing.
Implications/Conclusions
The athletes and coaches in the current study generally
estimated that drug use was lower in their own sport than
other sports combined (with some exceptions), suggesting
that the doping problem in sport tends to be perceived as
somebody elses problem. This suggests that anti-doping
campaigns may need to tailor their campaigns to specific
sports, rather than generic campaigns aimed at all sports.
Further, differences in perceived differential use of
performance enhancing and recreational drugs in
individual-based and team-based sports respectively,
suggests that anti-doping education should be tailored to
match particular types of drugs with particular sports.
References:
Houlihan, B. (2004). Civil Rights, Doping Control and the World
Anti-Doping Code. Sport and Society, 7(3), 420-437.
World Anti-Doping Agency (2003). World Conference on Doping in
Sport: Summary
Notes Plenary Sessions. Retrieved November 11, 2004, from
http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/plenary.pdf
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AN ExAMINATION OF THE PERCEIVED
RISK POSED By PEDOPHILIC OR
VIOLENT COACHES TO yOUTH SPORT
Author:
Thomas Baker
email:
tab3@uga.edu
Co-authors:
Kevin Byon
University:
University of Georgia
Faculty:
Assistant Professor/Kinesiology
Abstract
Background
Millions of children participate in youth sports. In the United
States it is estimated that more than 44 million children
play organized sports (National Council of youth Sports,
2008). The majority of these children are coached by
volunteer and/or unscreened adult males (Peterson, 2004).
The lack of screening on the part of youth sport
organizations coupled with the access that they provide to
large numbers of children create a ready-made resource
pool for unfit coaches. In a youth sport setting, the term
unfit can be used to describe coaches and officials with a
propensity towards pedophilia or other violent conduct. It is
estimated that one in three girls and one in seven boys in
the U.S. are sexually molested before the age of 18 (Earl-
Hubbard, 1996). These numbers do not represent the true
extent of sexual abuse because it is estimated that only 10
to 35 percent of incidents are ever reported (Peterson,
2004). Although no one has ever studied the number of
child athletes who have been harmed by sexual abuse, it
is believed that unfit coaches pose a real threat to youth
sports across the globe.
Baker, Connaughton & Zhang (2011) conducted a review
of literature and case study on the threat posed by unfit
coaches on youth sport. The results revealed that youth
sport participants are at their most vulnerable when they
are left in the care of unfit coaches without the supervision
of parents or other youth sport officials or administrators.
The research also revealed that sport is susceptible to a
type of pedophile called the seducer; one who tries to win
over parents and children to earn trust. youth sport
organizations are vulnerable to the seducer type of
pedophile because the coach-athlete relationship naturally
provides an avenue for trust. Parents regularly tell their
children to respect and obey coaches. Further, successful
coaches may earn the respect and admiration of parents,
who in turn give the coach more access to children than
what would typically be provided through sport
participation. However, the questions remain; (a) how
severe is the threat posed by pedophilic coaches to youth
sports? (b) Can severity of the threat be assessed via
research? The absence of an instrument that measures
the severity of the threat posed by pedophilic coaches may
account for the lack of attention for this line of research.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study will be to develop a scale to
measure the parental perception of the threats posed by
unfit coaches to youth sports. This is an exploratory study
conducted with the goal of working towards filling the void
that exists in this domain and to provide youth sport
organizations with data that they can use in implementing
policies and procedures directed at protecting participants
from unfit coaches.
Methods
We adopted Churchills (1979) scale development
procedures that included the following six steps: (a) specify
domain of construct, (b) generate sample items, (c) collect
data, (d) purify measure, (e) assess reliability, and (f)
assess validity. First, a preliminary scale on perceived risk
and the threat of unfit coaches on youth sport was
formulated through the review of literature and the Delphi
technique. The Delphi panel consisted of eight individuals
with expertise in youth sport who were asked to review
items for clarity and relevance. Based on 80 percent
agreement among the experts, items were retained or
added to the scale.
Items were developed based on two dimensions derived
from the review of literature: (a) how participants perceive
the threat of unfit coaches to youth sport (Risk Perception),
and (b) how that perception influences behavior
(Behavioral Intention). The survey was administered to 200
parents of former youth sport participants. The study is
currently in the final stages of data collection. Data will be
analyzed using descriptive statistics, reliability tests, item
to total correlations, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA).
To assess the appropriateness of the scale items, item to
total correlation will be employed and item correlation less
than .2 will be eliminated from the scale. The internal
consistency, measured by Cronbachs alpha, will be
calculated for the scores of the scales. Items with low
reliability (i.e., less than .70) will be evaluated for possible
deletion from the scale. Test of construct validity will be
assessed via EFA. In the EFA, principal component
extraction will be applied, followed by varimax rotation to
identify factors.
Results and Discussion
Will be made available on the poster once the study is
completed.
References:
Baker, T. A., Connaughton, D. P., & Zhang, J. J. (2011, in press).
An examination of case law regarding the liability of recreational
youth sport organizations for the pedophilic actions of coaches,
administrators, and officials based on the theory of respondeat
superior. Applied Research in Coaching and Athletics Annual.
Churchill, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures
of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64-
73.
Earl-Hubbard, M. L. (1996). The child sex offender registration
laws: The punishment, liberty deprivation, and unintended results
associated with the scarlet letter laws of the 1990s. Northwestern
University Law Review, 90(2), 788-802.
National Council of youth Sports. (2008). Reports on trends and
participation in organized youth sports. Retrieved from
http://www.ncys.org/pdf/2008/2008-market-research.pdf
Peterson, J. (2004). Dont trust me with your child: Non-legal
precautions when the law cannot prevent sexual exploitation in
youth sports. Texas Review of Entertainment & youth Sports Law,
5, 297-323.
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26
Sport Events
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Themes
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28
SUSTAINABILITy OF MEGA SPORTS
EVENTS SUBSEQUENT USE OF
EVENT INFRASTRUCTURE AS A KEy
FACTOR
Author:
Christian Moesch
email:
christian.moesch@ispw.unibe.ch
University:
University of Berne
Faculty:
Institute of Sport Science (ISPW)
Abstract
Aim of Paper and Research Questions
One of the primary aim of cities, regions or countries
bidding for mega sport events is often to generate a
development stimulus. The investment in new
infrastructure plays a decisive role to achieve this
objective. By improving the level of infrastructure the event
venue can become more attractive both as tourism
destination as well as business location. Talking about
sustainability or legacy of mega sport events, the follow up
use of the event-related infrastructure is a key factor. The
investment in permanent infrastructure should focus on the
overlap between long run local needs and the events
short-term requirements. But on the one hand it is difficult
to predict the subsequent needs with regard to the
generated stimulus and on the other hand the destinations
are often not willing to restrict the facilities to a reasonable
proportion in the intention to carry weight. The main
objective of the presented investigation is to develop an
assessment tool estimating threats and opportunities
emanating from permanent event infrastructure.
Literature Review
In the literature the subsequent tourism demand or the
effects on image items are frequently discussed (e.g.
Preuss, 2007; Spilling, 1999). Although the event-related
infrastructure often cannot sufficiently be used after the
event, approaches to assess or to measure the costs and
benefits in this regard are rare. Talking about the effect of
infrastructure on sustainability, first the causality between
event and long-term use has to be analysed. Maennig
(1997), for instance, represents the view, that there is no
relationship between events and the construction of
permanent facilities. He argues that due to the temporary
event character there must be an independent follow up
need for every permanent item of infrastructure. Other
studies try to differentiate between event-related and not
event-related costs and benefits. Mainly for sport
infrastructure most studies establish a narrow causality
between the follow up effects and the event (e.g. Frey,
Iraldo & Melis, 2008; Spilling, 1999). The contemporary
research in this field shows different development types of
event-related infrastructure ranging from best cases
yielding additional profit up to oversized facilities becoming
a serious burden for whole regions. The last-mentioned
cases often lead to considerable public subsidies (Stettler
et al., 2007).
Research Design and Data Analysis
A conceptual referential framework based on extensive
analysis of literature and documentation, was checked and
adjusted in the course of the work using empirical findings
derived from consultation with experts and case studies.
Building on that a concrete model calculating the risk
potential of event-related infrastructure was developed and
subsequently adapted to several case studies with an eye
to its exploratory consolidation. The case studies were
processed on the basis of analysis of existing
documentation and studies, and of interviews with people
directly involved. Finally, the case-study findings were
synthesized and wherever possible generalized. The
following four mega events were investigated as part of the
research project: 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City,
2003 World Ski Championships in St. Moritz, the 2006
Football World Cup for the host city of Stuttgart and UEFA
EURO 2008 in Switzerland.
Results
The model shows that in terms of sustainability not only
economic results on facility level can be taken into
account. Even loss-making infrastructure has potential to
generate benefits in a macro economic or social
understanding. Therefore benefits caused outside the
facility and values deriving from the public good character
of the infrastructure must also be considered for a final
estimation (cf. Moesch 2008). As a general rule resulting
from the case studies it can be said that risk potential is at
his peak for sport infrastructure. Certain differences can be
pinpointed between events with centralized and those with
decentralized venues. Because of the spatial concentration
the risk potential of centralized events, such as Olympics,
is higher.
Discussion and Conclusion
The sustainability of mega sport events is closely
connected to the subsequent use of the event infrastruc-
ture. Sustainability in the actual sense requires a strategic
fit concerning topic and dimension between the event and
the hosting region. There seems to be less risk potential or
rather better benefit expectations for investments in
general infrastructure such as media, safety,
accommodation, telecommunication or (public) transport.
Particularly transport infrastructure is characterised by high
intangible value (e.g. time saving, comfort, reliability).
Summing up, the results support the conclusion, that
modest investment in sport infrastructure and well-directed
investment in general infrastructure are a promising
strategy for a positive sustainability balance in the context
of mega sport events.
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References:
Frey, M., Iraldo, F. & Melis, M. (2008). The Impact of Wide-Scale
Sport Events on Local Development: An Assessment of the xxth
Torino Olympics Through the Sustainability Report. Universit
Bocconi Milano: IEFE, Istituto di Economia e Politica dellEnergia e
dellAmbiente.
Maennig, W. (1997). Olympische Spiele und Wirtschaft.
Weitverbreitete Missverstndnisse und achtzehn (Gegen-)Thesen.
In O. Gruppe (Hrsg.), Olympischer Sport (S. 157-179). Schorndorf:
Hofmann.
Moesch, C. (2008). Infrastrukturbedarf von Sport-Mega-Events
Entwicklung und berprfung von Modellen zur Abgrenzung
eventbedingter Investitionen. Bern: FIF-Verlag.
Preuss, H. (2007). The Conceptualisation and Measurement of
Mega Sport Event Legacies. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12 (3-4),
207-227.
Spilling, O. R. (1999). Long-term Impacts of Mega-Events. The
Case of Lillehammer 1994. In C. Jeanrenaud (Ed.), The Economic
Impact of Sport Events (pp. 135-166). Neuchtel: CIES, Centre
international dtude du sport.
Stettler, J., Danielli, G. & Gisler, M. (2007). Nachhaltigkeit der
Sportinfrastruktur in der Schweiz (Forschungsbericht). Magglingen:
Bundesamt fr Sport.
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DEVELOPING A SPORT EVENT IMPACT
TOOL FOR POLITICAL DECISION
MAKING PROCESSES
Author:
Martin Schnitzer
email:
martin.schnitzer@uibk.ac.at
University:
University of Innsbruck
Faculty:
Department of Sport Science
Abstract
Aim of abstract/paper - research question
Sport event impact research has become more popular
within the last years. Because of huge investments of
resources politicians are faced with difficult decision
making processes, the importance of the assessment of
potential impacts of an event on host cities has gained
researchers interest. The aim of this paper is to present a
sport event impact tool based on a criteria catalogue of
potential event outputs and event legacies.
Theoretical background or literature review
Different impact models for major (sport) events were
developed as shown in relevant literature. The IOC
developed the Olympic Global Impact Model (OGGI)
(2000). Furthermore Gans/Horn/Zemann (2003) proposed
an assessment tool based on event impacts. Rtter/Stettler
(2004) developed the Event Scorecard, and under the
leadership of UK Sport there was developed the web-
based Event Impacts tool (2010). Event impacts vary from
region, from a stakeholders perspective and from time.
Therefore the author decided to develop an assessment
tool for major sports events targeted to political decision
makers of the State of Tyrol (Austria), a region hosting
many (winter) sport events in the past and the future.
Methodology, research design and data analysis
Based on an extensive literature review on event impacts,
the author has developed a catalogue of 80 criteria which
can be used for assessing events. This catalogue contains
seven major groups of different criteria areas (sport,
economy, social, environment, infrastructure, tourism,
media).
The list of criteria have been discussed and modified with
six experts in the fields of (sport) event management. After
that the criteria have been weighed on a scale of 10 (very
important) to 1 (very unimportant) by politicians of the
Tyrolean parliament (n=25) and the City Council of
Innsbruck (n=15) on their importance. The politicians also
weighted the seven major groups of criteria by allocating a
total of 100 % on these seven groups. A control group
consisting of 12 event manager did also this weighting in
order to validate the results of the politicians. Finally the
event impact tool was tested on 12 major sports events
having been staged or being in planning phase.
Results, discussion and implications/conclusions
The results of the weighting show that the criteria sport
with 20,4 % in the view of politicians is the most important,
while apart from media (9,8%) all other criteria do not differ
much in their importance (15,1 % environment, 14,3 %
economy, 13 % infrastructure, 12,9 % tourism, 12,4 %
social). There are also not big differences between
politicians from the Tyrolean parliament and the City
Council of Innsbruck. Small differences are noticed by
politicians of opposition parties (more attention towards
environment and social) and coalition parties (more
attention towards economy and infrastructure). The results
of the control group do not differ significantly. Currently the
impact model is in testing phase and data collection is
finished by April 2011. 12 events will be run through the
assessment tool with almost 200 variables.
The desired outcome of this study is to have tested the
assessment tool on practical examples (e.g. UEFA EURO
2008TM, Winter youth Olympic Games 2012, Volley EURO
2011 and Four Hills Ski Jumping Tournament) in order to
understand if and how this assessment tool is working.
The tool should assess immediate impacts of the events
(event outputs) and long-term impacts (legacies). The tool
should also be helpful in gaining a better understanding of
an events profile. The tool may reflect specific
circumstances of the State of Tyrol, such as limited space,
focus on winter/alpine sports or specific touristic target
groups. The selected event criteria may also be useful for
evaluating the event after staging it (ex-post analysis) and
is therefore offering important strategic boundaries for
efficient political decision making processes of major sports
events.
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References:
EMERy, P.R. (2001) Bidding to host major sports event - strategic
investment or compete lottery, in: GRATTON, C. / HENRy, I. (Hrsg)
Sport in the city - the role of sport in the economic and social
regeneration, p. 90 - 108.
EVENT IMPACTS www.eventimpacts.com [31.03.2011]
EVENT SCORECARD www.event-scorecard.ch/ [31.03.2011]
GANS, P. / HORN, M. / ZEMANN, C. (2003).
Sportgroveranstaltungen - konomische, kologische und soziale
Wirkungen. Ein Bewertungsverfahren zur
Entscheidungsvorbereitung und Erfolgskontrolle.
WESTERBEEK, H.M. / TURNER, P. / IGERSON, L. (2002) Key
success factors in bidding for hallmark sporting events, in:
International Marketing Review, 19/3, p. 303 - 322.
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STRATEGIC LEVERAGING OF THE
SPORT EVENTS: THE INTERACTIONS
BETWEEN THE LOCAL PUBLIC EVENT
ORGANIZATION AND THE ExTERNAL
EVENTS ORGANIZATIONS
Author:
Elsa Pereira
email:
elsapereira@sapo.pt
Co-authors:
Gustavo Pires, Margarita Mascarenhas, Ado Flores
University:
University of Algarve
Faculty:
Sport Sciences
Abstract
Aim of abstract/paper - research question
This paper aims to examine how relationships between
local event organizers and external event organizers
influenced the leverage process of different nautical sports
events (Kite Masters Portimo World Tour, Formula
Windsurfing World Championship, Sailing Audi Medcup, P1
Power Boats World Championship, Portimo Global Ocean
Race, F1H2o World Championship) hosted in a tourist
community of the Algarve. It focuses on interaction, links
between practices and meanings, beliefs and activities of
the different actors (Regnr, 2003). The analysis of
commonalities and differences in practices and meanings
between a local public event organization and the external
events organizations, as well as the interplay of them gives
some insight into the development of the leverage process.
It also examines the activities and beliefs of the individuals
because this dimension imprints changes along the
process.
Theoretical background
Research on events leverage has the focus on a strategic
approach to events (Chalip, 2004). In our opinion, the
strategic process in events development occurs in the
interactions between diverse strategic views and
actions.This process is developed by individuals and
groups of individuals inside the organizations and
sometimes in cooperation with external actors. The
strategy-as-pratice approach, as a conceptual framework,
may help us to understand the phenomenon. This line of
research has been pursued in studies on the roles in
pratice, and has sought to understand who is a strategist
beyond traditional roles. It analyses the different ways in
wich strategies unfold over time, and tries to include
external actors such as consultants, media, experts and
institutional actors in the research agendas (Jarzabkowski,
2004). The strategy-as-practice approach shows how
meanings change in interaction with external stakeholders
(Roleau, 2005) and how managerial activities are closely
linked to meanings and knowledge structures in strategy
development (Regnr, 2003). Regnr (2011) suggests a
focus on some subparts of the strategic process: activities
and practices, beliefs and meanings. The importance of
examining this is to have a detailed interplay between
micro-conditions and the contexts in the development of
the strategic processes.
We have considered a longitudinal real time embedded
multi-case studies design to fit our research objectives.
Fieldwork ran from June 2008 to December 2009,
developed by direct observation during the events and
through qualitative interviews prior to and in the course of
the events. The informants were carefully chosen to
include managers from the local event organization and
from the external event organization in the different events.
These managers held strategy-related positions (e.g.
group strategy director, strategy manager) as well as non-
strategy-related posts (e.g. marketing director, event
coordinator).
Qualitative data was analyzed in two phases. In the first
phase, a detailed event case was developed and in the
second phase we focused on a cross-case analysis. The
analysis consisted of multiple readings of the interview
transcripts and field notes using a qualitative contents
analysis approach. The coding procedure consisted in the
identification of the respondents meanings, pratices,
activities and beliefs and the interplay between them in the
development of the leverage process of the events. This
data was systematically and progressively coded using
NVivo 9 by QSR International. During this phase, data
triangulation and inter-coder reliability checks were used to
ensure the reliability of the data collection and analysis.
In the leveraging process of an event there is a plurality of
actors which provides heterogeneity of strategic objectives
and means. This research identified that acting and
cognition (in an organizational or individual dimension) is
influenced by a convergence of marketing, sportive and
political factors between local and external event
organizations. However, as far as the interests of the
external events organizations more dynamic practices and
activities were developed. This is an important finding as it
may help sport event managers to be more attentive to the
role they want the event to have in the community.
Managers should be thoughtful about practices and
meanings, explore alternative pratices and meanings, and
ask external actors to do the same in the searching of a
broader and shared vision of the leveraging process and
the benefits of the events for the communities. The
development of the strategic leveraging process should
take into account the historical social context in wich the
sport events takes place.
References:
Chalip, L. (2004). Beyond impact: a general model for sport event
leverage. In B. Ritchie & D. Adair (Eds.), Sport tourism:
interrelationships, impacts and issues (pp. 226-252). England:
Channel View Publications.
Jarzabkowski, P. (2004). Strategy as practice: recursiveness,
adaptation, and practices-in-use. Organization Studies, 25, 529-
560.
Regnr, P. (2003). Strategy creation in the periphery: inductive
versus deductive strategy making. Journal of Management Studies,
40 (1), 57-82.
Regnr, P. (forthcoming 2011). Strategy as practice untangling
the emergence of competitive positions. In G. Dagnino (Ed.), Elgar
Handbook of Research on Competitive Strategy. London: Edward
Elgar.
Roleau, L. (2005). Micro-practices of strategic sensemaking and
sensegiving: how middle managers interpret and sell change every
day. Journal of Management Studies, 42, 1414-1441.
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THE IMPACT OF A MEGA EVENT ON
STRONG-TIE RELATIONSHIPS AND
COLLABORATIVE CAPACITy WITHIN A
REGIONAL TOURISM DESTINATION
MARKETING ENVIRONMENT
Author:
Kim Werner
email:
kim.werner@aut.ac.nz
Co-authors:
Geoff Dickson
Ken Hyde
University:
Auckland University of Technology (AUT)
Faculty:
New Zealand Tourism Research Institute (NZTRI)
Abstract
Aim
The study explores the impact of a mega event on strong-
tie relationships and collaborative capacity within a
regional tourism destination marketing environment. More
specifically, it analyses the ability of the 2011 Rugby World
Cup (RWC 2011) to enhance strong ties and the capacity
to collaborate of Tourism Auckland (TA). A particular
emphasis is set on the differences between TAs intra-
regional and inter-regional relationships.
Tie strength underpins the first phase of the research.
According to Granovetter (1973) the strength of a tie is a
(probably linear) combination of the amount of time, the
emotional intensity, the intimacy (mutual confiding), and
the reciprocal services which characterize the tie (p.
1361). Collaborative capacity underpins the second phase.
An organisations collaborative capacity refers to the
ability of organizations to enter into, develop, and sustain
inter-organizational systems in pursuit of collective
outcomes (Hocevar, Thomas & Jansen, 2006, p. 256) and
is recognised as a key source of competitive advantage
(Beyerlein, Freedman, McGee, & Moran, 2003, p. 17).
Literature review
Mega events have attracted the attention of researchers
for several decades and studies have looked at economic
impacts, increased visitation, employment effects, tourism
and city development, and image and awareness.
However, the impact of a mega event on relationships and
collaboration remains a neglected area. OBrien &
Gardiner (2006) emphasise this gap in the events literature
stating that event outcomes should no longer be
measured merely on their immediate economic impact but
should also take into account the relational outcomes that
provide resource-based opportunities for ongoing
economic impact, such as improved opportunities for
tourism, investment, and trade relations (p. 45).
While the importance of stakeholder relations has received
recent attention in the literature, no study has explicitly
looked into how a mega event impacts on tie strength
between organisations involved. In addition, studies on
collaborative capacity have concentrated on the fields of
public administration, public service and community
research. Building on Foster-Fishman et al.s (2001) four
critical levels of collaborative capacity(member capacity,
relational capacity, organisational capacity and
programmatic capacity), there is a need to explore whether
a mega event can foster the collaborative capacity of an
organisation, as well as what these relevant conditions
might encompass.
Methods
An exploratory, comparative, qualitative, case study
approach is appropriate given the lack of previous
research. RWC 2011 provides an ideal context to explore
the impact of a mega event on tie strength and
collaborative capacity within the tourism sector because it
is a destination marketing project of long-term importance
for both the tourism industry and New Zealand as a whole.
Data were collected from two of TAs strong-tie networks.
The inter-regional network (INTER) includes the ten RTOs
that TA have had the strongest relationships with. The
intra-regional network (INTRA) comprises ten entities
within Auckland with which TA has had historically strong
ties (e.g. Auckland Council, Auckland Transport). Semi-
structured interviews with senior managers, a quantitative
questionnaire and documentation is used to compare and
cross-check the consistency of information and to obtain a
diverse view of the phenomenon. To analyse the data
thematic analysis is adopted, applying a deductive
approach.
The findings indicate that RWC 2011 has not impacted on
TAs existing strong tie relations. Participants from both
networks acknowledged the importance of strong ties to
successfully prepare and organise RWC 2011, but they do
not appear to acquire additional strength throughout the
process. Participants highlighted the significant value of
RWC 2011 in building new relationships with other sectors
and industries, global sponsors, partners and sporting
bodies.
The results also demonstrate that intra-regional
relationships and collaboration (as opposed to inter-
regional relationships and collaboration) is more significant
for the successful organisation of the event. This appears
to be a direct consequence of the way the RWC 2011 has
been set up in New Zealand, which does not necessarily
facilitate inter-regional exchange and collaboration but
encourages each region to individually deliver the event.
Finally, the findings indicate that despite tie strength not
improving, RWC 2011 positively affected the collaborative
capacity of the focal organisation. As such, the RWC 2011
assisted TA in enhancing all four critical levels of its
collaborative capacity, in particular its member and
relational capacity. TAs organisational capacity (while also
being positively affected by the RWC 2011) still shows
potential for improvement and strategies for further building
this type of capacity are provided and discussed by the
authors. Overall, enhanced collaborative capacity of TA
through the mega event provides opportunities for ongoing
economic impact and is likely to assist the organisation to
foster its competitive advantage over the long-term.
References:
Beyerlein, M. M., Freedman, S., McGee, C., & Moran, L. (2003).
Beyond teams: Building the collaborative organization. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.
Foster-Fishman, P. G., Berkowitz, S. L., Lounsbury, D. W.,
Jacobson, S., & Allen, N. A. (2001). Building collaborative capacity
in community coalitions: A review and integrative framework.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(2), 241-261.
Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American
Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 13601380.
O'Brien, D., & Gardiner, S. (2006). Creating sustainable mega
event impacts: Networking and relationship development through
pre-event training. Sport Management Review, 9(1), 25-47.
Hocevar, S. P., Thomas, G. F., & Jansen, E. (2006). Building
collaborative capacity: An innovative strategy for homeland security.
In M. M. Beyerlein, S. T. Beyerlein & F. A. Kennedy (Eds.),
Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams: Innovation
Through Collaboration (Vol. 12, pp. 255-274). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
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THE ROLE OF SPORT MEGA-EVENTS
IN NATION-BRANDING: THE CASE OF
SOUTH AFRICA AND THE 2010 FIFA
WORLD CUP
Author:
Brendon Knott
email:
knottb@cput.ac.za
Co-authors:
Allan Fyall, Ian Jones
University:
Cape Peninsula University of Technology
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
Aim
While the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South
Africa represented a unique platform and opportunity for
creating and/ or managing the host nations brand, it was
unclear exactly what this impact would be. This paper
looks at the role of sport mega-events in nation-branding. It
also sets out the findings from an initial, exploratory
investigation that sought to identilfy perceptions of
international visitors to South Africa during the World Cup
event, regarding the nation brand and its key attributes,
and to ascertain the role of the mega-event in the
formation and/ or change of these perceptions.
There has been growing academic support for the notion
that nations have a brand image (e.g. Anholt 2007 and
Kotler & Gertner 2002) and that this image is made up of a
collection of: images, symbols, history, perceptions, media,
experiences, observations and stereotypes. While some
scholars are hesitant that a nation should be considered a
brand, Anholt (2007), proposes that a powerful, positive
nation brand provides a strong competitive advantage for a
nation and recommends that a nations image needs to be
skillfully created and carefully managed, just like any other
brand. There is also a growing awareness of the potentially
significant impact that hosting sport mega-events can have
on a countrys brand image (Kotler & Gertner 2002). Sport
mega-events have become increasingly important in the
contemporary era, with their hosting becoming an object of
policy for an increasing number of states in the world,
especially as a means to gain international visibility in
some ways (Cornelissen 2007: 242). Sport mega-events
represent a unique publicity platform and opportunity for
place marketing (Essex & Chalkley 1998). Such events
may provide an opportunity to create or promote an image
and also re-brand a nation (Anholt 2007). Despite the
growing academic interest in this subject, there is still a
need for work on the strategic use of sports as a branding
tool for countries other than the industrialised and
established ones (Rein & Shields 2006).
The theoretical background was compiled through a desk-
top analysis of academic literature related to the areas of
branding, destination branding and specifically the role of
sport mega-events in nation-branding. The primary
research design featured a brand perception survey
among 561 international visitors to South Africa. These
respondents were interviewed in the official fan parks or
stadium precincts of two of the major host cities and top
tourist destinations, Cape Town and Durban, during the
event period (June-July 2010). This consisted of face-to-
face, mall-intercept type interviews, employing a spatially-
based, purposive sampling approach. This method ensures
that the survey is not skewed towards a particular area or
group of visitors within the fan park or stadium precinct.
Both open- and closed-ended questions related to nation
branding perceptions were asked. The computer software
package SPSS was used to analyse the quantitative data.
The primary investigation revealed that the vast majority of
respondents were first-time visitors, whose primary reason
for travel was the World Cup event. Many of these were
from the hosts non-traditional tourist markets. While prior
knowledge and perceptions of South Africa were limited,
new perceptions related to many postive aspects, such as
natural beauty, good climate and friendly people. Although
safety was a major concern for organisers prior to the
event, the majority of respondents considered the country
a safe destination for tourists. There was also strong
support for the nation as host of the World Cup and as a
potential host for future mega-events. The findings suggest
that many visitors who did not have strong perceptions of
South Africa now have strong positive perceptions and will
act as brand advocates for the destination. While further
investigation continues to investigate the impact of the
mega-event on the nation brand, the findings appear to
support the literature that promotes the successful hosting
of sport mega-events as a nation-branding platform. This
study adds to the growing body of knowledge in this
regard, and particularly in the use of sport mega-events as
strategic brand development opportunities in a developing
nation.
References:
Anholt, S., 2007. Competitive identity the new brand
management for nations, cities and regions. New york, N.y.:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Cornelissen, S., 2007. Crafting Legacies: The Changing Political
Economy of Global Sport and the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Politikon, 34(3), 241259.
Essex, S. and Chalkley, B., 1998. Olympic Games: catalyst of
urban change. Leisure Studies, 17, 187206.
Kotler, P. and Gertner, D., 2002. Country as brand, product and
beyond: a place marketing and brand management perspective.
Brand Management, 9(4-5): 249-261.
Rein, I. and Shields, B., 2006. Place branding sports: Strategies for
differentiating emerging, transitional, negatively viewed and newly
industrialised nations. Place branding and public diplomacy, 3(1),
73-85.
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FOREIGN VISITOR PROFILES OF FIFA
WORLD CUP 2010 FAN PARK AND
MATCH ATTENDEES: PRELIMINARy
ANALySIS OF A NATIONAL SURVEy
Author:
Douglas Michele Turco
email:
douglasmicheleturco@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Kamilla Swart, Douglas Turco,Urmilla Michele Bob, Tembi
Tichawaa
University:
Drexel University
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
Introduction
The FIFA World Cup was held on the African continent for
the first time in 2010. Nine cities including Johannesburg,
Port Elizabeth, Cape Town and Durban co-hosted World
Cup matches from 11 June to 11 July 2010. The historical
hosting of Africa?s first mega-event was deemed to be a
key opportunity to initiate and promote social, economic,
environmental and sport legacies in South Africa and the
continent as a whole. The economic impacts of mega-
events are a major aspect given the massive investments
required to host this size of event. In particular, tourist
impacts are given focus since this is regarded as a major
source of revenue during the event and key to sustain
positive destination imaging and marketing post the event.
Thus, the tourism legacy impacts are deemed to be central
in terms of positive spin-offs. In South Africa, initial
estimates of expected visitor numbers gave way to more
realistic and reduced figures given that for the key markets
(Europe, North America and increasingly Asia) South Africa
is a long-haul destination. In South Africa a significant
proportion of attendees at both stadiums and Fan Parks
were visitors. Fan Parks in particular were introduced in
the 2006 Germany World Cup and have emerged as key
spaces for residents and tourists to experience the event
outside the stadiums.
Purpose Statement and Research Methods
Several studies have profiled sport tourists at a range of
events, from the Olympic Games to major automobile,
yacht, and horse races (Cashman, 2003; Burns, Hatch &
Mules, 1986; Soutar & McLeod, 1993; Rooney, 1988).
These events have tended to be held in developed
countries (Spain, Australia, USA). Few studies have
examined sport tourists at mega-events in developing
countries for the simple reason that few mega-events have
ever been hosted in developing countries in the past
quarter century. The purpose of this study was to ascertain
the profiles of foreign visitors to the 2010 FIFA World Cup
in South Africa. The main aspects under examination were
demographic profiles of the attendees, types of attendees
in relation to place of residence (in part examining source
markets and changes from normal trends), travel behavior
and spending patterns including accommodation types,
factors influencing decision to attend event and previous
attendance/ visitation. For this study, visitors (non-locals) to
three host cities (Durban, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth)
were interviewed at Fan Parks and Stadium Precincts
during the 2010 World Cup. A purposive, systematic
sampling approach was adopted and face-to-face
interviews were conducted on all match days. Eight
thousand four hundred and forty nine (8 449) visitors were
interviewed, 6 373 (75.4%) foreign visitors and 2 076
(24.6%) domestic visitors.
Results/Discussion
Findings reveal that foreign visitors were mainly from
Europe (specifically England, Germany, Netherlands and
France) and the United States of America. Most of the
respondents were male from middle and upper income
categories. They participated in a range of activities while
in South Africa and stayed in different types of
accommodation facilities, including staying with friends
and/or family. Foreign visitors travelled widely across
South Africa, mainly attending matches in the key host
cities: Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban and Port
Elizabeth. They attended both matches in the stadiums as
well as fan parks. Study findings are compared to June-
July 2008 and 2009 tourist data from these host cities, and
later contextualised in relation to those from Germany
2006 to compose a World Cup tourist profile.
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References:
Burns, J. P. A., Hatch, J. H., and Mules, T. J. (1986). The Adelaide
grand prix: the impact of a special event. Adelaide: The Centre for
South Australian Economic Studies.
Cashman, R. (2003). Impact of the games on Olympic host cities.
Barcelona: Centre d Estudis Olympics.
Rooney, J. F., Jr. (1988). Mega-sports events as tourist attractions:
A geographical analysis. Paper presented at Tourism research:
expanding boundaries. Travel and Tourism Research Association
Nineteenth Annual Conference, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, June
19-23, 1988. pp. 93-99.
Soutar, G. and McLeod, P. (1993). Residents perceptions on
impacts of the Americas Cup. Annals of Tourism Research, 20,
571-582.
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A CAMEO EFFECT ON SPONSORSHIP
BRANDS?: ExAMINING THE
EVALUATIONS OF TOURISTS DURING
THE 2010 SOUTH AFRICA FIFA WORLD
CUP
Author:
John Nadeau
email:
johnn@nipissingu.ca
Co-authors:
Louise Heslop, Norm O'Reilly, Erdin akmak, Sonja
Verwey
University:
Nipissing University
Faculty:
School of Business
Abstract
A cameo appearance describes the rotational hosting
nature of many of these mega-events (e.g. Olympic
Games, FIFA World Cup, Commonwealth Games, etc.)
meaning that a single country very rarely hosts the event
more than once in a persons lifetime. Therefore, different
countries create the backdrop for the event itself. The
phrase cameo appearance is often reserved for celebrities
or other notable figures who arrive on the scene, for
instance, in a play or film. Mega-events are celebrities in
that these events are elite characterized by the
extraordinarily large presence, reach and audience of the
event (Florek, Breitbarth and Conejo, 2008). The FIFA
World Cup is a global sporting event with teams from 32
countries representing six different continents.
A leading motivation for hosting the mega-event is to utilize
the high profile nature of the event to enhance the image
of the country at home and abroad (Heslop et al. 2010).
Certainly, corporate sponsor/marketers seem interested in
the unique communications opportunity to broadly engage
consumers with their brands in an uncluttered space as
evidenced by the magnitude of current sponsorship
revenues. For example, the Vancouver 2010 Winter
Olympics, generated CDN$756 million in sponsorship
revenues (Seguin et al., 2010). While the views of host
country tourists towards mega-events have been
investigated previously, little work has examined the
relationships of host country, mega-events and sponsor
images. Further, this study explores the intersection for
sport tourists who may be more committed to the mega-
event than regular tourists or residents.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the pattern of
relationships among tourist images of the host country, the
mega-event and a major sponsor for the 2010 FIFA World
Cup in South Africa. These images are expected to be
related as indicated through attribution theory that explains
how consumers draw inferences about actors (e.g.
sponsors) using character (e.g. host country) or situational
(e.g. mega-event) information (Kelley and Michela, 1980).
Indeed, based on the work by Heine and Buchtel (2009),
character-based information is expected to have more
influence on tourists behavioural intentions towards
sponsors than situational information.
Methodology and Analysis
The data for this study was collected in Cape Town, South
Africa during the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Tourists were
intercepted in public areas frequented by tourists to the
city. The questionnaire collected evaluative views about
the host country, FIFA World Cup and Coca-Cola as a
leading sponsor. The sample size for this study was 332
respondents characterized as 64.5% male, a median age
in the range of 21-30, and 50.9% obtaining a post
secondary degree or less.
The evaluations made about the country and people of
South Africa, the FIFA World Cup and of Coca-Cola are
presented in Table 1. Respondents were asked to answer
the items indicated on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 was least
favourable and 5 was most favourable. In this study, the
highest evaluations were provided by respondents for the
event itself, followed by the evaluations for the host
country and its people, and the evaluations of an event
sponsor. All the evaluations are significantly higher than
the scale midpoint.
The SEM results are illustrated in Figure 1 and
demonstrate a pattern of relationships where the host
country context is important to sponsorship evaluations
through the evaluation of the mega-event itself. However,
the model does not support the direct relationship of
country image evaluation to the sponsor evaluation.
Rather, the host country impacts on sponsors are felt
through their effects on overall event evaluations. This
model is a good representation of the data as indicated by
the goodness of fit statistics (e.g. GFI, CFI and NNFI are
all well above acceptable thresholds, and RMSEA and
normed x2 are within accepted ranges).
Conclusions
These results reflect the expectations of attribution theory
that inferences about sponsors are drawn from the
situational-based information of the mega-event and the
indirect character-based information about the host
country. The relationships are important despite FIFA only
recently changing its communication strategy to emphasize
the host country rather than the traditional focus of the
sport itself. While the mega-event cameo appearance in
a host country may seem like a short-term commitment for
sponsors, there is a long term message in these findings.
The country context may be more aptly described as the
cameo appearance for this group of consumers as sport
tourists are travelling to experience the event that may be
better known to them than the destination itself. For this
group of consumers, sponsors are seeing the positive
effects of this cameo appearance.
References:
Florek, M., Breitbarth, T. and Conejo, F. (2008). Mega event =
Mega impact? Travelling fans experience and perceptions of the
2006 FIFA World Cup host nation, Journal of Sport and Tourism, 13
(3), 199-219.
Heine, S. J. and Buchtel, E. E. (2009). Personality: The Universal
and the Culturally Specific, Annual Review of Psychology, 60,
369394.
Heslop, L.A., Nadeau, J. and OReilly, N. (2010). China and the
Olympics: Views of insiders and outsiders, International Marketing
Review, 27 (4), 404-433.
Majid, K., Chandra, R. and Joy, A. (2007). Exploring the growing
interest in the Olympic Winter Games, Sport Marketing Quarterly 16
(1), 25-35.
Seguin, B., Bradish, C., Nadeau, J., MacIntosh, E., Chard, C.,
Legg, D., OReilly, J., and Stotler, D. (2010, September). 2010
Winter Olympic Games: A Study of Consumer Perceptions
Regarding Sponsorship, Ambush Marketing and the Olympic
Movement. Paper presented at the meeting of the European
Association of Sport Management, Prague, Czech Republic.
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MODELLING THE TOTAL SPEND AND
TRIP DURATION DECISIONS INVOLVED
IN TRAVELLING TO AND ATTENDING
MAJOR SPORTING EVENTS
Author:
Laura Donohoe
email:
ldonohoe@lincoln.ac.uk
University:
University of Lincoln
Faculty:
Lincoln Business School
Abstract
Aim of Abstract
The aim of this abstract is to report empirical findings as to
the determinants of total spend and trip duration decisions
involved in travelling to and attending major sporting
events. This abstract illustrates the determinants of these
two decisions and discusses how having a better
understanding of total spend and trip duration decision can
be achieved.
Theoretical Background
The global growth of sport and major sporting events
across the world as tourism and mass entertainment, in
both single and multi sport formats, has prompted a desire
for a greater understanding of event attendees and the
implications of their motivations and decisions to travel to
and attend major sporting events. However, research into
major sporting events has generally focused on the
Olympic Games and/or attendance of a single major
sporting event. Currently, the major sporting event
community sees the value of measuring the economic
impact of major sporting events but do not fully understand
the decisions taken by individuals that travel to and attend
major sporting events (Preuss, Seguin & OReilly, 2007).
Downward, Lumsdon & Weston (2009) remark that
economic impact studies ignore the element of trip duration
but continue to model expenditure, this was also found to
be the case when specifically considering economic impact
at major sporting events. Downward and Lumsdon (2003)
have shown that the duration of stay is an important
variable that can be linked to spending and that
encouraging visitors to increase their duration of stay has
favourable economic implications for a destination. This
relationship was further empirically tested with cycling
tourists by Lumsdon, Downward and Cope (2004),
whereby it was shown that the variables of trip duration
and income act to determine levels of spending, in the
sense that the longer the trip duration and the higher the
income level, the greater the level of spending that would
occur within the host economy.
Methodology
This research used a positivist quantitative strategy to
empirically assess research questions surrounding major
sporting event attendance and the associated motivations,
total spending and trip duration decisions. Independent
variables for analysis were identified through the research
literature review and informed the construction of both a
conceptual research model and the online research survey.
The conceptual research model focused on demographics,
event related motivations, major sporting event profile and
sporting involvement as the independent variables and
modeled their relationship with the dependent variables of
total spend and trip duration.
The variable-based data collected from individual
respondents on nine different major sporting events
underwent a two stage descriptive and statistical analysis.
The descriptive analysis consisted of a quantitative
breakdown of survey results and the statistical analysis
allowed the data to be econometrically modeled and
assessed through regression analysis.
Results
This research provides significant findings towards
understanding the decisions taken by individuals that travel
to and attend major sporting events and in doing so leads
to a greater understanding of total spend and trip duration
decisions. The econometric models of the results indicate
that the demographic variables and event related
motivations determined total spend decisions whilst
demographic variables, event related motivations and
major sporting event profile variables determined trip
duration decisions. Directly implicated in these findings
were relevant key variables for commercial companies to
consider in the packaging and sale of major event sport
travel to existing and committed major sport event
attendees.
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References:
Downward, P. (2005). Critical (Realist) Reflection on Policy and
Management Research in Sport, Tourism and Sports Tourism.
European Sport Management Quarterly, 5(3), 302-322.
Downward, P., & Lumsdon, L. (2003). Beyond the Demand for Day-
visits: An Analysis of Visitor Spending. Tourism Economics, 9(1),
67-76.
Downward, P., Lumsdon, L., & Weston, R. (2009). Visitor
Expenditure: The Case of Cycle Recreation and Tourism. Journal of
Sport and Tourism, 14(1), 25-42.
Lumsdon, L., Downward, P., & Cope, A. (2004). Monitoring of Cycle
Tourism on Long Distance Trails: The North Sea Cycle Route.
Journal of Transport Geography, 12, 13-22.
Preuss, H., Seguin, B., & OReilly, N. (2007). Profiling Major Sport
Event Visitors: The 2002 Commonwealth Games. Journal of Sport
and Tourism, 12(1), 5 23.
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THE PERCEPTION OF SPORT
ORGANISATIONS ABOUT NON
ECONOMICAL CRITICAL SUCCESS
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE
SUCCESS OF THE SPORT EVENT
Author:
Spiros Kokolakis
email:
S.Kokolakis@lboro.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Robinson Leigh (University of Stirling School of Sport)
Henry Ian (Loughborough University)
University:
Loughborough University
Faculty:
School of Sport Exercise and Health Sciences
Abstract
Aim and objectives of the research
Traditional management systems that evaluate and
measure performance entirely on financial measures, are
insufficient in modern performance measurement systems,
where one has to evaluate more specific tangible and
intangible factors that influence the success of an
organisation (Kaplan and Norton 2001). Through this study
we try to investigate how the different sport organisations
perceive the importance of the Non Economical Critical
Success Factors (NECSFs). The objective is to identify
how NECSFs are implemented in the various
organisations sport events and also to recognise the
similarities and differences in characteristics and
dimensions according to how they perceive and implement
the NECSFs.
Literature Review
The non economical factors give a different approach in
relation with the economical ones, which are too
aggregated, too late, and too backward-looking to help
managers understand the root causes of performance
problems, initiate timely corrective actions, encourage
cross-functional decision making, and focus on strategic
issues (Kaplan and Norton 2001). Allen et al. (2005)
address the positive and negative aspects of events via
measurable outcomes that assign a high importance on
financial impacts. In contradiction they provide little
exploration of impacts -that are less clearly measurable-
and the non economical factors. However, the need to
assess the contribution that events make in this less
tangible area is recognised (Hall, 1997; Allen et al., 2005)
but to develop such an analysis requires a narrative as
opposed to a statistical approach (Allen et al., 2005). It is
accepted that sport event successful organisation involves
more than economical parameters. As Ittner et al (1998)
and Hemmer (1996) also suggest, non-financial measures
of performance are useful to help refocus managers on the
long-term aspects of their actions.
Methodology (Research Design and Data analysis)
Semi-structured interviews (yin 2009) with key personnel
at each sport organisation were conducted as a
fundamental part of data collection. The research took
place in 2009 in the six sport organizations: FIBA, FINA,
UEFA, Lausanne Triathlon, Vardinoyannia International
Track Field Meeting, and Cyprus Aphrodite Semi
Marathon. Five members from each organisation
committee have participated in the study. The interviews
were recorded, transcribed and then imported into the
software NVivo 8 which was then used to structure and
manage the data. Taking into account the responses, a
guide of key indicators was developed. With the help of
the NVivo 8, these indicators were encoded, transcribed
and analysed.
Results
The research analysis showed that all sport organisations
that participated in the study have a different approach as
to how they perceive and implement the NECSFs that
influence the success of the sport event. Moreover, across
the sport organisations there are common but also different
points of reference as regards their perception of NECSFs.
Another interesting finding is that the organisations have
not identified and implemented officially an explicit
framework for the NECSFs in their event. Also, the results
show that despite the fact that all sport organisations
recognise in general the importance of NECSFs, each
sport organisation rates the importance of these factors
differently. Equally important is the fact that the sport
organisations neither follow any method for evaluating,
monitoring and measuring what they perceive as non-
economical factors nor use any measurable indicators
either.
Conclusion
In order to support the sport organisations to shift towards
including also the non economical critical success factors
in their organisational plans, a clear and coherent
framework is needed which will support the identification,
monitoring and the evaluation of their promoting learning
and performance assessment. The non economical
organisational approach may be supplements the
economical factors in a new managerial environment
because of the tendency up to now that the economical
reports measure things that are easy to measure without to
reflecting the value of long-term oriented managerial
actions.
The framework of the non economical critical success
factors must be simple and sufficiently user friendly for a
sport event. However, because it is very difficult to
organise and plan a universal framework for action and an
instrument for evaluation for all types of sport events and
all stakeholders, it might be useful to organise a general
framework. This framework could follow a personalized
process based on the characteristics and dimensions of
each sport event so as to use it in a flexible way that
ultimately enhances the development effectiveness of the
sport event organisation as a whole.
References:
R. K. yin 2009, Case study research: Design and methods.
Allen, J., O Toole, W., Harris, R. and Mc Donnel, I (2005). Festival
and Special Event Management, Third Edition. Milton: John Wiley &
Sons Australia, LtD.
Kaplan, R. S. and D. P. Norton. 2001. The Strategy-Focused
Organization: How Balanced Scorecard Companies Thrive in the
New Business Environment. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School
Press.
Hall,C.M 1997 Mega events and their legacies. In Quality
Management in Urban Tourism.
C.D. Ittner et al, 1998. Are Nonfinancial Measures Leading
Indicators of Financial Performance? An Analysis of Customer
Satisfaction. Journal of Accounting Research.
T. Hemmer 1996, On the Design and Choice of Modern
Management Accounting Measures. Journal of Management
Accounting Research
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UNDERESTIMATING ECONOMIC
IMPACT: AN ANALySIS OF
OVERLOOKED EVENT ATTENDEES
Author:
Matthew Brown
email:
matt.brown@sc.edu
Co-authors:
Andy Gillentine, John Grady
University:
University of South Carolina
Faculty:
Department of Sport and Entertainment Management
Abstract
Economic impact studies provide only an estimate of the
true impact of a sporting event because analysts must
make assumptions while performing these studies. While
the assumptions can be kept to a minimum and the validity
of the assumptions can be tested, controversy often
surrounds sport economic impact analyses because
researchers do not avoid common mistakes. These
mistakes can cause either overestimation or
underestimation of an event's true economic impact
(Brown et al., 2010).
There are many reasons why an estimate of a sporting
event's economic impact may be low (Brown et al, 2010).
One noted reason is that some events produce an
economic impact from visitors who come to a region for an
event but do not attend the actual event itself. For
example, research on tailgaters in the United States has
shown that more than ten percent actually miss the event
preferring instead to continue tailgating (Gillentine, 2003).
Brown et al. noted that most economic impact studies fail
to measure impacts like this. While anecdotal evidence
exists to indicate that underestimation occurs, little has
been done to empirically measure the degree to which
studies have underestimated true impact.
Tailgating involves crowds of fans gathering to eat, drink
and socialize prior to, during, and after a competition
(Drozda, 1996). Event organizers embrace the tailgating
ritual to fit their needs and desires (Cahn, 2003; James,
Breezeel, & Ross, 2001). They see tailgating as an
attractive promotion that can be implemented with little or
no additional cost to the event itself (Fredrick, 1999; Hart,
1984). As Gillentine (2003) noted, little is known about
fans' practices while tailgating. Research conducted has
focused on risk management and safety issues
surrounding tailgating (Gillentine & Miller, 2006; Gillentine,
Miller, & Crow, 2010; Miller & Gillentine, 2006) and
consumer behaviors and motivations. James, Breezeel, &
Ross (2001) identified two primary motives for which
individuals continue tailgating: 1) escaping normal routines
and 2) enjoying social interaction. Further, research
findings suggest that a desire for social interaction,
togetherness, excitement and escape serve as fan motives
for participating in tailgating events (Gillentine, 2003;
James, Breezeel, & Ross, 2001). Drenton, Peters, &
Hollenbeck (2009) have also studied the influence of
tailgating on ritual commitment.
Missing is research on the economic impact of tailgating.
If, as noted by Gillentine (2003), 10 percent of tailgaters do
not attend the event itself, the economic impact from the
tailgating only group would be significant. Therefore,
impact studies of only the event itself may severely
underestimate its true impact. The purpose of this study
was to measure the additional economic impact of those
who attended a sporting event as tailgaters only in order to
estimate the degree to which economic impact studies may
underestimate the true impact of those events.
A survey instrument was developed to collect the direct
spending data of tailgaters at two randomly selected home
games during a team's 2010 season. The survey was
designed based on the methods outlined by Brown et al.
(2010). As recommended by Zikmund (2009), a random
sample framework was employed to collect the data. Data
was collected from approximately 350 subjects at each
event with a total of 713 surveys completed. IMPLAN
multipliers were used to measure the indirect and induced
effects of the direct spending on the region's economy.
These multipliers were built based upon the region's
input/output tables which measure the flow of goods and
services among industries within the region.
An analysis of the data revealed that the average
attendance at the two games was 77,238 with an average
total event attendance of 121,696. Those tailgating only
and not attending the game itself averaged 44,459.
Incremental tailgating only visitors averaged 15,444 per
game while remaining in the region for 1.78 days. Direct
spending by these visitors was $1.74 million, with a total
sales (output) impact of $2.79 million. Further, the tax
impact of these visitors was $245,000 while the earnings
impact was $1.01 million. Finally, the employment impact
was 48.8.
The results indicate that those who only attended the event
to tailgate added $2.79 million in total sales (output) to the
region's economy. Taken over the course of a season, the
impact would be $19.53 million. Therefore, in this case if
only game attendees were measured the economic impact
of the game on the region would underestimate the true
impact by at least $2.79 million per game or $19.53 million
per season.
References:
Brown, M.T., Rascher, D.A., Nagel, M.S, & McEvoy, C.D. (2010).
Financial management in the sport industry. Holcomb Hathaway:
Scottsdale, AZ.
Cahn, J. (2003). Tailgating America 2002. Retrieved on May 25,
2010 from http://www.tailgating.com/
Drenton, J., Peters, C.O., & Hollenbeck, C.R. (2009). Not Just a
Party in the Parking Lot: An Exploratory Investigation of the Motives
Underlying the Ritual Commitment of Football Tailgaters, Sport
Marketing Quarterly, 18, 92-106
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48
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THE ATHLETES SPORT EVENT
ExPERIENCE OF THE xIx
COMMONWEALTH GAMES IN DELHI,
INDIA
Author:
Eric MacIntosh
email:
eric.macintosh@uottawa.ca
University:
University of Ottawa
Faculty:
School of Human Kinetics
Abstract
Hosting a mega-sport event such as the Commonwealth
Games is a complex task for an organizing committee due
to the various complexities and multiple stakeholders to
consider (c.f. Parent, 2008). While research has examined
the economic impact of mega-events on the host
community (e.g., Preuss, Seguin & O Reilly, 2007), and the
legacy and meaning of volunteering (e.g., Doherty, 2009;
xing & Chalip, 2009) among others, there has been a
virtual absence of research related to athletes.
Chelladurai and Reimer (1997) argued that the athletes
are both primary beneficiaries and producers of sport and
warrant research attention. Others have recently called for
an examination of mega-sport events from a multiple
stakeholder perspective to learn more from the likes of the
athlete stakeholder group (e.g., Parent, 2008). Chappelet
and Bayle (2005) explained that evaluating mega-sport
events, while a multi-faceted and lengthy process is
invaluable for rights holders and organizing committees in
their strategic management initiatives. Freeman (1984,
p.46) remarked that any group or individual who can affect
or is affected by the achievement of the organization s
objectives is a stakeholder. Arguably then, athletes are
key stakeholders in mega-events.
Motivated by a gap in research and guided by the
concepts of strategic management and stakeholder theory,
this study empirically examined the athlete s experiences
of the xIx Commonwealth Games held in Delhi, India.
The purpose of the study was to: (1) address the gap in
research regarding a primary stakeholder group (i.e.,
athletes) and how they experience the mega-sport event,
and (2) develop an instrument that organizing committees
can use to evaluate their performance in future events
according to the athlete stakeholder group.
A survey was designed in consultation with Commonwealth
Games Federation (CGF) executives. A process of item
generation, expert judgment and piloting of the survey took
place prior to data collection. In total, 39 items were
included on the survey which asked athletes to rate their
accommodations, the Athletes Village environment, the
sporting venues, travel information, food quality,
ceremonies, communication, confidence in security,
confidence in medical staff among other items. A Likert-
type scale was used anchored by 1 (very poor), 3
(satisfactory) and 5 (excellent). Four open ended
questions were also included which asked participants to
indicate and describe any immediate concerns they had,
whether they had any suggestions on how to improve
future Games, to identify and describe one thing above all
else not related to their athletic event which has
contributed to their enjoyment, and to suggest ways for the
CGF to improve the opening ceremonies.
Data collection commenced on day two of the competition.
Recruitment took place in the Dining Hall within the
Athletes Village. Following the closing ceremonies, an
online version of the survey was made available to
interested athletes for a period of three weeks. The data
was analysed using an exploratory factor analysis
technique to describe emergent factor structures from the
survey and assist in further analyses of this stakeholder
group by geographic region and demographic factors. The
open ended questions were transcribed verbatim and
underwent a content analysis procedure to produce
emergent themes.
In total, 428 useable surveys were collected during the
Games. An additional 100 online responses were
collected after the Games. Athletes from 46 out of the 71
different countries responded to the survey. 269 men
(51%) and 259 women (49%) participated. Responses
were collected from various CGF regions including: Africa
(n = 57; 10.8%), America s (n = 94; 17.8%), Asia (n = 67;
12.7%), Caribbean (n = 25; 4.7%), Europe (n = 165;
31.3%) and Oceania (n = 120; 22.7%).
Eight reliable factors emerged: (1) transportation (2)
security (3) medical (4) rooms, (5) sport venues (6)
ancillary (7) communication and (8) ceremonies. Overall,
the athletes experience was good (M = 4.08, SD = .74, =
.91). Open ended responses identified some
organizational challenges such as athletes not trusting
housekeeping staff, difficulties with contacting friends and
family, concerns over hygiene and health to name a few.
The athletes noted that increased merchandising options
and the ability to see more of the city would improve future
games experiences. Outside of their sport, volunteer
friendliness and socializing with other athletes was found
to create positive Games experiences. Lastly, holding the
opening ceremonies twenty-four hours in advance of the
first competition was cited as the top way to improve the
athlete s experiences. The presentation will address other
significant findings in more detail.
References:
Chappelet, J., & Bayle, E. (2005). Strategic and performance
management of Olympic sport organizations. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
Chelladurai, P., & Riemer, H.A. (1997). A classification of facets of
athlete satisfaction. Journal of Sport Management, 11, 133-159.
Doherty, A. (2009). The volunteer legacy of a major sport event.
Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events. 1(3),
185-207.
Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder
approach. Boston: Pitman.
Parent, M.M. (2008). Evolution and issue patterns for major-sport-
event organizing committees and their stakeholders. Journal of
Sport Management, 22(2), 135-164.
Preuss, H., Seguin, B., & OReilly, N. (2007). Profiling major sport
event visitors: The 2002 Commonwealth Games. Journal of Sport &
Tourism, 12(1), 5-23.
Riemer, H.A., & Chelladurai, P. (1998). Development of the athlete
satisfaction questionnaire (ASQ). Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 20, 127-156.
xing, x., & Chalip, L. (2009). Marching in the glory: Experiences
and meanings when working for a sport mega-event. Journal of
Sport Management, 23(2), 210-237.
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50
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RE-CONFIGURING THE PLAyING FIELD:
CHANGES TO THE COMPETITION TO
HOST MEGA-EVENTS
Author:
Meaghan Carey
email:
kmcarey@ualberta.ca
Co-authors:
Daniel Mason, Marvin Washington
University:
University of Alberta
Faculty:
Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation
Abstract
Hosting rights for large international sporting events such
as the Olympic Games or the FIFA World Cup are
contested by local and national governments seeking
international exposure, gentrification of urban areas,
increased tourism, and economic development in their
respective communities (Burbank, Andranovich & Heying,
2001). Recently the bidding process for these events has
evolved to include a more diverse pool of applicant cities.
For example, the bid competition for the 2004 Summer
Olympic Games included applications from cities from
emerging economies such as: Cape Town, South Africa;
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and Istanbul, Turkey. The upcoming
2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016 Summer Olympic Games
will be hosted by Brazil/ Rio de Janeiro, the 2010
Commonwealth Games were in New Delhi, India, and the
2010 FIFA World Cup were hosted by South Africa. These
are all examples of large sporting events or mega-events
hosted by an emerging economy, which are nations with
social or business activity in the process of rapid growth
and/or industrialization.
Previously, event hosts of this type were largely unseen,
with the exception of the Mexico City 1968 Summer
Olympics, Sarajevo 1984 Winner Olympics, and the Seoul
1988 Summer Olympic Games. The aim of this research
project is to explore the evolution of the diversity of cities
that are actively pursuing and engaged in the hosting of
mega-events. Given the differences in the bidding process
by the various international sport governing bodies for their
premier events, this research project will focus solely on
the bidding competition for the Summer Olympic Games.
To explore this evolution towards the greater inclusion of
cities from emerging economies, this project will draw from
institutional theory; more specifically, we will examine
change through the application of the theoretical
framework of field-configuring events.
The concept of a field is central to institutional theory as it
serves as a location in which to situate the relationships
and interactions of institutional and organizational forces
(Wooten & Hoffman, 2008). An organizational field, within
the institutional theory literature, can be defined as a
community of actors who coalesce around a common
market, shared ideology or issue (Scott, 1995; Hoffman,
1999). Cities that are competitively pursuing hosting rights
to mega-events constitute an organizational field given
their frequent interactions with a similar group of actors
and the shared issue of the selected event they are
bidding to host. Field-configuring events are defined as
temporary social organizations, which can include
conferences, ceremonies, and competitions (Lampel &
Meyer, 2008). By extension, field-configuring events are
both the products and drivers of change in an
organizational field. The application of this framework to
the study of the cities competing to host a mega-event will
allow for the identification of specific events that may have
contributed to cities from emerging economies as viable
host cities within the organizational field. In doing so, this
project seeks to answer the question: why did the
organizational field of cities competing in the Olympic bid
process change?
In order to identify events that served as a trigger for
greater inclusion of cities from emerging economies a
document analysis was conducted. The data collection
period spanned the timeframe of 1980 to 2010. The
collected data include, but are not limited to: bid
documents; IOC policy documents; report documents from
external organizations (such as the United Nations); and
newspaper articles. The data were read and reviewed
several times before being manually coded to identify
themes and patterns in the actions of key actors, which
would be an indication change had occurred within the
organizational field. The results from the data analysis
identified two field-configuring events as the drivers of
change in the field: first, the process which lead to the
adoption of Agenda 21 by the IOC, and second, the bid
competition for the 2004 Olympic Games. The adoption of
Agenda 21 by the IOC will highlight the ideological shift
that was occurring within the IOC and the related
community of actors, through the articulation of sport as a
driver for social change and benefit. The bidding
competition for the 2004 Summer Olympics, offers tangible
evidence that the organizational field of competitive cities
was transforming and new actors were being included.
The application of institutional theory and the theoretical
framework of field-configuring events to the study of why
there has been greater diversity in the pool of applicant
cities to host the Olympic Games, makes an important
contribution to the academic literature through offering a
new way of understanding the developments in bidding for
and acquiring the hosting rights.
References:
Burbank, M. J., Andranovich, G. D., & Heying, C. H. (2001).
Olympic dreams: The impact of mega-events on local politics.
Boulder: Reinner Publishers.
Hoffman, A. (1999). Institutional evolution and change:
environmentalism and the U.S. chemical industry. Academy of
Management Journal, 42, 351-371.
Lampel, J., and Meyer, A. (2008). Field-configuring events as
structuring mechanisms: how conferences, ceremonies, and trade
shows constitute new technologies, industries, and markets.
Journal of Management Studies, 45(6), 1025-1035.
Scott, W.R. (1995). Institutional effects on organizational structure
and performance in institutions and organizations. Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
Wooten, M. and Hoffman, A. (2008) Organizational Fields: past,
present, and future. In Greenwood et al. (2008) Sage handbook of
organizational institutionalism. London: Sage.
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52
POLITICAL RISKS AND THE 2018 AND
2022 WORLD CUPS: DEVELOPING AND
APPLyING A FRAMEWORK FOR
ANALySING AND ASSESSING
POLITICAL RISKS FOR SPORTS
EVENTS
Author:
Mark Piekarz
email:
m.piekarz@worc.ac.uk
University:
Worcester University
Faculty:
Institute of Sport
Abstract
The cancellation of the Bahrain Formula 1 Grand Prix
event in February 2011 acts as a reminder of how sport
events can be vulnerable to political change and turmoil.
What was particularly notable was the speed of change in
the region and how political events rippled beyond country
borders, impacting and shaping events as they went. They
also illustrated that whilst authoritarian political systems
can have long periods of stability, when the pressure for
change becomes so great, then it tends to be far more
dramatic, explosive and sometimes violent in comparison
with democratic countries.
These events in the region, along with the awarding of the
Football World Cup to Russia and Qatar, raise some
important questions as to what the political risks FIFA and
the football event will be exposed to, particularly if one
adopts the position that the events now take place in a
global, inconnected world. A simple comparison with other
large scale sporting events reveals many interesting
potential risks and how the event can both help shape the
political environment, or be shaped itself by political
processes. For example, whilst it can be argued that the
1988 Olympics in South Korea helped nudge (not cause)
the country to move from an authoritarian system to a
democratic one, for the 2008 games in China, if anything,
the reverse seemed true, whereby staging the Olympics
helped strengthen the regimes authority and did more to
erode, rather than improve peoples human rights, with the
risks of domestic and international terrorism being a key
way to legitamise the increase in surveliance and security.
The result, some argue, was to damage the Olympic brand
and compromise many of the principles and roles which
can be found in the Olympic Charter.
What this paper does is to look more deeply at the nature
of the political risks that exist presently and for the future in
Russia and Qatar and how these can impact on both FIFA
and the actual football event itself. A practical framework of
analysis is developed which accesses secondary data, via
a variety of open databases in order to identify the risks,
analyse them and then develop a form of assessment. The
work adopts a 4th age risk paradigm (Tarlow 2002),
whereby risk is viewed as something which can create
both opportunities and threats, along with seeing risks as
being embedded in complex systems. An important part of
the paper will be to illustrate how the framework developed
can be used for assessing political risks for a variety of
sporting events.
The preliminary findings show that whilst on many levels
the political systems of Qatar and Russia have various
elements which can create many conditions of stability,
there are a number of areas of concern, where their
political systems can potentially damage the FIFA brand,
compromise some of its goals and generate various
operational risks. It shows that in the decision making
process, the assessment and consideration of political
situations seems to be one based more on 'hope' that
there will be a positive political environment for the event,
rather than a deeper and critical analysis of the political
situations, having the readymade, but trite fall-back
position that sport and politics should not mix if things start
to go wrong.
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References:
Tarlow, P. E. (2002), Event risk management and safety, John
Wiley & Sons, New york.
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54
Governance
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Themes
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56
ENHANCING NGB FUNCTIONING USING
ORGANISATIONAL DESIGN
Author:
Adam Karg
email:
ajkar@deakin.edu.au
Co-authors:
Paul Turner, David Shilbury
University:
Deakin University
Abstract
While structure and performance are established fields of
organisational research in sport, little has linked these
concepts to understand how design choices of sport
organisations can enhance performance. Conceptual links
between structure and functioning were associated by
Mintzberg (1983) in frameworks of organisational design.
He stated organisational design means turning those
knobs that influence the division of labour and the co-
ordinating mechanisms, thereby affecting how the
organisation functions (p. 25). In this way, design
incorporates two noted components of structure the
division of an organisation into its components and
coordinating mechanisms used within it (Slack & Parent,
2006).
Sport organisational structure research has commonly
been limited to positivist approaches producing descriptive
taxonomies of organisational forms. Prior studies therefore
have limitations in their analytical ability to assess the
effects of structure on performance. More recently,
configurational research approaches have been used to
develop performance frameworks of NGBs (Bayle &
Robinson, 2007). Such studies allow differentiation and
integration to be used as variables to assess structure at
group, organisational and system level, developing
understanding of how different components of NGB
systems act and the resultant inefficiencies that arise from
this interaction. The current research complements this
configurational approach in sport by investigating design
changes made to NGB structures that have enhanced
organisational functionality. Organisational functioning is in
turn is one component of NGBs multi-dimensional
performance elements (Bayle & Madella, 2002).
In exploring this issue, data was collected from three
detailed case studies of Australian NGBs. Participant
NGBs were drawn from a sample (n=12) defined as
Corporate Sport NGBs (Shilbury, & Kellett, 2010) that
represent the largest and most structurally complex NGBs
in the region. Organisational charts, strategic plans and
annual reports were first analysed to provide background
for each case. A total of 35 in depth interviews were then
conducted with board members, CEOs, general managers
and operational staff within each NGB. Exploration of the
interplay of differentiation and integration led to the
identification of barriers to functioning and classification of
structural changes implemented to manage each barrier
and enhance organisational functioning.
Examination of organisational structures confirmed various
sources of difference between NGB departments and a
high need to integrate various parts of the organisations to
achieve collective outcomes. Given these characteristics,
five groups of issues were identified that impacted the
organisations ability to achieve optimum functionality.
These issues were either present in the organisation or
were previous issues which had impacted functioning.
Issues were classified broadly as strategy and governance
issues, structural issues (e.g., change, role clarity), conflict
issues (e.g., goal, resources), information and knowledge
issues and finally, culture and people issues.
Having identified barriers to functionality, the key research
question sought to determine the structural alterations
organisations undertook to alleviate such barriers to
functionality. Under definitions of structure (Parent & Slack,
2006), such changes could be represented by decisions to
divide work or by investments made in coordinating
mechanisms. While vast, nine design choice categories
can be classified in two groups pertaining to functioning
within the NGB (e.g; enhanced communication tools, IT
mechanisms, cross functional teams) and within its wider
system (e.g.; strategic alignment between national and
regional bodies).
When implemented, NGBs demonstrated structural
changes enhanced the functionality between departments
or organisations within a sport system. These were
translated as tangible resource gains (financial or human)
or reported gains in NGB functionality (e.g. greater
communication, information flow or clarity, resource
optimisation, lack of politics).
As expected given the complexity of sport organisations
and their emergent professionalisation and
commercialisation, lessons can be learnt from studying the
evolution of NGB structures and their adaptation.
Theoretically, the findings add to the performance
framework identified by Bayle and Robinson (2007) with
aggregated findings used to develop of characteristics of
highly functional NGBs. Additionally, the use of a
configurational research framework allows structural
design to be studied in more detail, including empirical
investigation of differentiation and integration in sport
organisations and guidance for the effective use of these
variables in future research.
Findings demonstrate that structural design choices made
by organisations have dual impacts on functioning by both
creating and alleviating barriers to functionality. Practically,
the identification of structural alterations to aid functioning
encourages a proactive approach to organisational design
for sport organisations. Given future agendas for sport
organisations include continually evolving governance
structures, the need to incorporate new media operations
and continuing pressures on funding and high performance
systems, NGB structures will continue to evolve. An
understanding of design adaptions made by organisations
therefore represents a continuing agenda of potential
learnings for other NGBs.
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References
Bayle, E. & Madella, A. (2002). Development of a
Taxonomy of Performance for National Sport
Organizations. European Journal of Sport Science, 2(2),
121.
Bayle, E. & Robinson, L. (2007). A Framework for
Understanding the Performance of National Governing
Bodies of Sport. European Sport Management Quarterly,
7(3), 24968.
Mintzberg, H. (1983). Structure in fives: designing effective
organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Shilbury, D. & Kellett, P. (2010). Sport Management in
Australia. Bentleigh East: Strategic Sport Management.
Slack, T. & Parent, M. (2006). Understanding Sport
Organisations: The Application of Organisational Theory.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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58
ANALySING GENDER DyNAMICS IN
SPORT GOVERNANCE: A NEW
REGIMES-BASED APPROACH
Author:
Johanna Adriaanse
email:
johanna.adriaanse@uts.edu.au
Co-authors:
Johanna Adriaanse, Toni Schofield, Toni
University:
University of Technology, Sydney
Faculty:
UTS Business School
Abstract
Introduction
Increasing womens representation on boards is a
contemporary challenge for organisations in general and in
the realm of sport in particular. The majority of studies on
women in sport governance have focused on questions of
gender distribution, barriers for women to obtain decision-
making positions and strategies of how to address them
(for example, Claringbould & Knoppers, 2007; Pfister and
Radtke, 2009). This presentation explores the dynamics of
governance that prevail when women have actually gained
a seat at the boardroom table. It focuses on the gendered
dimensions of these dynamics with reference to boards of
National Sport Organisations (NSOs) in Australia.
The paper is based on a recent study, underpinned by
governance and gender theory. Similar to Kanters (1977)
and Ackers (1990) views that corporate entities and
institutions are not gender neutral, I argue that sport
organisations are gendered. They demonstrate certain
patterns of gender arrangements or gender regimes
(Connell 2009). According to Raewyn Connell who has
developed this concept, a gender regime is characterised
by four interwoven dimensions: production, power,
emotional and symbolic relations. When applied to
governance dynamics in sport boards, this concept permits
identification of how gender works. In particular it
discloses: the gendered division of roles and tasks on the
board, the ways in which power and influence are
exercised among men and women, and between them, the
feelings of support/affection and dislike/hostility that prevail
among them, and their cultural or symbolic understandings
of gender.
Methodology
The fourfold model of gender dimensions provided the
framework for both data collection and analysis. The study
was conducted in 2009/10, involving in-depth interviews
with board directors and chief executive officers (n=30; 12
women and 18 men) from six NSOs engaged in the
governance of gender-neutral sports. This paper reports
on the results of three NSOs. The selected case studies
included the national governing bodies for a team sport, an
individual sport and a sport that contains both individual
and team events.
Results, discussion and conclusions
Preliminary analysis of the data indicates that gender
dynamics were not uniform for all boards but rather played
out in the unique context of each organisation. For
example, while one organisation showed a traditionally,
gendered division of roles for women and men on their
board, the distribution of tasks in another organisation that
was based on the professional background and expertise
of the members meant that a rigid gender division of
labour did not prevail.
The data also suggest that womens participation in sport
governance is characterised by complex gender dynamics.
On the one hand women are required to engage with
ostensibly gender-neutral mechanisms of governance to
advance the objectives of the organisation, while on the
other they find themselves serving as bearers of a public
policy agenda to advance gender equity in sport
governance. These gendered dimensions of sport
governance pose significant challenges for women in
navigating their role as members of boards of NSOs. Men
involved in the process play a critical role in advancing or
obstructing their capacity to progress an equity agenda
The paper concludes with a discussion of implications of
the studys findings for the advancement of gender equity
in sport governance.
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References:
Acker, J. (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered
organisations. Gender and society, 4(2), 139-158.
Claringbould, I., & Knoppers, A. (2007). Finding a normal woman:
Selection processes for board membership. Sex Roles, 56, 495-
507.
Connell, R. (2009). Gender: in world perspective. Cambridge:
Polity.
Kanter, R.M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. New york:
Basic Books.
Pfister, G., & Radtke, S. (2009). Sport, women and leadership:
Results of a project on executives in German sports organisations.
European Journal of Sport Science 9 (4), 229-243.
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60
19
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THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION'S
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE
PROMOTION OF PHySICAL ACTIVITy:
ANALySIS OF THE GUIDELINES
IMPLEMENTATION AT LOCAL LEVEL
THROUGH THE CASE STUDy OF
PIEDMONT
Author:
Enrico Michelini
email:
enrico.michelini@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Maria Caire, Asberto, Maria Luca
University:
School of Exercise and Sport Science (SUISM), Universit
degli Studi di Torino, P.za Bernini 12 10143, Torino, Italy.
Faculty:
Motor Science Research Center
Abstract
Introduction
The Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health
(the Strategy) (WHO, 2004) represents a considerable
effort undertaken by the World Health Organization (WHO)
to assess the promotion of Physical Activity (PA). In a
context of extensive cooperation, the Strategy
recommends the active participation of the sports system
to realize the Strategys goals. To facilitate this, the
Strategys guidelines advise the use of public funds to
(WHO, 2004): promote access among poor communities
to recreational and sporting facilities; and ensure that (...)
sport and recreation facilities embody the concept of sports
for all. However, the implementation of these guidelines
raises two problems of governance, defined here as the
activity of coordinating communications in order to achieve
collective goals through collaboration (Willke, 2007). The
first problem involves the steering of partners towards the
goal of promoting PA. The second problem regards
policies with top-down characteristics, which need to cross
several organizational levels in order to be implemented at
the local level.
Research question and theoretical framework
By using a framework based on the systems theory, this
research addresses the question: How have sports
organizations been supported in the region Piedmont to
offer sport-for-all activities and to involve risk groups?
From a systems theory perspective, the needs of society
are fulfilled by independent functional subsystems which
act according to their almost incommensurable logic. The
subsystems involved in this inquiry are the sports system
with the logic performing/not performing (Stichweh, 1990)
and the political system with the logic power/no power
(Luhmann, 2002). To promote PA for risk groups and
following the sport-for-all philosophy, sports organizations
have to modify their typical orientation towards
performance. This is ensured by the intervention of the
political system, which has steering capacities and the
power of making binding decisions.
Methodology
The case study Piedmont is particularly interesting
because the region received important sporting impulses
the past decade by having organized and hosted several
important sports events (e.g. 2006 Olympic Winter Games
and the 2007 Universiade). To address the research
question, the inquiry performs a structurally-aimed
(Mayring, 2003) content analysis of legislative documents
and a quantitative analysis of public expenditure involving
the promotion of PA in the region Piedmont. These
analyses are specifically focused on aspects of sport
promotion within risk groups and on how the sport-for-all
philosophy is supported in sports organizations. Regarding
the legislative documents, three document typologies have
been analyzed: regional laws, their implementation
documents, and the regional resolutions. For the analysis
of public expenditure, the inquiry performs a quantitative
analysis of the resources spent for the promotion of PA
from 1995 to 2010 through a statistical comparison of
annual revenue activity.
Results
The document analysis demonstrates that the
Piedmontese legislation on sports has a long history,
starting after the post-WWII and consolidating during the
70s. In 1995, the regional law no. 93 repealed many
previous laws on sports and assessed the
recommendations of WHO. This law is still in force and
sets out financing plans for sports organizations for the
attainment of ten different goals related to promoting sports
and PA. Within these objectives, the facilitation of the
access of risk groups to PA and the support of sport-for-all
philosophy are expressly assessed. The quantitative
analysis inquired the public expenditures, paid out in
accordance with law no. 93 from 1995 to 2010. These
reveals that the revenue activity has been characterized by
slightly changes regarding the rules dictating its distribution
and by a fluctuating but increasing trend, which peaked in
2006 (almost 8,000,000 ), and has progressively
decreased since.
Conclusion and discussion
In summary, it can be stated that the WHOs
recommendations for ensuring the access of risk groups to
sports and support for the sport-for-all philosophy have
been actively implemented in the region Piedmont through
dedicated legislation and government financing of sports
organizations since 1995, hence long before the
endorsement of the WHOs Strategy. From a systems
theory perspective, money and law are typical political
means for steering functional subsystems. In this case,
they are used for directing the sports system towards the
goal of promoting sports activities not only with competitive
aims, but also promoting sports activities explicitly directed
to the enhancement of public health and social inclusion.
Further research is needed in order to establish a direct
relationship between the hosting of the Winter Olympic
Games in Piedmont and the increase of public funding
supporting sport-for-all activities. On a more general level,
the impact of large-scale sporting events on funding for
sport-for-all activities presents an interesting field for future
inquiries.
References:
Luhmann, N. (2002). Die Politik der Gesellschaft (1. ed.). Frankfurt
am Main: Suhrkamp.
Mayring, P. (2003). Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse : Grundlagen und
Techniken (8 ed.). Weinheim: Beltz
Stichweh, R. (1990). Sport-Ausdifferenzierung, Funktion, Code.
Sportwissenschaft, 20(4), 373-389.
WHO. (2004). Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health.
WHA57.17, Geneva.
Willke, H. (2007). Smart governance: governing the global
knowledge society. Frankfurt: Campus.
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62
AN UNLIKELy OLyMPIC CITy A CASE
STUDy ON THE INTEGRATED
FRAMEWORK FOR SPORTS
DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE
Author:
Mun Wai Ho
email:
ho_mun_wai@rp.sg
Co-authors:
Jin Teik OON
David HO
University:
Republic Polytechnic, Singapore
Faculty:
School of Sports, Health and Leisure
Abstract
Sports have been pursued for social motivations since time
immemorial. In the last century, sports has taken a
trajectory of growth to become a globalised pursuit, as
exemplified in the modern Olympic movement. Large
countries have played major roles. In the recent half of this
century, sports have taken on a new dimension as a
medium for economic development. Miraculously,
physically tiny Singapore has gone against all odds to
emerge as a unique sporting nation that punches above its
weight. Amongst other achievements, it has hosted the
inaugural youth Olympic Games as well as the F1 Motor
Racing. How did Singapore do it? Was this driven by the
government alone? What was the role of the private sector
and the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)? This
paper peels deep into the make-up of the Singaporean
psyche that gave rise to a unique business mode that
enabled it to become not only successful, but in a short
time. The business ideas expounded in the article is
crystalized into an Integrated Framework for Sports
Development that elegantly and comprehensively
connected the business, political and academic
perspectives to drive research, policy formulation and
business development for the sports industry in the future.
19
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References:
Forrester, J.W. (1998). Designing the future. Lecture at the
Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain.
Ho, M. W. (2010). Strategic Funding For National Sports
Organizations From The Portfolio Management Perspective.
Doctoral thesis submitted to the University of South Australias
International Graduate School of Business.
Kwak, y. H., Chih, y. y., Ibbs, C. W. (2009). Towards a
Comprehensive Understanding of Public Private Partnerships for
Infrastructure Development. California Management Review, 51, 2,
Winter 2009.
MCyS. (2002). The Report Of Committee Of Sporting Singapore.
Ministry of Community Development, youth & Sports, Singapore.
Thibault, L. & Harvey, J. (1997). Fostering interorganizational
linkages in the Canadian sport delivery system. Journal of Sport
Management, 11, 45.
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19
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A COGNITIVE APPROACH OF THE
REPRESENTATION OF PERFORMANCE:
A STUDy OF THE RUGBy CLUBS
Author:
Bernard Auge
email:
bernard.auge@univ-montp1.fr
Co-authors:
Naro Gerald, Vernhet Alexandre
University:
Universite Montpellier 1
Faculty:
Institut des Sciences de l'Entreprise et du Management
ISEM
Abstract
A topic for research
Performance is a polysemic notion which can be
considered as a "strange attracter" in its ability to absorb
many meanings (Pesqueux, 2004). From an organisational
point of view, Bourguignon (2000) defines the performance
as "the realisation of organisational objectives whatever
the nature and the diversity of these objectives. This
realisation can be understood in the strict sense (result,
achievement) or in the broader sense of the process which
leads to the result (action)...". Thus raising the question of
performance sends us back to the necessity of defining
beforehand the function target of the organisation and, the
latter, in its turn refers to the question of the expectations
of the parties present concerned. For performance does
not exist as an objective reality which would exist as an
object per se. It is rather a matter of " a contingent social
construction" (Naro, 2004) in so far as it is not accessible
separately from the prism of cognition of the actors present
- assessors, stakeholders,... - and from the power relations
which structure their relations.
Organizations like clubs of rugby are exemplar cases to
investigate these questions. Indeed, traditionally the club
seems to be the first place where competition takes place.
However, with the context of professionalization of rugby,
the club becomes a dual entity to answer the new
constraints of sports as a show (Nier et al., 2004). Since
then, two autonomous entities with a distinct moral
personality coexist within the same structure. The first one
is exclusively dedicated to professional whereas the other
to non-professional sport. That is why, clubs become
bicephalous . In spite of their status, the support
organization is involved in the governance of the
professional sector. Thus, professional and non-
professional sectors are interrelated.
Did professionalization of clubs of rugby have a positive
impact on global performance?
The aim of the paper is to investigate the concept of
performance within both professional and non-professional
clubs of rugby. Several research questions are related to
this global one : what is the representation of performance
for each actor ? Is it an athletic, a financial, an
organizational or a social performance ? Is the concept of
shared performance relevant ? Is it relevant to develop a
synthetic indicator for global performance for each sector
or, on the contrary for each club ?
Theoretical framework
Such investigation refers to contingency theories
(structural and behavioral). Indeed, our research question
is related to the debate between universality and
contingence in clubs of rugby in both professional and non-
professional sectors. Our attention is focused on their
managerial practices and their reach of performance.
Methodology
Concerning methodology, cognitive cartography is used for
this study in order to analyze the representations of the
tested users, that is the structures formed from beliefs and
opinions concerning performance by establishing causal
maps of individual cognitive mapping. We shall retain the
definition of cognitive mapping proposed by Cossette and
Audet (1994),A cognitive map is a graphic representation
of the mental representation that the researcher has of a
whole set of discursive representations voiced by a subject
from his own cognitive representations about a specific
object . These authors then consider cognitive
cartography as the concrete result of a series of operations
calling on representations of the actors concerned, that is
the researcher and the answering subject.
Our study is focused on clubs of the professional sector. In
order to do so, in each club, we will interview in both the
director of professional sport and the director of non-
professional sport.
Results, discussion
The first results of the study show different representations
of performance. Discourses of directors of the professional
sector seem focused on athletic and financial performance.
Indeed, Professional clubs take an industrial risk when
they invest. Such investments force them to perform in
terms of sport competition and in financial terms as well or
at least to maintain the balance a Financial and athletic
equilibrium (Bourg et Gouguet, 1998, 2001). On the
contrary, in the non-professional sector, directors refer
more to a social or educative performance. Education,
training represent key dimensions of their mission. In that
sense, sport enhance sense making and develop social
networks. Nevertheless, directors do not forget that
education in professional sector is important for the
professional sector. Consequently, structuring the non-
professional sector seems critical to reach an
organizational performance.
References:
Aug B., Naro G. et Vernhet A., (2010), Challenging Financial and
sports performances in rugby clubs : stakes, perspectives and limits
of the balanced scorecards, EURAM Europeen Academy of
Management, Annual conference 2010, Rome,
Bourg J-F. et Gouguet J-J,(1998) Analyse conomique du sport,
Presses universitaires de France, Paris.
Bourg J-F. et Gouguet J-J,(2001), conomie du sport, Paris,
Repres n 309, La Dcouverte, Paris.
Bourguignon A. (1995), Peut-on dfinir la performance ? ,
Revue Franaise de Comptabilit, juillet-aot, pp 61-66.
Cossette P. et Audet M. (1994), Cartes cognitives et organisations,
Les presses de lUniversit de Laval, ditions Eska, 1994.
Naro G. (2004), Contrle de gestion et structuration des
politiques sociales des entreprises , in Management de la
comptitivit et emploi, Brabet Julienne, Pezez Roland, yami Sad,
Eds., Chap. 4, pp. 97-123, LHarmattan, Paris..
Nier O., Chantelat P., Camy J. (2004), Les stratgies identitaires
des clubs de rugby de llite europenne face la
professionnalisation (1987-1997) , Science et Motricit, 50, 103-
125.
Pesqueux y. (2004), La notion de performance globale en question,
5 Forum International E.T.H.I.C.S, 1-2 dcembre 2004, Tunis
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CREATING THE 2015 BUSINESS PLAN
OF THE GREEK PROFESSIONAL
BASKETBALL LEAGUE
Author:
Alexandros Bontikoulis
email:
a.bontikoulis@hotmail.com
Co-authors:
Alexandros Bontikoulis, (a.bontikoulis@hotmail.com),
Vasileios Economides
University:
HEBA (Hellenic Basketball Association)
Abstract
1. Aim of the abstract/paper
The Hellenic Basketball Association (HEBA) is the
governing body of the Greek Professional Basketball
League (A1). Founded by the top basketball clubs in 1991,
it was formulated to change the league from amateur to
professional. It is a private law legal entity consisting of
fourteen (14) clubs that participate in A1 each year, whose
owners are the members of HEBAs board.
HEBA has recently (January 2011) undertaken a project to
re-access its functions and to create a long term business
plan. The purpose of the plan is to improve the governance
of A1 and to secure its feasibility against the financial
turmoil in the Greek economy.
The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the steps
followed in order to create and implement the 2015 HEBA
business plan.
2. Practice description
The success of any business plan is usually determined by
how satisfied stakeholders are (Eden & Ackerman 1998,
Abramson & Kamensky 2001, Bryson et all 2001, Bryson
and Crosby 1992, Baumgartner & Jones 1993, Roberts &
King 1996, Jacobs & Shapiro 2000, Van Schendelen
2002). However, satisfying stakeholders is often a
controversial task, because of the conflicts of interest or
the sources of influence (Allen 2008) that might exist/arise.
Therefore, before starting planning, it is very important to
identify and analyze all stakeholders. In literature,
stakeholders are described as groups or individuals with
strong interdependent relationship with their organizations
and the power to directly affect organizations future
(Freeman 1984, Nutt & Backoff 1992, Bryson 1995, Eden
& Ackermann 1998, Johnson & Scholes 2002, Mitchel et
all 1997, Jones & Wicks 1999).
At the beginning, stakeholders identification can not be a
fully participatory exercise, because one of its purposes is
precisely to determine who should eventually become part
of the planning process (Renard 2004). Thus the process
started by asking some of the most obvious participants to
identify other stakeholders. Through this process
numerous of potential stakeholders related to HEBA came
up (more than 40) and thus it was of great importance to
break them up in segments in order to be able to extract
conclusions Therefore, the Eden and Ackerman (1998) grid
was utilized, according to which the stakeholders are
segmented based on the basis of their influence and
interest in the organization.
3. Context description, actors involved
Following that grid, the stakeholders were segmented into
four categories; subjects, players, context setters and
crowd. The Athletes (Hellenic Association of Professional
Basketball Players), the Coaches (Hellenic Association of
Basketball Coaches), the Owners of the clubs and the
Press (Hellenic Association of Sport Journalists) were
classified as subjects (or key stakeholders) because their
power and interest are so great that their satisfaction could
even prevent the failure of the business plan (Huntington
1996; Friedman 2000). Athletes and Coaches constitute
the core product of HEBA. Owners of the clubs
experience huge difficulties in their businesses due to the
economic crisis, so HEBA needs to retain them
incentivized. Accordingly, Sports Journalists represent the
media rights point of view, a utility that holds an important
potential for profits and promotion.
The method used to measure the subjects satisfaction,
was a quantitative questionnaire, consisting of eight (8)
questions with regards to four (4) segments. The
qualitative approach was adopted to let participants
expand their views as much as possible. As this was the
first satisfaction survey ever conducted by HEBA, it was
essential to give space for the parties to elaborate.
Among players, context setters and crowd are the
Referees Association, the Greek Basketball Federation,
the Facilities Operators, the Police, the Employees, the
Providers, and the Sponsors etc. The tools to measure
these stakeholders satisfaction will be either one to one
interviews (for small groups or individuals) or qualitative
surveys based on the existed bibliography (i.e. customers
and sponsors satisfaction etc). These stakeholders
analysis will follow the subjects analysis in order to exploit
any information given by subjects.
4. Implications and learning
Having all stakeholders analysed, HEBA aspires that it will
be able to create and implement a business plan for the
long term feasibility of the organisation. Currently HEBA
has to face various threats that undermine its prospects,
but a wise use of stakeholders analysis can help frame
issues that are solvable in ways that are technically
feasible (Bryson 2004: 1).
References:
BOOKS
Abramson, M. & Karnensky, J. (2001). Managing for results 2002.
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Baumgartner, J. & Jones, B. (1993). Agendas and instability in
American politics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Bryson, J. & Crosby, B. (1992). Leadership for the common good.
Tackling public problems in a shared power world. San Francisco.
CA: Jossey-Bas
Bryson, J. (1995). Strategic planning for public and nonprofit
organizations (rev. edit). San Francisco, CA. Jossey - Bass.
Bryson, J. (2004). What to do when stakeholders matter. Routledge
Eden, C. & Ackermann, F. (1998). Making strategy. The Journey of
Strategic Management. London. Sage Publications.
Freeman, E. (1984). Strategic management. A stakeholder
approach. Boston, MA Pitman.
Huntington, S. (1996). The clash of civilizations and the remaking
of world order. New york. Simon & Schuster.
Jacobs, L. & Shapiro, R. (2000). Politicians don't pander: Political
manipulation and the loss of democratic responsiveness. Chicago,
IL: University of Chicago Press.
Jacques, C. (2001). Stakeholder analysis and natural resource
management. Carleton University.
Johnson, G. & Scholes, K. (2002). Exploring Corporate Strategy
(6th edit.). Harlow, England. Pearson Education.
Nutt, P. & Backoff, R. (1992). Strategic management of public and
third sector organizations: A Handbook For Leaders. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bas.
Renard, y. (2004). Guidelines for stakeholders identification and
analysis. McArthur.
Roberts, N. & King, P. (1996). Transforming public policy: Dynamics
of policy entrepreneurship and innovation. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Van Schendelen, R. (2002). Machiavelli in Brussels. The art of
lobbying at he EU. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
JOURNALS
Bryson, J. M., Gibbons, M. J. & Share, G. (2001). Enterprise
schemes for nonprofit survival growth and effectiveness. Nonprofit
Management and Leadership, 1, 271-288.
Friedman, T. (2000). The Lexus and the olive tree. Understanding
Globalization. New york. Anchor.
Jones, M. & Wicks, C. (1999). Convergent stakeholder theory.
Academy of Management Review, 2, 206-221.
Mitchell, K. Agle, R. & Wood, J. (1997). Toward a theory of
stakeholder identification and salience. Defining the principle of
who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 2,
853-886.
ON LINE MAGAZINES
Allen, R. (2008). Stakeholders analysis. Customer Inside Magazine,
5, 2, 33-36. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://customer-
insight.co.uk/sites/default/files/september-2008.pdf
WEB SITES
Scottish Government Stakeholder Survey 2008. Retrieved January
5, 2011, from
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/06/01090429/3.
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19
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BALANCE OF POWER: DEGENERATIVE
POLITICS AND POLICy DESIGN IN
SPORT
Author:
Craig Paiement
email:
cpaiement@ithaca.edu
Co-authors:
Matthew Payment
University:
Ithaca College
Faculty:
Sport Management and Media
Abstract
The current complex political atmosphere in professional,
international or American collegiate sports can be vastly
improved through effective policy design and
implementation. A theoretical analysis of Schneider and
Ingrams research on social construction of target
populations and subsequent degenerative politics provides
a background for the assessment. Schneider and Ingram
(1993) define degenerative politics as "characterized by its
exploitation of derogatory social constructions,
manipulations of symbols or logic, and deceptive
communication that masks the true purpose of policy"
(p.11). The context of degenerative policy involves an
institutional culture that legitimizes strategic manipulative
and deceptive patterns of communication and uses of
political power (Schneider & Ingram 1997, p 102). They
provide a tangible definition of degenerative politics which
can be used to compare current practices in individual
sports systems to fair systems. Our objective is to link
current practices in sports systems to degenerative politics
in an effort to demonstrate the current deficiencies that
exist in sports system policy and governance.
The joy of competition becomes decreasingly less
synonymous with sports each passing day. It has been
overrun by the new philosophy that entertainment
supersedes competitive balance. Bellamy (2006)
concludes that sports defined by the majority of individuals
today are something you watch, listen to, read about and
talk about rather than something you do. This passive
participation has solidified the evolution of sports from a
leisure activity to a powerful industry. Sport as an industry
is not devoid of the problems facing every other large
enterprise, specifically the struggle for power and control of
policy design and implementation.
The foundation of Schneider and Ingram's (1993)
contention is that social construction of target populations
influence policy agenda and the rationales that legitimize
policy choices. They place critical importance on the
assessment of policy design construction based on
motivation of power, control or influence over groups or
individuals. Degenerative politics finds its roots in Social
Conflict Theory, which states that social classes within
society vary in wealth and resources and that groups with
greater resources exert power over lesser groups through
economic and brute force exploitation (Obershall, 1978).
Degenerative politics in sport contradicts its core principles
of fair play, equity, and safety. Boxill (2003) expands on the
explanation to include that accepted rules may be
manipulated for a strategic advantage but are done so with
the understanding that if overstepped the consequences
will be swiftly enforced (p.351). Conversely, the use of
fraudulent practices leads to a breakdown in sport systems
often defined by both organizational and competition rules,
leading to degenerative politics and potential corruption.
These can be found in all levels of sport and case studies
within each major level will be presented. A few examples
of topics to be presented follow.
The best current case study example is the Federation
Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) and its
process for selecting the World Cup host country. This
process is conducted through secret ballot of its twenty-
four member executive committee. It has been argued that
a process conducted in this manner, devoid from personal
justification or accountability for ones vote, allows for
speculation of corruption. The surprising selection of
Russia for 2018 and Qatar for 2022 most recently, brought
tangible accusations of bribery. Additionally, public
opposition by NGOs of the President leads to fears of
financial backlash against a member countrys governing
body.
Another current example is the disproportional power
structure among coupled organizations within a
professional sports system, which jeopardizes its long term
sustainability. Major League Baseball in the Unites States
is a sports organization that allows its teams to generate
and retain a large majority of their revenue locally. That
coupled with the non-existence of spending controls
provides a considerable advantage to teams that reside in
a large market and negatively impacts competitive balance
within the system. The sustained lack of competitive
balance leads to fan disinterest in many markets.
Fans as a target population have the ability to impact the
overall success of the sports system. However, fans
provide minimal power to influence policy design or
implementation. Ross & Szymanskis (2008) theory of
public choice states that policy within a sports system
takes into account the best interest of the masses instead
of individual fans (p.22). This powerless construction leads
to a decrease in the ability of the fans to influence desired
change. The NCAA and its Football Bowl Subdivision's
BCS demonstrate the lack of power fans wields. The
commissioners of the big six conferences have rebuffed
fan outcry to alter the current end of season bowl games.
References:
Boxill, J.M. (2003). The Ethics of Competition, Sports Ethics, 107-
114
Obershall, A (1978) Theories of Social Conflict, Annual Review of
Sociology, 4, 291-315
Ross, S.F. & Szymanski, S. (2008). Fans of the world, Unite!
Stanford Press: Palo Alto, CA.
Schneider, A. & Ingram, H. (1993). The Social Construction of
Target Populations, The American Political Science Review, 87 (2),
334 346.
Schneider, A. & Ingram, H. (1997). Policy Design for Democracy.
Lawrence. University Press of Kansas. Kansas
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70
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THE CREATION OF THE WORLD
SPORTS GOVERNANCE AGENCy
Author:
Sandro Arcioni
email:
sandro.arcioni@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Patricia Vandewalle
University:
Haute Ecole d'Ingnieurs et de Gestion du Canton de
Vaud
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
RESEARCH QUESTION
The world of sport and its organisations is a complex
system due to the multiplicity of the elements which
compose it. The sporting International Federations (FIs)
are federated by the rules of the Olympic system, but each
FI is an independent association in accordance with
articles 60 of the Swiss Civil code. In this context:
"How can the world of sport regulate itself and improve its
governance?
Thanks to the creation of the World Sport Governance
Agency (WSGA), proposed by Arcioni (2010), the control
of the implementation of the Olympic Charter, the
recommendations of the IOC report in 2000 and the IOC
document, could be carried out. As a comparison with
private economy, WSGA would be similar to the Sarbanes
Oxley Act applied to the field of sport. The advantage of
this approach is to fill a loophole at the international level
and also to prevent the UN-Watch or the European
Commission to dictate their laws to the world of sport.
The objective of this communication is to demonstrate this
regulation body (WSGA) would not be more complicated to
implement than the Court of Arbitration for Sport in 1983.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In the early 21st century as a reaction to major corporate
scandals including those affecting Enron, Tyco, a new law
for lucrative businesses emerged in the USA: the
Sarbanes-Oxley Act.
Subsequently, discussions on sustainable development for
businesses gave rise to new standards: AA1000, SA 8000,
SD 21000, etc.., offering control for the involvement of
managers accountability (Fustec and Marois, 2006).
Similarly, the NGOs of the charity world introduced the
standards ISO 26,000 / 29,000 and the creation of an
oversight body, the UN-Watch for NGO members of the
United Nations.
From 1996 to now, various scandals have been reported
e.g the allocation of the Olympic Games to Salt Lake City
(1996), and more recently rigged football matches for the
laundering of money by the mafia (UEFA 2010) etc. As a
result, several recommendations emerged such as the IOC
2000 report emerged in 2010.
This study demonstrates the feasibility of creating a World
Agency for the control of the governance in sport
worldwide. It is based on the seven key principles of
corporate governance by Henry and Lee (2004), on "Policy
Governance" by Carver (1997, 2001) for non-profit
organisations.
METHODOLOGy, RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA
ANALySIS
In order to analyse the feasibility of establishing an
independent agency, we conducted a 5-step study:
- A longitudinal analysis of scandals and failures in the
governance of the IOC, IFs, NOCs from 1996 to 2010
- A preliminary analysis of the needs of the IOC, IFs, NOCs
from 2008 to 2010, as well as the opportunities for the
funding of the project;
- An analysis of the risks to the IOC if no action was taken:
- A risk analysis if a lobby (i.e.: the media) or the European
Commission created its own agency:
- A proposal for a "business plan" followed by a
development plan with the tasks and procedures of the
World Sport Governance Agency (WSGA).
RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND
IMPLICATIONCONCLUSIONS
Based on our field work and the functioning of the UN-
Watch, the codes of good practice, the functioning of the
Court of Arbitration for Sport, we highlighted the risks
inherent to the world of sport if the IOC rejected an
independent agency to control sports governance.
This paper provides the elements necessary for the IOC to
make a decision to createa global agency for the
regulation of international governance in sport.
The absolute benefit of creating the WSGA is not only to
control governance but also the imputability of managers.
Such scandals as those occurring currently at the FIFA
would stop just like other governance mistakes in all the
sports bodies.
References:
- Arcioni S,. and Vandewalle, P,. (2010) Creation of an independent
body for the control of the governance of sporting organisations
worldwide, for the 18th Conference of the European Association for
Sport Management in Prague, 15 19th September 2010.
- Arcioni S., et Bayle E,. (2009), La gouvernance des Organisations
non gouvernementales : le cas des Fdrations Internationales
sportives, xVIIIme Confrence internationale de lAIMS
Grenoble du 2 au 5 juin 2009.
- Arcioni, S., (2007). Les modalits de la gouvernance dans les
organisations internationales but non lucratif : le cas des
Fdrations internationales sportives, Thse pour le Doctorat en
Sciences du Sport, Universit Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UFR-
STAPS, 2007.
- Block, S. R. (1998). Perfect Non-profit Boards. Myths, paradoxes
and paradigms. Needham, Heights, MA, Simon & Schuster Custom
Publishing.
- Drucker, P.F. (1990). Managing the Non-profit Organization, New
york: Harper Collins.
- Cadbury, A. (1992). Code of best practices., 82, 341
- Carver, J. (2001). Carver's Policy Governance Model in Non-profit
Organizations. The Canadian journal Governance, Vol. 2. nos. 1,
pp. 30-48
- Carver, J. (1997), Boards that make a difference: A new design for
leadership in non-profit and public organizations (2nd ed.). San
Francisco : Jossey-Bass
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ome.htm
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72
THE PROBLEMATIC COMPLIANCE OF
INTERNATIONAL SPORTS
ORGANISATIONS WITH DEMOCRATIC
GOVERNANCE
Author:
Michal Mrkonjic
email:
michael.mrkonjic@idheap.ch
University:
IDHEAP, Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration,
Lausanne
Abstract
RESEARCH QUESTION
Democratic governance in sport means something but not
always the same to everybody. It earns some interest
among scientists in the field of sport governance but also
in the field of European sporting policies, as evidenced by
a growing development of studies and reports considering
it as a cornerstone for good organisational governance
leading sports organisations to protect the integrity, ethics
and autonomy of sport. However, a consensual
conceptualisation of democratic governance in sport
seems not to exist. For instance, according to the
Governance in Sport Working Group, democracy refers to
the election of the representatives of a sport organisation
by its members, the disclosure of voting procedures and
results, fixed terms of office and fairness and transparency
in elections. The Council of Europe handles democracy as
the existence of clear election rules and accessible to
members. The IOC goes further considering that these
rules have to be fair and transparent. Moreover, a limited
number of studies have stressed the complexity of the
concept and questioned its dimensions (e.g.
representation, participation, consultation and competition)
and indicators of measurement. This lack of
operationalisation raises the question in which manner and
the extent to which the governance of international sports
organisation can effectively be considered as democratic.
A first contribution by Mrkonjic (2010) shows how difficult it
is to measure democratic governance in an organisation
such as the WADA. According to this, this contribution
aims to provide a list of indicators of democracy for sports
organisations and on this basis, test in which manner a
selected number or sports organisations comply with
democratic governance.
In order to provide indicators of democracy for sports
organisations, this contribution assumes that three different
theoretical backgrounds have to be taken into
consideration. A first focus is put on a normative approach
of sport governance notably developed by Hoye & Cuskelly
(2007) which is essentially based on applying corporate
governance principles to sports organisations and refers to
the norms or values for the just means of allocation of
resources, and profits or losses and for the conduct of
processes involved in the management and direction of
organisations in the sports business (Henry & Lee, 2004).
Democracy is one of the principles that are put forward
by this approach. In order to enhance the understanding of
this principle, this contribution also presents the main
studies in comparative political science (e.g Alvarez & al.,
1996) and good governance studies that attempt to
measure the levels of democracy of political regimes.
METHODOLOGy
The methodology is based on a conceptualisation-
measurement-aggregation model (Munck & Verkuilen,
2002) which has its roots in comparative political science
and is mainly used to compare States or political regimes.
However, this contribution assumes that it can also be
used in order to compare sports organisations. A first
section aims to work on democratic governance by a
process of deconstruction into a concept, dimensions and
indicators of measurement on the basis of a review of the
literature on sport governance and political studies. In a
second section, I present three major international sports
federations, FIBA, FIFA and IAAF and one regulatory body,
WADA on the basis of a review of their official
communication (e.g. statutes, membership lists and
reports). On the basis of the indicators revealed in theory,
a third section is devoted to a Democracy compliance test
of the selected sports organisations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the study show that, despite some
similarities, the selected sports federations and the
regulatory body follow different conceptions of democracy.
For instance, the election of the President of FIBA is based
on a geographic constraint (zones). According to the its
Statutes, it is not allowed to elect for two consecutive
mandates a representative of the same zone (FIBA
General Statutes, art. 14.2.1), which is not the case for
FIFA. The contribution concludes with a discussion on the
challenges of providing a list of indicators of democracy
giving sports organisations the opportunity to measure to
what extent their governance can be considered as
democratic.
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References:
Alvarez, M., Cheibub, J. A., Limongi, F., & Przeworski, A. (1996).
Classifying political regimes, Studies in Comparative International
Development, Vol. 31, N 2, pp. 1-37.
Enjolras, B. & Waldahl, R. H. (2010). Democratic Governance and
Oligarchy in Voluntary Sport Organisations: The case of the
Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports,
European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 10, N2, pp. 215-239.
Henry, I. & Lee, P.-C. (2004). Governance and ethics in sport. In
Beech, J. et Chadwick, S. (Eds.), The Business of Sport
Management, Harlow, Pearson Education, pp. 25-42
Hoye, R. & Cuskelly, G. (2007). Sport governance. Elsevier, Oxford
Kihl L. A., Kikulis L.M. & Thibault, L. (2007). A Deliberative
Democratic Approach to Athlete-Centred Sport: The Dynamics of
Administrative and Communicative Power, European Sport
Management Quarterly, Vol. 7, N1, pp. 1-30.
Mrkonjic, M. (2010). Le respect du principe de dmocratie dans la
gouvernance organisationnelle de lAgence Mondiale Antidopage
(Certificate of Advanced Studies' Thesis, IDHEAP, Lausanne,
Switzerland). Retrieved from
http://www.andreasladner.ch/idheap/mpa_2010_DFLOPDateien/Tra
vaux/Mrkonjic_L_Agence20Mondiale%20Antidopage_2.pdf
Munck, G. L. & Verkuilen, J. (2002). Measuring Democracy:
Evaluating Alternate Indices (with discussion), Comparative Political
Studies, Vol. 35, N1, pp. 5-57.
Thibault, L., Kihl, L., & Babiak, B. (2010). Democratization and
governance in international sport: addressing issues with athlete
involvement in organizational policy, International Journal of Sport
Policy, Vol. 2, N 3, pp. 275-302.
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74
MANAGEMENT OF HyBRID
ORGANIZATIONS IN THE VOLUNTARy
SPORTSSECTOR
Author:
Jo Lucassen
email:
j.m.h.lucassen@mulierinstituut.nl
Co-authors:
Jan-Willem Van der Roest
University:
WJH Mulier Instituut
Abstract
Hybrid organizations in sport
Historically many organizations in the European sports
sector have been established as voluntary associations
and organizations. In the last decades the sports sector
has transformed and many enterprises have entered the
scene. Along this commercialisation a change in policy
toward voluntary organizations can been observed in
European sports. They are no longer viewed as autotelic,
but more and more treated as implementing agents for
national policies (Skille 2008, Houlihan 2002). Many of the
originally voluntary organizations have developed
connections with the commercial and public sector.
Through sponsor relations, partnerships, cooperative
projects with firms and public authorities or even
separating parts of their activities in distinct foundations
and enterprises. By these developments these
organizations have become more complex. They combine
elements from different organisation types (Gastelaars
1997) and have become organizations with mixed
rationales (Koski & Heikalla 1998). In this paper different
types of hybridization will be distinguished and described.
The consequences of this process for the management of
the organizations have recently been studied in voluntary
sports clubs (Lucassen & Van der Roest 2011) and
federations (Van t Verlaat 2010) and the results of this
analysis are presented.
From an administrative point of view traditional sport
organizations are characterised as part of the third or
voluntary sector of society in distinction from the public and
market sector. Voluntary sport clubs and federations have
a distinct legal basis and operate in many respects
different from public administration and from enterprises.
State, market and civil sector operate through different
principles and logics (Braun 2003). As Van Bottenburg
(2007) pointed out many traditional sport clubs and
federations are making a shift from mutual support
organization to service delivery organization. At the same
time hybridization processes take place when these
associations start commercial activities or cooperate and
join forces with public services and business enterprises.
Essential for hybrid organizations is a combination of
activities that are alien to each other and represent
conflicting values (profit non-profit; public - private)
(Brandsen 2006). The combining of these activities leads
to a series of management issues for the boards and
managers involved.
Methodology
Findings from qualitative analysis are presented from
studies of hybridization processes in voluntary sport clubs
and federations. Course and consequences of
hybridization have through interviews been analyzed in
seven amateur soccer clubs (non-profit) that have recently
started a soccer academy (profit) as part of their activities
(Van der Roest 2011). Results will be compared with those
from Van t Verlaats study (2010) of the introduction of
marketing within national sport federations in the
Netherlands. This research sheds light on the
consequences of close cooperation between non-profit
voluntary organizations and businesses for sponsoring and
marketing. We will also draw on Hover & Breedvelds
(2009) investigation of the sponsoring partnerships
between sport organizations and businesses.
Results
From the cases analysed an overview will be given from
opportunities and threats concerned with mixing different
organisational principles in a hybrid organisation.
Management issues will be discussed and the solutions
which have been chosen in practice will be presented.
These issues include loss of volunteer motivation when
others are paid for comparable work; conflicts of
organisation cultures; problems in communication and
decision making; tensions between members and
customers; distorted competition with commercial
providers.
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References:
Braun, S. (2003). Freiwillige Vereinigungen zwischen Staat, Markt
und Privatsphre. In J. Baur & S. Braun. (red.)
Integrationsleistungen von Sportvereinen als Freiwilligen
Organisationen (43-87). Aachen: Meyer & Meyer Verlag
Hover, P. & Breedveld, K. (2009). Koplopers. Grensverleggend
samenwerken in sport en bedrijf. Arnhem: Eiffel.
Karr, P.M. (2011). Heads and tails: Both sides of the coin. An
analysis of hybrid organizations in the Dutch waste management
sector. PhD thesis. Den Haag: Eleven International Publishers.
Koski, P. & Heikkala, J. (1998). Professionalization and
organizations of mixed rationales: The case of Finnish National
Sport Organizations. European Journal for Sport Management,5
(1), 7-29.
Lucassen, J. & Van der Roest, J-W. (2011) Samenwerking,
hybridisering en fusies bij sportverenigingen. In Boessenkool, J.
(red, 2011) Sportverenigingen tussen ambities en tradities.
Nieuwegein/s-Hertogenbosch: ARKO Sports Media/WJH Mulier
Instituut (to be published 2011)
Skille, E. (2008). Understanding sport clubs as sport policy
implementers. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, (43)
2, 181-200.
Van t Verlaat, M. (2010). Marktgerichte sportbonden: een paradox?
: onderzoek naar de achtergronden en gevolgen van de toepassing
van een marktbenadering door Nederlandse sportbonden
Oisterwijk: Uitgeverij BOxPress
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76
Leadership in Sports
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Themes
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78
A TyPOLOGy OF SPORT
FEDERATIONS: DETERMINANTS OF
SERVICE INNOVATION
Author:
Mathieu Winand
email:
mathieu.winand@faber.kuleuven.be
Co-authors:
Stevem Vos, Policy Research Centre for Culture, youth &
Sport and Research Unit of Social Kinesiology & Sport
Management, K.U.Leuven, Belgium
Thierry Zintz, Olympic Chair in Management of Sport
Organizations , Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universit
catholique de Louvain, Belgium
Jeroen Scheerder, Research Unit of Social Kinesiology &
Sport Management, K.U.Leuven, Belgium
University:
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Abstract
Aim of abstract
Non-profit sport organizations (NPSOs), like sport
federations, are being encouraged to adapt themselves to
the expectations of their stakeholders. New sport and non-
sport services should be implemented by them to retain
and attract members. The (first) adoption of new services
to satisfy their members should be considered as an
innovation. It is preferable that sport federations innovate
to (better) meet the expectations of their members or to
create new needs. The present study aims to highlight an
explorative typology of sport federations based on their
attitude and perception of determinants of innovation. It
contributes to the knowledge of (service) innovation in non-
profit (sport) organizations.
At the organizational level, innovation has been defined as
the adoption of an idea or behaviour new for the
organization (Damanpour, 1996; Damanpour & Schneider,
2006; Zaltman, Duncan & Holbek, 1973). It is a subset of
organizational change (Damanpour & Aravind, forthcoming
2012) leading organizations to transfer from current to
future state/practices (Nadler & Tushman, 1997).
In the literature, three main determinants of innovation are
put forward, namely managerial, organizational and
environmental levels (Damanpour & Schneider, 2006,
2008; Frambach & Schillewaert, 2002; Hoeber, et al.,
2008; Mohr, 1969). It is assumed that attitude and
perception of these determinants are linked with
innovation. However, no validated instrument could be
highlighted to assess them, in a similar context of sport
federations.
These NPSOs are open systems strongly influenced by
their sport network and stakeholders in their willingness
and capacity to innovate (Newell & Swan, 1995). They
could implement initiatives or services which are
considered to be innovative if they are introduced for the
first time in order to increase the satisfaction of their
members, the effectiveness of the organization or the
service quality to their members (Lee, Ginn & Naylor,
2009; Walker, 2008). Beach volley competition introduced
as new way of playing is an example of sport service
innovations adopted by volley-ball sport federations. Taylor
(2004) identified two types of NPSOs that lie at opposite
sides of a continuum, i.e., traditional/informal and
contemporary/formal. Their response to innovation would
be different.
Methodology
We focus on regional sport federations in Belgium,
recognized by the public authorities. An online survey was
developed to assess their attitude and perception of
managerial, organizational and environmental levels and
the number of their new initiatives. Respondents (one per
sport federation) were asked to rate 28 items (i.e.,
statements) on a Likert scale (1=completely disagree to
5=completely agree) intended to assess the three levels of
determinants. Principal component analysis is used to
construct scales of determinants of innovation, validated by
Cronbachs alpha. Standard normalization and clustering
method (K-means) provide us with a typology of sport
federations regarding determinants of innovation.
Respondents also indicated the initiatives their sport
federation implemented before and after 2006, according
to a list of general categories. After 2006 (4-year time
period), the latter were still considered to be
new/innovative. The total number of new initiatives
developed by a sport federation was computed with a
differentiation between sport and non-sport initiatives, after
they were first filtered using their descriptions.
In total 144 sport federations have been contacted, of
which 101 responded and participated in the survey
(70.1%).
Results and discussion
Based on a principal component analysis on 17 items, five
scales were constructed, i.e., attitude regarding (i) staff
involvement and (ii) newness, perception of (iii) economic
health and of (iv) regional and (v) national/international
competitive environment. The different scales show good
reliabilities (Table 1). The scales scores served as input for
the cluster analysis. Three clusters could be distinguished:
(1) traditional(23%); (2) entrepreneurial(44%); (3)
resource competitors(33%) (Table 2).
The results show that 53% of services provided by sport
federations in Belgium were new or renewed these last
four years. They implemented an average of 4.5 service
innovations whom 1.7 were sport service innovations
(37.8%). Resources competitors sport federations develop
high perception of regional competitive environment and
low perception of economic health. They are significantly
more innovative (Table 3).
In line with Taylor (2004), clustering highlighted types of
sport federations whose response to innovation differs. We
assume highly perceived regional competitive environment,
together with high staff involvement favor innovation in
sport federations. Low perception of economic health might
lead sport federations to find in innovation a way to solve
their poor financial results, if they are resource completion
oriented.
Managers of sport federations willing to be innovative
should favor involvement of staff and raise awareness of
their regional competitive environment and their need to
attract financial and human resources.
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References
Five suggested references
Damanpour, F., & Schneider, M. (2006). Phases of the adoption of
innovation in organizations: Effects of environment, organization,
and top managers. British Journal of Management, 17(2), 15-36.
Frambach, R.T., & Schillewaer, N. (2002), Organizational innovation
adoption. A multi-level framework of determinants and opportunities
for future research. Journal of Business Research, 55(2), 163-176.
Hoeber, L., Hoeber, O., Mills, C., Doherty, A., & Wolfe, R. (2008,
May). Using technology in community sport organizations: A case
study of innovation adoption and implementation. Paper presented
at the North American Society for Sport Management Conference,
Toronto, Ontario.
Lee, R.P., Ginn, G. O., & Naylor, G. (2009). The impact of network
and environmental factors on service innovativeness. Journal of
Services Marketing, 23(6), 397-406.
Walker, R.M. (2008). An empirical evaluation of innovation types
and organizational and environmental characteristics: Towards a
configuration approach. Journal of Public Administration Research
and Theory, 18(4),
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80
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THE USEFULNESS OF A CONNECTED
LEADERSHIP MODEL FOR SPORT
MANAGEMENT PROFESSIONALS
Author:
Gerco Van Dalfsen
email:
g.van.dalfsen@pl.hanze.nl
Co-authors:
Jo van Hoecke
University:
Hanze University of Applied Sciences
Faculty:
School of Sport Studies
Abstract
Aim of paper and research questions
This research aims to investigate the usefulness of a
connected leadership model for sport organizations. The
following research questions were designed: 1) How can
professional sport managers successfully make use of the
developments of new professionalism (Leijnse, Hulst &
Vromans, 2006), the new way of working and managerial
leadership? 2) What are the features of a connected
managerial leadership model? 3) What are the design
principles of an applicable learning environment for
professional sport managers 2.0? 4) What are the
similarities or differences of connected managerial
leadership in traditionally organized sports?
Literature review
In the last thirty to forty years, the way work was organized
has changed so radically that the classic style of command
and control for the managing of the production process is
not satisfactory anymore. The used management model of
hierarchy and control does not fit with the managerial
problems which occur (Bijl, 2010). A controversy exists
over the differences between leadership and management.
yukl (1989) states that nobody has proposed that
managing and leading are equivalent, but the degree of
overlap is a point of sharp disagreement. Birkinshaw
(2010) defines leadership as a process of social influence
concerned with the traits, styles and behaviours of
individuals that cause others to follow them. Management
is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired
goals. According to Birkinshaw (2010) management and
leadership are complementary to each other. To achieve
necessary organizational changes professional managers
often seek their certainties in the rational and planned
formal world (structures and rules) while employees
express their reactions and sometimes displeasure in
emotions in the unconscious informal world (Homan,
2006). Gobillot (2007) appoints this informal world as the
real world with authentic behavior while the formal world is
characterized as an unrealistic world of paper. New
successful initiatives often start in the informal, real world
where individual employees already are experimenting with
new working methods while the formal world still is using
traditional working methods. An example of this occurrence
is the recent introduction of new social media in
organizations. Renewals in organizations in the area of
social media according to Janssen & Peters (2010) and
Baane, Houtkamp and Knotter (2010) are mostly
introduced in the formal world in the order of bricks, bytes
and behaviour. The initiatives initiated in the real world are
self organized and start in order of behaviour, bytes and at
last bricks. According to Hoogendoorn en Kuhlmann (2008)
constructive change is only possible if the formal world and
the informal world are connected. Renewals in
organizations are in need of adequate behavior to be
effective (Baane, Houtkamp en Knotter, 2010).
To anticipate future developments such as new social
media, professional managers in organized sports need to
professionalize their work and hereby increase the
individual and organizational performance (Hulsebosch &
Wagenaar, 2011). One of the developments a professional
sport manager could anticipate concerns the principles of
new professionalism. New professionalism comprises of
activities for permanent organizational renewal. Starting
point is on new knowledge focussed behavior and a critical
reflective basic attitude towards personal working-method
(Leijnse, Hulst & Vromans, 2006). Another development
concerns the possibilities of the new way of working. The
new way of working consists of the possibilities of time and
place independent working, consequently the managing of
employees in relation to results, free access of knowledge
and information and to work with flexible customized
labour relationships (Bijl, 2010).
Proposed methodology
This research aims to investigate the usefulness a
connected leadership model. Literature review will be used
to find and analyse the necessary variables to develop the
model. Semi-structured interviews with experts (n=10) will
be used to critically analyse the used variables and model.
Finally the model will be used gaining data from
professional sport managers (n=150). The data will be
statistically analysed to validate the model. The experts
that are engaged come from the field of new
professionalism and the field of the new way of working
and the field of sport.
Possible implications
This paper is part of a broader study which covers an
extensive research of professionalism in organized sports.
It is hoped that the findings will give more insight in how
professional sport managers could anticipate to future
developments by connecting people, the outside with the
inside world, the formal with the real world and make a
connection with individual talent. Possible implication
therefore is the need of using a connected leadership
model in sports organizations.
References:
Baane, R., Houtkamp P., & Knotter, M. (2010). Het nieuwe werken
ontrafeld. Over Bricks, Bytes & Behavior. Assen: Koninklijke Van
Gorcum.
Bijl, D. (2010) Aan de slag met het nieuwe werken. Zeewolde: Par.
Birkinshaw, J. (2010). Reinventing management. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Gobillot, E. (2007). Focus on: Leadership. Dot to dot. Leadership is
all about being connected. Engineering Management Journal.
Volume 17, issue 1, pp. 12-16.
Hogendoorn, M., & Kuhlman, B. (2008). Implementatiekunst. Gids
voor realistisch veranderen. Schiedam: Uitgeverij Scriptum.
Homan, T.H. (2006). Oratie Wolkenridders, over de binnenkant van
organisatieverandering. Open Universiteit Nederland. from
http://agora.raedelijn.nl
Hulsebosch, J., & Wagenaar, S. (2011). En nu online Sociale
media voor professionals, organisaties en facilitatoren. Houten:
Springer Media.
Janssen, H., & Peters, H. (2010). Heeft Het Nieuwe Werken de
toekomst? Of blijft HNW hangen in de hype? from
http://www.managementsite.nl.
Lanting, M. (2010). Connect! De impact van sociale netwerken op
organisatie en leiderschap. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Business
Contact.
Leijnse,F., Hulst, J., & Vromans, L. (2006). Passie en precisie.
Thema, Tijdschrift voor Hoger Onderwijs & Management, jaargang
13, nummer 5, pp. 47-54.
yukl, G. (1989). Managerial Leadership: A review of Theory and
Research. Journal of Management. Volume15, issue 2, pp. 251-
289.
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SERVICE INNOVATION IN NON-PROFIT
SPORT ORGANIZATIONS: TOWARDS A
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Author:
Mathieu Winand
email:
mathieu.winand@uclouvain.be
Co-authors:
Jeroen Scheerder, Research Unit of Social Kinesiology &
Sport Management, K.U.Leuven, Belgium
Thierry Zintz, Olympic Chair in Management of Sport
Organizations, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universit
catholique de Louvain, Belgium
Stevem Vos, Policy Research Centre for Culture, youth &
Sport and Research Unit of Social Kinesiology & Sport
Management, K.U.Leuven, Belgium
Lorena Hoeber, Faculty of Kinesiology & Health Studies,
University of Regina, Canada
University:
Universit catholique de Louvain and Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven
Faculty:
Olympic Chair in Management of Sport Organizations
(UCL) and Research Unit of Social Kinesiology & Sport
Management (KUL)
Abstract
Aim of abstract
Non profit sport organizations (NPSOs) such as sport
clubs or sport federations are being encouraged to change
to adapt themselves to the competitive environment they
face and to meet the expectations of their stakeholders.
New sport and non-sport services should be developed to
retain and attract members. Therefore, innovation has
become strategically central for NPSOs (Newell & Swan,
1995). However, little has been done on innovation in
NPSOs despite call for such research (Newell & Swan,
1995; Hoeber et al., 2009). The contextual framework in
which NPSOs exist, might lead them to approach
innovation differently. Their mission is social and/or sport
oriented, they are managed by volunteers and paid staff,
they have a mixed economy (grants, sponsorship,
membership fees) and they operate via a sport network
and thus are regulated by national and international sport
systems (Winand, Zintz, Bayle & Robinson, 2010).
This paper focuses on service innovation in these
organizations which provide sport and non-sport services
to satisfy their members. We argue service innovation
requires a distinct definition and approach for these
organizations which do not compete for-profit but for
financial support, sport results, and membership
participation (Newell & Swan, 1995). No research has yet
addressed service innovation in NPSOs despite the crucial
role it could fulfil within these sport service oriented
organizations. Studying service innovation in NPSOs could
both contribute to a better knowledge of innovation in the
non-profit context and serve as a starting point for future
research.
At the organizational level, innovation has been broadly
defined such as the adoption of an idea or behaviour new
for the organization (Zaltman, Duncan, & Holbek, 1973;
Damanpour, 1996; Damanpour & Schneider, 2006). That
is, even though it has already been developed by others, it
is new for the adopter (Rogers, 1995). Bring into use, this
new and different idea leads the organization to change.
According to Damanpour and Aravind (forthcoming, 2012)
most research on innovation does not make the distinction
between service and product innovations. However, crucial
differences between them do exist which substantiates the
need for a distinct theory on service innovation (Toivonen
& Tuominen, 2006). The latter could result without any
planning when emerging from a users need and thus be
recognized a posteriori. Furthermore, services cannot be
stocked and are characterised by customer integration as
production and consumption are simultaneous (Gallouj &
Weinstein, 1997; Hipp & Grupp, 2005). We developed a
model to establish a better understanding of the concept of
service innovation in NPSOs drawn from generic attributes
of innovation suggested by Wolfe (1994).
Conceptualization of service innovation in NPSOs
We highlighted attributes we consider relevant to analyse
service innovation in the context of non-profit organizations
promoting sport. We argued that newness, compatibility,
attractiveness and time are four necessary attributes. Four
other attributes, namely radicalness, complexity, cost and
observable added value, could be present to a different
extent or degree. The latter have a strong impact on
determinants of service innovation. Finally three attributes
are related to the characteristics of the services developed
by NPSOs: type, intangibility and members integration.
According to the attributes underlined and/or adapted for
NPSOs we suggest a definition of service innovation in this
specific context as all new sport or non-sport services or
renewal of existing services which are introduced for the
first time by the non-profit sport organization in a timely
fashion to increase members satisfaction, its effectiveness
or its quality to the members (or users). They should be
attractive and compatible with the mission and values of
the organization.
Discussion
The response of NPSOs to innovation could differ
substantially from other organizations. Indeed, they might
not see the incentive to innovate or be more risk-averse.
However, being a NPSO is no excuse to not respond to
members expectations of new services. The theory of
service innovation applied in the context of NPSOs may
act as a conceptual framework to generate and test
hypothesis related to key issues in non-profit sport
organization research. Further research should analyse the
impact and interaction of the determinants on service
innovation in NPSOs and its relationship with performance.
Attitude towards innovation, available resources,
competitive position and their sport system network might
be crucial factors for innovative NPSOs. Managers of
these organizations should develop new attractive services
(e.g., new sport programs to membership, adapted sport
training for coaches) in line with their mission and values.
They might take advantage of this framework when aiming
to implement service innovations or to report on them.
References:
Damanpour, F., & Aravind, D. (forthcoming 2012). Organizational
structure and innovation revisited: From organic to ambidextrous
structure. In M. Mumford (Ed.), Handbook of Organizational
Creativity (pp. 479-509). London:Elsevier.
Damanpour, F., & Schneider, M. (2006). Phases of the adoption of
innovation in organizations: Effects of environment, organization,
and top managers. British Journal of Management, 17(2), 15-36.
Newell, S., & Swan, J. (1995). The diffusion of innovations in sport
organizations: An evaluative framework. Journal of Sport
Management, 9(3), 317-333.
Winand, M., Zintz, T., Bayle, E., & Robinson, L. (2010).
Organizational performance of Olympic sport governing bodies:
dealing with measurement and priorities. Managing Leisure, 15(4),
279-307.
Wolfe, R. A. (1994). Organizational innovation: Review, critique and
suggested research directions. Journal of Management Studies, 31,
405-431.
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19
th
MEASURING DEMING MANAGEMENT
MODEL IN THE CONTExT OF SPORTS
TOURISM ORGANIZATIONS
Author:
Pedro Rodrigues
email:
pedror@ipb.pt
Co-authors:
Miguel-Dvila, Jos ngel
University:
Research Centre in Sport, Health and Human
Development
Faculty:
Polytechnic Institute of Bragana, Portugal
Abstract
Concepts related to services quality have not evolved in the
same way as those related to industries. Nevertheless, total
quality managements theoretical basis and methods allow
its use in both sectors. This study is an application of the
Deming Management Model, developed by Anderson et al
(1994), to the context of sports tourism industry. The
referred method sustains that leadership efforts aiming at
the simultaneous creation of a cooperative and learning
organization facilitate the implementation of process-
management practices. These, when implemented, support
customer satisfaction and organizational survival through
sustained employee fulfilment and continuous improvement
of processes, products, and services (Anderson, et al.,
1994). Previous studies support its applicability in
manufacturing (Rungtusanatham et al., 1998) and services
(Douglas & Fredendall, 2004; Fisher et al., 2005). Despite
the existence of worldwide practical evidence that proves
the models effectiveness (Rungtusanatham et al., 2005),
the fact is that empirical research is still scarce. Therefore,
the following goals have been set: a) corroborate Demings
model applicability, proposed by Anderson et al. (1994) to
sport tourism industry; b) develop and verify the applicability
of the proposed measurement model.
After analyzing the existing literature on the development
of scales related to TQM practices, it was clear that the
concepts underlying the model proposed by Anderson et
al. (1994) would be better operationalized by using scales
which had been previously published. Hence, they were
translated and adapted to the context. The empirical
analysis was structured in two studies: experts validation,
pre-test, exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor
analysis.
In study 1, the measurements model was developed and
specified (51- items questionnaire, based on seven
previously tested and validated scales). This was
empirically tested in two phases: a pre-test (27 public and
private service organizations) and an exploratory factor
analysis 72 sport tourism centers (STC) located in IRL, UK
and USA. In study 2, the final questionnaire (29 items,
divided into seven scales) was validated, using
confirmatory factor analysis (126 STC, located in the
Iberian Peninsula).
The measurement model, considering the contexts
specific features like the models complexity and the
samples size, showed a highly significant goodness of fit
and revealed specific evidence of validity. The presented
results are the outcome of two samples analysis and
allowed, through a confirmatory factor analysis, to cross
ratify the proposed measurement model. Taking into
account the type of analysis which was developed, we can
affirm that the data fulfill, satisfactorily, the assumptions of
normality, homoscedasticity, linearity, multicollinearity and
absence of correlated errors.
Our results indicate that scales display validity of
expression, convergent validity and discriminant validity.
Validity of expression was confirmed by specialists
assessment and pre-test. The analysis of the factor
loadings, extracted variance and the reliability indices
leads to the conclusion that the proposed model presents
convergent validity. The models discriminant validity was
verified through: a) the comparative analysis of the
extracted variances percentage and the estimators square
of the concepts relationship; b) comparative analysis of the
goodness of fit values among the identified competing
models and; c) the absence of significant cross-factor
loadings.
The Measurement Model (MM), in which all concepts are
represented by three or more items, revealed itself as
over-identified (df = 356) and displays acceptable
goodness of fit values. The re-specification process of the
MM allowed to eliminate the non-significant parameters
and permitted multicollinearitys correction. This process
preserved the constructs and the measurements model
theoretical integrity. The resulting MM discloses adequacy
of the estimators parameters and the GOF indices indicate
a good fit [RMSEA = 0,049; =1,302; CFI=0,96; TLI =0,95].
Summing up, taking into account the contexts specific
features, the models complexity and the samples size, the
proposed MM holds a high goodness of fit, also revealing
specific evidence of constructs validity. Altogether, these
features allow us to conclude that the proposed
measurement model is valid for the Sport Tourism Centers
context, observing its good measurement properties and
consistency.
This work incorporates several original aspects. The
highlight goes to the fact that this is one of the few studies
that applies Demings Management Model, proposed by
Anderson et al. (1994), to service organizations.
Furthermore, it is the first that studies its applicability to
tourism, sport and sport tourism contexts.
References:
Anderson, J., Rungtusanatham, M., & Schroeder, R. (1994). A
theory of quality management underlying the Deming management
method. Academy of Management Review(19), 472-509.
Douglas, T., & Fredendall, L. (2004). Evaluating the Deming
Management Model of Total Quality in services. Decision Sciences,
35(3), 393-422.
Fisher, M., Barfield, J., Li, J., & Mehta, R. (2005). Retesting a
Model of the Deming Management Method. Total Quality
Management, 16(3), 401-412.
Rungtusanatham, M., Forza, C., Filippini, R., & Anderson, J.
(1998). A replication study of a theory of quality management
underlying the Deming management method: Insides from an
Italian context. Journal of Operations Management, 17, 77-95.
Rungtusanatham, M., Forza, C., Koka, B. R., Salvador, F., & Nie,
W. (2005). TQM across multiple countries: Convergence
Hypothesis versus National Specificity arguments. Journal of
Operations Management, 23(1), 43-63. doi: DOI:
10.1016/j.jom.2004.10.002
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86
ExAMINING PSyCHOLOGICAL
CONTRACT AMONG JAPANESE
COACHES
Author:
Etsuko Ogasawara
email:
etsukojws@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Masayuki yoshida
Gonzalo Bravo
University:
Juntendo University
Faculty:
Health and Sports Science
Abstract
Coaches play important roles in the successful performance
of their teams. On the other hand, the pressure to win as
well as keeping high expectations on athletic performance
has led to a higher rate of job turnover for many (Greenberg,
2001). Previous research indicates that the success in
coaching profession and the continuity of a job are highly
dependent on coaches winning records. Nonetheless, not
all coaches experience the same conditions and
expectations (Greenberg & Smith, 2007). In fact, there are
significant differences among coaches positions, salaries,
types of sports, and profiles of the school at which they
work. In this connection, coaches intentions to continue
their current jobs would not only depend on their ability to
successfully fulfill their expectations, but also on other non-
contractual conditions, such as the opportunity to advance in
their careers, the level of challenge on their jobs, the quality
of working conditions and the sense of being fairly treated
(Lester, Turnley, Bloodgood, & Bolino 2002). In the human
resource management literature, the influences of these
non-contractual conditions are commonly known as the idea
of psychological contract (Rousseau, 1995).
Grounded in social exchange theory (Blau, 1964),
psychological contract is refers to employees perceptions
of what they owe to their employers and what employers
owe to them (Robinson, 1996, p. 574). Therefore,
psychological contract relies on the subjective interpretation
and belief between an employee and his or her organization
and is based on perceptions of informal non-contractual
agreements. The importance of psychological contract lies in
an organizations stability and continuance. The breach of
psychological contracts may result in negative
consequences for both employees and organizations since it
reduces the level of employee commitment which ultimately
increases the likelihood to voluntarily leave an organization
among employees (Restubog, Bordia, & Tang, 2006;
Turnley,Bolino, Lester, & Bloodgood, 2003).
The purpose of this study was two folds: First, we examine
the measures of psychological contract, using data collected
from Japanese coaches. Second, the current investigation
attempted to examine the effect of psychological contract
fulfillment (PCF) on employee-related outcomes (i.e., job
satisfaction, commitment, trust, turnover intention).
Two hundred Japanese swimming coaches responded for
this study. The average age of the respondents was 44.13
years old (SD = 10.62). 51.8% (n=103) of the respondents
were male, while 48.2% were female (n=96). Fulltime
coaches were almost half of the respondents (51.8%; n=99),
and head coaches were 39.4% (n=75).
The questionnaire included scales that measure five
dimensions (transactional, relational, training, generic, and
resource support) of PCF (Robinson & Morrison, 1995), job
satisfaction (Dunham &Smith, 1979), affective commitment
(Meyer & Allen, 1991), and turnover intention (Cohen, 1998).
The PCF scale was examined using a confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA). The results indicate that the proposed
measurement model was an acceptable fit to the data (chi-
square/df = 2.67, p < .01; CFI = .98; NNFI = .97; RMSEA] =
.09). CFA also provided evidence of construct validity for the
items, as noted by the factor loadings ranging from .65 to
.94. Construct reliability ranged from .82 to .92, indicating
the PCF dimensions were internally consistent. In order to
investigate the effects of the five PCF dimensions on
employee-related outcomes, a series of multiple regression
analyses were performed. In relation to job satisfaction, the
dimension of transactional contract had a significant effect
(bjob satisfaction = 31, p < .01), while the effects of the other
dimensions were not statistically significant. The results
further indicate that affective commitment and turnover
intention were significantly influenced by the dimension of
generic contract(baffective commitment = .24, p < .05;
bturnover intention = -. 25, p < .05). The ability of the PCF
dimensions to explain the variation in the outcome variables
was assessed by R2 values. The R2 values for job
satisfaction, affective commitment, and turnover intention
were .18, .15, and .23, respectively. Based on the
measurement model of PCF and its impact on outcome
variables, implications were drawn, concerning construct
and predictive validity.
19
th
References:
Blau P. M. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life.Wiley: New
york.
Greenberg, M. J., & Gray J. T. (1998). Sports law practice (2nd
ed.). Lexis Law publishing.
Greenberg, M. (2001). College coaching contracts revisited: A
practical perspective. Marquette Sports Law Review,12(1), 127-
260.
Greenberg, M. J., & Smith, J. S. (2007).A study of division I
assistant football and men's basketball coaches' contracts.
Marquette Sports Law Review, 18(1), 25-99.
Lester, S. W., Turnley, W. H., Bloodgood, J. M., &Bolino, M. C.
(2002). Not seeing eye to eye: differences in supervisor and
subordinate perceptions of and attributions for psychological
contract breach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 3956.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component
conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource
Management Review, 1(1), 61-89.
Robinson, S. L., & Rousseau, D. M. (1994).Violating the
psychological contract: Not the exception but the norm. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 15(3), 245-259.
Robinson S. L. (1996). Trust and breach of the psychological
contract. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41, 574-599.
Rousseau D. M. (1995).Psychological Contracts in Organizations:
Understanding Written and Unwritten Agreements. Sage
Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.
Robinson S.L.,& Morrison E. W. (1995). Psychological contracts
and OCB: the effect of unfulfilled obligations on civic virtue
behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16,289-298.
Turnley, W. H., Bolino, M. C., Lester, S. W., & Bloodgood, J. M.
(2003).The impact ofpsychological contract fulfillment on the
performance of in-role and organizationalcitizenship
behaviors.Journal of Management, 29(2), 187-206.
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19
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A SySTEMATIC REVIEW ON USING THE
OUTDOORS FOR PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT: SPECIAL FOCUS ON
LEADERSHIP COMPETENCIES
OUTCOMES
Author:
Anna Kourtesopoulou
email:
akourtes@hotmail.com
Co-authors:
Thanos Kriemadis, Alkisti Papaioannou, Ourania Vrondou
University:
University Of Peloponnese
Faculty:
Department of Sport Management
Abstract
Background
Through literature review on leadership we learn that there
is no best way to develop leaders that is applicable to all
organizational settings. Nevertheless, some recent trends
appeared in the field of training such as 360-degree
feedback from supervisors, peers and subordinates, off-
site training programs and temporary rotational work
assignments (London, 2002). Compared to other training
approaches, learning through activities such as those
offered by outdoor-adventure experiences allows for the
introduction of more complex situations, where through
experimentation participants learn new managerial skills
and transfer these skills into their organizations (Mayer,
2003). The three most common types of this training are
wilderness experience, the high-ropes course and low-
ropes course (McEvoy, 1997). Hewitt Associates (2005)
examined the leadership models of the top 20 companies
and found that there is a significant correlation between a
companys average return on sales and defined leadership
competencies.
Objectives
The purpose of this study was two-fold: (a) to examine the
outdoor-adventure training interventions context, and (b) to
study the observed outcomes/effects on leadership
development.
Methods
For the purpose of this study 8 electronic databases were
used, including published and 3 unpublished (thesis &
dissertations), quantitative and qualitative studies that
examine leadership development through outdoor training
method. Qualitative assessments and data analysis were
undertaken, taking into account inclusion and exclusion
criteria which were defined for that purpose. Only studies
relied specifically on leadership development using the
outdoors as a training intervention were included, with
participants over 18 years old and also studies which
presented statistical results on the observed outcomes.
Also, the original language was English, published
between 2000 and 2011 (April). Lastly, for data analysis
the quality assessment and validity tool adapted from
Cumming et al. (2008) was used.
Results
A total of 27 studies met the inclusion criteria. According to
Cummings research quality and validity assessment the
quality of the included studies was generally high. Results
revealed that the majority 63% of the interventions (n=17)
used low and high ropes courses, 22% (n=6) used
adventure activities such as trekking expeditions and rock
climbing and only 19% (n=5) studies used mixed methods
of outdoor activities and classroom training, with a time
average of 2-days. The most applied sector was education
including students (44%) and academic staff (18%) as
participants, following the business sector (33%) and
mixed populations (5%). Referring to student sample the
majority was consisted of MBA program participants,with
admission requirement of minimum 3 years of work
experience.The total number of participants was 2.946 with
a mean age of 28.7 years old, of whom 67.5% were male
and 32.5% female. According to the main outcomes
observed the most common, being mentioned by 16
studies, was the competence of teamwork-team
performance, task leadership (n=13), problem solving
(n=9) communication (n=8), self-awareness- confidence
(n=7) and trust development and social support (n=7).
Also, these competencies showed to have the highest
impact by measuring the significance of the interventional
change or by comparing the control and study group
differences. Except from that previous main competences,
additionally outcomes seemed to have lower impact such
as being empowered, planning-time management and
achievement development (n=5), as also as well as the
utilization of resources and creativity (n=1).
Conclusion/Application to practice
Considering that human resource is the core value for
each organization, this review explored the context of a
new training method applied both in education and in
business sector, using the outdoors as a mean for
professional development. The most often used type of
intervention was found to be the rope courses (high and
low level) which is considered to be one of the most
representing types of activities being used by outdoor
management development. The main areas of
development were identified as the increase of teamwork,
task leadership, problem solving and communication skills.
By recognising and developing such leadership
competencies there is evidence that an organization can
succeed a competitiveness advantage over competitors.
Some contextual factors underpinning the increasing need
for organizations to respond to growing complexity
characterized by increasing levels of competition,
stakeholder demands, globalization, legal and regulatory
changes. There is an important need more than ever for
any organization to adapt to the continuously changing
business world, where professional development is
considered as a valuable key factor of growth and survival.
Finally, with regard to the limitation of the present review,
the majority of the study population was consisted of
university students, leading to the necessity for further
research oriented in the field of business sector.
References:
Cummings, G.G., Lee, H., MacGregor, T., Davey, M., Wong, C.,
Paul, L., Stafford, E. (2008). Factors contributing to nursing
leadership: A systematic review. Journal of Health Services
Research & Policy 13(4), 240248.
Hewitt Associates LLC. (2005). How companies grow great leaders
(Research Highlights on Data from Top Companies for Leaders
2003 - US Study). Retrieved March 12, 2011, From
http://www.inspireimagineinnovate.com/pdf/Top_Companies_2005_
Report.pdf
London, M. (2002). Leadership development: Paths to self-insight
and professional growth. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Mayer, J.P. (2003). Four territories of experience: A developmental
action inquiry approach to outdoor-adventure experiential learning.
Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2(4), 352-363.
McEvoy, G. (1997). Organisation change and outdoor management
education. Human Resource Management, 36, 235-250..
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19
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN
RESOURCE EMPOWERMENT AND
ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE IN
FITNESS CLUBS
Author:
Alkistis Papaioannou
email:
alkistisp@uop.gr
Co-authors:
Maria Irini Vamvoukaki
Thanos Kriemadis
Ourania Vrondou
Anna Kourtesopoulou
University:
University of Peloponnese
Faculty:
Abstract
Aim of paper and research questions
The purpose of this study was to examine: (a) the extent to
which human resource empowerment is applied to Greek
fitness clubs, and (b) the relationship between human
resource empowerment used by Greek fitness clubs and
organizational performance (profit, ROI, sales volume and
market share).
In particular, the questions this research wants to address
are:
1. To what extent is the human resource empowerment
process being used in Greek fitness clubs?
2. Is there a relationship between the key factors of
empowerment and performance of Greek fitness clubs?
Literature review
In a globalized, economical, social and technological
environment, the organizations will be efficient only if they
have at their disposal the required resources (material
resources, facilities and equipment, and human resources
that include employees and managers) (Kriemadis &
Papaioannou, 2006). The managers and the organizations
should consider three elements which are vital for their
development. These elements are: 1) precise goals to be
achieved, 2) limited resources and 3) the contribution of
people to achieve the organizational goals (Certo, 1992).
The heightened levels of global competitiveness have
alerted all organizations to the fact that all their resources
must be utilized well. Consequently, academicians and
HRM professionals have begun to devote more attention in
this field. They have also identified several human
resource (HR) activities that are critical for the survival of
the organization (Rangriz, 2010).
Methodology, Research design and data analysis
The particular research project is an on-going research
and up to now data has been gathered from a random
sample of 200 managerial and technical directors of 50
Greek Fitness clubs in Attica. For the purpose of this
study a survey instrument was used (developed by Vogt &
Murrell, 1990), in order to provide information on how
managerial and technical directors see themselves in
terms of the empowerment process. The empowerment
construct consisted of 30 questions, which included six
units based on areas of research mentioned above and
demographic characteristics. The questions were
answered using a five point scale (G, B, y, O, and R). Each
letter of the scale represented different managerial styles
and depicted the respondent s behaviour and actions.
Each respondent tried to determine his/her behaviour that
most often occurred between the two endpoints. The
reliability of the scale was found to be: = .80. Also, the
particular research used the subjective way of measuring
performance. This means that managerial and technical
directors were asked to evaluate the performance of their
fitness clubs in relation to their current years objectives, in
relation to their last financial years objectives and finally, in
relation to their major market competitors on a five-point
Likert scale. On each of the three bases, performance was
judged against four criteria two financial (profit and ROI)
and two market based (sales volume and market share).
The study was a quantitative design. Descriptive statistics
and Spearman correlation was performed to examine
variables relationship using SPSS software (version 16).
Results
From the analysis it is shown that the managerial and
technical directors of fitness clubs used 42.5%
empowering style , 50% middle-ground style (combines
the two styles of controlling and empowering in equal
proportions) and 7.5% controlling style in the six key
factors of empowerment. Also, as shown in the table 1,
there were significant relationships between the key factors
of empowerment and performance indicators.
Discussion and conclusion
The results of the study indicated that there were
significant and positive relationships between the
empowerment and performance indicators in fitness clubs.
More specifically, the key factor "Management-information
/communication system skills" had a significant and
positive relationship with ROI, sales volume (satisfaction in
relation to current year's objectives), and profit (satisfaction
in relation to the last financial year's objectives), while the
key factor "Project-planning, organizing, & system-
integration skills" had a significant and positive relationship
with market share (satisfaction in relation to competitors'
objectives). Furthermore, the key factor "Selection,
placement, and development of people skills" had a
significant and positive relationship with profit, ROI and
market share (satisfaction in relation to competitors'
objectives). These findings are consistent with previous
studies on empowerment and organizational performance,
in sport sector and more particular in Greek football clubs
(Papaioannou, Kriemadis, Alexopoulos, Vrondou, &
Kartakoullis, 2009), and show that the level of empowering
style which technical and managerial directors exercised in
fitness clubs is related to the clubs performance. The
present findings add credence to the argument that human
resources represent an important capital, which should be
managed effectively in order to constitute for organization
a source of competitive advantage (Bowen & Lawler,
1992).
References:
Bowen, D.A. and Lawler, E.E. (1992). The Empowerment of the
Service Workers: What, Why, How and When. Sloan Management
Review, 33, 319.
Certo, S.C. (1992). Modern Management: Quality, Ethics, and the
Global Environment (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Kriemadis, T., & Papaioannou, A. (2006).Empowerment methods
and techniques for sport managers. Choregia-Sport Management
International Journal, 2, 117-133.
Papaioannou, A. Kriemadis, T., Alexopoulos, P., Vrondou, O., &
Kartakoullis, N. (2009). The Relationship between Human
Resource Empowerment and Organizational Performance in
Football Clubs. International Journal of Sport Management,
Recreation and Tourism, 4, 20-39.
Rangriz, H., (2010). Proceedings from ICFTE 2010: Human
Resource Strategies and Organizational Productivity in Public
Sector Enterprises of Iran. Dubai: United Arab Emirates.
Vogt, F.J., & Murrell L.K. (1990). Empowerment in organizations:
how to spark exceptional performance. USA: University Associates,
Inc.
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92
THE STUDy ON EFFECTIVE FACTORS
IN GAINING MANAGERIAL POSITION IN
THE FEMALE STAFF IN SPORT
ORGANIZATIONS IN WESTERN IRAN
Author:
Samira Aliabadi
email:
aliabadi_samira@yahoo.com
Co-authors:
Saeed Sadeghi Boroujerdi, Majed Zobairy
University:
university of kurdistan
Faculty:
physical education and sport science
Abstract
Management is essential and basic of each organization.
Research shows women tend to management is much less
than men and Male sport managers believe that women
dont have appropriate motivation to compete with men
and men are more candidates for management
(1).Claringbould et al(2007), stating men dominance in
sports organizations is very strong and this strength is
constantly being reinforced (2).Similarly, Knoppers et al
(2008),demonstrated that management in senior level in
most sports organizations in the realm of men (3).
For an organization to be successful in competitive
markets, despite the leadership, is essential. Importance of
leadership in modern world thats why Darnerdrof says:
Another base of power in contemporary society is not
owning means of production, but nowadays administrative
authorities and administrative jobs in organizations is
important .
Women as Half of human, not only are the object and
purpose of capital development but also they are an
effective factor in promoting development that is why
women can take effective steps in sustainable
development and should be grounds for them to generate
more participation.
According to the mentioned questions women themselves
are reluctant to manage or patriarchy in sport organizations
is a deterrent for women? What are the Factors of
administrative positions?
This study was investigated effective factors in the
selection of managers in physical education general
departments of western region including provinces of
Kurdistan, Ilam , Kermanshah and Hamedan.
Methodology:The methodology was descriptive- survey.
There were 65 Female staff; the sample was equivalent to
the population for restriction of number population. The
research tools were personal characteristics questionnaire
, management motivation questionnaire ; Miner and Smith,
Hofsted organizational culture questionnaire and a
researcher-made questionnaire to prioritize effective
personal factors to gain managerial position, the reliability
coefficient of questionnaire was significant p=0/001 and
regularly was 0.73, 0.79 and 0.83. statistical analysis was
the Kolomogrof-Smirnow, Pearson's and Kendal correlation
coefficient and Friedman test.
Results:The results show that physical education general
offices of western region Iran have masculinity culture, and
Femal staff had middle management motivation ( m=25.69)
and also, There were no significant relation between
management motivation with organizational culture
(r=0.193) and significant relation between education filed
and record of management in Female staff in physical
education general departments of western region of Iran.
and also Female staff prioritized personal effective factors
in gaining Managerial position: 1) Popularity among
colleagues, 2) Having a bright background and 3)
Adherence to administrative regulations.
Base on results suggest that manager of physical
education general offices in western Iran
to promote Female staff in Managerial position in order to
change the masculinity organizational culture to balance
organizational culture. Considering that prioritization
factors in gaining Managerial position based on relations
between the colleagues in Female staff, suggest that
courses of contemporary management in physical
education will be held to change the attitude for Female
staff in physical education general offices in western Iran.
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References:
Hovden,J.(2004).Gender political consequences of male
dominance in Leadership position
inNorwegianSport.http://www.pdag.umu.se/utbildning/kurslitteratur/li
teratur/JoridHovdengender.pdf.
Claringbould,I. ,&Knoppers,A. (2007). Finding a normal woman:
Selection processes for board membership. Sex Roles,56,pp 495-
507.
Knoppers ,A., & Anthonissen ,A.(2008). Gendered Managerial
Discourses in Sport Organizations: Multiplicity and complexity. Sex
Roles (2008) 58: pp 93-103.
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Lifestyle & Recreation
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Themes
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96
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FROM THE ASHES TO THE RIGHT
TRACK: HOW COMMITMENT AND
LEADERSHIP TRANSFORMED
CORITIBA FOOT BALL CLUB IN A RARE
CASE OF SUCCESS IN THE BRAZILIAN
SPORTS MANAGEMENT INDUSTRy
Author:
Beatriz De Andrade E Silva
email:
beandes@yahoo.com.br
University:
International Academy of Sports Science and Technology
(AISTS)
Faculty:
Master of Advanced Studies in Sports Administration and
Technology
Abstract
In 2009, while celebrating its 100th anniversary, Coritiba
Foot Ball Club, one of the most traditional Brazilian
football clubs with an estimated fan base of 1 million
supporters and 3 national championships, lived its saddest
moment in history with a relegation to the second division
of the Brazilian football. The relegation was followed by
scenes of violence and destruction of its stadium carried
out by some members of its organized group of
supporters - that for many years had a strong influence in
the clubs managerial decisions - and were unhappy with
the failure of the club in such an important year. The
scenes watched at Couto Pereira stadium in December
6th 2009 resulted in the worst punishment a Brazilian
football club has ever received in tribunals and
overshadowed the championship of the most popular
Brazilian football club, Flamengo, which in that afternoon
the last day of the football season in Brazil won the
National League after 17 years. The aim of this case study
is to demonstrate how years of mismanagement, a deep-
rooted characteristic of the Brazilian football industry led
Coritiba FC to rock bottom and how the leadership and
decisions made by the new chairman, Vilson Ribeiro de
Andrade a former CEO for HSBC in Latin America
alongside the commitment of all departments towards the
new objectives and values of the organization were
paramount in order to reconstruct the club. Coritiba FC
started the year of 2010 financially broke, unable to use its
own stadium and with a drop of 80% in the membership
scheme, among other issues. Nevertheless, the
organization managed to finish the season with the best
sponsorship deals in the clubs history, achieving a record
number of memberships (from 2,500 in the beginning of
the year to 16,000 by the end of the season) and winning
the regional and the second division of the national league
which brought the club back to the elite level of Brazilian
football. The case presents results of a non-structured
observant participation, providing an overview of the work
done by the main areas of the club, but focuses mainly on
the strategies and activities realized by the Marketing and
Commercial department, an area in which the author was
directly involved during a two year period. It was this
department that performed the crucial roles needed to
rebuild the clubs image and to bring back investors, as
well as the fans. The case study concludes that despite
the amateur structure and managerial practices that still
remain in the Brazilian Football Industry, the successful
come back of Coritiba FC demonstrates the possibilities to
change this environment through professional
management and commitment of all those involved within
a football organization.
References
Veerman, J.W., Straathof, M.A.E., Treffers, D.A., Van den Bergh,
B.R.H. & ten Brink, L.T. (1997). Competentiebelevingsschaal voor
kinderen (CBSK). Amsterdam: Pearson Assessment and
Information.
Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the self-perception profile for children.
Denver: University of Denver.
TNO (2010). Factsheet Resultaten Vijfde Landelijke Groeistudie
TNO. Leiden: TNO
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98
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MEASURING LEVELS OF PHySICAL
ACTIVITy TO MONITOR HEALTH
BENEFITS IN NORTHERN IRELAND
Author:
Paul Donnelly
email:
pauldonnelly@sportni.net
University:
SportNorthern Ireland
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
The measurement of participation in sport and physical
activity in the UK has been driven by factors such as
monitoring the investment in local authority facilities,
evaluating the difference National Lottery funding has
made, and monitoring service level agreements between
Government and national agencies. A new agenda has
arisen which is to monitor the amount of physical activity
people are undertaking in order to derive a health benefit
as a link between physical activity and health has been
firmly established. Regular physical activity reduces the
risk of premature mortality, coronary heart disease, colon
cancer, diabetes mellitus and osteopororus and helps
reduce depression and anxiety, improve mood and
enhance a person?s ability to perform daily tasks (US
Department for Health and Human Services, 1996;
Department of Health, 2004).
This new agenda requires new research and much more
sophisticated research instruments than currently exist.
The purpose of this research is to evaluate the evidence
and then to design and test a new survey instrument
designed to assess levels of adult participation in sport and
physical activity in Northern Ireland.
METHODS
This large-scale population based survey was
commissioned by Sport NI and conducted by Ipsos MORI,
Belfast. The sample universe comprises all individuals
aged 16+ living in Northern Ireland. A total of 4,653
interviews were conducted continuously over a 12 month
period (23 July - 10 August 2010). The survey was
conducted face-to-face, in-home, using Computer Assisted
Personal Interviewing (CAPI). A stratified random
sampling approach was applied for the selection of
households. The data were weighted to reflect the age and
sex profile of the Northern Ireland population and the
geographical distribution across 26 district councils. The
main aim of the survey is to enhance the understanding of
sport and physical activity patterns and determinants
across the adult population of Northern Ireland.
RESULTS
The key preliminary headline findings from the survey are
detailed below.35% of respondents achieve the Chief
Medical Officers recommended level of physical activity.
Most physical activity is done at home, followed by
activities at work.
The most important physical activities in the work domain
are manual labour and walking about while at work. The
work domain as a source of physical activity is especially
relevant for men and people from lower social classes.
The main physical activities in the home relate to
housework, DIy and gardening. The contribution of the
home domain to overall levels of physical activity is
especially relevant for women and older people.
The strongest influencing factor on peoples physical
activity is age.
There are no major differences regarding overall physical
activity levels between social classes or by deprivation.
Physical activity is related to a health body mass index
(BMI) and healthy eating behaviour.
37% of Northern Irelands adult population participated in
at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity sport in the last
seven days. The figure increases to 47% when walking
and cycling for recreation are included.
The most popular sports are walking, fitness club activities,
swimming and jogging.
Sport participation of women, older people and the
unemployed is lower than average, both in terms of the
participation and the time spent on sport activities. In
addition, those with lower educational attainment and
those of lower social classes are less likely to participate.
When prompted with a range of reasons for participating in
sport, enjoyment and keeping fit were most frequently
mentioned by the respondents. Women are generally
more motivated by losing weight, while for men the
performance and competitive aspects are much more
important. Relieving stress is an important motivation for
people that work, especially for those with higher
qualifications.
DISCUSSION
In todays society, changing inactive lifestyles and
increasing levels of activity presents a tremendous public
health challenge - a challenge that cannot be ignored if
health is to be improved. Physical activity needs to be
seen as an opportunity - for enjoyment, for improved
vitality, for a sense of achievement, for fitness, for optimal
weight, and not least for health. It is in this context that
this research is relevant and necessary. Government,
relevant agencies, communities and individuals in Northern
Ireland need to become aware of current levels of activity
and then reflect on how conducive homes, neighbourhoods
and environments are to supporting more active living.
References:
Department of Health (2004) At least five a week: Evidence on the
impact of physical activity and its relationship to health, DoH
Physical Activity, Health Improvement and Prevention, London.
US Department of Health and Human Services (1996). Physical
Activity Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: US
Department of Health and Human Services, Centres for Disease
Control and Prevention, National Centre for Chronic Disease
Prevention and Health Promotion.
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100
A STUDy ON THE RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG SERVICE QUALITy,
SATISFACTION AND BEHAVIORAL
INTENTIONS IN PRIVATE HEALTH AND
FITNESS CENTERS IN GREECE
Author:
Sevastia Avourdiadou
email:
savourdiadou@hotmail.com
Co-authors:
Sevastia Avourdiadou Nickolaos D. Theodorakis
University:
Democritus University of Greece
Faculty:
Department of P.E. & Sport Sciences, Greece
Abstract
Introduction
It is broadly accepted that service quality and customer
satisfaction influences customer s behavioral intentions. In
addition, research findings indicate that customer
satisfaction mediates the relationship between service
quality and customers behavioral intentions (Gotlieb,
Grewal & Brown, 1994; Tsuji, Bennet & Zhang, 2007). In
this study, we adopt the multidimentional - multilevel
conceptualization of service quality as presented by Brady
and Cronin (2001).
Objectives
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships
among service quality, customer satisfaction and
behavioral intentions. More specifically we hypothesized
that satisfaction will mediate the relationship between three
service quality dimensions (physical environment,
interaction, and outcome) and customers' behavioral
intentions in the context of health and fitness centers.
Methods
Three hundred and thirty two (N=332) members (62%
males and 38% females) of four Greek private health and
fitness centers, located in a medium-sized city, participated
in the study. A 7-point Likert type scale, ranging from 1
(very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree), was
used for each attribute of service quality (13 items).
Satisfaction was measured using 4 items adopted from
Brady, Voorhes, Cronin & Bourdeau (2006). Using a 7-
point Likert type scale ranging from 1 (not at all likely) to 7
(extremely likely), participants were asked to answer four
items related to their behavioral intentions (Zeithaml, Berry,
and Parasuraman, 1996).
Results and Conclusions
Descriptive statistics for all study variables can be found in
Table 1.
The model presented in Figure 1 was tested using the
EQS 6.1 software (Bentler, 1995). Due to the multivariate
normality of the data, the Maximum Likelihood estimation
method was used. The overall fit indexes were: =
574.15, df= 180, p<.001, NNFI=.90, CFI=.92, SRMR=.06,
RMSEA=.08. Overall a 65% of the behavioral intentions
variance was explained by the three service quality
dimensions and satisfaction. All paths reached statistical
significance. An exception was the direct path from
interaction quality to customer satisfaction.
The results supported our hypothesized model in which
customer satisfaction mediated the relationship between
service quality and behavioral intentions. The results also
add to our theoretical understanding regarding the
relationships among three important sport marketing
constructs. By managing effectively all customers'
interactions with the sport facility, the firm's personell, and
the outcome of the service delivery, managers of health
and fitness centers could positively influence the
satisfaction and the future behavior of their customers.
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References:
Bentler PM. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Los
Angeles, CA: Multivariate Software Inc.
Brady, M., & Cronin, J. (2001). Some new thoughts on
conceptualizing perceived service quality: A hierarchical approach.
Journal of Marketing, 65(3), 34-49.
Brady M., Voorhes C., Cronin J., & Bourdeau B. (2006). The good
guys don't always win: the effect of valence on service perceptions
and consequences. Journal of Services Marketing, 20, 83 - 91.
Gotlieb, J., Grewal, D., & Brown, S. (1994). Consumer satisfaction
and perceived quality: Complementary or divergent constructs.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(6), 875-885.
Tsuji y, Bennett G & Zhang J. (2007), Consumer satisfaction with
an action sports event. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 16, 199-208.
Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L. L. & Parasuraman, A. (1996). The
behavioral consequences of service quality. Journal of Marketing,
60, 31-46.
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AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE
RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SERVICE
QUALITy, CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
AND LOyALTy IN RECREATIONAL
SPORT CLUBS
Author:
Mahdi Bigdely
email:
m_bigdeley@yahoo.com
Co-authors:
Habib Honari (SSRC of I.R.IRAN)
Maryam Barzegar Hosseini Rafsanjani (Nopa of Iran)
Seyyed Mohammad Hashemi (ECSC)
University:
Allameh Tabatabaie University
Faculty:
Psychology Faculty
Abstract
Introduction
The purpose of this research is to analyze the relationship
among service quality, members satisfaction and loyalty in
recreational sport clubs.
The theoretical and conceptual basis for understanding the
nature of the sport service quality is still in the
developmental stage and till now there is not an accepted
model to measure service quality in sport field.
Literature review
Torkildsen (1999) suggested that leisure clubs comprise
three elements; they are leisure, recreation and play.
Pleisure is regarded as the heart of the three components.
This shows that customers expect to experience pleasure
in the clubs and this shed light on to the importance of
service quality and customer satisfaction.
Service quality is the most important and principal
competitive weapon in the services industry (Khatibi, Ismail
and Thyagarajan, 2002) and has been increasingly used
as a strategy tool for effectively positioning the company
(Cronin and Taylor, 1992). Therefore, the services
differentiate themselves by providing higher quality
especially when the core service is similar such as
banking, restaurants, airlines and hotels. In addition,
service quality is believed to have positive impact on
company s bottom- line performance (Caruana, 2002).
Because the subjective, customer-oriented view toward
quality is considerably more applicable to the intangible
and heterogeneous features of service than the technical
approaches, it has become the main approach to
assessing quality in the services literature (Schneider and
White, 2004).
Methodology
This study investigates the service quality in one of the
most prestigious sport complexes in Iran which is
composed of 32 different sport clubs and examines the
impact of service quality on customer satisfaction and
loyalty.
Method of the research is descriptive and correlation kind.
A pre-test with a sample of 12 members of the two clubs
was carried out for checking the appropriateness of the
wordings and meanings of the items.
The statistical population was the members of aerobic
clubs. Population in this study was consisted 45000
members. A convenience sample (N=450) using simple
random method was drawn from those members who had
been using the clubs services in the last 2 years. Twelve
clubs were selected in a random cluster way and totally
418 questionnaire were collected and usable. SERVQUAL
questionnaire was used with minor modifications to ensure
covering all aspect of services and word meaning; its
validity was confirmed by 10 professors which were
experienced in the field. Reliability of questionnaire also
was calculated by Cronbach s alpha coefficient (= 0/87).
The analysis of data was assessed in two distinct levels:
descriptive and inference (Pearson correlation coefficient
and linear regression).
Results & discussion
The result shows that there is a significant relationship
between service quality and members satisfaction; service
quality and members loyalty; members satisfaction and
members loyalty in sport recreational complexes. Also
among the service quality and members satisfaction
factors, members satisfaction was identified as a more
important predictive factor to membersn loyalty.
Service quality has long been recognized as the basic
strategy for effective positioning and competitive
advantage. This study identified service quality factors in
sport clubs and its impact on customer satisfaction and
loyalty. The finding in some aspects is different from other
findings; this means that service quality may be different in
country by country. It is suggested that researchers do the
same research in different countries and regions and
compare the results, finally build a service quality
assessment tool (in recreation sports field) that could be
used in a wider range of geography, with similarities in
cultures, technologies, development and other affecting
factors.
References:
Caruana, A. (2002), Service loyalty: The effect of service quality
and the mediating role of customer satisfaction, European Journal
of Marketing, Bradford, Vol. 36, Issue 7/8.
Cronin, J.J.Jr, Taylor, S.A. (1992). Measuring service quality: A
reexamination and extension, Journal of Marketing, 56 (July),
pp.55-68.
Khatibi, A.A., Ismail, H. and Thyagarajan, V. (2002), What drives
customer loyalty: An analysis from the telecommunications industry,
Journal of Targeting, Measurement and analysis for Marketing,
London, Vol.11, Issue 1, pp.34-44.
Schneider, B. and S.S. White (2004) Service Quality: Research
Perspectives, Sage, CA Torkildsen, G. (1999). Leisure and
Recreation Management, 4th ed. New york: Spon Press.
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104
RUNNING OUT OF TIME? TIME AND
SPACE MANAGEMENT FOR PHySICAL
ACTIVITy
Author:
Karin Book
email:
karin.book@mah.se
University:
Malmo University
Faculty:
Dept of Sport Sciences
Abstract
Background and Research Questions
A few years ago I was standing outside an office building in
London Docklands around noon watching a group of
people cooling down after a running session. I interpreted
the situation as follows: this was a group of people in the
middle of their careers, working hard, commuting, having
children to take care of after work and as a consequence
trying to find a time slot for physical activity in the lunch
hour. These thoughts ended up in one pilot study, one
article (Book, 2009) and one extended project based on
the following questions:
1. How, when and where do employed people (qualified
work, mainly academics) in the age between 30 and 50
find time and space for physical activities? The selected
group is likely to work a lot and have children living at
home. By physical activity is meant everything from
walking to the bus stop to heavy, conscious training (see
for instance Caspersen, Powell & Christenson, 1985).
2. How does the design of the work place and its
surroundings affect the opportunities for activities in
connection to the working day?
Theoretical Departures
The perspectives used in the study are three-fold:
Time perception and management with focus on people
in the middle of their life and careers. It is today well-
known that a lot of people in this part of the life cycle feel a
lack of time. Concepts like time famine and time pressure
are used to describe the situation (see for instance
Robinson & Godbey, 2000; Zuzanek, 2004). The time
pressure of course affects our opportunities and strategies
for physical activities.
Physical activity perception and management. As
mentioned below a wide definition of physical activity is
used in order to incorporate micro and time squeeze
strategies. Interestingly, we know based on existing
knowledge that the study group in question somehow finds
time for a number of activities in their daily lives, a
phenomenon called time elasticity (Roberts, 2006).
Space perception and management. There is a lot of
research showing that the planning of the environment and
our perception thereof affects our opportunities for physical
activity. In this study both indoor and outdoor environments
are of interest.
Methods and Results
My pilot study (a survey made among 50 employed
academics at Malmo University, Sweden) showed that the
selected group finds it hard to find room for physical
activities in their daily programs, and usually prefer flexible
solutions like walking and running. A majority of the people
however aimed to be physically active, had a full schedule
but still a certain degree of flexibility regarding work hours.
Strategies (from what I based on intensity and aims
call micro strategies to heavy training) in connection to or
during the work day were common. An example of micro
strategies is for instance using the stairs, while an example
of more heavy training is going to the nearby gym on the
lunch hour. Furthermore, I found examples of time
squeeze strategies, like taking a walk while supervising
students. Another strategy was to use time slots that
nobody else in the family claimed, like very early mornings.
Several of the strategies used are dependent on a work
place environment and surroundings which make physical
activity attractive or at least possible. In Sweden we can
see a growing number of gyms locating in areas where a
lot of people are during the work day.
At the moment a far more extensive material is being
analyzed. This material includes 550 surveys among
qualified emloyees at three major work places at different
locations in Malmo, interviews with gym managers
regarding location strategies and training trends of
relevance for my study, field studies at and around the
work places and interviews with a smaller number of the
employees included in the study. The final analysis of my
material will be ready to present at the EASM conference.
In my main conclusions I will highlight favourable
conditions for getting physical acitivities into the daily
programme with regards to time, space and acitivity among
people in the middle of the life cycle and career.
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References:
Book, K. (2009) Det ser tjockt ut! Tankar kring hur och var vi skapar
tid fr fysisk aktivitet. Svensk Idrottsforskning, no 3, 2009, p. 56-60.
Caspersen, C.J., Powell, K.E. & Christenson, G.M. (1985) Physical
activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions
for health-related research. Public Health Reports, 100(2);
MarApr.
Roberts, K. (2006) Leisure in Contemporary Society. CABI,
Oxfordshire.
Robinson, J. & Godbey, G. (2000) Time for Life. The Surprising
Ways Americans Use Their Time. Penn State Press, Pennsylvania
State University.
Zuzanek, J. (2004) Work, leisure, time pressure and stress. In:
Haworth, J.T. & Veal, A.J. (ed.) Work and Leisure. Routledge,
London.
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106
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A PARTICIPATION TyPOLOGy FOR THE
CONSUMPTION OF LIFESTyLE SPORTS
IN VARIED SETTINGS
Author:
Lotte Salome
email:
l.salome@fontys.nl
Co-authors:
Maarten Van Bottenburg
University:
Fontys University of Applied Sciences
Faculty:
Tilburg School of Economics
Abstract
Since the late eighties and the early nineties, there has
been an increase of new sport activities such as skydiving,
rock climbing and snowboarding. The increased scientific
attention for these lifestyle sports has caused the
production and publication of a rather homogenous picture
of lifestyle sport participants: lifestyle sport participants are
predominantly portrayed as young, white, Western men
with a tendency towards sensational and unregulated
activities, a go for it attitude and a desire to conquer or
battle against nature (e.g. Booth & Thorpe, 2007;
Wheaton, 2004).
Nevertheless, recent developments might produce a
different picture. As Breivik (2010) argued, four major
developments in lifestyle sports are changing the culture of
these activities. Firstly, lifestyle sports are becoming more
organised. Secondly, performances and media visibility are
increasingly important. Thirdly, there seems to develop
more green versions of lifestyle sports. And fourthly, the
demographic composition in lifestyle sports is broadening.
A prime example which comprises these trends and leads
to a shift in the perspective on lifestyle sports is called the
indoorisation of outdoor sports (Van Bottenburg & Salome,
2010). During the last twenty years, typical outdoor lifestyle
sports like surfing, snowboarding, skydiving and rock
climbing, which used to be exclusively practiced in natural
environments, are being offered for consumption in safe,
predictable and controlled artificial settings such as
snowdomes and indoor climbing halls.
In this study the relationships between lifestyle sport
participants and the natural or artificial settings in which
they are active are conceptualized, and it is questioned in
which way Dutch participants of artificial (or: non-natural)
environments and natural (or: outdoor) environments differ
in their consumption of lifestyle sports.
The sociocultural approach of consumer behaviour in
specific settings for lifestyle sports is in this research
based on a multimethod investigation of consumption,
including both quantitative and qualitative methods. The
first step has been the use of a web based survey,
examining demographics, psychographics and participant
behaviour of Dutch lifestyle sports participants in non-
natural and natural settings. While an online survey is a
good way to reach the individual, geographical spread
lifestyle sport participants, coverage and sample errors
may have occurred: the survey is in fact a volunteer
sample because respondents are self-selected and results
may not be representative of a larger population.
Therefore, the results from the survey are, in a second
stage, enriched with in-depth interviews with Dutch lifestyle
sport participants in order to understand deeper concepts
and meanings.
The analysis, based on the online survey and the in-depth
interviews, reveals three types of lifestyle sport
practitioners. Regarding preferences for settings for
lifestyle sports and motivation, the groups Exercisers,
Exceeders and Experiencers can be distinguished:
I) The Exercisers are predominantly active in artificial
settings, and aspects such as physical fitness and getting
in shape are important for this group.
II) The Experiencers prefer a natural, outdoor setting for
lifestyle sports, and fun/enjoyment is the most important
motivation for their participation.
III) The Exceeders combine both worlds: the ease and
efficiency of artificial settings and the nature and
sensations from outdoors. They are significantly more
motivated by achievement, self-esteem and aesthetic
factors.
With the introduction of this participation typology for
lifestyle sports, the view that lifestyle sport consumption
can be reduced to a narrow set of homogenous traits is
challenged. The findings could be used to generate
managerial implications, a topic mostly neglected in
research about lifestyle sports. Managers are advised to
consider lifestyle sport participants as a number of smaller
homogenous markets with similar needs and motivations,
to improve the understanding of the needs of the variety of
participants. In artificial settings for lifestyle sports, the
segmentation and positioning of the lifestyle sport
participants by identifying their characteristics and
preferences have consequences for the organization of
preference- and experience based groups.
References:
Booth, D., & Thorpe, H. (2007). Introduction. In Berkshire
Encyclopedia of Extreme Sports (pp. xI-xII). Great Barrington:
Berkshire Publishing Group.
Breivik, G. (2010). Trends in adventure sports in a post-modern
society. Sport in Society, 13(2), 260-273.
Van Bottenburg, M., & Salome, L. (2010). The indoorisation of
outdoor sports. An exploration of the rise of lifestyle sports in
artificial settings. Leisure studies, 29(2).
Wheaton, B. (2004). Introduction; Mapping the lifestyle sport-scape.
In B. Wheaton (Ed.), Understanding lifestyle sports. Consumption,
identity and difference (pp. 1-28). London/New york: Routledge.
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A STUDy ON THE LIFESTyLE OF NEW
ENDURANCE SPORTS PARTICIPANTS
FOCUS ON TRIATHLON
PARTICIPANTS-
Author:
Kurumi Matsui
email:
kurumi.matsui@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Munehiko Harada, Waseda University Matsuoka
Waseda Hirotaka University Otsuka, Shinichiro, Japan
Triathlon Union
University:
Waseda University
Faculty:
Graduate School of Sport Sciences
Abstract
Background
According to data from the Sasakawa Sports Foundation
(2008), participation in sports has been increasing annually
in Japan. In particular, Harada (2010) points out that
triathlon, trail running, and hill climbing, which he called
new endurance sports , have become more popular. He
also notes that the participants of these sports are
motivated by an interest in goal setting, development,
traveling, community involvement, and sightseeing, and
that there is high potential for future development as a
sport via marketing activities. It is important to understand
the consumer psychology and behavior to develop
marketing strategy. Researchers segment the consumers
by using demographic variables or psychographic variables
to examine the consumer characteristics. However, Wells
(1975) pointed out that psychographic profiles are more
available than demographic profiles to understand the
consumer in detail. Therefore, using psychographic
variables is an efficient way to understand the participants
of new endurance sports.
Objectives
This study aims to understand the characteristics of the
participants of new endurance sports by using lifestyle
scales as a psychographic variable to develop marketing
strategy that is to increase participants.
(1) a review of lifestyle scales and the examination of their
adequacy
(2) a segmentation of the participants of new endurance
sports and the discussion of its effectiveness.
Methods
Data were collected from participants at 14 Japanese
triathlon competitions in 2010. Questionnaires including 40
questions on the lifestyle using a seven-point rating scale
(1 = completely disagree, 7 = completely agree) were
administered to all participants and data were collected
from 1,435 individuals. First, confirmatory factor analysis
was conducted to confirm the validity of the factor structure
of lifestyle on the basis of previous studies. Second, a
cluster analysis was conducted by using the factor score.
Ward s hierarchical clustering method with squared
Euclidean distance was used to obtain the initial cluster
solution. Next, a k-means cluster analysis was conducted
to determine the number of clusters.
Results
The confirmatory factor analysis showed that lifestyle
scales comprise eight factors (goodness of fit: GFI = 0.93,
AGFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.05): mode,
achievement, herd mentality, insubstantiality, brand
consciousness, sport, health maintenance, and pro-
environmental behavior. Cronbach s reliability scores
were 0.67 0.89. These results confirmed the adequacy of
the lifestyle scale of the participants of new endurance
sports, consisting of eight factors with 25 items.
After the confirming the lifestyle scale, we conducted a
cluster analysis and classified participants in three clusters.
A comparison of the clusters showed significant differences
in their characteristics. The first cluster, which was named
the group of individuals strongly influenced by their peers,
accounted for 33.98% of the total. The average age was
35.37 years, and the average number of accompanying
persons was 6.36, which was the highest among the three
clusters. The scores of herd mentality and insubstantiality
were high. These results indicate that the individuals
belonging to the first cluster were prone to be influenced
by the people around them. The second cluster, which was
named the self-managed group, accounted for 29.91% of
the total. The average age was 40.28, and the average
number of years of competition was 7.03, which is the
highest among the three clusters. The scores of the health
maintenance and pro-environmental behavior categories
were the highest, whereas the scores of mode and brand
consciousness were the lowest. Thus, the individuals in the
second cluster were not affected by fashion trends or
brands, but were highly conscious of their own well-being.
The third cluster, which was named the fashion-oriented
group, accounted for 36.11% of the total. The scores of
mode, herd mentality, achievement, and brand
consciousness were the highest. This means that the
individuals in the third cluster were aware of fashion trends
and the perceptions of those around them.
Discussion
The analyses of the collected data show that the lifestyle
scales of the participants of new endurance sports consist
of eight factors. In this study, we added new questions on
pro-environmental behavior to the lifestyle scale. The factor
analysis confirmed that environmental factors that are
known to exist as independent factors were a part of the
lifestyles of the participants.
Further, the findings showed that the participants were
classified into three clusters. It clearly revealed significant
differences in lifestyle scores and characteristics among
these clusters. Many researchers have emphasized the
effectiveness of lifestyle segmentation (Plummer, 1974;
Wells, 1975; Kucukemiroglu, 1999; Kaynak & Kara, 2001).
In this study, we confirmed that segmentation by lifestyle is
one of the effective ways for examining the participants of
new endurance sports.
References:
Harada, M. (2010). The sport management era. Sport Facility, June
Issue, pp.26-27.
Kucukemiroglu, O. (1997). Market segmentation by using consumer
lifestyle dimensions and ethnocentrism. European Journal of
Marketing, 33, 470-487.
Plummer, J, T. (1974).0The concept and application of life style
segmentation. Journal of Marketing, 38, 35-42.
Wells, W, D. (1975). Psychographics: A critical review. Journal of
Marketing Research, 12, 2, 196-213.
Kaynak, E. & Kara, A. (2001). An examination of the relationship
among consumer lifestyles, ethnocentrism, knowledge structures,
attitudes and behavioural tendencies: a comparative study in two
CIS states. International Journal of Advertising, 20, 455-482.
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110
GRAyING OF THE SPORTS: ADULTS OF
50 yEARS AND OLDER MAKE UP A
FAST GROWING SEGMENT OF THE
SPORTS MARKET
Author:
Caroline Van Lindert
email:
c.vanlindert@mulierinstituut.nl
University:
W.J.H. Mulier Instituut
Abstract
Aim/background
In the Netherlands and other European countries, the
theme "sport and the elderly" has been elevated for some
time on the agenda for researchers, government and
policymakers in sports. The Dutch population of 55 years
and older has increased considerably over time, from 2,6
million in 1975 to 4,2 million in 2005. For 2035 it is
expected to have grown to a total of 6 million people (De
Boer, 2006). With this strong aging of population in mind,
there are growing concerns about the health and physical
fitness. In 2009, this reality gave reason to launch Fit for
Life Netherlands, following the example of Finland. A
network of regional and national organizations from the
public and private sector was founded with the common
goal to increase participation by older people in sport and
exercise. It was known that the participation in sport and
physical activity of the elderly lagged behind younger
cohorts, but further questions remained. We therefore
conducted a research project with the main goal (Van
Lindert, 2009): to understand the current participation in
sport and exercise of people of 50 years and older, the
differences between groups of elderly and the incentives
and obstacles they experience to become more active.
Methodology
The main source for data on sports participation comes
from the Amenities and Social Services Utilization Survey
2007, a representative national survey among 13.000
people from 6-79 years in the Netherlands.
Data about club membership derives from a national club
panel, set up by the Mulier Institute in close cooperation
with the National Olympic Committee*Dutch Sports
Federation, consisting of 1300 Dutch sports clubs. Data on
motives and experiences of older sport participants were
derived from the Sportersmonitor 2008, a representative
online national survey with 4.200 respondents from 6-80
years. We also used data from the Eurobarometer
(Europese Commissie 2010) and the ISSP 2007
(International Social Survey Programme) (Hover et al,
2010) to put Dutch sports participation of elderly in cross-
national perspective. These statistics are complemented by
insights from existing (qualitative) research on motives and
experiences of older sports (non)participants.
Results
The data shows for example that more people are taking
part in sports than ever before; 71% of the Dutch
population participated in sport at least once in 2007 and
65% of the population were taking part in sport at least 12
times per year in 2007. The participation in sport by elderly
(50-79 years) is still lower than among the population as a
whole. 60% the 50-64 year olds were taking part in sport at
least 12 times per year in 2007. This applies to 44% of the
65-79 year olds. A positive sign is that the sports
participation by elderly has made a huge leap over the
years and increased more sharply than among the
average Dutch population. As with the average population,
socio-economic differences in sports participation are
persistent among elderly. The proportion of elderly who
participate in sport as members of a sports club increased
significantly since 1983, unlike that of the average
population, which fell slightly. Still, club membership is less
common among the older group (65-79 years) than among
the average population. The presentation is completed with
data and insights on involvement in voluntary work of
elderly, participation in fitness related activities and
swimming and motives and experiences of older (non)
sports participants.
Discussion
The research brought together existing data and
knowledge on the (non) participation in sports by the older
segment of the Dutch population. Further insight is gained
in the reasons why older people do or do not participate in
sports and what demands they place on the sports
product. It is clear we can speak of a growing sport
participant segment and possibly of a new trend growing
of the sports, as a Dutch counterpart of the American
trend graying of the gym. This can only mean good news
for the physical fitness of adults of 50 and older. The
challenge for the near future nevertheless remains to
attract different groups of inactive elderly to become more
active and active elderly to join organized sports.
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References:
Boer, A.H. de (red.) (2006). Rapportage ouderen 2006:
veranderingen in de leefsituatie en levensloop. Den Haag: Sociaal
en Cultureel Planbureau.
Europese Commissie (2010). Sport and Physical Activity (Special
Eurobarameter 334/wave 72.3). Brussel: Europese Commissie.
Hover, P., Romijn, D. & K. Breedveld (2010). Sportdeelname in
cross nationaal perspectief. Benchmark sportdeelname op basis
van de Eurobarometer 2010 en het International Social Survey
Programme 2007. s-Hertogenbosch: W.J.H. Mulier Instituut.
Lindert, C. van (red.) (2009): Quick scan Sport, Bewegen en
Ouderen 2009. Fit for Life Nederland: (on)bereikbaar doel?
Nieuwegein/s-Hertogenbosch: Arko Sports Media/W.J.H. Mulier
Instituut.
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BENEFITS OF MASS PARTICIPANT
SPORT EVENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR
PHySICAL ACTIVITy AND SPORT
MANAGERS
Author:
Jeremy Jordan
email:
jsjordan@temple.edu
Co-authors:
Daniel Funk, Temple & Griffith University Kevin Filo, Griffith
University
University:
Temple University
Faculty:
School of Tourism & Hospitality Managemente
Abstract
Aim
Anecdotal evidence suggests mass participant sport events
(MPSE) have the capacity to increase population-based
physical activity. MPSEs motivate individuals to increase
physical activity levels in order to participate in the event
(Bowles, Rissel, & Bauman, 2006). However, the net
benefits of MPSEs remain questionable (Bauman, Murphy,
& Lane, 2009). First, is the physical activity level increase
sustained after the event? Second, do MPSEs increase
physical activity among less active individuals or merely
allow already active individuals to sustain activity levels?
Third, can MPSEs produce required frequency and
intensity levels of physical activity to produce health-
related benefits? The current research provides empirical
evidence to evaluate the potential capacity of MPSEs for
increasing physical activity.
Theoretically, MPSEs have the capacity to serve as
important social correlates of physical activity. Physical
activity represents an individuals pursuit of physically
active leisure, which incorporates concepts of leisure and
physical activity. The development of physically active
leisure generally progresses from initial adoption to
subsequent commitment (Beaton, Funk, Ridinger, &
Jordan, 2011). Theory and empirical research supports a
positive correlation between the development of physical
activity involvement and behavioural outcomes (Funk,
Beaton, & Pritchard, 2011). Hence, MPSEs have the
capacity to promote physical activity by incrementally
increasing and maintaining attitudes toward the activity and
exercising after the event (Funk, Jordan, Ridinger, &
Kaplanidou, 2011).
Research Question
MPSEs attract a broad range of individuals from novice to
expert, with different activity interest, fitness levels,
motives, and constraints that could influence the events
impact on attitudes toward the activity and exercise.
Therefore, this research investigates how individual
characteristics determine the extent to which a MPSE
increases activity commitment and future exercise
intentions.
Methodology
Data were collected via an online survey from 2,764 US
marathon participants three months after the event. The
survey included questions to measure individual
characteristics: 12 Sport Event Participation motives;
Negotiation Efficacy, Race Distance Type, Prior Events
Completed, Prior Physical Activity, and outcomes of Activity
Commitment, and Increasing Future Exercise because of
the event. Mean scores and inferential analysis were used
to examine motives across all individuals. Multivariate
multiple linear regression was employed to examine the
predictive ability of the individual characteristics on Activity
Commitment and Increasing Future Exercise.
Results
Results indicate the running event satisfied 11 of 12
motives p<05. Four motives of Challenge, Enjoyment,
Strength/Endurance, and Positive Health were important
for 95% of the sample, while 75% ascribed six motives of
Competition, Weight Management, Ill-Health Avoidance,
Social Affiliation, Physical Appearance, and Stress
Management as important. Multivariate results revealed
that 45% of the variance in Activity Commitment was
explained by Event Satisfaction, Negotiation Efficacy, Prior
Events, Race Distance, Physical Activity Level, and seven
motives were positive predictors F(17,2746)=132.74.
Results revealed that 31% of the variance in Increasing
Future Exercise was explained by Event Satisfaction,
Negotiation Efficacy, and eight motives were positive
predictors with Prior Events and Physical Activity Level
being negative predictors F(17,2763)=73.97.
Discussion
These findings suggest a running event has a two-tiered
motivational capacity that can both sustain and increase
attitudes toward physical activity leisure. The event can
motivate individuals to engage in exercise to receive a
range of benefits. These benefits, when combined with a
positive event experience and enhanced feeling of success
for negotiating obstacles to running can increase running
commitment. However, previously active individuals are
less likely to increase exercise after the event because
they already operate at a higher physical activity threshold,
and are likely already receiving exercise benefits. In
contrast, individuals who participated in fewer prior events
and were less active before the event are now more
positive toward increasing exercise frequency. Hence, the
event promoted more positive attitudes toward increasing
exercise among the least active and inexperienced
runners, which is an important physical activity segment to
target.
Conclusion
The theoretical potential of a MPSE to promote population-
based physical activity is attractive for many community
stakeholders. However, the events ability to create health-
related exercise benefits as a standalone intervention may
be unrealistic. Alternatively, a more reasonable
expectation is that MPSEs can produce incremental
changes to physical activity over time by promoting
stronger activity interest for all participants, while inducing
more positive attitudes toward exercising among the least
active participants. The results also highlight the vital role
event management has on developing positive attitudes
toward physical activity after the event. Sport managers
and educators should focus on providing quality event
experiences for participants and more importantly, develop
and implement post event activity programs for participants
to capitalize upon this incremental positive attitude shift.
References:
Bauman, A., Murphy, N. & Lane, A. (2009). The role of community
programmes and mass events in promoting physical activity to
patients. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 43, 44-46.
Beaton, A.A., Funk, D.C., Ridinger, L., & Jordan, J. (2011). Sport
involvement: A conceptual and empirical analysis. Sport
Management Review, 14, 126-140.
Bowles, H.R., Rissel, C., & Bauman, A. (2006). Mass community
cycling events: Who participates and is their behaviour influenced
by participation? International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and
Physical Activity, 3, 1-7.
Funk, D.C., Beaton, A.A., Pritchard, M. (2011). The Stage-Based
Development of Physically Active Leisure: A Recreational Golf
Context. Journal of Leisure Research, 43, 268-289.
Funk, D.C., Jordan, J., Ridinger, L,& Kaplanidou, K. (2011).
Capacity of Mass Participant Sport Events for the Development of
Activity Commitment and Future Exercise Intention. Leisure
Sciences, 33, 250-268.
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114
THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION
OF AN AFTER-SCHOOL PROGRAMME
ON SELF-PERCEPTION IN
OVERWEIGHT CHILDREN: A PILOT
STUDy
Author:
Gitte Kloek
email:
g.c.kloek@hhs.nl
Co-authors:
Schaap, Lot
Schrijvers, Mieke
van Hooijdonk, Carolien
Oudkerk, Rob
University:
The Hague University
Abstract
The Development and Evaluation of an After-School
Programme on Self-Perception in Overweight Children: A
Pilot Study
Gitte Kloek 1, Lot Schaap 1, Mieke Schrijvers 1, Carolien
van Hooijdonk 2 and Rob Oudkerk 1
1 The Hague University of Applied Sciences, The Hague,
The Netherlands
2 Municipal Health Service, The Hague, The Netherlands
Background
The number of overweight children in The Netherlands has
doubled in the past 30 years. The prevalence of
overweight in children and youth (2-21 years) is 14%. For
children and youth with a Turkish or Moroccan background
the prevalence of overweight is about 30%.
The programme, called WIJS (Dutch for What is your
Style), is a 1-year after-school programme aimed at
overweight children aged 8-12 years. The WIJS
programme consists of group sessions of 60-min of
activity-based exercise, dietary education, and lifestyle
counselling 2 days per week for 20 weeks. The counselling
component includes positive communication and goal
setting. After the first 20 weeks, children reduce their group
sessions to 1 day per week for the next 20 weeks.
Students of various disciplines participate in the planning
and organisation of the WIJS programme. In this
combination of practice with education sport management
students learn to manage a sport product in the public
segment and develop their coaching and performance
skills, and knowledge of exercise and nutrition.
This study evaluates the impact of the WIJS programme
on body mass index, measures of self-perception and
health behaviours in overweight children. The pilot study
was financed by the Municipal Health Service and two
health insurance companies.
Methods
Children completed a questionnaire that evaluated self-
perception and dietary habits and physical activity. The
questionnaire included the following self-perception
domains: scholastic competence, social acceptance,
athletic competence, physical appearance, behavioural
conduct, and global self-worth. Body mass index was
derived using anthropometric measurements and
overweight was defined using age- and sex-specific
criteria. Outcomes were assessed at baseline (January
2011) and will be assessed at the end of the programme
(June 2011). Measurements were also conducted in twelve
control children who did not take part in the WIJS group
sessions.
Results
Twenty-three children (9-12 years) started in the WIJS
programme in January 2011. Three children had normal
weights, 10 children were over weighted, and 10 children
were obese. Most children had a Turkish or Moroccan
background. Self-perception: scores on athletic
competence and physical appearance were in general
lower than Dutch norms. Health behaviours: more than half
of the children indicated that they did not eat daily
breakfast; half of the children consumed 3 sweet drinks or
more per day; half of the children spent 3 hours or more
per day on sedentary activities (TV viewing, computers,
video games).
The follow-up results from this study will show if it is
possible to improve self-perception and reduce overweight
in children. Hopefully the pilot study will provide new
insights into the further development of the WIJS
programme.
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References
Veerman, J.W., Straathof, M.A.E., Treffers, D.A., Van den Bergh,
B.R.H. & ten Brink, L.T. (1997). Competentiebelevingsschaal voor
kinderen (CBSK). Amsterdam: Pearson Assessment and
Information.
Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the self-perception profile for children.
Denver: University of Denver.
TNO (2010). Factsheet Resultaten Vijfde Landelijke Groeistudie
TNO. Leiden: TNO
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116
Sport Marketing
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Themes
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118
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ANTI-AMBUSH MARKETING POLICIES
AND STRATEGIES. CASE STUDy OF
2010 FIFA WORLD CUP AND EURO 2012
Author:
Jolanta Zysko
email:
jolanta.zysko@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Piatkowska Monika PhD
University:
Josef Pilsudski University of Physical Education
Faculty:
Faculty of Physical Education
Abstract
Over the past twenty years major sport events with their
massive audience create great opportunity for world-wide
companies to showcase their brands and products. The
value of international events and the enormous costs
associated with the official sponsorship status have led to
an increase in the number of companies which are finding
creative ways to associate themselves without any official
designation with the event and engage in the tactic of
ambush marketing (Graham 1997).
The aim of ambush marketing is to obtain more of the
gains associated with an official event sponsorship but
without incurring the same extent of its costs (Meenaghan
1994, 1996, Dacko 2008). Ambushers are becoming
increasingly statute at developing ways to circumvent legal
attempts to control non-sponsor marketing strategies.
Therefore, the aim of the paper is to introduce and
categorize various methods and strategies of protection of
ambush marketing during mega events. As ambush
marketing has shifted over time from broadcast
sponsorship campaigns and venue surrounding advertising
to more off-site venue marketing, it is also important to
analyze how the organizers of major sport event prevent
the event itself, the sponsorship rights and how they deal
with ambush marketing issue.
The methodological part indicates that the critical realist
approach was applied in the study, and information was
provided about research methods and techniques used
when carrying out this research. These included a
systematic literature review, semi structured interviews and
analyses of the contents of legal and policy documents
issued by governmental and nongovernmental
organisations.
The results described the nature and directions recorded in
the development of transnational policy in relation to
ambush marketing protection, as well as national policy
and strategy related to: brand management, brand
protection, protection of sponsors rights, consumer
education and marketing communications programme. The
cases of 2010 FIFA World Cup and The 2012 UEFA
European Football Championship are studied.
In conclusion, apart from implementing legal framework as
to defeat such practices as some hosting countries have
already enacted, some implications and actions which
sport event organizers ought to take in order to improve
consumer knowledge about the role of the sponsorship
and to increase consumer public opinion against
ambushers are suggested.
*The paper has been prepared within statutory research
DS. 138 entitled Counteracting unethical practices of
ambush marketing in organization of major sports events
financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education
in Poland.
References:
Dacko, S. G. (Ed.) (2008). The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing.
Putting Theory to Use. New york: Oxford University Press.
Graham, P. (1997). Ambush Marketing. Sport Marketing Quarterly,
6/1, pp. 10-12.
Meenaghan, T. (1994). Ambush marketing immoral or imaginative
practice? Journal of Advertising Research, 34(5), pp. 77-88.
Meenaghan, T. (1996). Ambush Marketing A threat to corporate
sponsorship. Sloan Management Review, 38(1), pp. 103113.
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120
AN ANALySIS OF RELATIONSHIP
AMONG THE FACTORS OF CUSTOMER
RELATIONSHIP, BRAND IMAGE, BRAND
TRUST, AND BRAND LOyALTy;
FOCUSING ON SPORTING GOODS
COMPANIES
Author:
Se-yun Kim
email:
sse6sse@naver.com
Co-authors:
yong-Man, Kim(Dankook University)
Ae-Rang, Kim(Dankook University)
Se-Hyuk, Park(Seoul National University of Science and
Technology)
University:
Dankook university
Abstract
Introduction
Nowadays it is difficult to make your brand stand out
among others because the technological development of
sporting goods has made no differences in quality between
brands. Therefore, a lot of companies producing sporting
goods are competing desperately to secure their present
customers. Under these circumstances, sporting goods
companies are trying very hard to provide the products and
diverse benefits that could be perceived as desirable and
valuable by their customers. They know that this effort will
bring some great benefits to the companies such as
creating stronger relationships with their customers,
reducing outflow rates, securing customer loyalty, and
increasing repurchase intention. In relation to this matter,
Ledingham & Bruning(1998) stated that organization-public
relationship which forms centering on reliability, loyalty and
open communication with the public has an influence on a
consumer's loyalty. Obviously, under this kind of
competitive business environment, securing a strong
relationship with the customers becomes a very important
factor in preventing the customer outflow, and increasing
the repurchase intentions of the customers. This is the
basic assumption that wasfound during the research
conducted. Based on this assumption, the research was
ultimately aimed to identify the relationship among factors
such as customer relationship of sporting goods
companies, brand image, brand trust, and brand loyalty.
Kim & Lee[2008] measured organization-public relationship
through the concept of public relationship which was
developed to meet the cultural properties of Korea on the
basis of the precedent research.
Methods
The convenient sampling method was used to select a
total of 300 students from D, S, and H Universities, located
in Cheon-An, one of the largest cities in South Korea. The
reason this research selected college students as its
research object is that college students are more likely to
be exposed to several brands and more sensitive to
brands than other strata(Jung, Lee, & Kim, 2005). The
selected people were asked to answer the questions
through questionnaires, in a self-administered method.
Among all the collected questionnaires, 20 copies were
excluded because they were improperly answered, so only
280 copies of the questionnaires were utilized for the final
analysis of this research. The collected data was analyzed
bythe following statistical methods; first, frequency analysis
using SPSSWIN Ver.15.0 was applied. Second,
confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation model
analysis using AMOS 7.0 were also applied for this
research.
Results
The research results were as the following; first, itwas
found that the subordinate factors of sporting goods
company-consumer relationships, which are
connectedness and balance in communication, have a
significant effect on the brand image, whereas the factor
such as involvement in community doesn't have such a
great effect on it. Second, brand image was found to have
a huge effect on brand trust and brand loyalty. Lastly,
brand trust also affected the brand loyalty.
Conclusion
This research revealed the fact thatsporting goods
company-consumer relationships have an effect on brand
loyalty, through brand image, and brand trust. Therefore, if
a marketer at a sporting goods company is interested in
having a smooth relationship with customers, the
companies should continuously form a strong bond with
the customers, seekits subsequent strategy, and use that
strategy aggressively. This will allow companies to create
positive brand images, trust, and ultimately enhance a
customer's loyalty to the brands. Especially, a sporting
goods business are advised to put its focus on
connectedness and balance in communication in order to
improve the relationship with a consumer.
Key words: Customer Relationship, Brand Image, Brand
Trust, Brand Loyalty
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References
Jung, J. H., Lee, J. W., & Kim, H. R. (2005). The effect of athlete
celebrity endorser`s image on the brand image, purchase intention
and recommendation intention. The Korean Journal of Physical
Education, 44(6), 801-811.
Kim, H.. S., & Lee, H. O. (2008). A study on the OPR measurement
scale reflecting Korean culture. The Korean Journal of Advertising
and Public Relations, 10(1), 99-139.
Ledingham, J. A., & Bruning, S. D. (1998). relationship
management and public relations: Dimensions of an organization-
public relationship. Public Relations Review, 24(1), 55-65.
Sirgy, M. J., Grewal, D., & Mangleburg, T. (2000). Retail
environment, self-congruity and retail patronage an integrative
model and a research agenda. Journal of Business Research,
49(2), 127-138.
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122
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
MARKETING PLANNING AND BUSINESS
PERFORMANCE IN PROFESSIONAL
SPORTS
Author:
Christos Terzoudis
email:
christerzoud@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Kriemadis Thanos Vrondou Ourania Alexopoulos
Panagiotis
Abstract
The marketing planning literature acknowledges the
necessity of marketing planning in the sport sector. Even
though there is little empirical evidence that proves the
relationship between marketing planning and business
performance, many sport researchers have argued that
without the improvement of strategic marketing planning,
sport organizations cannot survive to the competitive sport
environment (Stotlar, 1993, Shilbury, Quick & Westerbeek,
1998). Marketing planning is accepted to be a systematic
process which encapsulates all the core ingredients of
thorough marketing management: the analysis of the core
marketing opportunities and resources, the determination
of the marketing objectives and strategies and the
development of a plan for implementation and control
(Lancaster and Massingham, 1996).
Aim
The purpose of the research project was to examine the
relationship between marketing planning and business
performance in the Greek professional sports. More
specifically, the research hypothesis was the following:
There is no statistically significant difference in business
performance among the three levels of marketing planners.
Methodology
The sample of the particular research was 68 managing
directors and administrative staff from the 22 Greek
professional sport clubs (11 Football Clubs and 11
Basketball Clubs) which constantly participate in the first
division of Greek Championships in the last three years.
The professional sport clubs were divided in three groups
based on the level of marketing planning they are
implementing (strategic marketing planners, operational
marketing planners, intuitive and no marketing planners).
Business performance was measured by asking Greek
managers to evaluate the performance of their sport clubs
in relation a) to current years objectives, b) to last financial
years objectives and c) to their major market competitors
on a five-point Likert scale. On each of the three bases,
performance was judged against four criteria, two financial
(profit and ROI) and two market based (sales volume and
market share). To determine if differences existed in
business performance among the different levels of
marketing planners, one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was conducted.
Results
The 23,8% of the professional sport clubs were identified
as strategic marketing planners, the 47,6% were identified
as operational marketing planners and finally the 28,6%
were identified as intuitive and no planners. The ANOVA
analysis showed that the professional sport clubs that were
identified as strategic marketing planners had strong and
positive relationship with the two categories of business
performance:
Satisfaction in relation to current years objectives (F (2,
18) =5,514, p=0,01)
Satisfaction in relation to competitors (F (2, 18) =5,067,
p=0,018).
In the third category (satisfaction in relation to the last
years financial objectives), the relationship between
business performance of sport clubs and the level of
marketing planning was not statistically significant (F (2,
18) =3,153, p=0.067), however the mean of business
performance of strategic marketing planners was much
higher than the mean of the other two groups of marketing
planners.
Further analysis in the business performance indicators
revealed the following results:
There is a strong and positive relationship between the
level of marketing planners and return on investment and
sales volume in all business performance categories.
The results provided little evidence that the level of
marketing planning is positively related to the profit of
professional sport clubs.
Finally, the research revealed that there is no statistically
relationship between the level of marketing planning and
market share.
Discussion / Implications
These findings are consistent with previous studies in
various sectors (business, small business, etc.) and show
that the level of marketing planning in a business
organisation is positively related to the improvement of
business performance indicators (financial and market
indicators). The above results add credence to the
argument that a genuine commitment to marketing
planning principles clearly pays off for business
organizations (Hooley, 1984; Verhage and Waarts, 1988).
It is therefore important that all Greek sport managers
should appreciate the gains associated with all marketing
functions, in order to perform them effectively. To improve
marketing practice in the organization, educational
programmes need to be established, emphasizing more on
improving practices with under-performance problems.
In the case of market share however, the relationship was
not found to be significant, probably because sport
managers believe that their market is given due to the high
level of allegiance of the Greek sport fans. However, sport
managers need to seek customers from the broader
entertainment and recreation industry, rather than the
narrow market of supporters and fans. In order to do this,
sport managers should place emphasis on: (a) improving
the actual game of their clubs, (b) improving the quality of
products, services, and facilities. Furthermore, sport
managers should implement strategies to extend their
markets providing attractive products, services, and offers
to many other segments of the broad entertainment
industry.
19
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References
Hooley, G.J. (1984). The implementation of strategic marketing
planning techniques in British industry. International Journal of
Research in Marketing, 1, 153-162.
Lancaster, G. and Massingham, L. (1996). Strategic Marketing
Planning and Evaluation. London: Kogan Page.
Shilbury, D, Quick, S and Westerbeek, H. (1998). Strategic Sport
Marketing. St. Leonards NSW: Allen and Unwin.
Stotlar, D,K. (1993). Successful Sport Marketing. Dubuque, IA:
Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc.
Verhage, B.J. and Waarts, E. (1988). Marketing planning for
improved performance: a comparative analysis. International
Marketing Review, 15, 20-30.
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124
ExPLANATORy MECHANISMS FOR
CSR-LINKED SPORT SPONSORSHIP
EFFECTS
Author:
Joerg Koenigstorfer
email:
jck21@psu.edu
Co-authors:
Sebastian Uhrich
Andrea Groeppel-Klein
University:
Pennsylvania State University
Abstract
Sponsors of sports mega-events are increasingly linking
such events to activities in the area CSR (corporate social
responsibility). CSR-linked sport sponsorship may
positively influence brand perceptions where consumers
perceive this engagement to be sincere and the cause
worth supporting (Lacey, Close, & Finney, 2010). Altruistic
motive attribution a key variable accounting for the
success of sponsorships (Rifon, Choi, Trimble, & Li, 2004)
may mediate this influence and thus leverage the
sponsorship. However, it is also possible that the linking of
CSR and sponsorship is perceived as thematically
incompatible by consumers and causes reactance. It may
lead to suspicion and skepticism about the reasons why
the brand is engaging in social activities (Vlachos,
Tsamakos, Vrechopoulos, & Avramidis, 2009), particularly
in the case of highly commercialized mega-events.
In this research we examine whether linking the
sponsorship of sports mega-events with CSR activities
results in more favorable brand perceptions than
commercial sponsorship on its own. Based on the
theoretical background of schema and attribution theory,
applied to sponsorship-linked marketing (Cornwell,
Humphreys, Maguire, Weeks, & Tellegen, 2006; Menon &
Kahn, 2003), we hypothesize that increases in altruistic
motive attributions for the sponsorship mediate the effects
of CSR-linked sponsorship communication, and perceived
sponsor-event congruence moderates these effects.
In a pilot field study looking at the soccer World Cup 2010
in South Africa, we test the basic proposition that
consumers attitudes to a brand are more positive when
they are aware of both the brands engagement as a
sponsor and its parallel social activities, compared to when
they are aware of just the sponsorship activities or aware
of neither the sponsorship nor the social activities. A total
of 448 individuals participated in the initial field study.
Through personal interviews we identify consumers
recognition of the sponsorship activities and CSR, brand
attitudes and brand familiarity. We find that consumers who
were aware of both the sponsorship and the CSR activities
report significantly more positive brand attitudes than those
who were only aware of the sponsorship activity or aware
of neither the sponsorship nor the CSR activities. The
brand adidas is the only brand for which this relationship
did not hold a first indication of relevance of the sponsor-
event congruence.
To analyze this potential mechanism in more detail, a total
of 127 students participated in a first laboratory experiment
applying a one-factorial (content of communication:
standard sponsorship versus CSR-linked sponsorship;
control: CSR) between-subjects design. Sponsor-event
congruence was measured via an established scale as a
continuous variable. We used press releases about several
brands, including the target brand Sony, as experimental
stimuli.
ANOVA results show that CSR-linked (versus standard
sponsorship) sponsorship communication has a positive
effect on brand attitude shifts and consumers CSR
perceptions of the brand, whereas brand credibility and the
behavioral tendency to recommend the brand as an
employer are not directly affected. Mediation analyses
reveal that CSR-linked sponsorship communication
increases attributions of altruistic sponsorship motives, and
that this effect mediates the positive effects on all
dependent variables. In addition, the results of moderated
regressions show that the perception of low congruence of
the brand with the sponsored event positively affects the
linking of sponsorship information with CSR.
In a second laboratory experiment we investigate whether
brands engaging in CSR-linked sponsorship
communication can benefit from demonstrating a high level
of commitment to social activities, and how these effects
are moderated by sponsor-event congruence. As in
experiment 1, we used press releases for manipulation
purposes. Based on the results of several pretests, we
selected adidas to represent high-congruence brands and
Coca-Cola to represent low-congruence brands.
The results show that motive attributions account for the
positive effects of high CSR commitment on perceptions of
both the brand and the sponsorship. However, a high level
of CSR commitment has negative direct effects on CSR
perceptions, brand credibility and sponsorship credibility.
Furthermore, a tactical decrease in a brands commitment
to CSR when linked to event sponsorship is more harmful
to low-congruence brands than to high-congruence brands.
The results imply that a CSR-linked sponsorship strategy is
particularly promising for brands with a low overall
congruence to the event, where these brands follow a
long-term CSR strategy. For such brands, social
engagement adds meaning to the brand. If high-
congruence sponsors follow such a strategy, they should
ensure that the social engagement is not in conflict with
consumers expectations of the brands behavior in relation
to the event, otherwise the unexpectedness of this
information may destroy consumers consistent and
harmonious beliefs about the brand.
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References
Cornwell, T. B., Humphreys, M. S., Maguire, A. M., Weeks,
C. S., & Tellegen, C. L. (2006). Sponsorship-linked
marketing: The role of articulation in memory. Journal of
Consumer Research, 33, 312-321.
Lacey, R., Close, A. G., & Finney, R. Z. (2010). The pivotal
roles of product knowledge and corporate social
responsibility in event sponsorship effectiveness. Journal
of Business Research, 63, 1222-1228.
Menon, S., & Kahn, B. E. (2003). Corporate sponsorships
of philanthropic activities: When do they impact perception
of sponsor brand? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13,
316-327.
Rifon, N. J., Choi, S. M., Trimble, C. S., & Li, H. (2004).
Congruence effects in sponsorship: The mediating role of
sponsor credibility and consumer attributions of sponsor
motive. Journal of Advertising, 33, 29-43.
Vlachos, P. A., Tsamakos, A., Vrechopoulos, A. P., &
Avramidis, P. K. (2009). Corporate social responsibility:
Attributions, loyalty, and the mediating role of trust. Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, 37, 170-180.
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126
ExPENDITURES ON SPORTS APPAREL:
A COMPARISON BETWEE
MOUNTAINBIKERS, BICyCLE RACERS
AND RECREATIONAL BIKERS
Author:
Erik Thibaut
email:
erik.thibaut@faber.kuleuven.be
Co-authors:
Steven Vos, K.U.Leuven & Policy Center for Culture, youth
& Sport (Belgium)
Wim Lagae, K.U.Leuven & Lessius University College of
Antwerp
Filip Boen, K.U.Leuven
Jeroen Scheerder Jeroen
University:
K.U.Leuven
Abstract
Aim of abstract
In the present study the consumption of cycling apparel is
analyzed. The first aim of this study is to analyse the
expenditures of cyclists while practising their sport. In
particular, we will describe the expenditures on sports
apparel by cyclists who participate in mountain bike (off
road cycling), bicycle racing (on a race bike) and/or
recreational cycling (just for fun, on a regular city bike).
Second, this study tries to define which socio-
demographic, socio-economic and sports specific variables
determine whether people spend money on sports. Third,
we will make an estimation of the determining factors of
the amount of expenditures on sports apparel that these
three types of cyclists make. In a last phase we will
compare these results with expenditures of runners. There
are three reasons why this research is relevant. First of all,
research has shown the importance of the sports sector for
the economy, and the significant contribution of sports
apparel to the sports sector (Scheerder, Vos & Taks, 2011).
In this sector cycling plays an important role as it seems to
be the most popular participation sport. Although cycling is
very popular, it has received little attention until today.
Second, to successfully compete in the expanding leisure
market, sports providers and stores should develop a
thorough understanding of the consumption behaviour of
sports participants. Market segmentation is essential for
stores to understand and satisfy their customers and
thereby to maximize their profit.
In line with recent research of Downward and Riordan
(2007), Pawlowski et al. (2009) and Wicker et al. (2010),
an adopted version of the household production theory of
Becker (1965) will be used to explain expenditures on
sports participation. Beckers theory suggests that income,
time and human capital are important indicators of
expenditures on sports participation. In our study we will
incorporate the variables suggested by the findings from
the literature, and some additional variables that are
specific to cycling, such as the number of cycling
subdisciplines participants are actively involved in.
Methodology
The data about expenditures on cycling in Flanders were
gathered in 2009 by the Department of Human Kinesiology
of the K.U.Leuven. An online internet questionnaire called
Leuven Cycling Survey was used, which obtained data of
5,158 people about cycling habits, socio-demographic
variables and expenditures on cycling. With regard to
running a similar questionnaire has been used in 2007,
which resulted in a response of 9,912 subjects.
In order to analyze the expenditures on cycling, total
expenditures were split into ten different cost categories
(e.g., clothing and footwear). By means of logistic
regression we analysed which variables determine whether
mountain bikers, bicycle racers and recreational cyclists
spend money on sports apparel. Next we will analyze the
determinants expenditures clothing and footwear by means
of a Heckman selection model (e.g., Pawlowski & Breuer,
2011; Scheerder & Vos, 2010). The results were checked
for outliers and multicollinearity.
Results
Cyclists spend 120.3 Euros a year on clothing and 25.3 on
footwear while practising their sport (Table 1). The
descriptive results also indicate that mountain bikers and
bicycle racers spend more money on their sports than
recreational cyclists do.
The findings of the logistic regression show that the
probability that recreational cyclists spend money on sports
apparel is higher for cyclists that are male, aged 31 till 50,
higher educated, and for cyclists that practice more cycling
variants, with higher intensity and in competition. Apart
from sex, bicycle racers and mountain bikers have less
significant results on socio-demographic and socio-
economic variables, but the sport specific variables still
remain significant. Bicycle racers apparently are more
homogeneous as regards their expenditure behaviour than
mountain bikers, which in turn are less divergent than
recreational cyclists. Furthermore, the results show rather
high scores on the goodness of fit (measured by
Nagelkerke R2s) for recreational cycling, lower results for
mountain bike and even lower R2s for bicycle racing,
which is another indication of the decreasing impact of the
socio-demographic and socio-economic variables used in
the models.
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References:
A Heckman selection model will be used to estimate expenditures
on cycling apparel. The results will be compared with the
expenditures by runners on running apparel.
Downward, P., Riordan, J. (2007). Social interactions and the
demand for sport: An economic analysis. Contemporary Economic
Policy, 25(4), 518-537.
Pawlowski, T., Breuer, C. (2011). The demand for sports and
recreational services: Empirical evidence from Germany. European
Sport Management Quarterly, 11(1), 5-34.
Scheerder, J., Vos, S., & Taks, M. (accepted). Expenditures on
sport apparel. Creating consumer profiles through interval
regression modelling. European Sport Management Quarterly, 11
(3).
Scheerder, J., & Vos, S. (2010). Households in Flanders and their
expenditures on sport. In: C. Breuer & T. Pawlowski (Eds.).
Abstracts of the 2nd European Conference in Sport Economics
2010, October 5-6, Cologne (Germany). (pp. 56-59).
Wicker, P., Breuer, C. & Pawlowski, T. (2010). Are sports club
members big spenders? Findings from sport specific analyses in
Germany. Sport Management Review, 13(3), 214-224.
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THE VALUE OF PRACTICAL ExPERIENCE TO
ENHANCE THE SPORT MARKETING
CURRICULUM
Author:
Jaime Orejan
email:
orejanja@wssu.edu
University:
Winston Salem State University
Faculty:
Human Performance and Sport Sciences
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to evaluate experiential and
cooperative learning as it applies to the sport marketing classroom
in order to assess the value of this teaching format by students.
Ancillary benefits from engaging students in the practical learning
process will be looked as well. The information ascertained can be
used by sport marketing educators and other disciplines to develop
experiential and cooperative techniques in order to enhance student
learning outcomes. The complete student learning experience
included classroom instruction and learning activities as well as the
experiential learning activity.
Students were given a series of cooperative and experiential
learning activities during a school year at several American
universities. The students were challenged with managing,
marketing, and organizing special events as part of their learning
process. Meanwhile, the instructors utilized traditional teaching
methods in the classroom. Students perceptions were measured to
determine the effectiveness of pre-determine learning objectives.
Problem solving
Organizational skills
Analytical skills
Oral and written communication skills
Experiential learning can be defined as an experiential education
approach that is premised on reciprocal learning (Sigmon, 1979).
According to Bringle and Hatcher (1996), the student should be
actively involved and make all the primary decisions on what should
be learned. Additionally, Jacoby and Associates (1996) noted that
five principles should be integrated into experiential learning.
1. Positive interdependency
2. Individual and group accountability and personal responsibility
3. Promotion of face to face interaction
4. Interpersonal and small group skill
5. Group processing.
This mode of learning generates an environment where students
are encouraged to think critically, and be actively engaged in
problem solving. According to Floyd & Gordon (1998), Kunkel &
Shafer (1997), and Siciliano (2001), business recommend changes
in higher education curriculum that integrate real world experiences
and cooperative learning in order to better prepare future
employees, and to further develop a students cognitive,
communication, interpersonal, critical thinking, problem solving, and
self-directed learning skill. It is noted that the current business
environment explicitly demands these additional skill which
experiential and cooperative learning activities reportedly enhance
(Corbin & Glynn, 1992).
Methodology utilized was qualitative analysis (Gilgun, 2011) of 39
graduate student term papers. The term paper guidelines asked
students to reflect on the experience and state which of the learning
objectives and the reciprocal learning goals were enhanced by the
experience. Guidelines also stressed to tie the ancillary benefits and
learning objectives to specific components of the experience.
Results indicate that students prefer combining experiential learning
over a strictly traditional lecture format, and they felt that this style
further enhanced their classroom learning. Moreover, the results
indicate a support for the findings from Lawson (1995), Motsching-
Pitrick & Derntl (2002), and Orejan etal (2005) and that students
overwhelmingly prefer this method of teaching to traditional
methods. Further discussion of student specific comments
regarding the abovementioned benefits and learning objectives will
be shared in the presentation.
References:
Bringle, R.G., & Hatcher, J.A. (1996). Implementing service-learning
in higher education. Journal of Higher Education, 67(2), 221-239.
Corbin, S.B., & Glynn, K.A. (1998). What skills are important? A
comparison of employer, student and staff perceptions. Journal of
Marketing Education, 13(3), 46-52
Floyd, C.J., & Gordon, M.E. (1984). Class projects as a form of
instruction. Journal of Marketing Education, 6(3), 33-37.
Gilgun, J.F., (2011, January) Coding in Deductive Qualitative
Analysis, Current Issues in Qualitative Research.
An Occasional Publication for Field Researchers from a Variety of
Disciplines, 2(1).
Jacoby, B., & Associates. (1996). Service-learning in higher
education: Concepts and practices. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
Kunkel, J.G., & Shafer, W.E. (1997). Effects of student team
learning in undergraduate auditing courses. Journal of Education
for Business, &72(4), 197-200.
Lawson,T.J. (1995). Active learning exercise for consumer behavior
classes. Teaching of Psychology, 22(3), 200- 2002.
Motshing-Pitrik, R., & Derntl, N. (2002), September). Student
centered eLearning (SCeL): Concept and Application in a students
project on supporting learning. Paper presented at International
Workshop on Interactive Computer-Aided Learnig, Vienna, Austria.
Siciliano, J. (2001). How to incorporate cooperative learning
principles in the classroom: Its more than just putting students
in teams. Journal of Management education, 25(1), 8-19.
Sigmon, R.L. (1979, Spring) Service-learning: Three principles.
Synergist, 8(1), 9-11.
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130
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ExPERIENTIAL MARKETING AND
SPORTING EVENTS: A SPECTATOR
PERSPECTIVE
Author:
Guillaume Bodet
email:
g.s.p.bodet@lboro.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Nicolas Chanavat, University Paris-Sud xI
University:
Faculty:
ISLP, SSEHS
Abstract
How extra-ordinary experiences provided in sporting
events are lived by spectators and what are their
consequences in terms of consumer behaviour.
Since about twenty-five years, experiential marketing has
become for numerous researchers and practitioners, the
answer for companies and brand to fulfil contemporary
customers expectations and then creating and maintaining
competitive advantages (Car and Cova, 2006; Tynan &
McKechnie, 2009). The main principle of this marketing
approach relies on customer immersion in unforgettable
and extra-ordinary experiences based on a new category
of additional offers associated to the original products and
services (Car & Cova, 2006).
As for sporting events, the games occasionally organised
by Stade Franais Paris Rugby Club, at Stade de France
(the French stadium with the biggest capacity) represent
perfect illustrations of this marketing approach with the
implementation of many pre and post-game entertainment.
These shows and displays, more and more unique and
extravagant have allowed the Parisian club to attract
numerous spectators (around 80,000 each time) and then
regularly break international attendance records for
regular-season rugby games (Bodet, 2009).
Although many practitioners estimate that experiential
marketing, through the creation of personally relevant and
emotional experiences, can generate brand advocacy,
loyalty and positive word-of-mouth, little empirical work
have been conducted to challenge these assumptions
(Tynan & McKechnie, 2009). Furthermore, even if many
observers acknowledge these successes based on
quantitative evaluations, few have been interested in
understanding the nature of the consumption experiences
lived by these spectators, the deep reasons of such
successes and the potential outcomes in terms of loyalty
and commitment.
Methodology
Therefore, in order to better understand the subjectively-
based aspects of the consumption experiences lived by the
Stade de Frances spectators during the rugby games
organised by Stade Franais Paris Rugby Club, a series of
individual interviews (n = 27) was conducted with
individuals having, at least attended once, one of these
events. Individuals were selected based on the three
categories of fans (i.e., casual, regular and fanatical) and
the main relevant socio-demographic characteristics
identified by Tapp & Clowes (2002) in order to cover the
widest scope of the spectator profiles. The number of
interviews was determined following a semantic saturation
criterion per fan category.
Results and conclusion
A thematic analysis revealed the presence of the four sport
spectator profiles measured by Bouchet, Bodet, Bernache-
Assollant and Kada (2010) but with more permeable
boundaries than theoretically postulated. Many interviewees,
often rugby players or amateurs, could be identified within
the Aesthetic profile with a strong interest in the game itself
but with varying interests in the pre and post-game
entertainments. Some appreciate them as bonuses to the
event but some are not interested in them and only arrive for
the start of the game. For this specific group, many
similarities can be found with individuals falling into the
Supporter profile which mainly focuses on their favourite
teams performance. This result seems to differ from the
theoretical relationship between the two profiles which was
assumed to be in contradiction (Bouchet et al., 2011). Many
spectators, often non-regular fans and women, were also
identified as Interactive, looking for an overwhelming
ambiance. For these spectators, the collective, friendly and
tribal dimension was often highlighted in their consumption
patterns as they often belonged to a group of people. This
feature corresponds to what Bouchet et al. (2011) noted
when acknowledging tribal marketing as an appropriate
strategy for this kind of spectators. However, many of them
could also be considered as Opportunist, as they
emphasised on the importance of the low-pricing and the
fact they had often been given free-tickets. Even if the
utilitarian motivation does not seem dominant for them, this
feature is not classically associated to the Interactive profile.
Finally, few of the spectators were found to have developed
any strong attachment and loyalty towards the Stade
Franais brand and, for the most regular spectators to these
experiential events, the perceived quality of the game
featured by the opponent team seemed to play the biggest
role.
In conclusion, these results confirm the heterogeneity of
the spectator profiles identified in the literature and provide
further knowledge in the definition of the relationships
between the profiles measured by Bouchet et al. (2011).
From a managerial perspective, these results do not hinder
practitioners to adopt such approaches, but tend to limit
the scope of its benefits as no relationship has been found
between experiential marketing and attachment and
loyalty. They also suggest that price should not be
underestimated and then question the value of experiential
marketing in comparison with traditional marketing.
References:
Bodet, G. (2009), Give me a stadium and I will fill it. An analysis of
the marketing management of Stade Franais Paris rugby club,
International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 10(3),
252-262.
Bouchet, P., Bodet, G., Bernache-Assollant, I. and Kada, F. (2011),
Segmenting sport spectators: Construction and preliminary
validation of the Sporting Event Experience Search (SEES) scale,
Sport Management Review, 14, 42-53.
Car, A. and Cova, B. (2006), Expriences de consommations et
marketing exprientiel [Consumption experiences and experiential
marketing], Revue Franaise de Gestion, 162, 100-113.
Tapp, A. and Clowes J. (2002), From carefree casuals to
professional wanderers. Segmentation possibilities for football
supporters. European Journal of Marketing, 36, 1248-1269.
Tynan, C. and McKechnie, S. (2009), Experience marketing: a
review and reassessment, Journal of Marketing Management, 25,
501-517.
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EVALUATING FOOTBALL
SPONSORSHIP: AN ATTITUDINAL
PERSPECTIVE
Author:
Mary Charalambous-Papamiltiades
email:
m.charalambous@euc.ac.cy
Co-authors:
Not co-authors but I would like to thank the researchers
who collected the data: Nedialko Konolev, Elitza Petkova,
Isawa-Elaigwu Rose, Kokkinos Andreas
University:
European University Cyprus
Faculty:
Marketing & Management
Abstract
The aim of paper is to explore the relationship between fan
identification and attitudes towards sponsorship. The main
research hypothesis to be tested is the following: The level
of fan identification will be positively related to attitudes
towards sponsorship, sponsorship awareness, and
purchasing behaviour
Literature review:
Sponsorship has been defined as &the provision of
assistance either financial or in-kind to an activity by a
commercial organization for the purpose of achieving
commercial objectives (Meenaghan, 1983, p. 9), and the
sport product is considered as being possibly the best
vehicle for this. The issue of sponsorship evaluation,
however, has generated much debate and argument in the
literature (Thwaites, 1994) and sponsorship effectiveness
research has yielded inconsistent findings (Cornwell &
Maignan, 1998). The lack of consistency regarding
sponsorship definition and objectives, and the variety of
methods employed to evaluate the effects of sponsorship
are some of the factors responsible for the problems of
evaluating sponsorship. Much of the empirical research on
this topic relied on concrete data such as indicators related
to product sales or stock prices (Cornwell, Pruitt & Van
Ness, 2001) and into studies employing attitude research
such as image, awareness, and purchase intentions
(Speed & Thompson, 2000; Tripodi & Hirons, 2009;
Tsiotsou & Alexandris, 2008). Given the economic and
marketing importance of sport sponsorship, it is indeed
surprising that few sponsors appear to evaluate the impact
of their sponsorship investment in a systematic fashion
(Davies & Tsiantas, 2008; Thwaites, 1993 & 1994,
Thwaites et al., 1998) even in heavily commercialized
sports like football (Chadwick & Thwaites, 2004; Thwaites,
1995).
The methodology employed for the purpose of the present
study is quantitative. A questionnaire was developed based
on existing literature on attitudinal sponsorship evaluation.
The questionnaire consisted of 30 questions
(demographic, fan identification/attachment, and questions
determining attitudes and behaviour towards sponsorship)
and it was administered during football matches by
qualified researchers. The sample consisted of fans of
APOEL F.C. 402 questionnaires have been gathered, of
which 367 were usable. Data analysis has been carried out
through the SPSS 16.0 Statistical Package. Results
obtained through descriptive analysis, Non-parametric
(Mann-Whitney U test) and Spearman Correlation.
Results, discussion, and implications/conclusions:
The vast majority of the respondents are strongly identified
with their team (86.1% as illustrated in the first dimension
and 88% as demonstrated in the second dimension).
Moreover, 87.3% have a positive opinion about
sponsorship while 75% of the respondents believe that the
sponsors contribute significantly to the society. The
respondents also demonstrated very high sponsorship
awareness levels. 83.4% know the sponsors of their team,
84.3% are aware about their team s sponsors products
and services, and 75.5% stated that they use sponsors
products/services. Sponsorship seems to have an
important impact on purchasing behavior for 30.6% of the
respondents. Furthermore, 72.1% of the fans prefer their
team s sponsors products and services when price and
quality equal non-sponsors products/services.
Results also demonstrated that there is a significant
relationship between fans identification with the team and
several attitudes and behaviour towards sponsorship.
Spearman Correlations showed that the dimension the
success of my team is my own success is positively
related to the impact that sponsorship has over purchasing
behaviour [(353)= 0.144, p=0.007], and to the level of fans
satisfaction with the sponsors products [(367)= 0.155,
p=0.004]. Moreover, the respondents who scored high on
this dimension of fan identification tended to have more
positive opinion about sponsorship [(361)= -0.174,
p=0.001]. In addition, Non Parametric Mann-Whitney U
tests have shown that those highly identified fans tend to
purposefully search for their team s sponsors products and
services [Z(364)=-3.290, p=0.001] and to use sponsors
products and services more frequently [Z(359)=-2.919,
p=0.004]. Interestingly, those fans are more likely to
purchase sponsors products/services, not only when their
price and quality equal non-sponsors products/services
[Z(355)=-2.828, p=0.005], but even when the price is
higher than non-sponsors products/services [Z(364)=-
3.391, p=0.001]. Furthermore, highly identified fans tend to
demonstrate higher levels of awareness regarding the
team s sponsors [Z(337)=-2.335, p=0.02]. Almost identical
results were found for the second dimension of fan
identification explored in this study (When I refer to my
team I say we instead of they). These findings are
extremely important since they indicate that the role of
sport sponsorship in achieving corporate objectives is
essential. Moreover sponsorship effectiveness seems to be
influenced by the level of fan identification and attachment,
something that is can be taken into consideration by sport
administrators and sponsorship managers when
developing initiatives in an effort to increase the impact of
their sponsorship arrangements.
References:
Meenaghan, T. (1983). Commercial Sponsorship. European Journal
of Marketing, 17(7), 1-74.
Thwaites, D. (1994). Corporate Sponsorship by the Financial
Services Industry. Journal of Marketing Management, 10, 743-763
Cornwell, T.B. & Maignan, I. (1998). An International Review of
Sponsorship Research. Journal of Advertising, 27(1), 1-21.
Speed, R. & Thompson, P. (2000). Determinants of Sports
Sponsorship Response. Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 28(2), 227-238
Tripodi, J.A. & Hirons, M. (2009). Sponsorship Leveraging Case
Studies-Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Journal of Promotion
Management, 15(1), 118-136
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ASSESSING SPONSORSHIP
OUTCOMES AMONG FOOTBALL
SPECTATORS OF DIFFERENT
FREQUENCy OF ATTENDANCE
Author:
Vasiliki Tolka
email:
v.tolka@paokfc.gr
Co-authors:
George Tzetzis
University:
PAOK F.C.
Faculty:
Marketing
Abstract
Many companies have turned to sport sponsorship as a
communication vehicle in response to the increased clutter
and cost associated with advertising media, consumers
changing habits relative to traditional media, and a need to
target specific geographic and lifestyle segments.
Sponsors hope that the emotional connection sport
consumers have with an event, cause or sports team will
be transferred to sponsors brands and services (Madrigal,
2001). It is unlikely however, that emotional connection to
a preferred property is the only factor influencing intentions
to purchase a sponsors products. It is also important to
consider consumers beliefs about the benefits of
sponsorship and attitude toward supporting corporate
sponsors. It has been proposed that a positive attitude
towards a sponsor is developed when a consumer
evaluates positively the benefits of sponsorship for a team
(Meenaghan, 2001). As sport consumers move to higher
levels of involvement in a sport (e.g. attend more games
per season) they get to be more exposed to marketing and
communication strategies that increase sponsorship
effectiveness. Examples can be indoor and outdoor
advertisement, print material (e.g. match day program),
announcements in the stadiums, promotional activities etc.
These actions can help on increasing sponsorship
awareness and build the sponsors image (Tsiotsou &
Alexandris, 2009).
Aim
The purpose of this study was to examine the difference
among football spectators concerning the frequency of
their attendance (light, medium and heavy users), on three
distinct sponsorship outcomes: attitude toward sponsor
and sponsors products, intention to purchase sponsors
products and intention to develop positive word of mouth
communication.
Methodology
The sample of the study consisted of 444 football fans of a
professional football club in Northern Greece. Fans
completed a questionnaire prior to the games in
designated parking areas surrounding the football stadium.
A team of five researchers distributed the questionnaires
and collected them back. The questionnaire of the study
was developed based on the literature (Kyle, Graefe,
Manning, Bacon, 2003; Madrigal, 2001) and examined
factors such as attitude toward sponsor and sponsors
products (3 items) (Sengupta & Fitzsimons, 2000),
intention to purchase products from sponsor (3 items)
(Tsiotsou et al, 2009) and intention to develop positive
WOM communication (1 item) (Tsiotsou et al, 2009).
Responses were measured using a seven-point Likert-type
scale anchored by strongly disagree (1)-strongly agree (7).
Questions concerning demographic characteristics (5
items) and frequency of attendance (1 item) were also
included. An analysis of variance compared the three
groups of spectators (light, medium and heavy users) and
whenever a significant difference was found a post hoc
Scheffe analysis was used to identify possible differences.
Results
The majority of the sample was men (86%), educated
(84.6%), aged from 20-39 years old (75%), who worked as
employees in public and private sector (40%), earning
800-1300 per month (45%). From the 15 games per
year of the Greek league they attended 1-4 matches (light
users) 33.8%, 5-9 matches per year (medium users)
25.4% and 10-15 matches per year (heavy users) 35.8%.
Comparing the three groups (light, medium and heavy
users) according to the dependent variables, it was found
that there are significant differences among them. Heavy
users evaluated attitude toward sponsor and sponsors
products with a higher mean score (M=5.49) than medium
(M=5.35) and light users (M= 5.15). Similar results were
found for intention to purchase products from sponsor as
well as for intention for positive word of mouth
communication where heavy users had higher mean
scores (M= 5.11, M=5.03) than medium (M=4.83, M=4.65)
and light users (M=4.78, M=4.58).
Discussion
These findings provide support that different sport fan
segments according to their involvement consider
differently behavioral sponsorship outcomes. When the
frequency of attendance is rising they consider they
transfer goodwill from their team to the sponsors
(Meenaghan 2001). Heavy users are more likely to
develop positive image about their teams sponsor and
consequently express positive intentions to say good
things and buy the sponsors products. It could, therefore,
be proposed that marketers should work on finding ways to
raise the level of attendance among sport consumers and
creating positive sponsor image, in order to increase
sponsorship effectiveness. The key is to create a
marketing plan that can satisfy the needs of various
consumer clusters and thereby move user groups up the
sport consumer escalator. Conclusions are useful in both
scientific and applied level, since they advance the
knowledge base in the field of sponsorship evaluation and
sport consumers behavior.
References:
Kyle, G., Graefe, A., Manning, R. & Bacon, J. (2004). Predictors of
behavioural loyalty among hikers along the Appalachian Trail.
Leisure Sciences, 26, 99-118.
Madrigal, R. (2001). Social identity effects in a
beliefattitudeintentions hierarchy: implications for corporate
sponsorship. Psychology &Marketing, 18(2), 145165.
Meenaghan, T. (2001). Understanding sponsorship effects,
Psychology & Marketing, 18(2), 95-122.
Sengupta, J. & Fitzsimons, G.J. (2000). The effects of analyzing
reasons for brand preferences: disruption or reinforcement? Journal
of Marketing Research, 37, 318-330.
Tsiotsou, R. & Alexandris, K. (2009). Delineating the outcomes of
sponsorship. International Journal of Retail & Distribution
Management, 37(4), 358-369.
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THE RESURRECTION OF A BRAND:
THE NATIONAL HOCKEy LEAGUE (NHL)
Author:
Elena Radicchi
email:
e.radicchi@unifi.it
Co-authors:
James Santomier, Patrizia Zagnol
University:
University of Florence
Faculty:
Sport Management Lab
Abstract
Aim
In 2005, private equity firm Bain Capital Co. and Game
Plan International offered to purchase the entire U.S.-
based National Hockey League (NHL) for US$3.5 billion.
At the time the NHL was a perfect candidate for a
leveraged buyout (LBO). The abrupt cancellation of the
remainder of the 2004-2005 season put the leagues status
in question at a time when it was struggling to increase fan
support and sponsorship revenue. In addition, over a
period of nine years the League lost US$1.5 billion.
Although during this time revenues had increased 173
percent, labor costs increased 261 percent (Gross, 2005).
However, by 2009, the NHL had successfully managed to
reconnect with its core consumers, replaced ESPN with
Comcast as its primary media partner, revamped its
website (Pierce, 2009). By 2010, the NHL had posted its
fourth-consecutive year of growth with US$2.9 billion in
revenues (Badenhausen, Ozanian, & Settimi, 2010). It also
generated record TV ratings during the NHL Playoffs, had
a significant increase in usage across its digital platforms,
experienced a 66 percent increase in advertising and
sponsorship revenue, and played to 102 percent of arena
capacity during the post-season. The aim of this paper,
therefore, is to analyze how the National Hockey League
used digital technologies and social media marketing to
rebuild the NHL brand. Data and information were
gathered through a meta-analysis of technical reports,
current sport journals and publications, and NHL league
and team websites.
Practice Description
In July of 2006, at the forefront of the digital revolution in
sport worldwide, the NHL Board of Governors developed a
digital web initiative and hired Michael DiLorenzo as
Senior Director of Social Media Marketing and Strategy
and Business. The key rationale for this initiative was the
awareness that the NHLs fan-base had a majority of 16-34
year old well educated and relatively affluent males that
were digitally connected. Integration of emerging new
media platforms at the time, especially Web 2.0 (the
interactive Web), mobile technologies and rapid
development of social media enabled fans to interact with
each other and their favorite teams and players. In addition
to Comcast, the league developed additional content
distribution by: 1) enriching the NHL.com website with new
interactive elements; 2) developing social networking
opportunities on Facebook, Twitter, Foursquare, and
MySpace that enhanced fan experience with game-related
fan blogs, tweets, photos, and video; 3) creating an on
demand streaming service (NHL Gamecenter LIVE) to
distribute out-of-market games; 4) signing agreements with
Hulu, youTube, and other video and content sharing
websites; 5) introducing an online mobile service (NHL
Mobile) that allowed iPhone, BlackBerry and other 3G
smartphones to access news, scores, standings,
schedules, and statistics, as well as view live games,
highlights, and share photos. Be 2009-2010 season,
corporate sponsorships had increased 22 percent, and
revenue from large scale events such as the NHL Winter
Classic increased 22 percent. In addition, NHL.com
reached a new one day record of 1.6 million unique
visitors, sales at Shop.NHL.com increased 12 percent, and
ratings for broadcasts on Versus (Comcast) were up 20
percent.
Context Description/ Actors Involved
This case analysis provided insight into the NHLs
management decisions specifically with regard to its
understanding of how an integrated digital initiative could
become a crucial part of its core capabilities (Radicchi,
2007; Pralahad & Hamel, 1990) as well as executing a
new media strategy that created enhanced economic value
for the League and its teams. The NHL developed new
capabilities for effectively managing an integrated new
media strategy and for developing and sustaining a
competitive advantage by leveraging the Leagues content
across multiple digital platforms. The NHL also intensified
its partnership network with multimedia service providers,
new media distribution channels, and other technology
partners in order to maximize technological, distributive
and marketing opportunities.
Implications and Learning
The NHLs use of digital technology and social media
marketing strategies to rebuild its brand confirms the
importance of new media integration in the sport industry
and contributes to explaining how a professional sport
league, without a major cable TV contract, leveraged its
content effectively and enhanced the interactive
capabilities of its fans while expanding its consumer base.
Through the use of interactive and multimedia channels
such as HDTV, IPTV, mobile technologies, social media,
etc., the NHL revitalized its brand and increased its
revenues. It is clear that, at least for the NHL in the
immediate future, increased exposure and fan engagement
will maintain brand equity and keep its revenues on an
upward trend.
References:
Badenhausen K., Ozanian M.K., & Settimi C. (2010). Hockeys
most valuable teams. Forbes.com, December 1, 2010. Retrieved
12 January, 2011. Available at http://www.forbes.com.
Gross, D. (2005). The puck stops here. Slate.com. Retrieved 10
February, 2011. Available at http://www.slate.com.
Pierce, A. (2009). NHL: Brand resurrected. Marketing Daily,
February 16. Retrieved 20 February, 2009.
Available at http://www.MediaPost.com.
Radicchi E. (2007). Business Models in a New Media Context:
Comparing Four U.S. based Leagues, Doctoral Thesis, Universit
di Firenze, Giugno.
Zagnoli P., Radicchi E. (2010), Sport Marketing e Nuovi Media,
Franco Angeli, Milano.
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DEVELOPMENT OF A CONCEPTUAL
TEAM BRAND EQUITy MODEL FOR THE
yOUTH CONSUMER
Author:
Patrick Walsh
email:
ptwalsh@indiana.edu
Co-authors:
Antonio Williams
Jinwook Chung
Chad Witkemper
University:
Indiana University
Abstract
Introduction
As sport teams continue to examine ways to extend their
brand, impact revenue and create loyalty it is increasingly
important to understand the power of their brand. In
particular, teams must have knowledge of their overall
brand equity, what influences this equity, and the potential
outcomes associated with creating positive brand equity.
While this has been studied considerably in general
business and marketing literature, it is not until recently
that this has received some attention in sport literature. In
particular, advances have been made in the study of the
creation of brand equity in team sport. However, one area
which has not been considered is how brand equity may
differ among different segments of consumers.
Literature Review
A variety of conceptualizations of brand equity exist outside
of sport with the two most prominent attributed to Aaker
(1996) and Keller (1993). While the models vary, both
indicate that brand awareness and brand associations will
impact brand equity. Within sport there are also a handful
of models with the most commonly examined being the
team based brand equity model developed by Ross
(2006). This model suggests that there are a variety of
antecedents (e.g., organization, market and experience
induced) which impact brand equity. In turn, the creation of
equity will have a variety of consequences including the
ability of the team to create loyalty, gain media exposure,
and generate revenue. However, the model does not
indicate how it can be applied with different target
segments.
One such segment of the market which is important for
teams to reach is the youth segment. The youth consumer
continues to grow in terms of their knowledge of products,
brands and decision making strategies (Roedder-John,
1999). Research has indicated that the most important
development of consumer knowledge and skills occurs
between the ages of 7 and 11(Roedder-John). It is at this
point that children begin to develop loyalty towards brands
and have a more complex understanding of advertising
and branding. However, it has also been found that in
some instances children as young as five years of age
may develop loyalties towards sport teams (James, 2001).
As such, it is important to understand what may impact the
brand equity of youth consumers as they continue to
develop more sophisticated consumer skills.
Aim of Abstract
While Ross (2006) team brand equity model provides a
solid foundation for the study of brand equity in sport, more
study on how strong brands are created for professional
sport teams is needed. In addition, it is argued here that a
universal model of brand equity may not be sufficient to
fully understand team brand equity. In particular, different
demographics or target markets may have varying
antecedents which could impact team brand equity. In
addition, the outcomes associated with the development of
positive brand equity may be considerably different for
different groups of consumers. One such group is the
youth consumer. As such, a model is proposed which
outlines various antecedents of brand equity and potential
outcomes of building positive brand equity with this
segment.
Model Development
Utilizing an extensive review of literature on consumer
socialization of children and Ross (2006) team brand
equity model, a model which conceptualizes the
antecedents of team brand equity for the youth consumer
was developed. The antecedents which could impact brand
equity among this segment are grouped into three
categories (Family/Peer Groups, Cultural, and Market).
The family/peer group category includes parents, other
family members, friends/peers and social media
connections. Cultural influences include various social
norms which exist. Finally, the market related category
includes items such as media coverage, team success and
individual players/heroes. These categories will all combine
to impact team brand equity (i.e., awareness and
associations). The model also includes positive outcomes
specific to the youth sport consumer that may be realized
with the creation of positive brand equity including the
development of brand loyalty, ability to create youth fan
clubs and other youth focused marketing activities and
merchandising opportunities.
Discussion
The proposed conceptual model provides the first known
attempt to understand what may influence team brand
equity for youth consumers. It is different from previous
models in that it utilizes antecedents for a very specific
target market, as well as unique outcomes associated with
this market. This model will allow for future research and
examination into the study of brand equity for youth
consumers. While grounded in theory, future examination
should focus on empirically testing the models
assumptions in order to further develop the model as
needed.
References:
Aaker, D. (1996). Building strong brands. New york: Free Press.
James, J.D. (2001). The role of cognitive development and
socialization in the initial development of team loyalty. Leisure
Sciences, 23, 233-261.
Keller, K. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing
customer-based brand equity. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), 1-22.
Roedder-John, D. (1999). Consumer socialization of children: A
retrospective look at twenty-five years of research. Journal of
Ross, S.D. (2006). A conceptual framework for understanding
spectator-based brand equity. Journal of Sport Management, 20,
22-38.
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DEVELOPMENT OF A LEAGUE BRAND
ASSOCIATION MODEL
Author:
Thilo Kunkel
email:
t.kunkel@griffith.edu.au
Co-authors:
Daniel Funk, Grifftith University & Temple University
Brad Hill, Griffith University
University:
Griffith University
Faculty:
Griffith Business School
Abstract
Introduction
Professional sport leagues have developed a modern
brand management approach and been the subject of
rebranding strategies. For example, the UEFA Europa
League changed its structure and brand appearance
raising the profile of the competition making it more
appealing to consumers. Prior research (e.g., Gladden &
Funk, 2002; Ross, Russell, & Bang, 2008) has provided
team managers with brand association scales to measure
consumers perceptions allowing them to take appropriate
brand management actions, but have not applied this
approach to leagues. Kunkel, Funk and King (2009)
explored brand associations linked with sport leagues but
did not offer a multi-dimensional scale as a tool to properly
investigate sport league brands. The current research
addresses this gap and provides a league brand
association scale, which forms the basis for a league
brand association model.
Literature Review
Two models have previously examined the brand
associations linked with professional sport teams; The
Team Brand Association Scale (TBAS) (Ross, et al., 2008)
and the Team Association Model (TAM) (Gladden & Funk,
2002). The TBAS measured 11 associations linked with
professional sport teams whereas the TAM measured 16
team brand associations that were later used by Bauer,
Stokburger-Sauer and Exler (2008) demonstrating the TAM
s applicability to the German team sport setting.
Furthering these team investigations, Kunkel et al. (2009)
tested the applicability of 14 team brand associations as
league brand associations (LBA) in an exploratory study.
The authors confirmed that consumers also linked 12 team
brand associations with sport leagues. However, the
authors used single-item measures and did not capture the
entirety of brand associations consumers link with sport
leagues. Thus, the purpose of this research was twofold:
First, to provide a multi-dimensional league brand
association scale and second, to examine the higher order
structure of league brand associations.
Methods and Analysis
Quantitative investigation gathered information via an
online questionnaire testing consumers perceptions of
sport league brands. Online surveys were sent to fans of
four sport leagues in eight metropolitan areas in Australia.
Descriptive statistics and confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) were employed to investigate data of 368
respondents. CFA was conducted to estimate the
measurement model for the 39 scale items and 14
constructs. Once the measurement model was confirmed,
a league brand association model (LBAM) higher order
CFA for the 14 constructs and the two second-order
variables structure related associations (SRA) and non-
structure related associations (NSRA) was estimated.
Results
The results of the CFA revealed a good fit for the
measurement model. Factor loadings ranged from .70 to
.95 and the average variance extracted (AVE) by the latent
factors ranged from .62 to .82 with a mean of .71.
Goodness of fit indices indicated that the data supported
the model ( = 1172.40; df = 611; /df = 1.92; RMSEA =
.050; CFI = .94; TLI = .93; SRMR = .040). Results of the
higher order CFA also indicate a good fit. Factor loadings
ranged from .75 to .95 and the AVE for the SRA was .68
and for the NSRA was .75. Goodness of fit indices
indicated an acceptable fitting model ( = 1428.88; df =
687; /df = 2.08; RMSEA = .054; CFI = .93; TLI = .92;
SRMR = .052).
Discussion
Data suggested that a multi-dimensional scale of LBA can
be developed. Furthermore data revealed a higher order
structure of these associations existed, providing a LBAM.
First, the 14 dimensions represented consumers brand
perceptions of sport leagues. Second, the higher order
structure of these associations conceptualised league
brand associations as SRA and NSRA. SRA, represented
by Competitive Balance, Logo/Colours, Management and
Player Development were linked to the structure and brand
management of the league. NSRA, represented by
Diversion, Education, Game (Football) Representation,
Nostalgia, Performance, Rivalry, Socialisation, Star
Players, Specific Team and Tradition were linked to the
experience that the league consumption provides to the
consumers. These findings are similar to the benefits
identified in Gladden and Funk s TAM (2002).
Implications
This research extends prior research and contributes to
the knowledge on sport league consumers, providing a
LBAM. Utilising the LBAM, league managers could
measure their consumers perceptions with the league
brand to provide feedback on brand management and
marketing strategies and actions. Where SRA can provide
feedback on management strategies of the league, NSRA
can be used to market and promote certain aspects of the
league, such as certain rivalries or the social aspect linked
with the league. Furthermore, leagues could use the
LBAM to better understand how the league could help to
build team commitment.
References:
Bauer, H. H., Stokburger-Sauer, N. E., & Exler, S. (2008). Brand
image and fan loyalty in professional team sport: A refined model
and empirical assessment. Journal of Sport Management, 22(2),
205-226.
Gladden, J. M., & Funk, D. C. (2002). Developing an understanding
of brand associations in team sport: Empirical evidence from
consumers of professional sport. Journal of Sport Management,
16(1), 54-81.
Kunkel, T., Funk, D. C., & King, C. (2009). Consumer based brand
associations of professional sport leagues. Paper presented at the
Australian and New Zealand Marketing Conference, Melbourne
2009.
Ross, S. D., Russell, K. C., & Bang, H. (2008). An empirical
assessment of spectator-based brand equity. Journal of Sport
Management, 22(3), 322-337.
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USING SPORT STRATEGICALLy IN
HIGHER EDUCATION: A UNIVERSITy
SPORT STRATEGy
Author:
Guy Masterman
email:
g.masterman@shu.ac.uk
University:
Sheffield Hallam University
Faculty:
Academy of Sport & Physical Activity
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to consider the use of sport to
achieve University objectives and in particular to consider
the approach in that taken by Sheffield Hallam University.
Arguably the next few years will be the most challenging
yet for universities in England. The onset of a new student
fee paying system and the establishment of measures that
further promote the importance of the student experience
and employability will be critical factors in a highly
competitive arena. As a consequence, several universities
have recognised the important role sport can play in the
market positioning that will ensue, but in different ways.
Several universities have produced sport strategies.
For lead-in purposes, this paper will consider some of
those strategies, for example at the universities of Brunel,
Northumbria and East London. The focus will then be via
a case study on the formation of a sport strategy at
Sheffield Hallam University. A keener focus on sport was
sought by a number of players at the university for a
number of years, the emphasis was on the development of
facilities in particular but other views were in support of
elite programmes. In the summer of 2009 there was a call
for a more strategic approach and new personnel
appointments were made. This paper will consider the
organisational change and cultural shift that was then
managed to achieve a comprehensive strategy that was
proposed and subsequently adopted by the Vice
Chancellor, University Executive and Board of Governors,
all in a 9 month period. A University Sport Board now
exists and the key elements of the strategy are Facility
Development, Partnerships, Performance Athlete
Scholarships and in September 2011 a new Academy of
Sport and Physical Activity launches. The latter brings
together 3 top class research centres and a department of
sport for a 100+ academic staff strong business unit.
Amongst the significant investment in the University's
estate is a 10 year contract for the use of the world class
indoor facility, the English Institute of Sport Sheffield.
These elements all form a coherent approach for the
achievement of a set of University objectives that focus on
the following: increased student satisfaction, product image
and awareness for student recruitment, corporate image
and awareness for the University, regional and local
municipal external relations, and development of a national
contribution to sports provision. The challenges ahead are
significant and they highlight the importance of all these
areas of performance but what was important here is that
sport was identified as the strategic catalyst and at a key
time with sport figuring so highly in the public domain. The
strategies that are being implemented address a number
of areas, enhancement of student experience in sport
teaching, recreation and performance, development of
student employability via an increased number of sport
opportunities, growth in the recruitment of international and
postgraduate students, increased quality of students,
growth in research and knowledge transfer, and the
development of health and wellbeing across the University
community. An analysis of how this strategy addresses the
effective development of five key areas of University
business (taught sport programmes, sport research and
transfer of knowledge, performance sport, participation in
sport by all students and staff, and partnership work) will
be provided in this paper.
Whilst the results of this strategy are as yet unknown, the
result of successfully seeking support and buy-in to the
process of developing such a strategy makes an
interesting and useful case. Detailed insight into the
identification of the need for change management, cultural
shift strategies and political lobbying will be highlighted in
the paper. The analysis will show the importance of timing,
thorough situational evaluation and the attention required
to align to University objectives via an identification of key
players from across the University from marketing,
communications, research centres and facilities
departments as well as the University Executive. A key
outcome is how this identification and solicited buy-in took
a prescribed timing. This was a process that went through
many barriers from a base line of little support all the way
to adoption across the University and as such may offer
some insight and be of interest to others in higher
education wishing to undergo strategy making and in
particular sport strategy implementation.
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EFFECTS OF ENTRy FEES AND
ExTRINSIC REWARDS ON FANTASy
SPORT USERS WINNING CONFIDENCE
AND ANTICIPATED EMOTION
Author:
Joon Sung Lee
email:
joonslee@umich.edu
Co-authors:
Adam Rosenblum
Dae Hee Kwak (Advisor)(kwakd@umich.edu)
University:
University of Michigan
Faculty:
School of Kinesiology
Abstract
Introduction
In 2009, the Fantasy Sports Trade Association reported
nearly 30 million Americans participate in fantasy sports,
spending up to five billion dollars annually on related
products (e.g., subscriptions, software, and magazines,
etc.). Given the size, growth, and established profitability
of the industry, fantasy sport providers need to better
understand the implications of specific marketer-controlled
variables on fantasy sport consumption experience. The
current study focuses on two particularly relevant variables
that fantasy service providers consider as they design and
market their product: entry fees and extrinsic rewards.
From a consumer behavior perspective, this study aims to
examine the effects of entry fees and financial incentives
on fantasy sport users winning expectancy and
anticipated emotions.
Literature Review
While the fantasy sport industry has developed
dramatically over the past decades, researchers have
noted a distinct lack of theory-driven research in the field
(Davis & Duncan, 2006). Suh, Lim, Kwak, and Pedersen
(2010) found that economy (e.g., winning monetary
incentives) factor was one of several significant motives for
participating in fantasy sport. Similarly, Roy and Gross
(2007) contended that extrinsic rewards influence ones
decision to play fantasy sport. Burger and Schnerring
(1982) discovered that individuals are significantly more
susceptible to illusion of control (e.g., overestimation about
winning probability within chance-based events) when
there is an extrinsic reward. Their study implies that the
presence of an incentive might increase fantasy users
winning expectancy and the anticipated positive emotion in
turn. While research concerning fees in the fantasy sports
realm is limited, Dou (2004) found evidence of a free
mentality concerning internet content in general,
suggesting that most internet users are skeptical that pay
content is worth its price. However, at the same time, fees
might also intuitively signal a higher quality experience,
and thereby lead to greater confidence and more positive
emotional responses.
Based on the review of relevant literature, the current
study will examine the following hypotheses:
H1: The presence of extrinsic reward will have a positive
influence on winning expectancy and anticipated emotions.
H2: The presence of entry fee will have a positive influence
on winning expectancy and anticipated emotions.
Method
A 2 (entry fee: free-to-play/pay-to-play) by 2 (extrinsic
reward: present/absent) between-subjects design will be
employed to examine the proposed hypothesis. A pilot
study will be conducted to develop the stimuli (i.e., four
print advertisements to manipulate stimuli). Participants for
the main study will be recruited from undergraduate
students at a large Midwestern university in the United
States, and will be randomly assigned to one of four
treatment conditions: free-to-play/extrinsic reward, free-to-
play/no extrinsic reward, pay-to-play/extrinsic reward, and
pay-to-play/no extrinsic reward. Participants will view their
respective treatment advertisement before responding to
questionnaires asking their winning confidence and
anticipated emotion.
Outcome measures will include winning expectancy and
anticipated emotion; four items from Kwak and colleagues
(2010) will be applied to assess winning expectancy. In
addition, anticipated emotions will be assessed by seven
items for positive emotions (e.g., excited, delighted, happy,
glad, satisfied, proud, and self-assured) and ten items for
negative emotions (e.g., angry, frustrated, guilty, ashamed,
sad, disappointed, depressed, worried, uncomfortable, and
anxious) adapted from Bagozzi et al. (1998). All items will
be measured with seven point Likert type scales. The data
analysis will include descriptive analysis, reliability test,
validity test, and a set of ANCOVA using prior fantasy sport
experience as a covariate.
Expected Results and Discussion
Based on the literature, we expect participants in the
reward condition will exhibit greater levels of both winning
expectancy and anticipated emotions compared to
participants in the no reward condition. Similarly, the
presence of entry fee will increase the levels of both
outcome measures. Specifically, we predict the greatest
winning confidence and the most favorable anticipated
emotion levels from the pay-to-play/reward condition, while
the free-to-play/no reward condition would exhibit the least
winning confidence and the least favorable emotion levels.
We believe the current study will contribute to the sport
management literature by demonstrating the causation
between specific antecedents and participants emotional
outcomes and winning confidence in the popular online
sport phenomenon. In particular, the findings will provide
empirical evidence regarding the utility of marketer-
controlled factors in enhancing participants affective
responses. Additionally, this study has significant
pragmatic value for practitioners, as the results will allow
marketers to optimize their services to satisfy latent
desires of their target consumers by increasing positive
emotions and winning confidence.
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THE INTENSIFyING DEBATE OVER
AMBUSH MARKETING: SETTING THE
AGENDA FOR LONDON 2012
Author:
Cheri Bradish
email:
cbradish@brocku.ca
Co-authors:
Simon Chadwick
Steve McKelvey
University:
Brock University
Faculty:
Sport Managemenet
Abstract
From the inception of the term ambush marketing at the
1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, through the 1990s, the
debate surrounding the practice was relatively limited in
scope. The Olympic Movement defined ambush marketing
as a parasitic practice and sought to combat the practice
primarily with name and shame campaigns (Payne,
1998), while some academicians argued that such
activities were part of the normal cut and thrust of
business (Meenaghan, 1996). Research studies initially
focused primarily on the first-level effects of ambush
marketing upon consumer recall (Lyberger & McCarthy,
2001; McDaniel & Kinney, 1998; Sandler & Shani, 1989;
Shani & Sandler, 1998); debate over the ethical nature of
ambush marketing (OSullivan & Murphy, 1998); and
research into the legal issues surrounding the practice
(Bean, L. 1995; Hoek & Gendall, 2002; McKelvey, 1994)
However, with each successive Olympic Games in the new
millennium, the Olympic Movement has intensified efforts
to fortify itself from ambush. In addition to racheting up its
rhetoric against the practice, the Olympic Movement has
internally created extensive legal and marketing
departments solely dedicated to policing ambush
marketing (Bradish et al., 2010). In addition, it has
enhanced its legal arsenal by, among other things,
mandating that host countries enact special-event
legislation designed to limit the ability of non-sponsor
companies and individuals to associate with the Games
(McKelvey & Grady, 2008; Seguin & OReilly, 2008).
Such strategies are triggering fresh debate over ambush
marketing in both academia and industry, a debate
expected to reach a heretofore unseen intensity with the
London 2012 Olympics Games. Recent academic research
has expanded the inquiry to include issues such as: a
redefining of ambush marketing (Chadwick & Burton,
2009); assessment of official sponsors concerns over
ambush marketing (Seguin & OReilly, 2008); analysis of
the impact of name and shame campaigns (Humphreys
et al., 2010); and the justification for special-event
legislation (Grady, McKelvey & Bernthal, 2009).
Given these and other emerging research streams, this
presentation sets the agenda and frames the intensifying
debate in advance of the London 2012 Games from four
perspectives: 1) management; 2) law and ethics; 3)
marketing, and 4) governmental policy. For each of these
areas, the presentation addresses a series of issues and
make proposals for potential future research in the field of
ambushing.
A sampling of management-related issues that warrant
academic and practitioner analysis include:
- Management culture of enforcement versus education
- Effectiveness of dedicated ambush marketing
departments
- IOCs control over host country NGBs and their ability to
generate revenues for the long-term
- The impact of the IOC and Host Organization
Committees relationship with local government
- The Olympic Movements responsibility to its official
sponsors
- Internal techniques for monitoring and policing ambush
marketing
- How the manner in which ambushing is
controlled/monitored/policed impacts upon brand equity,
the nature of public relations, corporate image, etc.
A sampling of the intersection of law and ethics includes
the following:
- Effectiveness of the London Olympic Games and
Paralympic Games Acts (the Act) in closing ambush
marketing loopholes (e.g., thematic advertising, social
media platforms)
- The Acts potential impact on commercial and civil rights
- Judicial interpretation of the Act in event of lawsuits
- The Acts impact upon UKs Advertising Standards
Authority (ASA)
- The Acts limited application to ambush marketing
activity outside UK
- Is ambush marketing an ethical practice?
- Is it ethical for event owners and official sponsors to
deter ambushers?
Marketing-related issues include the following:
- Extent to which the Act and other tactics will deter
ambush marketing
- Extent to which the Act will be enforced at venue
locations/entrances
- Impact of social media on ambush marketing activity
- Effectiveness of LOCOGs website information that
provides examples of dos and donts
- Impact of publicly chastising ambush marketers
- Level of consumers/local business knowledge about
ambush marketing
- Impact of anti-ambush marketing tactics on consumer
perceptions of Olympic brand
- Role and impact of the media in covering the topic of
ambush marketing
- Official sponsors perception of ambush marketing
Finally, the governmental policy inquiry includes the
following:
- The appropriate role of government in preventing
Olympic ambush marketing
- Issues relating to the influence and power of different
stakeholders in the ambushing equation emanating
from the mandated requirement of special-event
legislation
References:
Bean, L. (1995). Ambush marketing: Sports sponsorship confusion
and the Lanham Act. Boston University Law Review, 1099-1134.
Bradish, C., McKelvey, S, & Schmidt, A., Protecting or policing:
Examining brand protection, ambush marketing and the Vancouver
2010 Winter Olympic Games. 18th Annual European Sport
Management (EASM) Conference (Prague, September 19, 2010).
Chadwick, S. & Burton, N. (2009). Ambush marketing in sport: An
analysis of sponsorship protection means and counter-ambush
measures, Journal of Sponsorship, 2(4), 303-315.
Grady, J., McKelvey, S. & Bernthal, M. (2010). From Beijing 2008
to London 2012: Examining Event-Specific Olympic Legislation Vis
Vis the Rights and Interests of Stakeholders. Journal of
Sponsorship, 3(2), 1-13.
Hoek, J. & Gendall, P. (2002). Ambush marketing: more than just a
commercial irritant? Entertainment Law, 1(2), 72-91.
Humphreys, M.S., Cornwell, T.B., McAlister, A., Kelly, S., Quinn, E.,
& Murray, K. (2010). Journal of Experimental Psychology, 16(1), 96-
108.
Lyberger, M. & McCarthy, L. (2001). An assessment of consumer
knowledge of, interest in, and perceptions of ambush marketing
strategies. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10(2), 130-137.
McDaniel, S. & Kinney, L. (1998). The implications of recency and
gender effects ion consumer response to ambush marketing.
Psychology & Marketing, 15(4), 385-403.
McKelvey, S. & Grady, J. (2008). Sponsorship program protection
strategies for special sport events: Are event organizers
outmaneuvering ambush marketers? Journal of Sport
Management, 22(5), 550-586.
McKelvey, S. (1994). Atlanta 96: Olympic countdown to ambush
armageddon? Seton Hall Journal of Sport Law, 4(2), 397-445.
Meenaghan, T. (1996). Ambush marketing A threat to corporate
sponsorship. Sloan Management Review, 38, 103-113.
OSullivan & Murphy, P. (1998). Ambush marketing: the ethical
issues. Psychology & Marketing, 15(4), 349-366.
Payne, M. (1998). Ambush marketing: the undeserved advantage.
Psychology and Marketing, 15(4), 323-331.
Sandler, D. & Shani, D. (1989). Olympic sponsorship vs. ambush
marketing: Who gets the gold? Journal of Advertising Research,
29(4), 9-14.
Seguin, B. & OReilly, N.J. (2008). The Olympic brand, ambush
marketing and clutter. International Journal of Sport Management
and Marketing, 4(1), 62-84.
Shani, D. & Sandler, D. (1998). Ambush marketing: Is confusion to
blame for the flickering of the flame? Psychology & Marketing,
15(4), 367-383.
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AN ExAMINATION OF CONSUMER
PERCEPTIONS AND OLyMPIC
MARKETING PROGRAMS: THE
VANCOUVER 2010 WINTER OLyMPIC
GAMES
Author:
David Legg
email:
dlegg@mtroyal.ca
Co-authors:
Cheri Bradish, (Brock University)
Chris Chard, (Brock University)
Eric MacIntosh, (University of Ottawa)
John Nadeau, (Nipissing University)
Norm OReilly, (U. of Ottawa)
Benoit Seguin, (U. of Ottawa)
David Stotlar, (U. of N. Colorado)
University:
Mount Royal University
Faculty:
Physical Education and Recreation Studies
Abstract
The Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic Games serves as a
most current and unique means to examine the
complexities and effectiveness of Olympic marketing
programs. Specifically, the Vancouver Organizing
Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter
Games (VANOC) is credited for achieving important
marketing benchmarks and accomplishments during the
2010 Games including the generation of over $750
million (CDN dollars) in domestic sponsorship revenue,
partnerships with over 75 national corporations (VANOC,
2010) and landmark Olympic broadcast, licensing and
ticketing revenues and as such, corresponding consumer
interest, perception and consumption of these activities is
of paramount interest and concern. Also of important
marketing priority and a consumer factor to be examined is
the corresponding brand protection legislation under the
umbrella of VANOCs Commercial Rights Management
programme, which was enacted for the 2010 Games
against ambush marketing and other unauthorized
associations with the 2010 Games, and was in turn
interpreted accordingly by VANOC and IOC for related
marketing policies. Of interest to this study then, is to, as
a follow-up to previous research, further interpret the
effectiveness of Olympic Marketing Programs, as assessed
by consumer perceptions, specifically, as a case
examination of the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. Further
research has revealed high levels of confusion among
Olympic consumers (Lyberger & McCarthy, 2001; Seguin,
Lyberger, OReilly & McCarthy, 2005; Shani & Sandler,
1998; Stotlar, 1994) and thus, a call for further research
here is warranted.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine
consumer perception of the distinguish-ability regarding
the increasing complex Olympic Marketing Programs,
specifically the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic Games,
and to determine actual consumer consumption is
measured and affected by these Program characteristics.
In addition, this study will reveal Olympic consumer
insights as well as industry implications for global sport
marketing management.
Objectives
The intent of this study was to further contribute to the
body of Olympic marketing research by identifying
consumer perceptions of Olympic Marketing Programs in
general and with regard to the 2010 Winter Olympic
Games in particular. This study was part of an ongoing
collaboration of an international group of academics doing
research in this area pre-during and post the 2010 Winter
Olympic Games.
Methods
The Consumer Perception Index (CPI) was utilized as a
means to measure consumer interest, awareness, and
intent to purchase in five (5) metropolitan areas through
North America during the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic
Games. The CPI is a five-part questionnaire containing 45
items previously developed and tested to assess
perceptions of Olympic marketing and sponsorship
activities including advertising, ambushing,
commercialization, as well as measures Olympic consumer
perceptions of interest, knowledge, and purchase
behaviour (OReilly, Lyberger, McCarthy, Seguin and
Nadeau, 2008). The questionnaire was made available in
both of Canadas official languages French and English.
Approximately 1,200 surveys were collected, using the
mall-intercept technique. Selective random procedures
were implemented to ensure heterogeneity of the sample.
Data was analyzed using SPSS 16.0.
Implications and Conclusion
An examination of the consumer marketing perceptions
regarding the Marketing Programs association with the
2010 Winter Olympic Games will be revealed. The
presentation of the research project will provide important
information and implications to the Olympic Movement and
Olympic Marketing in particular, and will be couched within
important implications for global sport marketing in general.
This presentation will also serve as a forum for the
discussion of the importance and need for greater related
research in the field and build upon a prior presentation at
the 2010 EASM Conference in Prague where the
introduction for this study was first presented.
References:
Lyberger, M., & McCarthy, L. (2001). An assessment of consumer
knowledge of, interest in, and perceptions of ambush marketing
strategies. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10(2), 130-137.
OReilly, N., Lyberger, M., McCarthy, L., Seguin, B., and Nadeau, J.
(2008). Mega-Special-Event Promotions and Intent-to-Purchase: A
Longitudinal Analysis of the Super Bowl, Journal of Sport
Management, 22(4), 392-409.
Seguin, B., Lyberger, M., OReilly, N., & McCarthy, L. (2005).
Internationalizing ambush marketing: The Olympic brand and
country of origin, International Journal of Sport Sponsorship and
Marketing, 6(4), 216-230.
Shani, D & Sandler, D.M. (1998). Ambush marketing: Is confusion
to blame for the flickering of the flame? Psychology & Marketing,
15(4), 367-383.
Stotlar, D.K. (1994). Sponsorship and the Olympic winter games.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 2(1), 35-43.
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OLyMPIC AMBUSH MARKETING AND
NEW MEDIA
Author:
John Grady
email:
jgrady@mailbox.sc.edu
Co-authors:
Brown, Matthew T.
Nurkin, Alex
Gillentine, Andy
University:
University of South Carolina
Faculty:
Department of Sport & Entertainment Management
Abstract
Aim of the paper
Sport consumers continue to embrace new ways to
interact with global sporting events, such as through social
media sites and using mobile technology. Simultaneously,
the Olympic media environment and resulting sponsorship
opportunities are also changing rapidly. During the Beijing
Olympic Games, for example, 15 percent of viewers used
mobile devices to watch the Games. Just 18 months later,
as mobile usage became more mainstream, that number
rose to 27 percent in Vancouver (Kaplan, 2010). The
Vancouver Olympics also experienced phenomenal growth
with 1.2 million app users (Kaplan, 2010). This paper uses
examples of marketing campaigns from the 2010
Vancouver Games and upcoming 2012 London Games to
discuss the legal challenges and sponsorship opportunities
resulting from increased uses of new media, specifically
mobile technology. The paper also analyzes the impact of
new media on the practice of ambush marketing. New
media presents a unique platform for promotion that
offers direct access to, and interaction with, consumers
(Sguin, 2010). Through discussion of the legal and sport
marketing issues, a balanced perspective informed by
scholarly and industry sources will shed light on the role of
new media in Olympic sponsorship protection.
Description of the practice
The practice of using new media (i.e., the amalgamation of
social media, computer-enabled consumer devices and the
Internet, as well as traditional media) as a vehicle for
ambush marketing poses an increasing area of concern for
organizers and sponsors of global sporting events. Current
ambush tactics seem resilient to well-established brand
protection strategies (Grady & Bernthal, 2011). This is due,
in part, to the convergence of technological advancements,
shifting cultural norms in peoples communication
preferences, and blurring the lines between online and
mobile content with regard to how fans access content
generated by and around global sporting events. As a
result, the brand protection issues that sponsors and
sports properties must now protect against are changing
and as fan bases go digital, not enough brands are
adjusting to the new challenges (CMO Council, 2010, p.
1). In fact, a recent survey of sport marketers revealed that
25% do not have a brand protection plan in place for digital
media ambushes (CMO Council, 2010).
A confounding factor is that a majority of ambush
marketing incidents skirt the legal restrictions by avoiding
use of the events registered trademarks. While most
ambush marketing activity is not technically illegal, the
potential impact on the sponsorship environment can be
substantial. For example, while VANOC reported less
ambush activity than at previous Olympics, Canadas
Olympic protection legislation had little effect in stopping
high-profile ambush incidents. Research by Sguin (2010)
revealed that Canadian National Olympic Partners were
seemingly split over the value of the special legislation with
most value seen as a deterrent to ambush activity rather
than a remedy.
As Olympic sponsors search for new ways to utilize
technology to forge deeper connections with consumers,
they must ensure that their objectives are strategically
blended within the sponsors brand (Sguin, 2010). The
future of the Olympic movement will depend on online and
mobile audiences, and how well organizers and sponsors
learn to use those media (Brands preparing, 2011, p. 1).
Creative participation of contributors, interactive user
feedback, the creation of user-generated content, and
community formation around exclusive media content
provide novel applications to enhance existing Olympic
sponsorship relationships.
Implications and Learning
Numerous opportunities exist to integrate the use of mobile
technology into sponsorship activation plans at global
sporting events. The challenge for sport marketers,
particularly with regard to ambush marketing, is
understanding how the on-demand nature of mobile
technology can help break through the cluttered
sponsorship environment (Sguin, 2010). While mobile
technology provides a promising avenue to better
activation, success in using this technology also requires
getting ahead of the technology curve as mobile
applications advance and sport consumers rely on popular
social media sites, mobile media, and traditional media
sources. Furthermore, as event organizers seek to own the
conversation surrounding the event, sponsors must find
new ways to creatively engaging with their audience so
that the potential for and value of ambush activity is
minimized.
References:
Brands preparing for marketing strategies for Olympics 2012.
(2011, April 7). The Economic Times. Retrieved March 3, 2011,
from http://m.economictimes.com/PDAET/articleshow/msid-
3409662,curpg-2.cms
CMO Council. (2010, September 28). Ambush sports marketing
major concern, but many have no defense. Retrieved April 1, 2011,
from http://www.nysportsjournalism.com/ambush-marketing-gets-
nasty-91/
Grady, J. & Bernthal, M. (2011, March). Ambush marketing and
social media: The new frontier. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the Sport and Recreation Law Association, Savannah,
GA.
Kaplan, D. (2010, July 20). NBCUs Alan Wurtzel on mobile phone
and content use. Retrieved April 3, 2011, from
http://paidcontent.org/article/419-paidcontent-mobile-nbcus-alan-
wurtzel-on-mobile-phone-and-content-use/
Sguin, B. (2010). Sponsorship and ambush marketing: Vancouver
2010. Retrieved March 20, 2011, from
www.idrett.no/tema/internasjonalt/Documents/sponsorship.pdf
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A PRE-GAMES EVALUATION OF THE
IMAGE IMPACT OF THE 2012 LONDON
OLyMPICS
Author:
James Kenyon
email:
J.A.Kenyon@lboro.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Bodet, Guillaume
University:
Faculty:
Institute of Sport and Leisure Policy
Abstract
Along with the World Cup, the Olympics is widely
considered to be the most lucrative and sought-after mega-
event for governments worldwide, and have thus been
described as the the ultimate accolade that a city can earn
on the world stage (Gold & Gold, 2007: p. 320). For the
host, they represent an opportunity to achieve urban and
environmental renewal, to boost local and national
economies and attract investment, to increase tourism, to
present or reinforce local culture and identity, and, to
achieve international prominence and/or national prestige
through place marketing or even sporting success. A major
strategic component in achieving what can be considered
a successful Olympics is the image of host-city, in which
mega-events provide an ideal opportunity to present the
character and culture of the host and work to enhance its
domestic and global reputation. There are, however,
relatively few studies that deal specifically with the effects
of mega-events and the image impact of host countries
and cities (Florek et al., 2008).
The main purpose of this project is to evaluate the image
impact of hosting 2012 Olympics, pre and post Games, for
the city of London, with this part of the project representing
the pre-Games assessment. In doing so, this project will
investigate the perceptions, beliefs and opinions of the
British population concerning the image of London and the
impact that the 2012 Olympics will have on its domestic
standing.
Broadly speaking, mega-events facilitate and are facilitated
by the communication of selected images by the host-city,
concerning its unique character, to millions worldwide -
approximately 40 billion for the 2004 Games (Horne,
2007). Thus, host-cities often engage in aggressive and
elaborate place branding and marketing schemes to
communicate positive perceptions concerning its image.
With regard to place, image, as described by Baloglu and
McCleary (1999, p. 870), can be thought of as an
attitudinal construct consisting of an individual's mental
representation of knowledge (beliefs), feelings, and global
impression about [a] destination, and with this in mind, it is
widely accepted that mega-events can have a significant
effect on the formation, re-formation and development of
image, as previous Olympics have demonstrated. For
developed and developing countries alike, the competition
to host mega-events is becoming increasingly fierce
(Shoval, 2002) as they are considered to be valuable
promotional opportunities for [places] to showcase their
attractions to global audiences and help attract tourism
and outside investment (Horne, 2007, p. 83). Furthermore,
for domestic audiences, successful and well-run mega-
events can serve to legitimise project and government
leaders, but perhaps more importantly, can serve to
transform the internal perceptions of a place, for example,
with Manchester hosting the 2002 Commonwealth Games,
and, more recently, Liverpools 2008 designation as the
European Capital of Culture.
The main aim of this part of the research project is to
evaluate the image of London, the Olympics and 2012
London Games among British people, one year prior to the
start of the Games. There being no explicit terms of
measurement for a citys image, it has proven to be a
difficult concept to measure in the past. This study is
underpinned by theoretical-methodological social
representation theory, in which representations are
organised around a central nucleus in this case, image.
That is, this project will seek to determine whether there is
a transfer of associations from the Olympics social
representation to the city of London's social representation,
among the domestic population. To achieve this, this
research will employ snowball sampling and utilise both
quantitative and qualitative data supporting a critical-
realist perspective gleaned from a questionnaire that will
be conducted throughout the summer of 2011, and
analysed before the conference. The questionnaire is
comprised of questions measuring personal
characteristics, demographic information, sport
participation and level of engagement (quantitative) and
randomised free word-association tasks (qualitative) using
London, the Olympics and 2012 London Olympics as
inductor terms. From the word-association tasks, social
representations will be constructed, around the central
nucleus (image), from identifying the most common
connections between items, and the strengths of those
connections.
London already benefits from its standing as a thriving
international city, and therefore, any positive impacts on its
image, following the 2012 Olympics, may be minimal
(Shoval, 2002), and the Games may, in fact, negatively
impact upon the citys image. Additionally, at this
preliminary stage of the research project, the knowledge
produced will inform Olympics organisers, policy-makers
and marketers as to the level of British participation and
engagement before the Games. The results of this study,
consequently, are expected to contribute to the literature
on place image.
References:
Baloglu, S. & McCleary, K. (1999). A Model of Destination Image
Formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26, pp. 868 897.
Florek, M., Breitbarth, T. & Conejo, F. (2008). Mega Event = Mega
Impact? Travelling Fans Experience and Perceptions of the 2006
FIFA World Cup Host Nation. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 13(3),
pp.199-219.
Gold, J. R. & Gold, M. (2007). Afterword . In J. R. Gold & M. Gold
(Eds.). Olympic Cities: City Agendas, Planning, and the World
Games, 1896-2012 (pp. 318 - 320). London: Routledge.
Horne, J. (2007). The Four Knowns of Sports Mega-Events. Leisure
Studies, 26(1), pp. 81-96.
Shoval, N. (2002). A New Phase in the Competition for Olympics
Gold: London and New york Bids for the 2012 Games. Journal of
Urban Affairs, 24(5), pp. 583-599.
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SPONSORSHIP GOALS AND
ACTIVATION IN THE NATIONAL HOCKEy
LEAGUE
Author:
Artemisia Apostolopoulou
email:
apostolopoulou@rmu.edu
Co-authors:
Gayso, Brian Apostolopoulou, Artemisia
University:
Robert Morris University
Faculty:
Sport Management / Marketing
Abstract
AIM OF PAPER
The purpose of the present study was to examine
sponsorship goals and activation initiatives of four
corporations investing in sponsorship agreements at
different levels with a US-based National Hockey League
(NHL) franchise. Given the relative scarcity of literature
focusing specifically on sponsorship activation, this study
aims to make contributions to sport marketing theory and
practice.
Corporate sponsorship has become a strategic tool
allowing companies to reach desired consumer groups,
achieve an advantage over their competition, and
ultimately grow their business (Meenaghan, 1998). Sport
properties are the largest platforms for sponsorships with
sport sponsorship spending reaching $8.31 billion in 2005
in the United States alone (Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2007).
Because of this, it is important to ensure that sponsorship
agreements are beneficial for both the sport property and
the sponsoring company. Keys in achieving this are the
existence of clearly defined, measurable sponsorship
objectives and the investment in a well designed and well
executed sponsorship activation plan (Lee & Cho, 2009;
Olkkonen, 2001; Papadimitriou, Apostolopoulou, & Dounis,
2008).
Sponsorship activation refers to ?any activity that is
performed in conjunction with the sport sponsorship that
requires resources above and beyond those provided within
the sponsorship package? (Irwin, Sutton, & McCarthy,
2008, p. 192). Companies can choose to activate their
sponsorships in a variety of ways, including advertisements
during televised events, on-site signage, contests for on-site
and/or media consumers, and sales promotions (Bennett,
Ferreira, Lee, & Fritz, 2009; Papadimitriou &
Apostolopoulou, 2009). In order to turn the sponsorship into
a long-term competitive advantage, a company must fully
integrate the sponsorship throughout the company?s
marketing mix (Amis, Slack, & Berrett, 1999; Farrelly,
Quester, & Burton, 1997).
METHODOLOGy
Semi-structured depth interviews were conducted with
sponsorship executives from four corporations that have
invested in sponsorship partnerships at different levels with
a US-based NHL franchise. The four corporations
represent the dining, clothing, food, and beverage
industries. The purpose of the interviews was to gather
information on each sponsor?s investment, their goals for
this partnership, as well as the strategies and tactics
through which they activated their sponsorship agreement.
Moreover, one team representative in charge of servicing
all four accounts was interviewed in an effort to
supplement the information received by each corporation
but also to assess the team?s approach to their
sponsorship program. Interviews were conducted in
September and October 2010.
RESULTS
Each interview was recorded and later transcribed. Data
generated from the interviews were content analyzed,
guided by themes offered in the sport sponsorship
literature.
In terms of the corporations? goals for their sponsorship
investments, those included increasing sales, raising brand
visibility and recognition levels, particularly among target
consumers, becoming involved in the community and
exhibiting local pride, and rewarding company employees.
Those goals are consistent with existing literature on
sponsor motives and goals (e.g., Abratt, Clayton, & Pitt,
1987; Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriou, 2004). Interestingly,
no difference was noted in the stated goals based on the
corporations? level of investment.
Three of the four corporations-sponsors revealed that they
invested additional funds in activating their sponsorship
agreements. (The fourth corporation declined to disclose
that information.) The sponsorship agreements examined
in this study were activated mainly through coupons, in-
arena signage, advertisements in game programs, team
programs (e.g., student ticket program), hospitality options,
and contests.
[Upon acceptance of this abstract, additional information
on the profile of each corporation-sponsor, their
sponsorship portfolio, benefits received as part of this
agreement, as well as their activation budget will be
presented. Those were not included in this abstract due to
word limit constraints.]
DISCUSSION/IMPLICATIONS
Given the levels of investment made not only to secure but
also to activate a sponsorship agreement, it is crucial that
corporations receive substantial return on their investment
and on the objectives set forth for each agreement. Sport
organizations should provide their corporate partners-
sponsors with relevant benefits and propose activation
initiatives based on sponsors? individual goals and
objectives. Utilizing advertising, signage, sales promotions,
and hospitality programs can prove effective in leveraging
sponsorship rights. Furthermore, a well designed and well
executed sponsorship activation plan can address
concerns about sponsorship discontinuation due to lack of
activation (e.g., Irwin et al., 2008), ultimately contributing to
a sport organization?s financial health.
References:
Abratt, R., Clayton, B.C., & Pitt, L.F. (1987). Corporate objectives in
sports sponsorship. International Journal of Advertising, 6, 299-311.
Amis, J., Slack, T., & Berrett, T. (1999). Sport sponsorship as
distinctive competence. European Journal of Marketing, 33, 250-
272.
Apostolopoulou, A., & Papadimitriou, D. (2004). "Welcome Home":
Motivations and objectives of the 2004 Grand National Olympic
sponsors. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 13, 180-192.
Bennett, G., Ferreira, M., Lee, J., & Polite, F. (2009). The role of
involvement in sports and sport spectatorship in sponsor's brand
use: The case of Mountain Dew and action sports sponsorship.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 18, 14-24.
Farrelly, F.J., Quester, P.G., & Burton, R. (1997). Integrating sports
sponsorship into the corporate marketing
function: An international comparative study. International Marketing
Review, 14, 170-182.
Irwin, R.L., Sutton, W.A., & McCarthy, L.M. (2008). Sport promotion
and sales management (2nd Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Lee, H., & Cho, C. (2009). The matching effect of brand and
sporting event personality: Sponsorship implications. Journal of
Sport Management, 23, 41.
Meenaghan, T. (1998). Current developments & future directions in
sponsorship. International Journal of
Advertising, 17, 3-28.
Mullin, B.J., Hardy, S., & Sutton, W.A. (2007). Sport marketing (3rd
Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Olkkonen, R. (2001). Case study: The network approach to
international sport sponsorship arrangement. The
Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 16, 309-329.
Papadimitriou, D., & Apostolopoulou, A. (2009). Olympic
sponsorship activation and the creation of competitive advantage.
Journal of Promotion Management, 15, 90-117.
Papadimitriou, D., Apostolopoulou, A., & Dounis, T. (2008). Event
sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands. The Journal of
Product and Brand Management, 17, 212.
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPONSORSHIP
AWARENESS OVER TIME
Author:
Merel Walraven
email:
m.walraven@fontys.nl
Co-authors:
Koning, Ruud Bijmolt, Tammo
University:
Fontys University of Applied Sciences
Abstract
Aim of the Study
Sponsorships have been evolving from short term,
philanthropic activities into long term strategic partnerships
during the last decades (Farrelly, Quester & Burton, 2006).
Moreover, sponsorship investments have been subject to
an extraordinary growth rate (Cornwell, 2008). However,
compared to for example academic research on
advertising and pricing, empirical research on the effects of
sponsorship remains less developed (Crompton, 2004).
As Fahy, Farrelly and Quester (2004) argue, nowadays
sponsorships are expected to have long term effects and
as such, typically involve long term contracts, on average
three to five years. Still there is little insight in the effects of
sponsorship duration on consumers responses to the
sponsorship. Therefore, the aim of the current study is to
investigate how sponsorship awareness develops over
time. Sponsorship awareness is generally viewed as a
critical measure in assessing sponsorship effectiveness
(e.g. Johar, Pham, & Wakefield, 2006; Wakefield, Becker-
Olsen, & Cornwell, 2007).
Research Design
We examined sponsorship recall and recognition in a
multiple year, international context, namely sponsorship of
the UEFA Champions League, a major European soccer
competition for club teams with worldwide exposure. Data
for this research have been gathered by a market research
agency every half year in December (halfway the season)
and May (end of season). Data collection took place from
December 2005 until December 2009 in five European
countries with a large population of soccer fans (France,
Italy, The Netherlands, Spain and United Kingdom). The
sponsorship in question started officially in the 2005-2006
season. The research population consists of people aged
18 years and older. Through an online panel, a sample has
been composed including 400-650 respondents per
country every half year. The samples per country are
demographically similar. Respondents participating in one
wave been excluded for the next two years so the data can
be treated as multiple cross-sections. In total the dataset
consisted of 25288 cases.
We designed a logit model to predict individual correct
sponsor identification for one of the main sponsors of the
league. Our primary concern was investigating the
influence of sponsorship duration and national sportive
success. Moreover, we included several control variables
as predictors. These involve the previously investigated
variables individual involvement with the event,
involvement with the sports category (soccer) and
perceived fit. Furthermore, we included several individual
characteristics, that is, consumption of the product
category, consumption of brand x, country of origin,
education level, age and gender.
Results
The results of the logit model for sponsor recall can be
found in table 1. The analysis for sponsorship recognition
resulted in similar outcomes. The findings offer a number
of valuable insights. Most importantly, we found a positive
impact of sponsorship duration on sponsorship awareness
levels. The largest increase in sponsorship identification
occurred in the second season of sponsorship, whereas
the growth rate tails off slightly in the years after (though
the probability of recall still increased slightly during the
period of measurement). This finding is of interest because
it provides a solid argument for signing multiple year
sponsorship contracts. These findings would imply that a
sponsorship project would need to last a minimum of two
years, but preferably longer to maximise recall levels.
Another interesting, perhaps somewhat surprising, finding
is the small but negative effect of sportive success on the
probability of correct sponsor recall. We argue that this
finding might be the result of distraction from the sponsor
message in matches that are more as opposed to less
exciting, assuming that when a national club is performing
well, matches are perceived as more exciting.
This study supports prior work on sponsorship awareness
confirming the importance of several explaining factors. In
particular, perceived fit, consumer involvement with the
event and consumers consumption of the sponsoring
brand are found to be important predictors of sponsorship
awareness.
The results of the logit analysis show great differences
between countries of origin in consumers ability to identify
sponsors. Compared to an individual from The Netherlands
and Spain, someone from France, United Kingdom or Italy
seems significantly less likely to correctly identify brand x
as a sponsor of UEFA Champions League. Differences in
awareness by country may reflect variation in the
composition of the marketing communications environment
and in the level of competition by home brands. The
results would imply that varying levels of sponsorship
leverage between countries can be a proper strategy for
sponsors because it may take more effort in one country
than in another to gain sponsorship awareness. It would
therefore be valuable to investigate the influence of
country-specific factors further.
References:
Fahy, J., Farrelly, F., & Quester, P. G. (2004). Competitive
advantage through sponsorship. European Journal of Marketing,
38(8), 1013-1030.
Johar, G. V., Pham, M. T., & Wakefield, K. L. (2006). How event
sponsors are really identified: a (baseball) field analysis. Journal of
Advertising Research, 46(2), 183-198.
Wakefield, K. L., Becker-Olsen, K., & Cornwell, T. B. (2007). I spy a
sponsor. Journal of Advertising, 36(4), 61-74.
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RED BULL VERSUS COCA COLA SPORT
SPONSORSHIP FROM A SPONSORS
PERSPECTIVE
Author:
Inken Hillnhagen
email:
hillnhai@uni.coventry.ac.uk
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Business School/Sport and Event Management
Abstract
In 2010, 18.2 billion US-$ were spent on sponsoring in
North America of which 68 per cent are spent on sport
sponsoring, by far the leading form of sponsoring (Streng
2010). The area of Sport Sponsorship is immensely
important in the sport business. In the major sport leagues
sponsorship makes up at least a third of the overall
turnover (Ludwig and Schneider 2010). However, the way
in which sport sponsorship is dealt with has changed
dramatically in recent years. The time where a sponsor just
kindly signed a contract to support the local club is gone,
especially when it comes to global operating organizations.
On the one hand companies are willing to spend more on
sport sponsorship. On the other hand they want to gain
more in return. In 2010, 63.7 per cent of the companies
have a written strategic and operational planning before
starting the sponsorship (Hermanns and Bschner
2010).The question that occurs is therefore how
companies strategically plan their sponsorship activities. To
respond to this question, this paper analyses the
sponsorship strategy of two major sponsors from the
beverage industry, Coca Cola and Red Bull.
Coca Cola is the best known brand in the world and was
one of the first sponsors in sport in the early 20th century.
Red Bull is a new company which is highly involved in
sport sponsorship. Their approaches however are different.
While Coca-Cola is investing huge amounts to sponsors
majors events with a global reach, such as the Olympic
Games or the FIFA World Cup, Red Bull initially invested in
lesser known extreme sports with a very specific target
audience. Moreover, contrarily to Coca-Cola, Red Bull
does not limit itself to buying sponsorship rights. In most
cases, it also took over the control of the sponsee. Red
Bull runs competitions in extreme sports, organizes events,
and owns its own Formula 1 team and three football clubs
(Salzburg, Leipzig and New-york). Red Bulls strategy, now
the fourth biggest sport sponsor in the world, is thus
different to other global sponsors. In literature it is argued
that implementing and using the gained rights costs the
sponsor three times the money that they have spend on
buying the rights. Involved in this money is planning the
sponsorship deal, carrying it out and last but not least
evaluating the whole process and engagement (Hermanns
2003). So according to this the strategic planning process
is crucial in order to communicate effectively and achieve
the desired outcome. It has become more professional and
the amount of money and time spent on this process has
increased over the last years.
Furthermore, Bhler and Nufer (2010) see mutual
understanding, a long-term perspective and trust as
important to satisfy the needs of both parties. Hence there
are a lot of different perspectives that need to be
considered during the strategic planning of a sponsorship
deal and different types of strategies can be followed.
The comparative case study of Coca-Cola and Red Bull
sport sponsorship strategy relies on extensive secondary
data, from newspaper coverage and official websites from
both the sponsors and their sponsees. To gain an
additional insight, interviews with the sport sponsorship
department of both organizations are planned to better
apprehend their strategy and see what their plans are/were
and what actually was achieves. These interviews will
explore their target group(s), reason for this target
segment, activities, general understanding of sponsorship,
importance of sponsorship within the company etc.
Preliminary results show that there are big differences in
the sponsorship strategy of Red Bull and Coca Cola. While
Coca Cola seems to be a partner of the sponsee, Red Bull
is using a more aggressive style of sponsorship. Red Bull
tends to take control of the whole situation in order to
ensure the success and the direction of the event. The
whole Red Bull company has implemented its sponsorship
activities. An example is Red Bull TV, the company owned
TV channel, which further broadcast the sponsees.
Sponsorship is part of the company philosophy and
irrigates its whole marketing strategy. The core product
and the sponsorship area are closely linked.
Though different, these two cases both demonstrate that
strategic planning is getting more important in global
companies. There are certain patterns which can be found
as well as differences which are due to the different
approaches and culture of the company. The implications
for the future are more professionalism and concentrating
on the own culture rather than trying to copy the strategy
from another company. Strategies need to be unique and
specifically created for the organisation.
References:
Bhler, A. and Nufer, G. (2010) Relationship Marketing in Sports.
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann
Hermanns, A (2003) Planung des Sportsponsorings. in Sponsoring
und Events im Sport ed. by Hermanns, A. and Riedmller, F.
Munich: Vahlen, 69-80
Hermanns, A. and Bscher, D. (2010) Sponsoring Trends 2010
[online] available from <http://www.bbdo-live.com/wp-
content/uploads/2011/01/101127_Web_Sponsoring-Trends-2010-
Highres.pdf> [21st January 2011]
Ludwig, S. and Schneider, C. (2010) Finanzreport deutscher
Profiligen. Sponsors 2010 (12), 36-50, Cologne
Streng, K. (2011) Sponsoringausgaben steigen weltweit an [online]
available from <http://www.sponsorconcept.com/?p=626> [21st
January 2011]
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ASSESSING CONSUMER RESPONSES
TO PROFESSIONAL SPORT CLUB
DECISIONS: THE MARKETING
IMPLICATIONS OF SACKING A COACH
Author:
Adam Karg
email:
adam.karg@deakin.edu.au
Co-authors:
McDonald, Heath
University:
Deakin University, Australia
Abstract
For sport managers responsible for consumers such as
season ticket holders (STH), satisfaction and renewal
represent important measures of service performance
(McDonald & Shaw, 2005). Their measurement can be
complex given the multidimensional nature of satisfaction
(Oliver, 1997) and the high level of uncommon loyalty in
sport consumers. This loyalty generates strong emotional
responses to on-field performance and can evoke a similar
response to important decisions made by club
administrators. An example of such a club decision is the
sacking of a coach, which is the subject of this paper.
Here, we assess the attitudinal responses of club STH
directly before and after the replacement of a poor
performing coach in the Australian Football League (AFL).
The research aims to identify the impact of the change on
STH attitudes and explore the presence of a potential halo
effect (Thorndike, 1920) across other dimensions of STH
satisfaction.
Coaches can be removed for many reasons including
political motives or poor performance. While sport-specific
literature on succession has presented mixed findings on
the impact of coaching changes on on-field performance
(Giambatista, Rowe & Riaz, 2005; Kesner & Sebora,
1994), little has addressed the impact of coach succession
on other areas of club performance such as the
satisfaction of the clubs key consumers. Here, we inspect
resultant changes to attitudes, discussing variance in
satisfaction and renewal intentions. In this case, the
change was a popular decision among supporters,
installing a well-respected former player into the coaching
position. As such, it was expected that consumer
satisfaction may rise in STH attitudes towards the clubs
administration. Impacts to other dimensions of STH
satisfaction are tested and discussed in the context of a
halo effect.
To explore the impact of the coaching succession,
comparisons were undertaken between groups of STHs
immediately before and after the change. Data were
collected using an online questionnaire distributed by email
to STH of an AFL club with 4580 responses collected
(response rate = 24%). Data collection commenced two
weeks after the season - for a week prior, and a week after
the coaching change. As such, two groups were
established containing responses collected prior to (64%,
n=2941) and after the change (36%, n=1639).
The measurement instrument was constructed using
established measures of STH satisfaction. In line with
other subscription products (Garbarino & Johnson, 1999),
STH satisfaction is comprised of multiple items (Van
Leeuwen, Quick, & Daniel, 2002) relating to ticketing,
communication, on-field performance, administration,
personal involvement and home ground. An overall
measure for satisfaction and items measuring the
likelihood to renew and recommend the service to friends
were also included. Each item was measured on an 11-
point scale. Analysis was undertaking by comparing
regression models for each group as well as ANOVA tests.
Results showed the post-change group displayed
significantly greater overall satisfaction. Significant
differences were also seen in specific items within club
administration on field performance and personal
involvement. While this was in part expected, the changes
are wider and stronger than anticipated, suggesting a
strong halo effect over attitudes given the coaching
change. Item scores for other areas (service, club
communications and home ground) also increased
significantly, but not to the same extent. Finally, there were
significant differences in STH intentions after the change
with higher renewal likelihood and a higher likelihood to
promote the club to their family and friends.
Overall, we saw large and significant changes to attitudes
towards the same offering across the two groups. While
halo effects have been evidenced in the case of on-field
performance influencing satisfaction towards the sport
offering (Lapidus & Schilbrowsky, 1996) the nature of these
changes in response to administrative decisions is unique.
Past research suggests halo effects impact most greatly
elements closest to the core product. Findings here
support this with on-field performance and club
administration seen to increase the most when examining
pre and post change ratings.
In translating managerial implications, fans were 6% more
likely to renew and gave a 6% higher satisfaction rating
after the coaching change. In a league where clubs boast
50,000 strong STH bases, the benefits and implications of
managing such change well is economically imperative.
Implications must also be noted for researchers with data
integrity dependent on an acute awareness of changes to
context when collecting attitudinal data relating to high
involvement products or services. Event or match results
should be carefully monitored and considered in
interpretation, particularly where longitudinal data or
industry comparisons are being undertaken.
References:
Garbarino, E., & Johnson, M.S., (1999). The different roles of
satisfaction, trust, and commitment in customer relationships.
Journal of Marketing, 63(2), 70-87.
Giambatista, R. C., Rowe, W. G., & Riaz, S., (2005). Nothing
succeeds like succession: A critical review of leader succession
literature since 1994. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 963-991.
Kesner I. F., & Sebora, T. C., (1994), Executive Succession: Past,
Present and Future. Journal of Management, 20(2), 327-372.
Lapidus, R.S., & Schilbrowsky, J.A., (1996). Do the hot dogs taste
better when the home team wins. Journal of Consumer
Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behaviour, 9, 1-11.
McDonald, H., & Shaw, R. N., (2005). Satisfaction as a Predictor of
Football Club Members Intentions, International Journal of Sports
Marketing and Sponsorship, 7(1), 81-88.
Thorndike, E.L., (1920). A constant error on psychological rating.
Journal of Applied Psychology, IV, 25-29.
Van Leeuwen, L., Quick, S., & Daniel, K. (2002). The Sport
Spectator Satisfaction Model: A Conceptual Framework for
Understanding the Satisfaction of Spectators. Sport Management
Review, 5, 99-128.
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SPORT SPECTATOR BEHAVIOUR - THE
INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL ON
PERCEPTION AND RECOLLECTION OF
SPORT SPONSORING
Author:
Ellert Guido,
email:
s.phelan@macromedia.de
Co-authors:
Schafmeister Guido
University:
Macromedia University of Media and Communication
Faculty:
Sports and Event Management
Abstract
Introduction and research question
Several studies show a link between sports fandom and
alcohol consumption. One study of nearly 12.000 U.S.
college students demonstrated that sports fans among
college students were more likely to drink and drank more
heavily than non-sports fans (Nelson & Wechsler, 2003). A
recent study published in Germany showed that sports
fans consumed considerably more beer than the average
German citizen (SPORTFIVE 2010). However, no studies
have been carried out on the influence of alcohol on sport
spectators perception and recollection of sponsors. It is
mainly through research on driver performance that a lot is
known about the effect of alcohol on sensory and
perceptual behaviour as well as on more complex
cognitive functioning such as divided attention. The study
at hand aims to find out more about the acute effect of
alcohol on perception and recollection of sport sponsoring.
Literature Review
Sport sponsorship offers marketers a way to establish and
enhance brand awareness with a vast global audience. For
sponsoring to be effective, the audience needs to see the
advertisement and process the information. Bearing in
mind that a large proportion of sport spectators is likely to
be under the influence alcohol, it is relevant to establish
the effect alcohol has on perception and information
processing of sport sponsoring. Viewing a sports match
involves processing a multitude of sensory input. Several
studies carried out on tasks requiring divided attention
(attending to one source of information whilst excluding the
other) reveal alcohol-induced impairments (e.g. Schulte et
al. 2001). Furthermore, it has been established that alcohol
negatively influences the speed of information processing
(e.g. Tzambazis & Stough, 2000). The question is: does
alcohols negative effect on visual attention and information
processing also apply to the field of sports marketing?
Methodology
Sport spectators perception and recollection of sponsors
was studied using a combined method of physiological
measurements (eye-tracking and electrodermal response)
and interviewing. The theoretical basis of this study is the
experience map (Ellert, G., Rocholl, E. (2009): The
Experience Map, in: Ellert et. al. 2011). In this explorative
study, 171 subjects (male and female, aged 18-61) were
shown a clipping of a football match. Through the
aforementioned combined methodology, implicit subject
experience was measured through eye-tracking
(perception) and electrodermal response (emotional
involvement) and explicit subject experience was
measured through pre and post interviewing. Eye-tracking
rendered information on fixation count and fixation
duration. Electrodermal response was measured to gain
insight into the subjects emotional involvement throughout
the match. The questionnaires provided information on
brand recollection, brand involvement, sports interest and
socio-demographic variables. In order to measure the
influence of alcohol, 81 randomly selected subjects
consumed 1 litre of beer approximately 30 minutes before
viewing, whereas the control group (n=90) consumed no
alcohol. None of the subjects had alcoholic beverages 24
hrs previous to testing. Confounding variables influencing
perception and recollection of sponsors, such as gender,
brand involvement and occurrences on the football field
were accounted for.
Results, discussion and implications
Differences in perception and sponsorship recollection
were found between subjects under the influence of
alcohol and sober subjects, some of which significant.
Firstly, results show clear differences in fixation count (the
amount of time a subject focuses on something) and
fixation duration (how long a gaze is held). The
experimental group showed fewer but longer fixations than
the control group. Furthermore, it was found that subjects
that were under the influence follow the game differently.
Whilst sober subjects use slow moments in the game to
look around and focus on stadium advertising, subjects
under the influence of alcohol seem less focused on the
game itself and looked at advertising at seemingly random
moments. Finally, interview results show that the
experimental group remembered slightly fewer brand
names than the control group.
The study at hand offers a first insight into the influence of
alcohol on sport spectators perception and recollection of
sponsoring. As recollection correlates with visual focus it is
argued that reduced recollection is due to a different way
of viewing, rather than it being the direct effect of alcohol
on recollection. This is in line with a study carried out by
Tzambazis and Stough (2000) showing that alcohol does
impair visual information processing, but does not impair
visual memory or short-term memory. Good news for
sponsors, as this implies that an intoxicated audience can
still be reached. However, in order to analyse and
ultimately increase effectiveness of stadium
advertisements, our findings suggest future studies in sport
marketing should include alcohol as an important
confounding variable.
References:
Ellert, G., Schafmeister, G., Dallwig S., Seitz, M. (2011): Lenkt der
Blick? Optimierungspotenzial in der Live-Kommunikation. Marketing
Review St. Gallen 2, 14-21
Nelson, T.F. & Wechsler, H. (2003): School spirits: alcohol and
collegiate sports fans. Addictive Behaviors 28, 1-11
Schulte, T., Mller-Oehring, E.M., Strasburger, H., Warzel, H. &
Sabel, B.A. (2001): Acute effects of alcohol on divided and covert
attention in men. Psychopharmacology 154, 61-69
SPORTFIVE (2010): Fuball Zielgruppen. Sport Profile AWA 2010
potenziale und Zielgruppenstrukturen fr die Sponsorenplanung,
195
Tzambazis, K. & Stough, C. (2000): Alcohol impairs the speed of
processing and simple and choice reaction time and differentially
impairs higher-order cognitive abilities, Alcohol & Alcoholism 35(2),
197-201
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THE EMOTIONS OF THE GAME: HOW
PLEASURE AND AROUSAL AFFECT THE
ATTENTION FOR SPONSORS
Author:
Christopher Rumpf
email:
c.rumpf@dshs-koeln.de
Co-authors:
Breuer, Christoph
University:
German Sport University Cologne
Faculty:
Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management
Abstract
Aim of the abstract
Sport sponsoring is widely used. However, we still know
little about the reception and processing of sponsoring
stimuli in the consumer s mind. As a consequence, a
reliable value assessment of sponsorship activities is still
to be developed. The first aim of this abstract is to analyze
the impact of (1) sponsor logo exposure on the consumer s
attention for sponsors. The second aim is to identify the
mediating role of emotional responses to sporting action
within the process of stimuli reception.
State of art
Wakefield et al. (2007) found evidence that a higher level
of exposure to the sponsor brand produces positive effects
on recall accuracy. These results were supported by Vale
et al. (2009) who also found exposure to have a positive
impact on sponsor awareness. In both studies an on-site
sample was used whereas exposure was measured by
means of sponsorship level, e.g. main sponsor vs. co-
sponsor. But since corporate sponsors invest high amounts
of money primarily into televised sport events in order to
reach an audience of millions (Smolianov & Shilbury, 2005)
research on the effect of sponsorship among TV viewers is
highly relevant.
In sponsorship research on emotions Christensen (2006)
found out that consumer behaviour often takes place [ &]
at the unconscious level, which makes it difficult to
measure by means of traditional market research
techniques that operate at the cognitive level (p. 63).
Nevertheless, Christensen as well as Bal, Quester &
Plewa (2010) used the method of questionnaires and thus
barely expanded the understanding of internal processes
during the reception of sponsoring stimuli. Pham (1992)
conducted a lab experiment to assess the impact of
involvement, arousal and pleasure on the recognition of
sponsoring stimuli. His approach focused on conditions for
recognition and not on the analysis of the internal attention
construct.
Methodology
A lab design was chosen to ensure reliability. Twelve
different stimulus films taken from football and basketball
broadcasts on German TV were shown to the sample of
N=58 with a mean age of 29.8 years. Every participant
watched three films with a duration of three minutes each.
While one film was highly exciting with regards to sporting
action, the second film was moderately arousing and the
third film did not include any game action but preliminary
reports or interviews from the venue. The sequence of
films was randomized to control for order and fatique
effects. Since sponsoring stimuli access the consumer s
attention predominantly through the visual path, the
participant s eye movement was tracked. Subsequent to
every film the non-verbal SAM instrument measured the
participant s pleasure and arousal (Bradley & Lang, 1994).
The level of brand exposure and the personal involvement
with the sport event was measured beforehand by using
the image recognition system Magellan respectively
Zaichkowsky s (1994) RPI inventory.
Results
A multiple linear regression analysis was used to explain
the level of visual attention (in seconds) by entering the on
screen time and on screen size (both metric scales) as
exposure measures, the moderating variables pleasure
and arousal as well as the control variable event
involvement (all quasi-metric scales). The results show an
adjusted R of 49%, which indicates an acceptable
explanation of the variance in the DV. The analysis
produced a significant effect for both exposure variables.
The on screen time (Beta= .688, p<.000) shows the
highest contribution to the prediction of attention , while on
screen size (Beta= .148, p<.000) has a moderately
positive effect. Surprisingly, the moderator pleasure
(Beta= -.065, p<.036) affects the reception of sponsoring
stimuli in a negative direction, while arousal (Beta= .195,
p<.000), on the other hand, facilitates the attention for
sponsors. This allows us to conclude that the emotional
response to sporting action plays an important role.
Concerning the control variable event involvement (Beta= -
.047, p<.010) the model shows a slightly negative
outcome.
Discussion
The emotional nature of sports is undisputed and one of
the main arguments for the increasing investment of
marketing money. However, too little knowledge exists on
the moderating effect of emotional responses, since
sponsorship research mostly neglected the internal
processes within the consumer s mind. Since for any
information processing a sensory input is necessary, the
visual attention plays a focal role and represents the
gatekeeper for a sponsoring stimulus. While sponsor logo
exposure is essential for the creation of attention,
emotional responses moderate this effect.
References:
Bal, C., Quester, P., & Plewa, C. (2010). Emotions and
sponsorship: A key to global effectiveness? A comparative study of
Australia and France. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing, 22(1),
4054.
Christensen, S. R. (2006). Measuring consumer reactions to
sponsoring partnerships based upon emotional and attitudinal
responses. International Journal of Market Research, 48(1), 6180.
Pham, M. T. (1992). Effects of involvement, arousal, and pleasure
on the recognition of sponsorship stimuli. Advances in Consumer
Research, 19, 8593.
Vale, J., Serra, E., Vale, V. T., & Vieira, J. C. (2009). The impact of
sponsorship on a football teams brand equity. Journal of
Sponsorship, 2(3), 267280.
Wakefield, K. L., Becker-Olsen, K., & Cornwell, T. B. (2007). I spy a
sponsor. The effects of sponsorship level, prominence, relatedness,
and cueing on recall accuracy. Journal of Advertising, 36(4), 6174.
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A REVIEW OF THE FUNCTION OF
SPORT FAN IDENTITy IN SEEKING
OPTIMAL PSyCHOLOGICAL
DISTINCTIVENESS
Author:
Michael Goldman
email:
goldmanm@gibs.co.za
Co-authors:
Chadwick, Simon, Coventry University Funk, Daniel, C.,
Temple University Wocke, Albert, University of Pretoria
University:
University of Pretoria
Faculty:
Gordon Institute of Business Science
Abstract
Aim of Abstract
The aim of the abstract is to critically review existing
literature and findings within the domains of sport fan
identity and optimal distinctiveness theory, in order to
propose a model to explain the function of sport fan
identity in seeking optimal psychological distinctiveness. In
this way, the research contributes to an understanding of
the psychological process through which a member of a
sport fan group attempts to balance the competing human
needs for distinctiveness and inclusion in the expression of
their identity. It therefore answers the call by Andrijiw and
Hyatt (2009) to examine sport fan identity motives beyond
self-esteem, as well as that of Vignoles, Regalia, Manzi,
Golledge and Scabinis (2006) to concentrate on identity
motives such as belonging and distinctiveness.
The behaviour of sport fans is of significant importance to
their chosen sports team, which includes the managers
tasked with marketing the team to current and prospective
fans. Individuals who identify with a specific team may
derive a sense of belonging from their interaction with
other fans, as well as a sense of distinctiveness from
interpersonal and intergroup comparison. Although
significant strides have been taken in the area of sport
marketing, a number of questions relating to sport teams
or objects and their relationship with fan groups remain.
Key among these issues is gaining a deeper
understanding of the processes that contribute to sport fan
behaviour, including the psychological processes at the
level of the individual, which play a role in developing and
operating the fans group membership and their related
sport fan group identity.
The achievement of optimal distinctiveness for a sport fan
has been hypothesised to lead to the strongest level of
social identification (Brewer, 1991). A high level of social
identification has been shown to enhance self-esteem,
psychological well-being, likelihood of attendance and
greater willingness to spend time and money following the
team, attitude towards the sponsor and purchase
intentions, as well as the construction of brand equity for
the sport team. Understanding the mechanisms through
with sport fan identity is used to resolve the tension
between the needs for distinctiveness and inclusion, may
assist sport marketers to facilitate stronger and more
positive relationships between fans, as well as with the
sport object. This psychological connection between an
individual and a sport or recreation object has successfully
been studied through the Psychological Continuum Model
(PCM) (Funk & James, 2001), which proposes that
recreation participation can be examined within four
general hierarchical stages: awareness, attraction,
attachment or allegiance.
Methodology
A thorough search of the sport marketing literature and
optimal distinctiveness literature was undertaken. The
search targeted any article reporting an empirical or
conceptual investigation of sport fan identity or optimal
distinctiveness. Following Cornwell and Maignans (1998)
application of research integration guidelines, informal,
primary and secondary channels of information were used
to locate relevant studies. All articles were collected in
2011. The indexing and abstracting services used as
secondary channels included ProQuest and EBSCOHost,
including SportDiscus.
Implications of the review
The review proposes a model that integrates sport fan
identity, measured by an individuals psychological
connection to the team, with the mechanism through which
the individual seeks to achieve optimal distinctiveness. In
this way, the research suggests the following propositions:
P1: The stronger the individuals psychological connection
to the team, the more moderately inclusive the group is
perceived and therefore, the more optimal balance
between differentiation and assimilation.
to the team, the more those individuals will employ the
mechanism of identifying with a relevant subgroup in order
to achieve optimal distinctiveness.
to the team, the more those individuals will employ the
mechanism of perceptually enhancing the distinctiveness
of the group in order to achieve optimal distinctiveness.
References:
Andrijiw, A. M., & Hyatt, C. G. (2009). Using Optimal Distinctiveness
Theory to Understand Identification with a Nonlocal Professional
Hockey Team. Journal of Sport Management, 23, 156-181.
Brewer, M. B. (1991). The Social Self: On Being the Same and
Different at the Same Time. Personality & Social Psychology
Bulletin, 17(5), 475-482.
Cornwell, T. B., & Maignan, I. (1998). An International Review of
Sponsorship Research. International Journal of Advertising, 27(1),
1-22.
Funk, D. C., & James, J. (2001). The psychological continuum
model: A conceptual framework for understanding an individuals
psychological connection to sport. Sport Management Review, 4,
119-150.
Vignoles, V. L., Regalia, C., Manzi, C., Golledge, J., & Scabini, E.
(2006). Beyond self-esteem: Influence of multiple motives on
identity construction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
90, 308-333.
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LIFELONG TICKETS: FINANCING
PROFESSIONAL SPORT VENUES IN AN
ERA OF AUSTERITy - AN EMPIRICAL
STUDy FROM GERMAN
PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL
Author:
Stefan Chatrath
email:
stefan.chatrath@bits-iserlohn.de
Co-authors:
Prof. Wengler, Stefan (Hof University of Applied
Sciences/Germany) Prof. Werner, Jan (Business and
Information Technology School, Iserlohn/Germany)
University:
Business and Information Technology School,
Iserlohn/Germany
Abstract
Aim of the paper
In Germany, most local infrastructure projects had
traditionally been financed by municipalities (WERNER
2008). However, the disposable revenues for fixed asset
investments decreased in west German municipalities from
387 Euro per capita in 1992 to 281 Euro per capita in 2009
and for east German municipalities from 662 Euro per
capita to 318 Euro per capita, which means an effective
decrease of more than 25% and more than 50%
respectively (WERNER 2008).
The financial situation of most municipalities therefore
means also a major challenge concerning the
modernization or built up of sport venues. As the cost of
these sport venues have increased significantly over the
last two decades (VORNHOLZ 2005) and the disposable
resources for these kinds of investments have decreased,
municipalities and particularly sports clubs are forced to
find alternative ways to finance infrastructure projects like
these.
Several German football clubs have introduced lifelong
tickets (LLT) to acquire sufficient financial resources for
their sport venue projects. The aim of this paper is to
calculate exemplary the price of a LLT based on the
empirical data of a survey of fans of a German
Fuballbundesligist and to evaluate the strategys
adequacy to finance professional sport venues in an era of
austerity.
LLTs are an instrument of a Fuballbundesligists customer
relationship management (ADAMSON, JONES & TAPP
2005): A Fuballbundesligist offering LLTs tries to skim the
willingness-to-pay of its true loyal fans (MAHONy,
MADRIGAL & HOWARD 2000). They are asked to spend
all their money for tickets today en bloc instead of
spending it season by season in the future. With that
amount of money the Fuballbundesligist might be able to
finance - in the present - a stadium to be built newly. In
order to find the appropriate price for a LLT it is necessary
to calculate the LLTs net present value (NPV). Our NPVs
calculation is based conceptually on the CAPM, the capital
asset pricing model, a model that is rooted theoretically in
neoclassical economics (ROSS, WESTERFIELD & JAFFE
2009). By using the CAPM we take into account that to
price a LLT adequately the opportunity cost of capital
(OCC) has also to be considered. The OCC is in our case
represented by the rate of return that a consumer forgoes
by buying the LLT instead of saving the same amount of
money and investing it in capital assets such as bonds.
The Fuballbundesligist can account for that by offering a
discount for LLTs that covers at least the consumers OCC.
Research design and data analysis
A football stadium in Germany is typically used for about
20 years (seasons). Therefore we took this time period as
a base of our calculation of the LLTs NPV (t=20). We
assumed furthermore - following DIMSON, MARSH &
STAUNTON (2002) - a rate of return of 8% representing
the consumers OCC.
In addition we interviewed fans of a leading
Fuballbundesligist in Germany (n=781). The survey form
(ten pages in length) included demographic information
(age, gender etc.), questions about the respondents sport
consumption and the task to evaluate nine typical
Fuballbundesligists home match offerings (four attributes
with each three levels: Fuballbundesligists opponent;
seating category; attendance expected for the match the
Fuballbundesligist is going to play; price). To estimate the
fans willingness-to-pay for the home matches that the
Fuballbundesligist holds in 20 years we conducted a
conjoint analysis following the suggestions by JEDIDI &
ZHANG (2002).
Results
19.4% (9,700) of the Fuballbundesligists fans are willing
to pay for a LLT in general. For them a LLT is on average
14,012 Euro worth. The LLTs NPV therefore is - again on
average - (14,012 Euro/1.08 to the 20=) 3,006 Euro.
Offering LLTs helps financing sport venues: According to
our study the Fuballbundesligist would be able to collect
(9,700 * 3,006 Euro =) 29.2 m Euro from its fans - a sum
that reduces the amount of money that is to be spent by
other sources such as the municipality significantly. LLTs
seem furthermore to be a logical addition to personal seat
licenses (PSL). A PSL gives the holder the right to buy a
season ticket for a certain seat in a stadium. LLTs allow the
fan to buy the season ticket for that certain seat not only
for one year, but also for future periods.
By developing a method that helps specifying the
contribution of LLTs for sport venue financing in advance,
i.e., before construction or modernization, we contribute
considerably to sport marketing science and practice.
References:
ADAMSON, G., JONES, W. & TAPP, A. (2005). From CRM to FRM:
Applying CRM in the football industry. Database Marketing &
Customer Strategy Management, 13(2), 156-172.
DIMSON, E., MARSH, P.R. & STAUNTON, M. (2002). Triumph of
the optimists - 101 years of global investment returns. Princeton,
NJ, et al.: Princeton Univ. Press.
JEDIDI, K. & ZHANG, Z. I. (2002). Augmenting Conjoint Analysis to
estimate consumer reservation prices. Management Science, 48,
1350-1368.
MAHONy, D.F., MADRIGAL, R. & HOWARD, D. (2000). Using the
Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) Scale to segment sport
consumers based on loyalty. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 9(1), 15-25.
ROSS, S., WESTERFIELD, R. & JAFFE, J. (2009). Corporate
finance (9th ed.). Chicago et al.: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
VORNHOLZ, G. (2005). Rentabilitt von Stadien - Knnen Stadien
wirtschaftlich erfolgreich sein oder welchen Beitrag hat die
ffentliche Hand zu leisten? Bonn: Arbeitskreis Sportkonomie e.V.
WERNER, J. (2008). Das deutsche Gemeindefinanzsystem:
Reformvorschlge im Kontext der unterschiedlichen
Einnahmenautonomie der lokalen Gebietskrperschaften in
Europa, Frankfurt/M.: Lang.
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170
LOVE IS ALL yOU NEED: THE
MANIFESTATION OF LOVE OF SPORT
Author:
Sarah Broadbent
email:
sarahb@deakin.edu.au
Co-authors:
Bridson, Dr Kerrie
Ferkins, Dr Lesley
Rentschler, Professor Ruth
University:
Deakin University
Faculty:
School of Management and Marketing, Faculty of Business
and Law
Abstract
It is often thought that sports fans are the ultimate
consumer, their unfailing loyalty, passion, commitment and
love for their team is one which every brand, regardless of
industry, aspires to. Whilst sport purports to be a unique
industry in which its consumers can be considered die
hard or fanatical fans (Smith & Stewart, 2010), the
question begs, what are the ingredients required to create
such committed loyal fans? The present research aims to
investigate the role that love plays in sport team loyalty
and what causes consumers to fall in love with a team.
The word love invokes perceptions of romance and
feelings of love for another person and can be extended to
feelings about an object, activity or brand (Ahuvia, 2005;
Whang, Allen, Sahoury & Zhang, 2004). In this current
research, we invoke these perceptions of love but also
extend them to sport and a sports team. It has been
argued that there is no universally accepted definition of
love (Whang, Allen, Sahoury & Zhang, 2004, p. 320).
Whang et al. (2004) state that love is the outcome of bi-
directional interaction between two partners and when the
target of the affection is an object the interaction becomes
unidirectional. Carroll and Ahuvia (2006) propose a more
romantic definition of brand love as the degree of
passionate emotional attachment a satisfied customer has
for a particular brand (Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006, p. 81). Until
recently the concept of love was limited to the psychology
literature where Sternberg (1997) presented his triangular
love scale, including dimensions of passion, intimacy and
commitment. The theory of love has received extensive
attention in the psychology literature, however there is a
gap beyond this in both marketing and more specifically
the sport domain.
The love a sports fan has for their team is a potentially
powerful factor in explaining variations in fan loyalty. Were
The Beatles right when they sang love is all you need? Is
love the key ingredient in developing loyalty and allegiance
in fans? Through a detailed review of the literature on love
in the area of psychology and the emotional attachment of
fans derived from the sport management field, this
research aims to develop a greater understanding of what
it means to love a sporting team. The research aims to
explore the meaning of a love of sport and the
manifestation of this love in the sporting context towards
teams. What do fans mean when they say they love their
team? How does this love develop? What inhibits or
facilitates it, and how is love expressed?
This research adopts a qualitative research design, as it is
exploratory in nature. The primary method of investigation
is semi-structured in-depth interviews. Results from the
interviews will be used to provide insight into what love
towards a sporting team is, how this is developed and how
this is expressed. The sample was selected to gain a
representative selection of fans from casual fans to highly
involved fans. The selection of cases was based on a
number of criteria. The context of this study is Australian
Rules Football, where a cross-section of fans of the league
and the teams exist. The semi-structured interviews were
typically of 60 minutes duration. All interviews were audio-
recorded and transcribed. The interview protocol included
open-ended questions structured around a number of
subject areas. Data were collected, coded and analyzed
concurrently for similarities, differences, general patterns
and relationships. Through this analysis the key issues
were identified and modeled.
This study seeks to address a gap in both the marketing
and more specifically the sport marketing literature. If sport
organizations seek to build a competitively resistant and
committed fan base they must devote resources to
establishing fans love of sport and towards teams. By
exploring the topic across a spectrum of fans the study
seeks to identify whether casual fans have the same love
for a team as highly loyal fans and if the love is manifested
in a similar or different manner. Through answering these
questions greater insight can be provided to sport
marketers into love as a driver of loyalty.
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Conference of the European Association for Sports Management
Abstracts 172
References:
Ahuvia, A. C. (2005). Beyond the Extended Self: Loved Objects
and Consumers' Identity Narratives. Journal of Consumer
Research, 32(1), 171-184.
Carroll, B., and Ahuvia, A. (2006). Some antecedents and
outcomes of brand love. Marketing Letters, 17(2), 79-89.
Smith, A.C.T., and Stewart, B. (2010). The special features of sport:
A critical revisit. Sport Management Review, 13, 1-13.
Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Construct validation of a triangular love
scale. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27(3), 313-335.
Whang, y.O, Allen, J., Sahoury, N., and Zhang, H. (2004). Falling in
Love with a Product: The Structure of a Romantic Consumer-
Product Relationship. [Article]. Advances in Consumer Research,
31(1), 320-327.
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UNDERSTANDING SPORT
SPECTATORS WHAT ARE THEIR
MOTIVES AND PREFERENCES FOR
WATCHING SPORTS ON MOBILE
DEVICES?
Author:
Guido Schafmeister
email:
g.schafmeister@macromedia.de
Co-authors:
Ellert, Guido
University:
Macromedia University of Applied Science
Faculty:
Media Management / Sport and Eventmanagement
Abstract
Introduction
Sports broadcasts evoke major rating figures and create
value for both media companies and sports organisations.
Media companies can reach large audiences and obtain
revenue from both subscription fees and advertising. For
sports organisations, sports broadcasts provide financial
funding with which to strengthen their competitive position.
One relatively new media channel that can be employed
for sports broadcasts is mobile TV. Research on this topic
is still in its infancy and the few analyses that have been
done show different results (e.g., Kunz et al., 2010;
Schafmeister & Ellert, 2010).
The main research question of the study at hand is: what
motivates people to watch sports on mobile devices such
as smartphones? A second question that was addressed
was how viewers with different motives would respond to
different types of mobile TV content. Understanding user
motives and matching this information with content
preferences provides great insight for both academics and
practitioners.
Literature review
Previous mobile TV studies include research on the user
(typical user profile, motivations, needs) the mobile device
itself (performance, features and limitations, cost), content
(type, interactivity), as well as context (where, when, how
long is mobile TV consumed) (e.g., Buchinger et al. 2009).
Two recent studies with a special focus on user motives for
watching sports on mobile devices, which were carried out
in the same country, have come up with different results
(e.g., Kunz et al., 2010; Schafmeister & Ellert, 2010).
Methodology
Existing studies implicitly assume that user interest is the
suitable separator to identify divergent motive structures.
However, mobile TV can only be viewed if consumers have
a technically adequately equipped device e.g., a
smartphone at hand. Smartphones are the technical
market entry barrier. Hence, in this study, smartphone
ownership is used as the separator between groups to
identify divergent motive structures. This idea is based on
the finding that the big difference between traditional TV
and mobile TV is the device (Buchinger et al., 2009) and
smartphones open the door to (future) mobile TV
consumption. The aim of this paper is to understand user
motives and preferences for different types of mobile TV
content.
The questionnaire used in this study is based on existing
literature on motives (e.g., Wann et al., 2001; Trail&James,
2001) and previous studies on mobile TV. It contains 26
motive statements and questions on consumption patterns,
unmet needs, mobile TV content, and demographics.
Results are based on a representative sample of German
subjects (n = 661) drawn from an online panel in January
2011.
Results/Discussion
The representative sample showed that 78% of the
population in Germany has heard about mobile TV. Thirty
one percent own a smartphone (group 1) with the option of
mobile TV. Of this 31% a relatively large part of 89% has a
general interest in sports. In comparison, of the group
without a smartphone (group 2), 77% is generally
interested in sports, which is significantly less. In terms of
motives, group 1 also differs significantly from group 2.
Group 1 shows stronger motives to watch sports than
group 2. Additional factor analyses show that the number
of motive factors is four for both groups (KMO 0.894/0.933;
explained variance 65%/63% [group 1/group 2]). However,
factor loadings show that the motive items are associated
with different factors across the groups. In other words,
strong differences exist in the structure of motives between
the groups. These differences indicate group 1 has a
stronger interest in sports in general.
Concerning the question of content preference for mobile
TV, differences are quite clear. Smartphone owners (group
1) prefer a general access to traditional TV broadcasting
stations on their smartphone over a sports specific service.
Thirty five percent consider a package including all
traditional TV broadcasting stations interesting whilst only
26% would say the same for a sports specific package. For
those interested in a sports specific package, two motives
were found that distinguish them from others within group
1: one is a preference for live broadcasts and the other is
emotional attachment.
The results of the study describe user motives for watching
sports broadcasts. This information is used to evaluate
different types of mobile TV content. Results of the study
at hand provide recommendations as to which motives are
to be addressed for a successful sale of sports in the new
media channel of mobile TV.
References:
Buchinger, S., Kriglstein, S., & Hlavacs, H. (2009, June 3-5): A
Comprehensive View on User Studies: Surveys and Open Issues
for Mobile TV. Paper presented at EuroITV09, Leuven, Belgium.
Kunz, R., Santomeir, J., & Woratschek, H., (2010): Mobile TV and
Sport: Consumer Motivational Factors. EASM2010 conference
proceedings, Prague (Czech Republic).
Schafmeister, G., & Ellert, G. (2010): Sport Spectator Preferences
What is Their Motivation to Watch Sports on Mobile Devices.
EASM2010 conference proceedings, Prague (Czech Republic).
Trail, G. T., & James, J. D. (2001): The Motivation Scale for Sport
Consumption: Assessment of the scale's psychometric properties.
Journal of Sport Behavior, 24(1), 108-127.
Wann, D. L., Melnick, M. J., Russell, G. W., & Pease, D. G. (2001).
Sport Fans - The Psychology and Social Impact of Spectators. New
york, London: Routledge.
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Mixed Issues
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Themes
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176
PROGRAM THEORy OF SPORT-
RELATED INTERVENTION FOR
PREVENTING INTERNET ADDICTION
Author:
NamSu Kim
email:
cowinmin@hotmail.com
Co-Authors:
Lee Kibong National youth Policy Institute youth Policy
Evaluation Division Senior Researcher
University:
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies
Abstract
Internet addiction has become one of the most serious
public health concerns (Hur, 2006; young, 1998). A recent
study documented that the internet penetration rate among
Korean adolescents has reached 90.6% in 2002 and
19.1% of Korean middle school students were identified as
potential risk users and high-risk users in 2009 (Seo,
Kang, & yom, 2009). Interestingly many Internet addiction
studies have argued that Internet addiction, in part, results
from the lack of physical activities (young, 1998). That
means that the increase of the level of physical activities
can contribute to reduce Internet addiction. Although such
idealistic conception of sport widely remains in
interventionists, there is little evidence on why and how
sport can be used to prevent the Internet addiction. This
makes us vulnerable when claiming the effectiveness of
sport-related intervention programs because we have not
provided much of a theoretical rationale or evidence-based
foundation for sport-related programs (Hartmann, 2003;
Smith & Waddington, 2004). In this regard, this study aims
to develop a sport-related Internet addiction intervention
program by developing a program theory of Internet
addiction prevention.
This study followed two steps. In the first step, the level of
adolescents Internet addiction and factors influencing
Internet addiction were investigated through a national
survey. The participants were 9,180 elementary, middle,
and high school students in Korea. They were asked about
the level of Internet use and reasons for why they have
been using the Internet. The second step was to develop
an Internet addiction prevention program theory on the
basis of the findings of the first step, guided by Lipseys
(1983) theory-driven approach.
The findings of this study indicate that Internet addiction
results from individual-related factors such as low self-
control, boredom, low self concept, stress, low social skills,
and low self confidence. In addition, Internet addiction-
related environmental factors include the lack of parents
control on Internet use, less hours spent communicating
with their families, the lack of parents understanding of
Internet addiction, convenient access to Internet games,
and the lack of family-related constructive leisure time.
Based on these results, this study developed a normative
program theory of Internet addiction prevention, which
consists of problem definition (e.g., what problems are
being existed in Internet addiction), program treatment
(e.g., what activities are being conducted to reduce
Internet addiction), program mechanism (e.g., what are
mediating factors generating expected program outcomes),
and program outcomes (e.g., which outcomes are being
generated through the program) (Bickman, 1990; Chen &
Rossi, 1987, Lipsey, 1993). The program needs to treat the
following mediating variables: Internet addicts new goal
setting, social skill, focus shifted, alternative behavior
development, program implementers positive feedback
and social support. In terms of program treatment on
environmental factors, the program theory includes the
increase of the level of communication between
adolescents and parents, providing information on the
Internet addiction to parents, forming a relationship
between at-risk addicts and teachers, and change of
adolescents Internet use place. Program mechanism (i.e.,
mediating factors of the program) consists of more self
control to use Internet, positive self and self confidence,
social support, positive relationship between adolescents,
parents, and teacher, and the increase of positive self.
When such program elements are delivered through sport
activities, the expected program outcomes would be the
reduction of Internet addiction and academic achievement.
In sum, this study contributes to future Internet addiction
prevention program, showing the ways to effectively and
scientifically design the program and reduce the Internet-
related addiction problems.
References
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Bickman, L. (Ed.). (1990). New directions for program evaluation: A
publication of the American Evaluation Association, advances in
program theory. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc.
Chen, H., & Rossi, P. H. (1987). The theory-driven approach to
validity. Evaluation and Program Planning, 10, 95-103.
Hartmann, D. (2003). Theorizing sport as social intervention: A view
from the grassroots. Quest, 55, 118-140.
Hur, M. H. (2006). Internet addiction in Korean teenagers.
CyberPsychology & Behavior, 9, 514-525.
Lipsey, M. W. (1993). Theory as method: Small theories of
treatments. New Directions for Program Evaluation, 57, 5-38.
Seo, M., Kang, H. S., & yom, y. H. (2009). Internet addiction and
interpersonal problems in Korean adolescents. Computers,
Informatics, Nursing, 27(4), 226-233.
Smith, A., & Waddington, I. (2004). Using 'sport in the community
schemes' to tackle crime and drug use among young people: Some
policy issues and problems. European Physical Education Review,
10(3), 279-298.
young, K. S. (1998). Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New
Clinical Disorder. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1(3), 237-244.
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PARENTS PARTICIPATION IN SPORT
ORGANIZATIONS: CASE STUDy
ARTISTIC GyMNASTICS
Author:
Rosa Lpez De D'Amico
email:
rlopezdedamico@yahoo.com
University:
Universidad Pedaggica Experimental Libertador
Faculty:
Research center EDUFISADRED
Abstract
This paper deals with parents participation in decision
making and regulations in sport organizations, besides
their presence as board members in organizations where
their children participate in elite sport. In some
organizations there are no clear paths to become a board
member and parents are participating in decision making
that are very much related with technical aspects very
difficult no to interfere in technical aspect being a board
member.
Theoretical orientation
The increased participation of parents in sport is
associated with the high level of financial support (e.g.,
Grenfell & Rinehart, 1999) that depends on parents
especially in order to develop grass root sport (e.g.,
Brunelli, 1994). In a comparative study of life-styles of
aspiring high performances athletes, Broom (1991)
mentioned that one of the weakest points of western
programs is the lack of providing financial assistance to
potential high performance young athletes at the earlier
stages of their career (p. 47). In most cases the financial
assistance is provided when the athlete approaches
international standard. However, there are countries in
which the assistance is not even provided at high level; for
instance New Zealand gymnasts get very little financial
assistance (Lpez de DAmico, 2000). In a radio program,
Henny Oldenhove (Director of Participation of the
Australian Sport Commission) and Dennis Baker, insisted
that parents are there to protect the kids and keep them
on the track, but shouldnt be running out in front of them
and getting in the way of them (Smith, 1999, p. 3). This
perspective has been observed in organizations, as well as
the fear that parents might work for their own benefits
(Bassetti, 1999; Ryan, 1995).
Methodology
The perspective of 48 members of gymnastics national
federations from six different countries: Australia, Ecuador,
France, Indonesia, Italy and New Zealand were studied.
They were asked about their opinion related to parents
participation in decision making area, regulations and
board members of their sport organization. The question
asked was: What is in your opinion, the parents role in
achieving gymnastics performance in your country? Later,
according to their answers they were asked: Should they
be involved in regulations? The comments and reactions
from the different participants shared similarities and they
were grouped into three categories: 1) Supportive but not
to be involved in regulations; 2) Important; 3) Indifferent in
terms of their participation in regulations.
Discussion and Conclusion
To the majority of the interviewees the participation of
parents was important and supportive however, they
believed they should not be involved in regulations. Some
of the interviewees opinions indicated that parents have a
tremendous role because of the gymnasts young age;
they have to be supportive; they provide the maintenance
of the gymnasts and pay the fees. An administrator
remarked that parents could be the success or the
limitation of a nation because, they should give support to
the gymnast but their interventions in the regulations
should be avoided. The reason pointed out more frequently
was that, they can participate but not in technical
decisions, but of course there are many things that
influence the technical aspects (coach).
There is great concern about the objectivity of parents
involvement in regulations and in the high level structures
of decision making. The interviewees have had
experiences with parents who became involved in the
regulations and became board members in order to benefit
their children. The interviewees praised the parents
participation and do not have the intention to marginalise
their role but, they are more concerned about the complex
characteristics of the sport. Any decision outside the
technical environment can have negative impacts on the
gymnastics results. The most common worry is the
influence of parents in the decision-making areas, e.g., in
(country) it is worse because they become board
members. That is why there is a division between the
management and the technical sector. The board members
do the management, the technical ones work. There is no
union among the sectors. But, the board members decide
(judge). Some gymnasts remarked that they would prefer
their parents just to develop their parental role remaining
outside regulations..
In the conclusions all of them agreed that parents
participation is crucial in such a young sport as
gymnastics, nevertheless they must stay away from
participating in decision making areas or regulations
because it is a very complex sport. They must be
supportive to their children. Besides, the organizations can
also create possibilities for their participation and teach
them through courses or seminars about the sport so they
can participate more actively in the future..
References:
Bassetti, R. (1999). Storia e storie dello sport in Italia: DallUnit a
oggi. Venezia: Marsilio Editori.
Brunelli, M. (1994). Sport financing in Italy. En Proceedings of the
Second European Congress on Sport Management (pp. 47-60).
Florence, Italy.
Grenfell, C. & Rinehart, R. (1999, September). Skating on thin ice:
Human rights in childrens sport. Paper presented at the
conference: How you play the game: The contribution of sport to
the promotion of human rights. Organized by the Human Rights
Council of Australia, Sydney.
Lpez de DAmico, R. (2000). Organisation and Regulations in
National Sport Bodies: A comparative study in artistic gymnastics.
Doctoral thesis, University of Sydney, Australia.
Ryan, J. (1995). Little girls in pretty boxes: The making and
breaking of elite gymnasts and figure skaters. New york:
Doubleday.
Smith, A. (Executive Producer). (1999, July 30). Children and sport
[Electronic radio transcript: The Sport Factor].
<http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/sportsf/ stories/sf990730.htm>,
accessed 10/4/2000
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DETERMINANTS OF INSTITUTIONAL
CHOICE IN MASS SPORT
Author:
Christoph Breuer
email:
Breuer@dshs-koeln.de
Co-authors:
Feiler, Svenja Hallmann, Kirstin
University:
Faculty:
Abstract
Aim of abstract - research question
Sport participation is a well researched phenomenon and
studies on general sport participation or on participation in
different sports have analysed different demographic-
economic indicators of that phenomenon. yet, it is still
unclear what fosters participation in different organisational
forms such as a sport club or a commercial sport provider.
There are different theoretical approaches that explain the
choice for a sport organisation such as for instance trust-
related theories (Anheier, 2005) or failure theories
(Heinemann, 1995). However, little empirical work in this
area concerning sport participation has been undertaken
until now. The purpose of this research is therefore to
examine the determinants of sport participation in a sport
club and a commercial sport centre, i.e. the key drivers of
institutional choice.
With regard to economic models of sport participation, a
demographic-economic model (Breuer, 2006) based on the
new household theory was used to analyse the
determinants of institutional choice in mass sports.
According to this study, constraints in time, income, and
human capital influence sport-related choices besides
demographic variables which in turn are correlated with
preferences (Pawlowski & Breuer, 2011). Moreover, crucial
socio-economic drivers of sport participation such as the
body concept (Mrazek, Fialova, & Bykhovskaya, 2004)
were additionally integrated into the model which are also
correlated to preferences. Since failure theories
(Heinemann, 1995) argue that market organisations show
different performance patterns than non-profit
organizations and some of them are related to individuals
constraints, it is assumed that institutional choice in mass
sports is determined by demographic and economic
factors.
Methodology, research design, and data analysis
The data were derived from two sport participation surveys
in Germany in 2009 using a Computer Assisted Telephone
Interview (CATI). The selection of the sample was carried
out using the Gabler-Hder approach to also include
people that cannot be found in the telephone book.
Moreover, the last-birthday method was used as a second
quality measure. A questionnaire asked for information on
general sports participation and about the sports played,
including the first and second sports played most often
within a week. A total of n= 3,026 interviews were
conducted. As the respondents were also asked about the
sport participation of their children, 848 cases for children
were added so that the overall sample was comprised of n
= 3,874. Logistic regression analyses were applied to
analyse the impact of the broadened demo-economical
model on sport participation in a sport club and in a
commercial sport centre.
The first estimated regression model for sport participation
in a sport club reveals a significant influence of the
demographic-economical model and body image on being
active in a sport club (=326.525;-2LL=1,785.541;
p=.000) with R Mc Fadden of 15.5 %. Thereby, income,
human capital, and the importance of being physical active
are significant positive predictors while being female and
having a migration background are negative predictors for
being active in a sport club. Age and age are also
significant predictors, forming a u-shaped curve with age
having a negative influence and age a positive impact.
The second model for sport participation in a commercial
sport centre shows a significant impact of the predictors
(=88.280;-2LL=1,352.718; p=.000) with R Mc Fadden
of 6.1 %. Human capital, being female, working time, and
importance of being physically active have a significant
positive impact on doing sports using a commercial
provider.
The results suggest that the importance of being physically
active is a decisive criterion for one s sport participation,
indicating an interrelationship between sport participation
and body image. yet, the responsibility for one s bodily
abilities had no impact. The influence of the demographic-
economical indicators is generally congruent with previous
findings on general sport participation, although clear
differences between choosing a sport club or a commercial
sport centre are shown. Long working hours have for
instance a significant positive impact on choosing a
commercial sport centre whereas having a migration
background negatively influences the choice of sport clubs.
Thus, the economic and demographic change of societies
in most Western European countries will most likely
influence the structure of mass sport markets.
References:
Anheier, H. K. (2005). Nonprofit organizations - theory,
management, policy. London: Routledge.
Breuer, C. (2006). Sportpartizipation in Deutschland - ein demo-
konomisches Modell [Sports participation in Germany - a demo-
economic model]. Sportwissenschaft .- The German Journal of
Sport Science, 36(3), 292-305.
Heinemann, K. (1995). Einfhrung in die konomie des Sports.
Schorndorf: Verlag Hofmann.
Mrazek, J., Fialova, L., & Bykhovskaya, I. (2004). Individualisation,
sport and body on Central and Eastern Europe. In G. Anders, J.
Mrazek, G. Norden & O. Weiss (Eds.), European integration and
sport. Mnster: Lit-Verlag.
Pawlowski, T., & Breuer, C. (2011). The Demand for Sports and
Recreational Services: Empirical Evidence from Germany.
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DIFFICULTIES OF SPORT
ORGANISATIONS FOR PEOPLE WITH
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITy A CASE
STUDy OF THE UK AND JAPAN
Author:
Nobuko Tanaka
email:
n-tanaka@tamacc.chuo-u.ac.jp
University:
Faculty:
Institute of Sport and Leisure Policy
Abstract
Aims:
The aim of this study is to identify the main difficulties for
athletes with intellectual disability (ID) sports organisations,
under the difficult situation which International Paralympic
Committee (IPC) has banned ID sport about for a decade.
In order to identify the characteristics of the Japanese
situation, this study employs the case study in the UK
which is one of the advanced nations in the area of
disability sports.
Backgrounds:
The IPC assembly held in November 2009 agreed to the
reinclusion of athletes with ID from the 2012 London
Paralympic Games. A decision will have considerable
significance for the management of sport organisations for
athletes with ID.
There are two reasons why this study focuses on
competitive sport for people with ID. First, sport
associations for people with ID globally tend to collaborate
with mainstream governing bodies and World
Championships are organised by the mainstream bodies.
Second, ID sports were excluded from the Paralympic
Games between 2001 and 2009 until the issue of the
regulation of eligibility was resolved satisfactorily in 2009.
As a result, in many countries, national sports
organisations for people with ID, especially for elite sports,
have faced difficulties in obtaining money from their
governments.
There is a difference in the political structure of disability
sport organisation, between the UK and Japan. In the UK,
disability sports are governed by the Department of the
Culture, Media and Sports which supervised both able
bodied and the disabled. Conversely, in Japan, the Ministry
of Welfare is governing disability sports (the mainstream
sport is governed by the different Ministry).
Methodology:
To achieve the aim of this study, this study conducts a
comparative study between UK (mainly England) and
Japan and focuses on the UK Sport Association for People
with LD (UKSAPLD) for England and on the Japan
Basketball Federation for Players with ID (JBF-FID) for
Japan, employing meta-analysis, case study and semi-
structure interview methods.
Results and discussion:
This study finds three crucial points to understand the
situation of ID sport organisations.
First, both organisations face the same difficulties because
sport for/ of people with ID has been excluded from IPC
sanctioned events for 10 years. Indeed, the impact of
being a non-Paralympic sport severely damaged their
administration, in particular in finding sponsorship and
fundraising. The bankruptcy of the English Sport
Association for People with Learning Disability in 2004 is a
typical example. Actors from both countries had felt
frustrated that ID sport had not clearly shown behaviours
to make decisions to solve the problems of ID sport
organisations, although ID sport organisations in both
countries have reported to the governments or the
quangos to change their difficult situation.
The second conclusion is that policy actors in both
UKSAPLD and JBF-FID believed that although both
organisations have recognised that for NGBs, disability
(elite) sports are not core agendas, it was crucial to work
with mainstream sports national governing bodies for the
development of sport for people with ID. Both UKSAPLD
and JBF-FID worked closely with mainstream NGB(s)
when they organised national coaching camps, athlete
selection, national championships and so on which relate
to athletes development.
Third, ID is not physically apparent, particularly. With
regards to people whose disability level is at a mild or
minimal level. These people are sometimes regarded as
able bodied and often live in mainstream society. However,
due to the nature of their disability, people with ID tend to
receive less government welfare support and public
attention. Moreover, their disability creates a difficult
situation, in particular JBF-FID, in trying to find a
sponsorship or obtain subsidies from the government.
These findings led to recognition of an important point. In
both countries, NGBs have provided supports to athletes
with ID. However, ID sports have not been the core
agendas of them. More importantly, although both
countries have policies which state that the disabled have
also sports rights, organisations have felt frustration with
the situation because the governments have not shown
behaviours or made some decisions to change the difficult
situations. These findings would be explained following the
discussion of Lukess (2005) the third dimensional power
that the political issues are kept out of politics, whether
through the operation of social forces and institutional
practices.
References:
Lukes Steven (2005) Power A Radical View, 2nd edition,
Hampshire: Palgrave.
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BLIND FOOTBALL: SPECTATORS
ExPERIENCE OF THE FORGOTTEN
WORLD CUP
Author:
Donna De Haan
email:
donnadehaan@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Faull, Andrea
Molnar, Gyozo
University:
Hogeschool van Amsterdam
Faculty:
School of Sports and Nutrition
Abstract
Aims
As English football fans continued to mourn their national
teams performance in the 2010 World Cup in South Africa,
the county of Herefordshire, nestled in the English
countryside was preparing to host a football world cup that
would show many fans a different side to the beautiful
game. The FA successfully bid to host the International
Blind Sports Association (IBSA) 2010 World Blind Football
Championships with the aim of developing a lasting impact
on visually-impaired football in the West Midlands region
and respective County Football Associations (Disability
Football Strategy 2010-2012). The aim of the current
study, supported by both the English Football Association
(FA) and the Royal National College for the Blind
(Hereford), was to review spectators experience of the
IBSA 2010 World Blind Football Championships, utilising
the notions of social and cultural capital to draw
comparisons to previous spectator research associated
with disability sport.
Generally, most international games organised for athletes
with disabilities have had low spectator numbers. Sherrill
(1986) reported anecdotal comments from athletes of the
1984 International Games for the Disabled who expressed
disappointment at the low attendance. The Paralympic
Games held in Barcelona in 1992 and in Sydney in 2000
were characterised as the most successful Games (by
commentators and athletes alike) partly due to the large
number of spectators attending the events. Studies
profiling spectators at disability sport events report that
spectators mainly belong to three categories: athletes
participating in the event (Sherrill, 1986), related
individuals (e.g., family members, friends) to the
participating athletes and unrelated individuals with
disabilities (Evaggelinou & Grekinis, 1998).
To collect empirical evidence, 285 spectators voluntarily
completed questionnaires over the duration of the event
which lasted 8 days and had an average daily attendance
of 586 spectators. The questionnaire was designed to
record the following information: general demographic
data, the individuals attendance at the event (particularly
how many days and hours they attended), with whom they
have attended and their reasons for attending. A further
section inquired specifically about their attitudes towards
blind football and whether the event might have changed
their perception of blind football. The items in the final two
sections focussed on attitudes towards the benefits of the
event and towards the social issue of visually-impaired /
disabled sports. The event benefits items were adapted
from previous studies (Delamere, Wankel & Hinch, 2001).
Given that no established measures of attitudes towards
visually-impaired / disabled sports existed, new items were
formulated. These eight items were developed using sport
and social inclusion research literature and drew on prior
qualitative studies (Sherry, Karg, and O'May, 2011).
Analysis of demographic data indicated a fairly even split
between men (56%) and women (44%) and a wide age
range of spectators from 12 years to over 50 years.
Although 5% of respondents were visually impaired and
46% of respondents knew somebody who was visually
impaired, for the vast majority of respondents (81%) this
was the first time they had been a spectator at an event for
athletes with disabilities. When asked if the event had
changed their attitude towards visually-impaired / disabled
individuals, 65% believe that it had and 36% reported that
they were very likely to attend a similar event in the
future. Most of the spectators were attracted to the event
due to it being local and their general interest in football
(71%) (few spectators had prior knowledge of blind
football, i.e., supported, participated, and/or socially related
to an athlete). This suggests that many of the spectators
were new to the concept of blind football and were
genuinely interested in experiencing it for the first time and
learning more about the sport.
This observation is not in line with previous research
indicating high percentages of attendance of friends and/or
family of participating athletes. On the contrary, this event
attracted new spectators, who, as a result of attending the
event, were keen to learn more about blind football and
would attend similar events in the future, pertaining to a
potential for increasing social inclusion. The key factors
associated with this new spectator profile appear to be
linked to locality, the community feel of the event, which
may indicate an intended renewal of social democracy,
which in turn may raise the human capital of disabled
athletes and the social capital of disability sport events.
The increase of social capital, embedded in the dense
network of norms of reciprocity, could enhance the
productivity of disability sports. This, we argue, will initially
manifest itself locally, with the view to global extension.
References:
Delamere, T. A., Wankel, L. M., & Hinch, T. D. (2001). Development
of a scale to measure resident attitudes toward the social impacts
of community festivals, part 1: item generation and purification of
the measure. Event Management, 7, 11-24.
Evaggelinou, C., & Grekinis, D. (1998). A survey of spectators at
the international Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Games. Adapted
Physical Activity Quarterly. 15, 25-35.
Sherrill, C. (1986). Social and psychological dimensions of sports
for disabled athletes. In C. Sherrill (Ed.), Sports and disabled
athletes (pp.21-33). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Sherry, E., Karg, A., & O'May, F. (2011) Social capital and sport
events: Spectator attitudinal change and the homeless world cup.
Sport in Society , 14 (1), 111-125.
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THE CONCEPT OF DISABILITy IN ISLAM
AND ITS RELEVANCE TO
UNDERSTANDING CHANGE IN SPORT
ORGANIZATIONS
Author:
Dawood Hashem
email:
dawood_72@hotmail.com
Co-authors:
Hashem Dawood and Vassil Girgnov
University:
Brunel University
Faculty:
School of Sport & Education
Abstract
Organisational change is a process of changing various
aspects of an organisation for the purpose of improving its
culture, operations, technology, or management. This study
examines the interpretation of the concept of disability in
Islam and its relevance for understanding organisational
change in the Disability Sport Federation in the UAE The
study addresses an orthodoxy in organisational studies:
hostile environments usually hamper organisational
change. However, in the UAE, religion, which informs
peoples viewpoints and conduct, has been very supportive
of sport provision for people with disability. But concerted
organisational efforts in this direction only began in mid
1990s and so far have failed to deliver any significant
improvements.
The study employs the contextualist approach to
organisational change (Pettigrew, 1987), which considers
content, context and process as the three key interrelated
dimensions of change. The role of context, and culture and
religion in particular, in analysing organisational change,
has largely been neglected by sport management scholars.
The inner context relates to the internal settings of an
organisation undergoing change.The outer context refers
to the external settings of an organisation and includes its
economic, political, religious and social environments. The
study also sheds light on the way in which Islam
recommends dealing with people with disability in society.
The methods of investigation include literature review and
document analysis to unpack the interpretations of
disability in Islam and their implications for sport
organisations working in this field.
A content analysis of the Quran was undertaken to
determine the role of society (i.e., sport providers) and the
policies of the UAE Disability Sport Federation in order to
understand how those teachings have informed current
policies in terms of priorities and methods of delivery.
Public attitudes and practices related to people with
disabilities in the UAE have been mainly informed by the
teachings of Islam, which is the main religion followed in
the country. Islam recommends that society should look
after people with disability and provide them with
opportunities for health, education, social care,
employment, and sport in order to help them integrate in
society. According to Islamic interpretations of disability, the
main responsibility lies with society to not only have
positive attitudes toward the people with disability, but also
to encourage them improve their social conditions (Ahmed,
2007, Al-Quran Al-Karim, 2009). Islam recommends that
peoples physical condition can be made better by sports
and recreation. Islam also encourages practicing sports
and recreational activities in order to improve and support
the condition of the people with disability (Al-ghazali,1994)
The Islamic view of disability could be seen as a
predecessor of the social model of disability, which has
been gaining recognition in the West in the past 40 years.
The social model of disability does not locate disability in
an impaired or malfunctioning body. Instead, it views
disability, not as a result of individual impairment, but as a
result of social obstacles (Shakespeare, 2006). Religion
also shapes the focus of organizational efforts, but despite
the social solution to the problem of disability promoted by
the teaching of Islam, very little has been done by the DSF.
There are only five clubs in the UAE located in three main
cities and the rest of the country does not have adequate
sport provision and a club network.
From an Islamic point of view the creation, in 1996, by the
UAE government of the Disability Sport Federation (DSF),
as the only organisation responsible for promoting
disability sports in the country, does not represent a radical
change in religious and cultural environments. However, it
does constitute a major shift in policy and the delivery of
sport services to people with disabilities. Moreover, the
prevalence of religion over the personal and legal realms
creates favourable conditions for a truly strategic
organisational behaviour as it eliminates cultural and social
uncertainty as determining factors in managing change.
Religion also provides the main language of change, which
becomes a valuable instrument for managing
organisational change.
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References:
Ahmed, D.A.A. (2007). Gender, Disability and Islam: Living with
Visual Impairment in Bahrain, PhD Thesis: University of Warwick,
School of Health and Social Studies.
Al-Ghazali, M.(1994). Religion and sport: Jeddah, Dar Al-Qalam .
Al-Quran Al-Karim (The Holy Quran). (2009). Damascus, Syria:
AL-yamama.
Pettigrew, A. (1985). Context and action in the transformation of the
firm, Journal of Management Studies. 24, 649-670.
Shakespeare,T. (2006). Disability Rights and Wrongs. London:
Routledge.
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DESCRIPTION OF SOME FEATURES
ASSOCIATED WITH THE MANAGEMENT
SySTEMS OF FITNESS CENTERS IN
MADRID
Author:
Sonia Garcia-Merino
email:
sonia.garcia@uem.es
Co-authors:
Boned, C.J.
University:
Universidad Europea de Madrid
Faculty:
School of Sports Science
Abstract
Aim of paper
Spain now ranks second worldwide in terms of number of
customers in the fitness center even though research in
this sector are not significant, so the aim of this study was
to determine whether an industry which has a high growth
was good management systems, with the target population
of Madrid
Theoretical background/Literature Review
The situation of the fitness industry in Spain has been
rarely tested in the field of scientific research (Lagrosen y
Lagrosen, 2007) Most existing studies are market research
and are made with the aim of providing information about
the sector from the viewpoint of the business area. Over
the past decade, Campos (2000), ASOMED (2004) and
Consumer Eroski (2004, 2006) addressed different aspects
of Spanish fitness centers but did not fully explain their
management systems. Know what management systems
are used in this sector, we would improve the quality of
existing services in fitness centers and customer
satisfaction.
Methodology, research design and data analysis:
The sample unit was a prvate fitness center located in the
community of Madrid. To determine the sample size, a
census was performed on this type of facility, since there
was not to date any reference that would provide this
information (N=409). The random sample was selected
and stratified geographically. The result was 49.3% (n =
202) of the sampling, allowing results extrapolated to the
entire population with a confidence level of 95% and a
margin of sampling error of + / - 5.
For the data collection, an Ad Hoc questionnaire was
developed and administered through a personal interview
with the manager of each of the centers with an average
interview duration of 40 minutes. The questionnaires of
included questions related to the area of services, facilities
professionals and thus attempting to cover all fields.
Descriptive analysis was performed with the statistical
program SPSS 16.0.
Of the 202 questionnaires made to the managers of fitness
centers, 29.7% belonged to a chain of establishments,
73.8% occupied a leased facility, 34.7% belong to a
recognized professional association and 61.9% were
managed through a limited partnership. Regarding
customer service, only 8.4% of the centers studied had a
specific department to carry out this function, while 61.4%
engaged in customer service from the reception center.
This information is similar to that found by Consumer
Eroski (2006) in a study of Spanish public fitness centers.
In addition, 50.0% of the centers developed studies to
determine the degree of customer satisfaction with the
services provided and 57.9% had mechanisms to detect
the reasons why members drop-out.
A similar percentage had a mailbox for complaints and
suggestions as a communication channel between the
client and the center (51.0%) and only 12.4% had a
website where the user could interact beyond the
consultation information related to the center. The use of
web pages seems to have grown among fitness centers
since ASOMED (2004) detected that 30% of fitness
centers used the website as a tool for marketing.
In terms of management practices related to work
responsibilities,, 76.2% of the fitness centers have
developed a plan of occupational hazards which is
mandatory for all Spanish companies. On the other hand,
55.9% were equipped with a training plan, only 34.7% had
a career plan for their employees formally established and
32.2% had defined the functions of each position through a
catalog of positions. 59.4% developed communication
strategies to periodically inform workers about
developments within the company..
Conclusions:
1. Fitness centers in the Community of Madrid are
primarily located on leased premises and set up as limited
partnerships. The presence of multinationals in this sector
is very high and the involvement with profesional
associations is very low.
2. Customer service within fitness centers is not one of the
main features of their management systems because the
presence of these specialized departments is low. As such,
the mechanisms of communication between the client and
the center is poor.
3. Management systems of Madrid fitness centers are not
characterized by acceptable management practices in
regards to human resources because they do not focus on
career plans, training systems, and the existence of clearly
defined job profiles as well as communication with in the
company.
References:
Asociacin Madrilea de Empresarios Deportivos (2004). As son
los centros deportivos espaoles II. Sport Managers, 34, 6-11.
Campos, C. (2000). Industria Espaola Fitness 2000. Instalaciones
Deportivas xxI, 107, 8-15.
Consumer Eroski (2004). Ms de la mitad suspenden el examen.
Consumer, 78, 5-9.
Consumer Eroski (2006). La atencin y el asesoramiento al cliente
de los gimnasios siguen en baja forma. A fondo-Anlisis-Informe,
35-41.
Lagrosen, S., y Lagrosen, y. (2007). Exploring service quality in the
health and fitness industry. Managing Service Quality, 17, 41-53.
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NEGOTIATING MULTIPLE IDENTITIES IN
THE FIELD OF SPORT MANAGEMENT
Author:
Larena Hoeber
email:
larena.hoeber@uregina.ca
Co-authors:
Kerwin, Shannon
University:
University of Regina
Faculty:
Faculty of Kinesiology & Health Studies
Abstract
Aim of Abstract
Individuals are often involved in many social groups and
hold numerous social identities (Stoner, Perrew, &
Munyon, 2011; Stryker & Burke, 2000). These identities
can be multiple, shifting and competing (Alvesson,
Ashcraft, & Thomas, 2008). Stoner et al. acknowledged the
presence of peripheral identities, where the hierarchy of
these identities varied from situation to situation. For
example, it has been found that those who study sport
fans do not typically reveal their own sport fan identity in
their research (Schimmel, Harrington, & Bielby, 2007).
Shifting between peripheral sport fan and sport researcher
identities may significantly influence an individuals feelings
of self, which subsequently influences their behaviours
(Organ, 1997). Thus, sport management researchers may
need to acknowledge and negotiate their multiple identities
to determine how emotions, actions, and reactions to
variable peripheral identities influences what they research
and how it is researched. The aim of this abstract is to
critically explore the negotiation of multiple identities of two
individuals within the academic sport management field to
determine if and how multiple identities influence the
research process.
Sport management researchers may possess multiple
peripheral identities that include being an academic,
researcher, teacher, service provider, as well as being a
sport fan (Schimmel et al., 2007). Furthermore, it may be
assumed that the adoption of specific peripheral identities
varies within certain contexts. A sport management
researchers sport fan identity may be suppressed because
it is either assumed one would be a sport fan or because
there is a negative connotation attached to this identity in
the academic context (Schimmel et al., 2007). Interestingly,
Stoner et al. (2011) noted that individuals who manage
their peripheral identities based on other peoples
perceptions of them often possess conflicting feelings and
reactions when the peripheral identity is put to use.
Furthermore, the hierarchy and preference for peripheral
identities is in constant flux (Stoner et al., 2011; Stryker &
Burke, 2000) where the negotiation and silencing of the
sport fan identity may marginalize an identity that can
inform sport research and theory (Schimmel et al., 2007).
Methodology and Research Design
Collaborative self-ethnography (cf. Alvesson, 2003; Buford
May & Pattillo-McCoy, 2000) was used to uncover the
multiple identities of two female sport management
researchers. For approximately a year and a half, the co-
authors documented and reflected on their identities as
women, sport scholars, and sport fans. The authors took
field notes and pictures during their trips to professional
sport events in the summer and fall of 2010. At this time,
both authors reported back to one another on how they felt
at various sport events and the experiences they had as
female sports fans. After several events were attended, the
researchers came back together to discuss what they had
seen, heard, and felt. All of their discussions were tape
recorded, and transcribed verbatim. The recorded
conversations lasted one to two hours, and often came
back to the co-authors struggles with multiple identities.
Over the term of data collection, the discussions evolved
and key themes were recorded and discussed at length.
Although the experiences were unique, it was clear that
multiple identities played a large role in influencing their
individual attitudes and decisions as sport management
researchers.
Results, Discussion, and Conclusion
The findings highlight that individuals in this context
possess multiple identification targets, where context
seems to play a large role in shaping peripheral identities.
The researchers did not feel they had lost their sport fan
identity in the academic sport management setting;
however, they did acknowledge that that these identities
were often negotiated and overshadowed by their
researcher/academic identities. Further, perceptions of
need to negotiate identity varied when the researchers
were among males versus females in that negotiations
seemed more prevalent and purposeful among female
sport management colleagues and other female sport fans.
Both individuals reflected on how these peripheral identity
negotiations influenced what and how they conducted
research in the sport management field.
The negotiation of multiple (sometimes conflicting)
identities surrounding being a female sport fan and a
female sport management researcher highlights the need
for academics to be self-reflexive during the research
process (Schimmel et al., 2007). Specifically, suppressing
sport fan identity may contribute to further polarization
between (1) theory-based sport research and (2) research
that makes practical contributions (Schimmel et al., 2007).
Creating a harmonized balance between sport fan and
sport researcher identities by acknowledging the influence
of our sport fan identities could potentially enhance theory
regarding how sport is experienced and consumed. This
and other implications will be discussed.
References:
Alvesson, M., Ashcraft, K.L., & Thomas, R. (2008). Identity matters:
Reflections on the construction of identity scholarship in
organization studies. Organization, 15(1), 5-28.
Buford May, R. A., & Pattillo-McCoy, M. (2000). Do you see what I
see? Examining a collaborative ethnography. Qualitative Inquiry, 6,
65-87.
Schimmel, K., Harrington, C.L., & Bielby, D. (2007). Keep your fans
to yourself: The disjuncture between sport studies and pop culture
studies perspectives on fandom. Sport in Society, 10(4), 580-600.
Stoner, J., Perrew, P. L., & Munyon, T. P. (2011). The role of
identity in extra-role behaviors: Development of a conceptual
model. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 26, 94-107.
Stryker, S. & Burke, P. J. (2000). The past, present, and future of
an identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63, 284-297.
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SPORT MANAGEMENT GRADUATE
EMPLOyMENT - AN INTERNATIONAL
AUDIT OF EMPLOyER NEED
Author:
Paul Emery
email:
p.emery@latrobe.edu.au
Co-authors:
Crabtree, Ruth Lamb, David
University:
La Trobe University
Faculty:
Law & Management
Abstract
Rationale
Despite the soaring costs and demand for University
education, widespread concerns remain at the vocational
preparedness of graduates across a plethora of subjects,
not least in the emerging field of sport management. To
professionally equip graduates for study-field employment
minimally entails an in-depth understanding of
contemporary industry practice, employer expectations and
the nature of the sport management profession. Whilst
course claims are frequently made to fitness for
employment purpose, limited empirical research has been
undertaken to identify employment opportunities and the
selection criteria used to appoint sport managers.
Aim
The purpose of this international study is to determine and
compare the employer needs of sport management
positions in Australia, New Zealand and England. More
specifically it seeks to identify the nature of study discipline
employment opportunities, the management and
leadership expectations, as well as the employability skill
set and selection criteria of sport management entry level
positions.
Theoretical underpinning
The conceptual and analytical framework for this research
is based upon the Service Skills Australia (2009) definition
of the sport industry, the ENSSHE & EOSE (1997) sport
management occupations classification scheme, the
national graduate employability skills of BIHECC (2007),
and the management and leadership occupational
standards of the UK (Management Standards Centre,
2009). These provide a comparative and benchmarking
standard by which the work activities and people needs of
sport management positions can be profiled.
Methodology
A national occupational audit of convenience, replicated in
three different countries, was carried out over a six month
time period. Sourced from the primary employment
websites, both generic and sport-specific, of each
participating country, this entailed a weekly collection of all
publically available e-promotional materials of paid sport
management positions. Regardless of management level,
all full and part-time employment data were collected and
then screened to remove job and position duplications as
well as positions that realistically sport and recreation
management graduates would be ineligible for. The data
were then systematically organised in Microsoft Excel,
before being exported and analyzed using SPSS and
NVivo software.
Results
Whilst comparative data are still being analysed, the
Australian data set for example comprise a data collection
frame of 684 positions - 10% team leader, 64% first level
manager, 23% middle manager, and 3% senior
management positions. The diverse range of opportunities
is exemplified by different job titles, sector involvement,
responsibility levels and more than 35 individual sport
specific roles.
The presentation will further provide comparisons of
average base salaries, the type of management and
leadership activities employers expect, both at the general
competence cluster and specific individual levels, the
required skill sets and essential selection criteria
particularly focussing on entry level (team and first level)
management positions. National similarities and
differences will additionally be reported.
Implications and conclusions
These findings possess important management
implications at the industry, sport organisation, university
and student levels. For example, at the University level
they can assist in better promotion, industry definition and
course delivery against government initiated fit for purpose
agendas, and at the student level they can help create
more realistic employment expectations and act as valued
differentiators to improve individual recruitment prospects.
Further research is required to validate these findings,
particularly adopting other stakeholder perspectives, and
bridge the gap between educators who are strongly
influenced by academic rationales and employers who are
driven by practical realities. Enhancing the transition and
development of more employable sport management
graduates can only help to produce more competent highly
skilled sport managers and professionalise the industry in
the future.
References:
BIHECC (Business Industry and Higher Education Collaboration
Council) (2007). Graduate employability skills. Canberra: Australian
Government Publishing Services.
ENSSHE (European Network of Sport Sciences in Higher
Education) & EOSE (European Observatoire for Sport Employment)
(1997). Sport Management Occupations in Europe: Report from 7
countries. SOCRATES.
Management Standards Centre (2010). National occupational
standards for management and leadership. Available online:
Retrieved on 15th May, 2010, from
https://www.managers.org.uk/sites/default/files/user23/2008%20NO
S%20units%20for%20directory.pdf
Service Skills Australia (2009). The sport, fitness and recreation
industry. Available online: Retrieved on 25th March, 2009 from
http://www.serviceskills.com.au/index.php?option=com_content&tas
k=view&id=933&Itemid=2254
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RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SPORTS
PROJECTS
Author:
Lise Costa
email:
liseglc@yahoo.com.br
Abstract
Sports are a worldwide practice and its consumption (either
by participating or watching) is a kind of leisure largely
widespread in society, according to Morgan and Summers
(2005). The media, through the exposure of events,
childrens school and family experiences in the sports
world, the idols who exhibit great achievements are all
factors that guide the personal interests of a particular
sport.
In this globalized world, it is important to understand sport
itself as a business, and a sporting event as a way of
disclosure. The sporting event, when developed and
promoted correctly, greatly increases its both directly
through actively participation in the event and indirectly
following it. ?A study carried out by the Fundaao Getalio
Vargas (FGV - Brazil) reveals that the global sports
business movement generates the worldwide sum of U.S.
$ 1 trillion" (Monaco, 2007).
Sports in society have a tendency to define the national
identity and to distinguish the identity from another
(Morgan and Summers, 2005), and further define the
beliefs, culture, values and visibility of each country on the
world scenery. A sporting event, regardless of its form of
manifestation, must be planned strategically in order to
achieve successful results. Planning should include a
sports project previously structured and analyzed, so that
the event will not result in losses to the organizers,
sponsors, or to consumers of that service: spectators and
athletes. Thus, it is important to be aware of potential risks
and threats to the event to be developed because, project
Risk Management ?is an uncertain event or condition that,
if it occurs, has a positive or a negative effect on at least
one project objective, such as time, cost, scope, or quality
(PMI, 2004), of the event. In other words, the risk analysis
of a sports project should not be understood as
superfluous, but as essential to its success.This study aims
to present how a well-structured Risk Management is
essential to the development of a good sporting event,
through the specification of Risk Management plan, and its
analysis of a sports project with the evaluation of its
importance for the sporting event. Regarding the data
collection, a review of the literature on project
management, sports events and sports projects, as well as
the review of specifics scientific studies and articles
published in Portuguese, Spanish and English was
conducted. Therefore, the study is of a qualitative research
nature.
In accordance with Bombarda (2008), project
administration or project management is the application of
knowledge, skills and techniques to develop activities
related to achieving a set of predefined goals. The
knowledge and practice of project management are best
described in terms of its elements processes. By the
analysis of needs and establishment of project objectives,
it is important to develop a balancing of conflicting
demands for quality, scope, time and cost of the project, as
well as assessing its risks and, later on, determine what
strategies and adaptations are necessary for its triumph.
Risk Management seeks to maximize the probability and
consequences of positive events and to minimize the
probability and consequences of adverse events (PMI,
2004). A well-structured sports project leads to social,
economic and cultural development and, to its members, it
brings, confidence, prestige and good proposals in future.
Therefore, the Risk Management of a sports project is
crucial to the success of the event. Its correct identification,
analysis and implantation will guide, previously, the
organizers and their team to the formulation of alternatives
and even essential changes in plans, avoiding, thus, the
raising of costs and the harming of quality, and maintaining
the deadline.
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References:
Bombarda, M.A. (2008) Gerenciamento de Projetos / PMI (Project
Management Institute. Retrieved from:
http://www.administradores.com.br/informe-se/artigos/
gerenciamento-de-projetos-pmi-project-management-
institute/23736. available in: 03/07/2010.
Monaco, F.C. (2007) Miopia esportiva. Revista GV Executivo-
EAESP. So Paulo, 6 (3), 59-63p.
Morgan, M.J., and Summers, J. (2005). Sports marketing. Victoria:
Thomson PMI (Project Management Institute): A guide to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge, PMBOK, 2004.
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A REAL LOOK AT FANTASy:
DOES MONEy MATTER?
Author:
Joris Drayer
email:
jdrayer@temple.edu
Co-authors:
Dwyer, Brendan - Virginia Commonwealth University
Shapiro, Stephen - Old Dominion University
University:
Temple University
Abstract
In 2006, legislation was passed making many online
gambling activities illegal in the United States. However,
while sports betting and online poker were included in this
legislation, fantasy sports were specifically given an
exemption which has sparked considerable debate within
the gambling literature (Holleman, 2006; Leonard, 2009).
This exemption is significant given the rapid and
precipitous growth of fantasy sports into a multi-billion
dollar industry with 30 million participants within North
America alone (Fantasy Sports Trade Association [FSTA],
2008).
Within the legal debate are two primary points of
contention. First, fantasy sports may or may not lead to
the same anti-social effects associated with traditional
forms of gambling. Second, fantasy sports may be
considered a game of luck or a game of skill and this
distinction is likely to lead to markedly different behavioral
outcomes. However, while many authors have theorized
about the answers to these questions through legal
research, there are currently no consumer-focused
investigations regarding the impact of playing fantasy
sports with a league entry fee (LEF). Therefore, the
current study was driven by the following research
questions:
RQ1: Do attitudinal differences exist between participants
with respect fantasy baseball motives, locus of control,
perception of skill or chance, and anticipated fantasy
baseball finish based on the amount of fantasy baseball
LEFs allocated?
RQ2: Do behavioral differences exist between participants
with respect fantasy baseball participation and forms of
MLB consumption based on the amount of fantasy
baseball LEFs allocated?
The target population for this study was fantasy baseball
participants over the age of 18. A sample of 1,500 FSTA
members was randomly selected to participate in this
study. A total of 253 usable surveys were returned for a
response rate of 16.9%. The questionnaire used for the
current study consisted of three sections with a total of 38
items including Dwyer and Kims adapted Motivational
Scale for Fantasy Football Participation, locus of control
items, and behavioral intention items. A question on how
much money participants allocated to fantasy baseball
league entry fees for gambling purposes was also
included. Responses from this item were assessed and
used to segment participants into three categories (non-
entry fee participants [NEFP] allocated no fees, low entry
fee participants [LEFP] allocated less than $100 in
league fees, and (3) high entry fee participants [HEFP]
allocated more than $100 in league fees).
With regard to the research questions, MANOVA results
suggested significant differences between the groups with
respect to attitudinal and behavioral contrasts (F [df]=5.526
[14], p<.001; F [df]=3.603[18], p<.001). Interpreting the
Tamhanes post hoc results, the entertainment motive
scores were different between NEFPs and HEFPs, while
the gambling and social interaction motive scores were
different between NEFPs and both LEFPs and HEFPs.
Additionally, a significant difference between NEFPs and
HEFPs for the amount of money spent on fantasy baseball
products, the likelihood of purchasing MLB Extra Innings,
and the likelihood of purchasing favorite team
merchandise. Significant differences between NEFPs and
both LEFPs and HEFPs were present for the likelihood of
attending a MLB game and the likelihood of purchasing
MLB merchandise. Lastly, a significant difference resulted
between HEFPs and both NEFPs and LEFPs for the total
number of years of fantasy baseball participation.
There were several interesting motivational differences
between groups. Of particular importance was the
difference in the social interaction motive. Specifically,
those who made a LEF contribution of any amount were,
on average, more highly motivated by the social benefits
associated with fantasy baseball. While the literature
suggests one of the primary reasons many forms of
gambling remain illegal is due to their anti-social effects
(Holleman, 2006, p. 74), these findings suggest fantasy
baseball has just the opposite effect on its participants.
The findings related to the gambling motive also merit
additional discussion. First, the scale scores remained low
meaning that for all participants, money is not a primary
reason to play fantasy baseball. Second, while it
confirmed the distinction between respondents who do not
pay fees and respondents who pay fees, there was not a
significant difference between the low fee group and the
high fee group. These surprising results further indicate the
limited influence of gambling in fantasy baseball
participation which once again supports fantasy sports
exemption from anti-gambling legislation.
The current study also yielded several interesting results
related the impact of LEFs on consumption behavior.
These additional results, discussions points, and
suggestions for future research will be presented.
References:
Dwyer, B., & Kim, y. (2011). For love or money: Developing and
validating a motivational scale for fantasy football participation.
Journal of Sport Management, 25, 70-83.
Fantasy Sports Trade Association (2008). Fantasy sport consumer
spending: Fantasy sports products and services. Denver, CO: Kim
R. Beason.
Holleman, M. C. (2006). Fantasy football: Illegal gambling or legal
game of skill? North Carolina Journal of Law & Technology, 8, 59-
80.
Leonard, B. M. (2009). Highlighting the drawbacks of the UIGEA:
Proposed rules reveal heavy burdens. Drake Law Review, 57(515).
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THE STUDy OF SPORTS SERVICE
PROCESS DESIGN AND APPLICATION
OF RFID TECHNOLOGy
Author:
Tzu-yi Kao
email:
yykao0607@gmail.com
Co-authors:
yang, Ming-Hsien
Chen, Hung-yan
University:
Fu Jen Catholic University
Faculty:
Graduate Institute of Business Administration
Abstract
Aim of abstract/paper
Service process design for the sports center management
is a very important issue. Sports center is a typical
customer-oriented business. Having good services system
design can ensure that consumers get better comfortable
and professional service quality. Therefore, the study has
three major objectives. First, the study is using the concept
of service to clarify the service process of large sports
center and the service contact point of customers. Second,
this research probe into the feasibility of applying Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) technology in the sports
center from the perspective of stakeholders. To discuss
how to implement RFID technologies in service touch point
of customers of sports center. Moreover, the study
analyzes the value perception of consumers gained from
RFID applications.
Service process design for sports center in terms of the
service industry is important. Sports Center is a typical
customer-oriented enterprises. Having good services
system design can ensure that consumers get better
comfortable and professional service quality. The concept
of service blueprint (Bitner et al., 2008Zeithaml et
al.,Shostack, 19871982) have been used to analyse and
to fathom the service process of sports center. Service
blueprinting is a process analysis methodology proposed
by Shostack (Shostack, 1987). The proposed blueprint
allows us to identify the critical service processes and
customer activities. And it is one of the purposes of this
research. Meanwhile, this research examines how
customer value may be affected by deploying RFID
technologies within sports service process. Business
articles address operational cost savings and improved
inventory management as key benefits of deploying RFID.
Customers may view these RFID applications to offer both
benefits and drawbacks. This research demonstrates that
individuals will recognize far more value from RFID service
applications than just cost savings and inventory
availability. The research uses the concept of service
blueprint to serve the viewpoint of service supply and
service demand, discovered that RFID technology can be
disposed on the process of service .
In order to answer the question, qualitative surveys are
conducted. In-depth interviews to three decision makers of
sport policies in enterprise are made. Two reference
models have been built after the empirical data were
collected and then cross-examined by three expertises.
Second, in order to understand further the customer
perceived value of RFID technology applying in the sports
center, a questionnaire survey following Heim et al.,(2009)
research is been implemented. The survey is administered
to a convenience sample of 211 undergraduate students.
Using first step results, the study conducts numerous
service application scenarios of RFID technology, and to
acquire individuals recognized value from RFID service
applications.
The study is used the concept of service blueprint to serve
the viewpoint of service supply and service demand,
discovered that RFID technology can be disposed on the
process of service appointment form and make
reservations, the customer arrived, security control,
consumer registration, the locker room use, use of sports
facilities management, exercise prescription management,
and other personal spend management; service process
program in the backcourt as assets on the acquisition of
equipment management, classification, numbers, landing,
filing, lease use (targeting), inventory, maintenance. RFID
application point of after the field activities of the staff
include such as marketing planning operations,
accounting, human resource management (staffing and
location), cleaning and maintenance operations, security
management, event planning operations. To analyse
empirical data of customers perceived value, shown by the
sample mean, saving time (M = 4.217), having
convenience (M = 4.05), the service quality promoted (M
= 3.90), the economic costs cutting (M = 3.81),
entertainment ( M = 3.46) are the top five perceived value
of the customers. The result find out that consumers agree
the sports center applied RFID technologies to service, the
technology can help greatly to promote service quality, to
actualize buying products / services to ultimate functions,
minimizing costs, greatly facilitate the personal use of
RFID sensor, greatly facilitate the personal use of sports
facilities, to reduce the individual waiting time, minimize the
handling of staff required for service time, maximizing the
protection of personal consumer privacy, personal
information tracking minimize, maximize the use of fun,
minimize the use of frustration, maximize personal safety
and physical security risk minimization.
References:
Bitner, M.J., Ostrom, A.& Morgan, F. (2007). Service blueprinting: a
practical tool for service innovation.Centre for Services Leadership,
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, working paper.
Heim,G. R., Wentworth Jr., W.R. & Peng, D. (2009) .The Value to
the Customer of RFID in Service Applications. Decision Sciences,
40, p.477-512.
Shostack, G. L. (1982). How to Design a Service. European Journal
of Marketing, 16(1), 49-63.
Shostack, G. L. (1987). Service Positioning Through Structural
Change. Journal of Marketing, 51(1), 34-43.
Zeithaml, V. A., & Bitner, M. J., Gremler, D.D. (2006). Services
marketing : integrating customer focus across the firm. Boston,
McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
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ANALySING E-SERVICE QUALITy IN
PROFESSIONAL SPORTS CLUBS
Author:
Torsten Schlesinger
email:
torsten.schlesinger@ispw.unibe.ch
University:
University of Berne
Faculty:
Institute of Sport Science
Abstract
Introduction
Providing various electronic services opens up a variety of
lucrative marketing and sales opportunities for sports
clubs. However, it is the quality of these e-services that is
decisive for stabilizing existing customer relationships and
generating new customer groups. Empirical studies in
other branches have shown that the quality of internet
service provision can be a more important success factor
than, for example, lower prices (Zeithaml et al., 2002). In
order to ensure that this quality is optimal, sports clubs
need to develop a clear understanding of the customer's
needs and preferences. Therefore, this paper pursues the
following goals: (1) to develop a measurement concept for
assessing the service quality of e-services of professional
sports clubs; (2) to analyse the relations between e-service
quality and customers responses.
Theoretical Frameworks
In sports marketing, researchers have given considerable
attention to developing multidimensional factor models to
capture service quality in sport clubs (e.g. De Knop et al.,
2004; Shilbury, 1994). However, it is not possible to gain
an adequate assessment of the quality of a sports club's e-
services simply by applying these measurement models as
they stand. The particular features of e-services such as
the substitution of interpersonal interactions through
information technology applications lead to changes in the
consumer's expectations, and evaluations of service
quality (Cox and Dale, 2001).The existing approaches in
other service domains offer valuable starting points for the
assessment of e-service quality of sports clubs. A universal
approach applied across all branches is questionable,
because most measurement models were developed for a
specific context with its own specific basic conditions.
Hence, it is essential to adapt a model for the specific
context. Therefore, the five dimensions of the SERVQUAL
were modified and extended to fit the special features of e-
services. These suggest the integration of Internet-related
aspects such as the quality of technological resources,
security, and user friendliness (e.g. Bauer et al., 2004). In
addition, with e-services, it is necessary to include a
hedonic component that is also gaining increasing
importance in classic services in sports.
Furthermore, there is a unanimous agreement within
service research that the quality of service delivery has a
decisive influence on customer satisfaction and consumer
loyalty across various service settings. As a result,
customer satisfaction and consumer loyalty can be viewed
as central variables in e-service quality.
Methodology
To assess the utility of the model developed to measures
e-service quality and the postulated causal relations, an
empirical study was carried out with the Swiss National-
League A ice hockey club SC Berne. The study focused on
the analysis of the e-service quality of the club's online
merchandising shop. Data were collected from an online
survey of 150 customers. According to Hinkin's (1995)
recommendations regarding item-to-response ratio, this
sample size is acceptable for CFA of the dimensionality of
e-services quality. As all the constructs examined in the
measurement model showed above-threshold values, good
convergent validity (factor reliability>0.70; AVE>0.5) and
discriminant validity is assumed. The global goodness of fit
also confirmed that the developed e-service measurement
model has an acceptable model fit (2/df=2.05; CFI=0.902;
RMSEA=0.078). The postulated causal relations between
e-service quality, customer satisfaction and consumer
loyalty were tested by estimating the structural equation
model.
Results
First, five e-service quality dimensions were identified:
technological quality, functionality, enjoyment, security, and
reliability. The dimension functionality has the strongest
impact on the total construct 'service quality', making it the
most critical dimension. Second, the results also indicate
that positive evaluations of e-service quality increase
customer satisfaction (=0.36) and consumer loyalty
(=0.27) within the club-specific e-service context of an
online merchandising shop. Also, there was a significant
relation between customer satisfaction and consumer
loyalty (=0.64). Furthermore, the e-service quality has a
positive effect on consumer loyalty through a rise in the
mediator customer satisfaction (indirect effect:
0.36*0.64=0.24).
Discussion
This study expands the view of how to conceptualize and
measure e-service quality in sports clubs. The ability to
dissect the quality experience will allow managers more
control and faster response to areas that are weakening
the service experience. The dimensions of e-service
quality can help in the evaluation of e-service quality and
in the design of e-service experiences that are tailored to
the customers wants and needs. Nevertheless some
limitations must be acknowledged: So we recognize that
the nature of the survey and the sample size provide some
constraints that reduce the need to replicate the findings
using different (larger) samples sizes and types of e-
services in sport clubs. This in turn indicates the particular
importance of replication studies within sport-related
service research.
References:
Bauer, H.H., Falk, T., & Hammerschmidt, M. (2004). Messung und
Konsequenzen von Servicequalitt im E-Commerce. Marketing
ZFP, 26, 45-57.
Cox, J., & Dale, B. (2001). Service quality and e-commerce. An
exploratory analysis. Managing Service Quality, 11, 121-131.
De Knop, P., van Hoecke, J., & de Bosscher, V. (2004). Quality
management in sports clubs. Sport Management Review, 7, 57-77.
Hinkin, T. (1995). A review of scale development practices in the
study of organizations. Journal of Management, 21, 967-988.
Shilbury, D. (1994). Delivering quality service in professional sport.
Zeithaml, V.A., Parasuraman, A., & Malhotra, A. (2002). Service
quality delivery through web sites: a critical review of extant
knowledge. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30, 362-
375.
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Sport & Social Media
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Themes
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204
ONLINE PERSONAL BRANDING FROM
PROFESSIONAL DUTCH SPORTS
ATHLETES VIA SOCIAL MEDIA
Author:
Joris Coppes
email:
joriscoppes@hotmail.com
University:
Sport Management Institute the Netherlands
Abstract
In the last few years turbulent changes in the Personal
branding of professional sports athletes become the norm.
Online Personal branding (OPB), the art of attracting and
retaining more actively opportunities online to shape public
perception, of professional athletes has become a big part
of their branding. The inadequacy of Dutch athletes to
build and maintain such a brand within the field of Social
Media can be seen as a missed opportunity. By providing
an overview of the developments in the external
environment and identifying the areas of influence in the
creation of an Online Personal brand, research has been
able to address the key question of this research: 'Is it
possible for Dutch Professional athletes to create an
Online Personal brand via Social Media?
Research methods, objectives and timeliness
This project involves methods used in practice-based
research and serves to support the creation of a new
model. The five genres of authenticity as identified by Pine
and Gilmore (2007) have been applied in order to answer
the key research question. In addition the level of image
has been analyzed. Both the genres of authenticity and
image level has been found after the completion of an
Online Brand Assessment. The athlete and a minimum of
25 of his/ her fans have participated in this assessment.
The results relating to the level of authenticity and the
image have led to a communication plan, referred to as
storytelling in the literature. The protracted developments
have been placed in arrays with four quadrants. Other
methods that were used in order to answer the hypotheses
have been a combination of literature based research
(Scholte 2009, Tapcott 2009, Cheney 2005), desk-based
research, interviews and a case study by Digital Royalty.
Conceptual framework
The main question in this research contains an important
assumption; Dutch professional athletes have both online
as well as offline brand value. Under offline brand value
the following factors can be classified: the performance on
the field, athletes behavior towards fans, media and
colleagues.
With online brand value we mean the behavior of the
athlete on the internet. The level of online success of
several professional athletes outside the Netherlands
supports the fact that building an Online Personal brand is
worth doing. It also provides input in order to answer the
question why Dutch professional athletes would want to
build an OPB. Professional athletes who make use of
online personal branding via Social Media get the
opportunity to influence how they are perceived, build their
own fan base and have the opportunity to interact with
their fans.
Future directions
Based on the findings from the related questions, the case
study by Digital Royalty and the researcher's insights, a
general tendency has been discovered and thus helping to
formulate the answer to the key question Is it possible for
Dutch Professional Sports athletes to create an Online
Personal brand with Social Media?' It is possible for Dutch
professional athletes to create an Online Personal brand
via Social Media. There are a number of conditions that
should be taken into account. First of all this research
shows that the use of storytelling is the key in the process
of the creation of brand value. Secondly it is advisable to
determine the level of authenticity based on those
established by Pine & Gilmore (2007). An image analysis
developed by Tom Scholte (2008) has been used in this
research. The integration of the acts mentioned above will
lead to a structured approximation and will result in the
creation of a structured Online Personal brand of the
athletes in this research.
Besides this qualitative result, the professional athletes
who participated in this research developed a significantly
higher reach and more publicity, both online and offline.
Over the last years Social Media sites such as youtube,
Twitter and Facebook have become new sources for
Personal Brand management in the field of professional
sport management. At the start of this research there were
no professional athletes in the Netherlands who had
developed an online brand in a structured way. Another
trend in the Netherlands revolves around sponsoring
budgets that are under pressure and adding value in
sponsorship deals by the athletes has become of
increased interest. Furthermore both commercialization
and internationalization within the field of professional
sports has created a growth in the distance between fans
and athletes. Social Media sites offer the opportunity to
reduce this distance and permits communication directly
with fans.
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References:
Scholte, T. (2009) Personal brand.nl,
Tapscott, D. (2009) Grown up Digital, New york
Pine, J. (2007) Authenticity, Boston
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ExAMINING SOCIAL MEDIA IN SPORT
AND IMPLICATIONS TO MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES: MOTIVATIONS AND
CONSTRIAINTS INFLUENCING SPORT
RELATED TWITTER CONSUMPTION
Author:
Chad Witkemper
email:
witkempc@indiana.edu
Co-authors:
Walsh, Patrick
In, Sangwoo
University:
Indiana University
Faculty:
Kinesiology
Abstract
Background
With the rise of social media, outlets like Twitter are being
used frequently by sports organizations and athletes to
communicate with fans. The growth of Twitter has been
noticed in the sport industry as it is becoming more
commonplace to hear about athletes who tweet or read an
article where the story broke from someone s Twitter
account. Newcastle defender Jose Enrique angered
manager Alan Pardew by using Twitter before a match at
Tottenham revealing that he would be out injured
(thesoccerroom, 2010), Liverpool star Steven Gerrard not
traveling to the EuropaLeague match (Fialkiewic, 2011),
and whether or not Brett Favre would start during the
Vikings-Giants game broke through Twitter (Bennett,
2010).
Reports show Twitter grew exponentially from February
2008 - February 2009, from 475,000 to over seven million
users. By 2010, Twitter users increased by 100 million
during 2010. In terms of percentages, this was 1,400%
growth each year. Why this medium has been growing in
popularity in sport has mostly been ignored by empirical
research.
Objective
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the
relationships between Sport Twitter Consumption and
motivation and constraints factors that affect consumption.
The study was based on constraint theory which is used to
understand why people do not participate in a particular
activity while others will get engaged in it. If a participant
chooses to not follow athletes on Twitter, it is likely
because a factor is holding them back from engaging in
the behavior. Primarily, this study used the work of
Crawford and Godbey (1987). Further, motivation research
by Seo and Green (2008), suggest there are specific
motivations for online sport consumption which can be
used to help discover what is driving users to consume
Twitter, attempting to connect with athletes. Thus, subjects
were surveyed to determine their motivations and
constraints for using Twitter as a medium for sport
consumption.
H1: Motivations to follow athletes through Twitter will have
a positive effect on individual s Twitter usage for Sport
Twitter Consumption.
H2: Constraints to follow athletes through Twitter will have
a negative effect on individual s Twitter usage for Sport
Twitter Consumption.
Method
Data for this study came from 1121 usable surveys
collected from individuals between the ages of 17-40.
Subjects recruited from sport management classes and
business school classes at a Midwestern university were
provided a link to the online survey. Variables from the
Motivation Scale for Sport Online Consumption were used
to measure motivational factors (Seo & Green, 2008),
while constraint variables from Crawford and Godbey s
work were used (1987).
Results
Confirmatory factor analysis and Structural Equation
Modeling were employed to test the hypotheses. The
proposed model suggests that motivations and constraints
have a direct effect on Twitter consumption for sport
purposes. Specific subscales of motivation and constraints
provided a better picture of which variables were actually
influencing the relationship with Twitter. The measurement
model attained an acceptable level of S-B 2/df ratio (i.e.,
1552.7/224 = 6.04, p < .05) and fit indices suggested
satisfactory fit for the data (CFI = .93; RMSEA = .06;
SRMR = .05).
The structural model achieved acceptable fit for the data
(CFI = .94; RMSEA = .06; SRMR = .06; S-B 2/df ratio;
i.e., 1590.1/265 = 6.00, p < .05). In the proposed model all
paths were significant (p < .05).The final model indicated
that there are four primary motivations that effect Twitter as
a means to connect with sport (Information, Entertainment,
Pass Time, Fanship). Additionally, there were four primary
constraint factors that influence Twitter consumption (Skills,
Social, Accessibility, Economic).
Conclusion
There has been a growing trend for sport organizations to
use social media. Often you hear of breaking news based
off an athlete tweet. The model proposed by this study
shows that there is a relationship between Twitter use for
sport and specific constraints and motivations. If sport
organizations want to capture this growing medium and
bring it to their organization, than this model will be a
valuable asset. It shows that those who manage sport
organizations will need to discover ways to make their
athletes more easily accessible to their fans through
Twitter and identify ways to promote a healthy social
environment for their fans to get involved. Further
implications show that Twitter is a medium in which sport
organizations can further build on their relationships with
their fans as they look to Twitter, for entertainment and
information, as a medium to interact with their favorite
player/team.
References:
Bennett, D. (2010). All sport news will now be broken on Twitter.
Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www.businessinsider.com/all-
sports-news-will-now-be-broken-on-twitter-2010-12.
Crawford, D., and Godbey, G. (1987). Reconceptualizing Barriers
to Family Leisure. Leisure Sciences, Vol. 9, pp. 119 127.
Failkewic, S. (2011). Liverpool will be without Steven Gerrard for
the EuropaLeague match. Retrieved on March 28, 2011 from
http://twitter.com/SebFialkiewicz.
Seo, W. J. & Green, C. (2008). Development of the motivation
scale for sport online consumption. Journal of Sport Management.
Vol. 22, pp. 82-109.
Thesoccerroom (2010). Pardew criticizes Enrique for Twitter injury
news. Retrieved March 28, 2011 from
http://thesoccerroom.com/?p=20524.
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SOCIAL MEDIA INTEGRATION: THE
2010 WORLD CUP
Author:
James Santomier
email:
santomierj@sacredheart.edu
Co-authors:
Hogan, Patricia Kunz, Reinhard
University:
Sacred Heart University
Faculty:
Department of Marketing and Sport Management
Abstract
Introduction and Aim
Social media have rapidly changed the way sport
enterprises communicate with consumers in the pursuit of
brand building, promotion and commerce. Social media
may be defined as a group of Internet-based applications,
such as Facebook and Twitter, that build on the ideological
and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow
the creation and exchange of user-generated content
(UGC) (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). Although the 2002
Korea/Japan World Cup created homepages for teams and
multiple websites for the tournament, Web 2.0 (and,
therefore - social media) was non-existent. During the
2006 World Cup there were opportunities for UGC and for
new ways of experiencing the event on websites such as
Google Video, iTunes, youTube, and MySpace.
Web 2.0 allowed consumers to become prosumers who
produced videos and pictures, blogs and forums, played
games, shared files, and posted on message boards. In
addition, brand managers interactively tested what
consumers wanted, what advertisers were willing to buy
and how best to filter the most appropriate UGC onto their
websites. The 2010 World Cup, however, initiated a new
era in social media integration with the involvement of
social media platforms Facebook and Twitter. The aim of
this paper, therefore, is to: 1) define the prosumer
movement within the context of sport business; and 2)
examine the integration of social media during the 2010
World Cup.
Literature Review
In 1980 the futurist Alvin Toffler first introduced the concept
of prosumers, interconnected consumers who are
simultaneously producers and who can distribute and
consume their own goods or services. Toffler coined the
term to illustrate how new forms of information
technologies could blur the lines between producers and
consumers and could transform traditional consumers into
very knowledgeable or professional consumers. The
advent of social media is a contributing factor in naming
this era the attention age or attention economy. This age
began with the emergence of social media in the first years
of the 21st century (Sullivan, 2009), and is marked by the
ability of individuals to become prosumers - to create and
consume information instantly and freely as well as share it
on the Internet using social media. Similarly, social media
is making it possible for athletes and sport organizations to
directly correspond and interact with millions of fans and
for sport franchises to represent themselves in virtual
worlds such as Second Life where avatar players and fans
can interact (Ferguson, 2009).
Methodology
A meta-analysis of salient research related to social media
and the 2010 World Cup was conducted. Recurring
themes and concepts were developed and investigated.
Social media metrics also were gathered from secondary
sources and technical reports provided by a variety of
media sources. An emphasis was placed on the social
media dynamics of primarily two selected social media
platforms, Facebook and Twitter.
Social media statistics from the 2010 World Cup
demonstrated that fans used the social media tools
provided by Twitter and Facebook to their advantage, not
only in their daily routines, but during actual World Cup
play. Facebook took advantage of the World Cup
phenomenon by providing fan prosumers with a way in
which to express their emotions. Facebook integrated
various applications and games whereby World Cup fans
could connect with their friends online, providing them not
only a connection to each other, but a connection to the
event when they were not viewing a game. Applications
and games on Facebook became increasingly popular as
the World Cup progressed, which gave users even more
incentive to visit Facebook. The websites freemium
strategy allowed not only prosumers freedom but brands
freedom to promote their products, giving the platform a
particular appeal to marketers.
The 2010 World Cup was a major example of how football
prosumers worldwide followed their favorite
players on and off the field via the Twitter platform.
Interestingly, more than 60 percent of registered Twitter
accounts are outside of the U.S. and a number of those
international accounts belong to popular football stars such
as the Brazilian stars Kaka, Luis Fabiano and Gilberto
Silva, Frances Nicolas Anelka, and Spains Andrea Iniesta.
One third of the U.S. team, including captain Landon
Donovan, Jozy Altidore and Oguchi Onyewu, tweeted
updates during training and during the World Cup (Basilio,
2010).The 2010 World Cup showcased new ways for fans,
teams, and brands such as Nike and Adidas to connect
and leverage. Social media, which especially delivered on
mobile platforms, will be a more important element in sport
marketing and promotion in future FIFA World Cup events.
References:
Basilio, F. (2010). Blog post: Social media & the World Cup.
NMS.Com. Retrieved 12 June, 2010. Available at
http://nms.com/blog/post/social-media-scores-at-world-cup/.
Ferguson, T. (n.d.). The rise of the medical prosumer. Healthy.net.
Retrieved 12 November, 2009. Available at http://www.healthy.net.
Kaplan A. & Haenlein M. 2010. Users of the world, unite! The
challenges and opportunities of social media. Business Horizons,
53(1), p. 59-68.
Sullivan, L. (2009) 2010: The year social marketing gets serious.
Online Media Daily,
December. Retrieved 20 November, 2009. Available at
http://www.mediapost.com.
Toffler, A. (1980). The third wave. New york: Bantam Publishers.
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ExPLORING THE USE OF SOCIAL
MEDIA By SPORT ORGANIZATIONS
Author:
Matthew Meng
email:
matthew.meng@rmit.edu.au
Co-authors:
Stavros, Constantino
Westberg, Kate
University:
RMIT University
Faculty:
School of Economics, Finance & Marketing
Abstract
Research Questions
This study explores the use of social media by sport
organizations and its potential impact on fan identification.
By analyzing the social media used by the 30 teams
participating in the National Basketball Association (NBA),
this research addresses the following questions:
- What forms of online social networks are being utilised?
- How do the teams use these online social networks?
- How can sport administrators use social media to
enhance fan identification?
Literature Review
Sport fans that identify with a particular sport entity are
perceived to have a greater degree of association,
commitment and emotional involvement (Ashforth & Mael,
1989; Sutton, McDonald, Milne & Cimperman, 1997). Fans
with high levels of identification behaviour can have a
positive and direct financial impact on sport organizations
(Foster & Hyatt, 2007; Mangold & Faulds, 2009), therefore
it is important for these organizations to engage fans in
new ways to ensure their identification levels remain high
or, where possible, increase.
With the explosion of social media into everyday lives,
consumers have been seen to shun traditional sources of
information in preference of real-time communication and
information sharing over the internet. Sport fans in
particular are able to check up-to-the-minute scores,
results, news and even communicate directly with teams
and players. As such, it has been recognised that social
media should be included in the marketing mix for any
business (Mangold & Faulds, 2009).
With work in sport in this area now emerging, a pertinent
study by Hambrick, Simmons, Greenhalgh and Greenwell
(2010) examined Twitter posts by professional athletes and
identified six main categories pertaining to the subject
matter. These categories were Interactivity, Sport
Information, Promotion, Diversion, Fanship and
Content.
Methodology
The NBA is considered the elite level of professional
basketball and is made up of 29 teams from the United
States and one team from Canada. Data was collected
from official online social networks associated with each of
the 30 NBA teams for a two week period during the
offseason in the latter half of 2010. A content analysis,
using a netnographic methodology, was used to elicit
themes and categories from the text. Categories
developed by the aforementioned study by Hambrick et al.
(2010) were used as a guide in classifying data and will be
outlined in the conference presentation. To increase
validity, categories were examined and reviewed by
multiple researchers. Overall, 1900 posts by all 30 NBA
teams were collected and evaluated, with the results
analyzed in relation to the research questions.
Results
Social media clearly has the potential to positively impact
upon fan identification. This study revealed that all 30 NBA
teams have embraced social media to connect with fans
and actively use multiple and emerging platforms. The
teams primarily used online social networks to interact
directly with their fans however there were also instances
of the team directing supporters to external sites,
highlighting promotions, providing information regarding
team members and employees and, to a lesser extent,
communicating non-basketball related information and
affinities for aspects outside of the sport. This study also
confirmed the validity of the previously developed
categories used to classify posts from sporting individuals
or organizations by Hambrick et al. (2010), however two
new subcategories were posited and extended from the
original Sport Information category, these being Direct
Information and External Activity.
This study also indicated that fans have a greater
response to information provided on social networks by the
teams themselves as opposed to other fans. To increase
activity teams must therefore take the initiative to facilitate
interaction and discussion. Similarly by creating a more
personable front for the online mediators as
representatives of the team, fans may respond more
positively and consequently increase online activity and
identification as well. To raise alternative revenue streams
and increase traffic to social networking sites, partnerships
could be made with related external sites to create a
mutual agreement of posting useful information and links.
This may also help fill the activity void during the off-
season, ensuring fans have access to recent news and
information and remain connected throughout the year.
References:
Ashforth, B. & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the
organisation, Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 20-30.
Foster, W. & Hyatt, C. (2007). I despise them! I detest them!
Franchise relocation and the expanded model of organisational
identification, Journal of Sport Management, 21(2), 194-212.
Hambrick, M., Simmons, J., Greenhalgh, G., & Greenwell, T.
(2010). Understanding Athletes Use of Twitter: A Content Analysis
of Athlete Tweets, in proceedings of 2010 North American Society
for Sport Management Conference (NASSM 2010), Tampa, Florida,
1-5 June.
Mangolds, W. & Faulds, D. (2009). Social media: The new hybrid
element of the promotion mix, Business Horizons, 52(4), 357-365.
Sutton, W., McDonald, M., Milne, G. & Cimperman, J. (1997).
Creating and fostering fan identification in professional sports,
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 6(1), 15-22
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GENERATION GAP? INVESTIGATING
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF MARKETING
SPORT VIA DIGITAL SOCIAL MEDIA TO
DIFFERENT AGE COHORTS
Author:
Joe Mahan
email:
joe.mahan@temple.edu
University:
Temple University
Faculty:
Sport and Recreation Management
Abstract
Background & purpose of study
Over the past two decades, emerging technologies have
had a profound effect on the sport marketing landscape
(Gillentine, 2003). A recent example is a newfound
emphasis on the use of digital social media (e.g.,
Facebook and Twitter) by sport organizations (and their
athletes), sponsors, and media outlets for communicating
with consumers. Despite the reticence of some sport
organizations to recognize the digital space, social media
appears to be largely accepted by as a new frontier of
communications and, as such, are becoming more readily
integrated into sport marketing strategy.
Despite the proliferation of this phenomenon in practice,
however, there is a dearth of scholarly research as to its
effectiveness in reaching consumers. While the literature
features a growing body of work examining the impact of
the Internet in sport marketing, there have been calls for
further investigation of the extent to which digital
technology is used in sport. Moreover, whereas initial
scholarly work in sport marketing has examined media
preference differences between age cohorts (i.e.,
Generation x and Generation y) (Bennett, Sagas, & Dees,
2006), studies have neglected other consumer segments
(e.g., Baby Boomers) as well as digital media.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effectiveness of social media as a sport marketing platform
across generation cohorts; namely, Generation y (Geny),
Generation x (Genx), and Baby Boomer (Boomers). To
that end, possible underlying factors of consumer response
to sport marketing communications via social media
platforms were explored. The current research draws
upon existing consumer literature in extending the
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davis, 1989) to a
sport consumption context to explore predictors of
consumer response to the use of social media by sport
organizations.
Methodology
A convenience sample (N=272) was recruited from an
adult population by Graduate students at a research
university in the eastern United States who were trained in
marketing research methods. Participants were e-mailed a
URL for the survey, which was created using Qualtrics
survey software. Scaled measures for TAM constructs
(Convenience, Ease of Use, Usefulness, and Enjoyment)
as well for assessing other variables of interest were
adapted from existing consumer research.
The resultant dataset was split into three groups:
Generation y (n = 130), Generation x (n = 70), and Baby
Boomers (n = 72), following existing consumer research
(Beldona, 2005). Data were analyzed using a series of
hierarchical multiple regressions, using Attitudes toward
Social Media (ASM) and Behavioral Intentions (BI) as the
dependent variables. Gender was entered on the first step
and step two consisted of Personal Involvement with
Social Media (PII) and Convenience. Step three included
the main TAM constructs (Ease of Use, Usefulness, and
Enjoyment).
Results of hierarchical regression analyses suggested
slightly different combinations of variables as explaining
variance in response across the three generation groups.
Cohort models including all hypothesized predictors
accounted for significant amounts of variance explained for
ASM (Table 1) as well as BI (Table 2). Significant
predictors for Geny included PII, Convenience, and
Enjoyment whereas Genx preferences appeared to be
influenced by PII, Enjoyment, and Ease of Use. Gender,
PII, Enjoyment, and Ease of Use were significant
predictors for Boomers.
In general, regression results appear to support existing
research showing that TAM constructs have utility in
explaining consumer preferences in a social media
context. Involvement appeared to be a consistent
predictor across generation groups, perhaps indicating that
this type of marketing communication may resonate with
existing users of social media applications (e.g., Twitter) as
opposed to serving as a tool for attracting non-users. The
presence of Enjoyment as a significant predictor is also in
line with earlier research suggesting this construct to be
more influential with online sport content (cf. Kwak et al.,
2010).
The current investigation represented an attempt to
explore differences between Geny, Genx and Baby
Boomers in preferences for sport marketing via digital
social media. Based on the results herein, there are some
implications for both scholarly inquiry as well as sport
marketers. For example, the enjoyment or fun afforded
by social media platforms appears to be important for
users regardless of generation; perhaps these channels
are more suited for promotional content rather than news
and information. While this study adds to sport marketing
literature, future examination of generational differences in
this context could prove fruitful toward understanding how
(and why) different consumers respond to certain
marketing communications.
References:
Beldona, S. (2005). Cohort analysis of online travel information
search behavior: 1995-2000. Journal of Travel Research, 44, 135-
142.
Bennett, G., Sagas, M., & Dees, W. (2006). Media preferences of
action sports consumers: Differences between Generation x and y.
Davis, F.D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use,
and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13,
319-340.
Gillentine, A. (2003). Developing an Internet philosophy. Sport
Marketing Quarterly, 12, 63-64.
Kwak, D.H., Lim, C.H., Lee, W.y., & Mahan, J.E. (2010). How
confident are you to win your fantasy league: Exploring the
antecedents and consequences of winning expectancy. Journal of
Sport Management, 24, 416-433.
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ExPLORING WAyS IN WHICH SOCIAL
NETWORKERS CONTRIBUTE TO
ONLINE GROUPS: A CASE STUDy OF
ONE FACEBOOK GROUPS
DISCUSSION OF AUSTRALIAN
BROADCASTER CHANNEL 9 DURING
THE 2010 WINTER OLyMPIC GAMES
Author:
Olan Scott
email:
o.scott@ballarat.edu.au
Co-authors:
Bradshaw, Ryan, University of Ballarat Larkin, Paul,
University of Ballarat
University:
Griffith University
Faculty:
Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management
Abstract
The World Wide Web has transformed the way in which
media companies, sport organisations, and consumers
interact. For example, the traditional mediated sport
product was once confined within the boundaries of
programming, formatting, audience interest, and
contractual agreements (Mahan & McDaniel, 2006).
Historically communication was typically one-way,
disconnecting the consumer from the sport and media
entities (Mahan & McDaniel, 2006). However, the
emergence of the Internet era has allowed sport
organisations and consumers to bypass the traditional
gate-keeping role the mass media once had (Arsenault &
Castells, 2008; Mahan & McDaniel, 2006). In addition, the
recent advent of social networking sites has provided a
new interactive platform for communication and continuous
accessibility between the consumer and sport product
(Mean, Kassing, & Sanderson, 2010).
One of the major engines behind the advancement in
social communication capabilities is Facebook (Kushin &
Kitchener, 2009). Facebook is a social networking website
that connects individuals and groups from all over the
globe (Barnes, 2006). Once connected, individuals are
able communicate with one another via public forums,
instant conversations, and email. Social networking
websites such as Facebook have allowed sport fans to
collaborate with their favourite sporting entity, athlete,
and/or with other sport fans to organise, mobilise, and
voice their support or displeasure with specific sporting or
media entities via online discourse (Kushin & Kitchener,
2009). Furthermore, the absence of a "gate-keeper"
provides individuals with the opportunity to post un-edited,
user-generated content relating to social or political issues.
A recent example of this cyber group forum was seen
during the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. The Winter
Olympics is a quadrennial event in which athletes from
around the globe compete in a variety of sports. This
global event was exclusively televised in Australia by the
broadcaster Channel 9. The evening program was hosted
by Australian television personality and former Channel 9
CEO Eddie McGuire. During the coverage, a Facebook
group titled Eddie McGuire is ruining the 2010 Winter
Olympics games was created. The backbone of this group
was a common dissatisfaction of the commenting and
interviewing style of Eddie McGuire and the general
broadcast coverage of the games provided by Channel 9.
Despite its rising popularity, little research has examined
the use of social networks as a tool for mediated
campaigns and democratic-styled lobby groups. Thus, the
aim of this study was to explore personal opinion
comments posted by Facebook users on a groups
discussion board. To achieve this, the publicly visible
commentaries from the group "Eddie McGuire is ruining
the 2010 Winter Olympic games" were analysed. In total,
there were 814 pages of text included in the examination.
The data set included all posts present on the discussion
board between the 16th of February and the 3rd of March,
2010.
Through a textual analysis of Facebook users comments,
a grounded theory approach was used to identify and
quantify salient themes (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). This
analysis netted 42 themes which were further grouped
based on belongingness into 17 themes. Some of these
themes were: non-expert commentaries, alternative
offerings, and dissatisfaction with the negative focus of
Channel 9. Each theme will be presented at the
conference with an illustration on how each theme was
used by Facebook users.
Implications for this study are twofold. Firstly, this study
sheds light on how internet users utilise a social
networking website to "virtually protest" current events. The
results demonstrate that individuals are looking beyond
recreational use and harnessing the capabilities of social
network websites to express themselves and engage
others in issues they care about (Kushin & Kitchener,
2009). Secondly, this study highlights the loss of the gate-
keeping role the media once had and the relatively
unregulated nature of the internet as a communication
medium (Arsenault & Castells, 2008; Mahan & McDaniel,
2006). The emergence of World Wide Web has afforded
users greater control over the information posted on social
network websites, diminishing the mediating role that a
producer or editor formally had.
References:
Arsenault, A., & Castells, M. (2008). Switching power: Rupert
Murdoch and the global business of media politics: A sociological
analysis. International Sociology, 23(4), 488-513.
Barnes, S., B. (2006). A privacy paradox: Social networking in the
United States. First Monday, 11(9),
http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/
1394/1312.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded
theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago; Il: Aldine De
Gruyter.
Kushin, M., J., & Kitchener, K. (2009). Getting political on social
network sites: Exploring online political discourse on Facebook.
First Monday, 14(11),
http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/
2645/2350.
Mahan, J., E. III., & McDaniel, S., R. (2006). The new online arena:
Sport, marketing, and media converge in cyberspace. In A. A.
Raney & J. Bryant (Eds.), Handbook of sports and media (pp. 409-
434). Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Men, L. J., Kassing, J. W., & Sanderson, J. (2010). The making of
an epic (American) hero fighting for justice: Commodification,
consumption, and intertextuality in the Floyd Landis defense
campaign. American Behavioral Scientist, 53(11), 1590-1609.
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Spanish Presentations
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Themes
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USERS PERCEPTION ON THE
CHLORINE TREATMENT OF INDOOR
POOLS
Author:
Leonor Gallardo
email:
leonor.gallardo@uclm.es
Co-authors:
Fernndez-Luna, lvaro Burillo, Pablo Felipe, Jose Luis
Plaza, Mara Snchez-Snchez, Javier
University:
University of Castilla-La Mancha
Faculty:
Faculty of Sports Sciences
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Indoor pools have become one of the most attractive
sports facilities due to its high intensity of use (Burillo,
2008). The chemical treatment of water has particular
relevance because of the direct interaction with swimmers.
In Spain, the most common type of chemical treatment is
chlorination, due to its low price and effectiveness.
However, several studies (Drobnic, 2009; Freixa, 2006,
Garca, 2007; Gom, 2001) have found that this chemical
treatment may cause health problems for swimmers, as
itching, allergy, nasal irritation, etc. Usually these problems
are due to poor ventilation, inappropriate chlorination levels
which do not conform to current regulations or an excess
of chloramines (chemicals obtained from the combination
of chlorine with different organic compounds dissolved in
pool water, as urine). Considering customer satisfaction as
a key in managing a sport facility, the objective of this
research is to measure the users' perception of indoor
pools whose chemical treatment of water is chlorine in
aspects like health problems and sensations during the
sport practice.
METHODS
We performed a descriptive study using a questionnaire
consisting of a battery of 16 questions with a Likert scale
1-5 and considering variables such as sensations (smell,
taste), discomfort and knowledge about the chemical
treatment of water. We considered as well respiratory, ear,
skin and eye health problems, and finally a general
perception of water quality. The sample consisted of 421
users from a total of 20 indoor pools with chlorine
treatment in the region of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain).
RESULTS
Users report that they would improve their swimming
practice without odor or chemical taste in the pool.
Moreover, the health problems most suffer are the hair and
skin dryness and eyes irritation. Users confirm (4 of 5) that
the chemical treatment makes significant corrosion in
materials and installation, highlighting swimwear. They
believe that chlorine is a hazardous substance for users
who are directly in contact with it (3 of 5). However, the
perception of general satisfaction with water is not low (3 of
5).
Users under 25 years old and most experienced in
swimming are who suffer more health problems related to
the chlorine treatment, they are less comfortable with the
scents and chemical taste as well. In addition, users who
previously suffered some type or hearing or allergic
disease, have more negative satisfaction with the chemical
treatment. On the other hand, users who come to the
swimming pool in the morning have more satisfaction than
users who come in the afternoon.
DISCUSSION.
The concentration of chorine water affects directly to the
users, and one of the most common sight is the eyes
irritation and skin dryness (Drobnic, 2009). Moreover, the
damage of the swimming pools could be reduced with
another chemical treatment like ozone (Gom, 2001).
young swimmers and experienced swimmers (more than 2
years practicing) perceive more health problems because
they spend more time in the pool and swim with more
intensity. Also people with previous diseases perceive
more health problems (Drobnic, 2009), so their general
satisfaction is low.
Although user's perception of swimming pool water with
chemical treatment with chlorine is not low, maintenance
managers recommend using alternative disinfection
treatments that cause less problems in users' health such
as ozone, salt chlorination or UV treatment (Marc, 2008).
Finally, costumers who come in the afternoon are less
satisfied with water because in this timetable the swimming
pool has more users at the same time (Mestre, 2002) and
the formation of chloramines is higher.
CONCLUSIONS
- Users agree that their sport practice would improve if the
chemical taste and odor produced by chlorine
disappears.
- Users are significantly according with the chorine has a
corrosive action in the pool facilities and materials,
highlighting the swimwear.
- Experience is one of the most influential aspects.
Experienced users are more disappointed, suffer more
health problems and know more things about the
chemical treatment.
- Users with previous health problems suffer more often
the problems described in study..
References:
Drobnic F. (2009). Impacto sobre la salud de los compuestos
utilizados en el tratamiento del agua en las piscinas. Estado de la
cuestin. Apunts Med Esport; 61:42-47.
Burillo, P., Rodrguez-Romo, G., Gallardo, L., Garca-Tascn, M.,
Salinero, J. J., y Uribe, F. (2008). Anlisis cualitativo y cuantitativo
de la oferta de piscinas cubiertas en las comunidades autnomas
espaolas. Cultura, Ciencia y Deporte, 3(9), 185-193.
Calabuig, F., Burillo, P., Crespo, J., Mundina, J.J., y Gallardo, L.
(2010) Satisfaccin, calidad y valor percibido en espectadores de
eventos deportivos. Revista internacional de medicina y ciencias
de la actividad fsica y del deporte 10 (40), 577-597.
Dorado, A. (2006). Anlisis de la satisfaccin de los usuarios:
Hacia un nuevo modelo de gestin basado en la calidad para los
servicios deportivos municipales. Toledo: Consejo Econmico y
Social de Castilla - La Mancha.
Drobnic F. (2009). Impacto sobre la salud de los compuestos
utilizados en el tratamiento del agua en las piscinas. Estado de la
cuestin. Apunts Med Esport; 61:42-47.
Freixa A. (2006) Exposicin a Cloro en Piscinas Cubiertas.
Evaluacin y Control, [electronic version] Instituto Nacional de
Seguridad en el Trabajo (available in: www.riesgos-laborales.org)
[Access date: 03/09/2008].
Gallardo, A., Felipe, J.L., Burillo, P. y Gallardo, L. (2010)
Satisfaccin de entrenadores y deportistas en los campos de ftbol
de csped natural y artificial. Cultura, Ciencia y Deporte 15, 189-
199
Garca B. (2007) Estudio de los niveles ambientales de cloro en las
instalaciones deportivas asturianas. Asturias Prevencin; 10;18-23
Gom A. (2001) Implantacin de ozonozacin 100% en las
piscinas de la Universidad Autnoma de Barcelona. Barcelona:
Bellaterra.
Marc, J. (2008). Reduccin de cloraminas en piscinas pblicas.
Piscinas xxI, 216, 44-45.
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WHO ARE THE MOST LOyAL USERS IN
PRIVATE FITNESS CENTRES?
Author:
David Martin
email:
dmartin@us.es
Co-authors:
Garca Fernndez , Jernimo
Cepeda Carrin, Gabriel
Saudo Corrales, Borja
University:
University of Seville
Faculty:
Management and Marketing Department
Abstract
Customer segmentation is now evident in the marketing
plans of private fitness centres (PFC). Similarly, socio-
demographic variables have been considered as a useful
tool by numerous research studies (Rial et al., 2009), while
some other outcomes analyzing the customer behavior are
currently considered by the scientific community. In
addition, analyzing behavioral variables allow us to
estimate the loyalty of users, which represent a new
approach towards the understanding of sports consumers.
Considering the aforementioned arguments, the aim of this
study is to determine whether or not the loyalty of PFC
users depends of socio-demographic variables, and also to
identify the more sensitive market segments regarding this
behavior.
Methods
This study is part of a cross-sectional, quantitative national
research. A questionnaire composed of demographic
variables has been developed based on Zeithaml, Berry
and Parasuraman s (1996) scales designed to determine
future behavior (loyalty) and price sensitivity (7-point Likert
scale). Data has been collected following the snow ball
methodology, resulting in a final sample of 2,171 users
(40.5% women and 59.5% men) from 92 PFC in Spain.
The validity and reliability of the instrument has been
tested. Similarly, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the
user s segmentation has been assessed using a statistical
analysis package (SPSS 18.0, two-step clustering
technique and descriptive results).
Results
The analysis carried out indicates that 82.6% of the
sample is between 20 and 49 years old, a 64.1% of the
sample have a university degree or are even postgraduate,
a 66.1% of the sample have a family of two or more
members, the 77.7% of the sample pay a monthly fee, and
among them, the 73% have a whole-day access. In
another note, the 77.9% of the sample attend 3 to 5 days
on average. A 65.6% of the sample has been users for
less than 2 years, and the 81.9% attend to the centers
alone or with their relatives. In addition, the scale of
behavioral intentions can be considered as reliable and
valid ( = 0.903) explaining the 91.1% of the total variance.
After conducting the analysis of variance (ANOVA),
significant differences arise the scale of behavioral
intentions according to gender (p < 0.05), where women
had a higher mean (M = 5.88) than men (M= 5.66); as well
as according to age (p = 0.001), where the youngest and
older people had the highest scores (M = 5.91 and M =
6.01), following a U-Shape distribution. Significant
differences were also found according to education (p <
0.05), where the higher the educational level, the lower
mean scores of repurchasing. Another interesting finding is
that families with 5 or more members have a higher mean
than average (M = 5.91), as well as those who attends
only during mornings (M = 5, 94). Additionally higher
means have been found as the number of sessions
increases, and for those who have been users for less
than 3 months (M = 6.00). The same patterns is found for
those who attend with friends (M = 5.90).
Considering price sensitivity, there are differences
according to age where younger people (M = 5.86) and
the elderly (M = 5.86) show a lower sensitivity than
average but also regarding the family size (p = 0.002),
where those with a family of more than 5 members are
less price sensitive. This is also the case of those paying a
quarterly fee. Finally, there has been no significant
differences between the scale of future behavior and the
two resulting clusters (p = 0.915). However, the less
sensitive group to the price was composed by users
between 30-39 years, living alone and with a monthly
payment (21% of the sample).
Conclusions
User s segmentation is important due to the increment in
the knowledge of consumers groups and preferences.
This study demonstrate that customers behavior is not just
dependent on demographics characteristics as reported by
Athanasopoulou et al. (2010), the loyalty of PFCs users
depends on gender, age, education, family, type of fees,
frequency of practice, time as users, and social
surroundings. Based on the results, one may also establish
a pattern of users which are less sensitive to price.
References:
Athanasopoulou, P., Oikonomou, K., Douvis, J., Kriemadis, A. and
Alexopoulos, P. (2010). Analysing consumer behavior in fitness
centres. The 18th EASM Conference, Bridging Sport Management
across Europe, p. 198 199, Prague, September.
Rial, A., Alonso, D., Rial, J., Picn, E. and Varela, J. (2009). Un
intento de segmentacin integral de los usuarios de centros
deportivos. Apunts, Educacin Fsica y Deportes, 1, 82 91.
Zeithaml, V., Berry, L. and Parasuraman, A. (1996). The behavioral
consequences of service quality. Journal of Marketing, 60, 31 46.
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222
ASSESSING THE CREATION OF
KNOWLEDGE INFLUENCING ON
PRIVATE FITNESS CENTRES
PERFORMANCE
Author:
Jernimo Garca
email:
jeronimo@us.es
Co-authors:
Cepeda Carrin, Gabriel
Martn Ruz, David
Saudo Corrales, Borja
University:
University of Seville, Spain
Faculty:
Physical Education and Sport Department
Abstract
The knowledge creation conforms the processes aimed at
obtaining and developing knowledge (Darroch, 2003), one
of the main achievements in this research topic has been
the named knowledge spiral of Nonaka and Takeuchi
(1995) called the SECI (Socialization, Externalization,
Combination and Internalization). These processes have a
positive impact on the organization performance (Choi and
Lee, 2002), however, to our knowledge, little is known
about it influence in fitness industry. Therefore, the aim of
the current study was to determine if the SECI processes
have an impact on performance in private fitness centres
(PFCs)
Methods
The current study is included within a quantitative, cross-
sectional national research, developed between 2010 and
2011. The sample contains 88 PFCs managers (26 women
and 62 men) from ten regions of Spain, and was assessed
by using the snowball method and a questionnaire
composed of two scales where the first one was
knowledge creation measure (Han and Zhong, 2007)
based on the four dimensions previously proposed by
Nonaka (1994) and the second one was a subjective
measure of internal performance (Darroch, 2003) was
used. In all cases a Likert scale with 7 possible responses
was used (1 strongly disagree and 7 strongly agree).
Results
Our findings showed a Cronbach alpha of 0.882 for
knowledge creation and when analyzing the reliability of
each dimension values between 0.930 (socialization) and
0.971 (externalization) where reached and the explained
variance was between 71.21% (externalization) and
83.15% (socialization). The results showed acceptable fit
indices: 2 (48, N = 88) = 76.575, p < 0.05; 2/d.f. = 2.80;
CFI = 0.947; IFI = 0.950; RMSEA = 0.081. In addition the
performance subjective measurement had a reliability of
0.849, accounting for 69.19% of the total variance.
Of the four dimensions, the dimension "combination" was
related to internal performance measure (R2 = 0.244 and t
= 4.983).
Conclusions
This work may have two main implications. On the one
hand the validation of an instrument to measure the
knowledge creation in PFCs which may let us to determine
how to manage the knowledge in the organization, and on
the other hand shows the positive influence between
combination" process proposed by Nonaka (1994) and the
performance of these organizations.
Future research can use this validated instrument to
assess its impact on variables such as loyalty or customer
perceived value which may show, even more, the
importance of knowledge management in PFCs.
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References:
Choi, B. and Lee, H. (2002). Knowledge management strategy and
its link to knowledge creation process. Expert Systems with
Applications, 23(3), 173 187.
Darroch, J. (2003). Developing a measure of knowledge
management behaviors and practices. Journal of Knowledge
Management, 7(5), 41-54.
Han, W. H. and Zhong, Q. y. (2007). Development of an instrument
to measure knowledge management processes. Proceedings of
2006 International Conference on Management Science and
Engineering, ICMSE06 (13th), 1262 1268.
Nonaka, I. (1994). A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge
creation. Organization Science, 5(1), 14 37.
Nonaka, I. y Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge creating
company. New york: Oxford University Press.
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224
THE SPORT MANAGEMENT AT
VENEZUELAN UNIVERSITIES CASE
STUDy: UPEL EL MCARO
Author:
Argenira Ramos
email:
ARGENIRRAMOS@yAHOO.COM
Co-authors:
LPEZ DE D'AMICO, ROSA
University:
UPEL EL MACARO
Faculty:
PHySICAL EDUCATION
Abstract
This paper presents the concern of leadership at the
University Recreational & Sport Program particularly at the
sportive competitive sub-program at the Universidad
Pedaggica Experimental Libertador (UPEL) in Venezuela.
It also reviews the national sport university policy in
contrast with the one in place at UPEL at its campus El
Mcaro
Theoretical Orientations
National universities have been facing in the last years
transformation in their curriculum and moreover there has
been changes in place that has forced them to play closer
attention towards the needs of their environment, localities
and regions (Lpez de DAmico, Loreto, & Mendoza,
2011). The changes have not just been in the area of
curriculum development but also in the national agenda for
research, extension, community service and sport has not
been the exception (Asamblea Nacional de la Repblica
Bolivariana de Venezuela, 2005; Lpez de DAmico, 2008).
National Sport University Games have been the top event
to look at and in which the university (UPEL) has looked
forward to improve its performance, nevertheless it seems
that the work that has to be done at community level has
been neglected. The university law enforces that extension
has to be done inside and outside the community;
nevertheless most of the effort has been addressed
towards competitive sport. It is necessary then to review
what has been the directions given by the sport directors
at the university and their profile as well (e.g., Navarro,
2006)
Methodology
This paper is a descriptive field work, based on a non
experimental research. A questionnaire, validated with
Cronbach Alpha method, was used to collect the data. The
population is the Universidad Pedaggica Experimental
Libertador (UPEL) that is a Teachers Training University
which is spread all over the country and has 8 main
campuses. This study looks at its campus El Mcaro in
which was selected at random administrators, students
and academic staff in order to know their perspective in
terms of how the management of sport in the campus has
been conducted. The management of sport is under the
responsibility of the Extension Direction Office, which is
under the umbrella of the Vice-rector of Extension
(Ministerio de Educacin Cultura y Deporte, 1993;
Universidad Pedaggica Experimental Libertador, 1991).
Besides, few interviews are planned to be conducted in
July in order to look deeply at the perspective of the
stakeholders.
Conclusions
The results indicate that there is few participation of the
community in sport activities and moreover there is poor
participation of those who coordinate them, as well as
limited proposal presented by the Extension Direction
Program. Base on the results, some proposals are
suggested in order to motivate team-work and to
participate in sport management training. The idea is to
promote sport activities intra and outside the university. It is
also suggested that more research is needed in order to
understand the reasons why people do not participate in
the activities that are programmed.
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References:
Asamblea Nacional de la repblica Bolivariana de Venezuela
(2005). Ley de Servicio Comunitario del Estudiante de Educacin
Superior. (Gaceta Oficial N 38.272 del 14 de septiembre de 2005)
Lpez de DAmico, R. (2008) Career Development in Physical
Education and Sport in Venezuela. Bulletin of the International
Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE),52. [on
line journal], Available:
http://www.icsspe.org/members/bulletin/druckenbulletin.php?ver=tex
te&nr=No.52
Lpez de DAmico, R., Loreto, M. & Mendoza, O. (2011). Schooling
for sustainable development: a focus on South America. In M.
Soares & L. Petarnella (eds.), Venezuela and education
transformation for the development of the people (in print). Brazil:
Springer
Ministerio de Educacin Cultura y Deporte (1993). Reglamento
General de la Universidad Pedaggica Experimental Libertador.
Resolucin no. 338. Caracas - Venezuela
Navarro, J. (2007). Terica del Sistema y Estilo Gerencial en las
Direcciones de Deportes de las Instituciones de Educacin
Superior Venezolanas. Unpublished Doctoral thesis. Universidad
Simn Rodrguez. Caracas: Venezuela
Universidad Pedaggica Experimental Libertador. (1991).
Reglamento de Extensin. Caracas: UPEL
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226
THE BUDGETING ISSUE IN THE
ARGENTINE VOLLEyBALL LEAGUE
Author:
Carlos Siffredi
email:
direcciongeneral@clubdeamigos.org.ar
University:
Club de Amigos / Universidad Nacional Rio Negro
Abstract
Aim of abstract
The distribution of qualified players among teams of a
sport league is of utmost importance both for competition
and market-ing success. It is important to analyze whether
a free labor market can lead to this kind of distribution or if
it is necessary to provoke a uniform distribution through a
body of agreements and regulations.
Practice description
The leverage that a system of technical handicap produces
in teams, which is comprised of (a) team accumulated
qualification, (b) number of players of maximum scoring,
and (c) number of foreign players per team.
Context description, actors involved
The Argentine League is the premier national volleyball
competition and one of the best professional leagues of
the FIVB. This league has been ruled by an association of
clubs (ACLAV) since 2003, which has decided to suspend
the abovementioned handicap system after three
consecutive seasons. The characteristics of its members,
the peculiar market of players, and the difficulty to make
decisions to reduce the clubs economic deficit, represent a
stimulating case study.
This league is formed by twelve franchises acting as
organizers and contestants. Its Board of Directors
constitutes the execu-tive body ruling over the basic issues
of the institutional agenda: key regulations, league size,
relationship with the national federation, and distribution of
corporate income.
These teams do not constitute a uniform institutional
model. Although the affiliation conditions require a non-
profit legal status, different mechanisms provoke alliances
among clubs, companies, and provincial governments.
Consequently, this Clubs Association is not totally true to
its denomination, involving several franchise structures and
financial sources.
This situation generated great economic unbalance
between teams and a dangerous lack of results transitivity.
According to Neale (as quoted in Heineman, 1998),
foreseeable results produce harmful monopoly effects for
any sport com-petition. When competitive success is
monopolized by the same teams, the outcome is an
indifferent and monotonous league for the people.
Rothenberg (1956) and Jones (1969) showed that
competitive balance is usually developed independently
from distributive rules. Their arguments were based on the
existence of a meeting point where recruiting becomes
unnecessary according to the law of decreasing
performance. This situation provides for the natural
relocation of exceeding players into marginal teams,
provided there is an important population of athletes.
Although this theory could be applied to other sport
leagues, this has not been the case in Argentina. First, the
local volleyball market is small in size and the few qualified
players choose to play in European clubs. Based on the
weakness of the national currency (against the Euro) and
the little direct income generated by the teams, it is almost
impossible for this league to retain qualified players. Then,
with salaries out of control, only a few franchises can hire
good athletes, while the rest of the clubs pay overprice for
low-qualified players.
Each of the clubs contributed to the economic unbalance,
trying to equal or exceed the leaders bids, despite their
increasing debt. So far, the Board of Directors of ACLAV
has not been able to find a solution to the financial deficit
of their own clubs, generated by the characteristics of the
abovementioned market.
Implications and learning
The abovementioned mechanism of team leveling was
implemented in this league between 2004 and 2006,
providing for results transitivity and the financial balance of
affiliated clubs. Since it was discontinued, just one team
won all the leagues championships, the budgeting deficits
were quintupled, while the repercussion in the media and
the number of spectators de-creased sensibly.
To conclude, unregulated and unequal budgets inhibit
leagues balance, eliminates the results transitivity, and
generates a harmful effect on competition.
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References:
Heinemann, K. (1998). Introduccin a la economa del deporte.
Barcelona: Editorial Paidotribo.
Jones, J. (1969). The Economics of the National Hockey League.
Canadian Journal of Economics, 2, pp.1-20
Rothenberg, S. (1956). The Baseball Players Labor- Market.
Journal of Political Economy, June, pp.242
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19
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THE EFFECT OF SERVICE QUALITy ON
BASKETBALL SPECTATORS
SATISFACTION
Author:
Ferran Calabuig
email:
ferran.calabuig@uv.es
Co-authors:
Crespo, Josep
Prez-Campos, Carlos
Gmez, Ana Mara
University:
University of Valencia
Faculty:
Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Science / Dept. of
Physical Education and Sports
Abstract
Aim of abstract
The aim of the paper is to analyse the importance of
service quality dimensions in predicting basketball
spectators satisfaction.
Literature review:
Research about service quality is increasing in the
professional sport context but in Spain is still limited. The
preliminary approach analysed the perceived quality of the
spectator through the TEAMQUAL scale. This model
considers that there are five dimensions of service quality:
tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, security and empathy.
The first dimension refers to facilities and physical
appearance. The other dimensions relate to the staff of the
event.
However, considering that spectators attending a sporting
event have little contact or interaction with employees of
the event, the four dimensions of quality relating to
personnel proposed in the TEAMQUAL lose their meaning
and the tangible elements and facilities emerge as very
important attributes to be evaluated. Hence, other models
have developed new measures to evaluate the spectators
perception.
In this regard, Hightower, Brady and Baker (2002) found
that tangibles are valuable predictors of satisfaction and
future behaviour of spectators. yusof and See (2008)
agreed in the tangibles role and added the team quality to
the equation as predictor of satisfaction.
Recent researches have introduced the outcome and
game quality dimensions in defining service quality in sport
and recreation centres (Ko, Zhang, Cattani, & Pastore,
2011; yoshida & James, 2010). This dimension refers to
what spectators look for when attending a sporting event.
The introduction of this variable in research on sporting
events in Spain is new and this work tries to shed light on
the issue using an exploratory method.
Methodology:
Data was collected during four games in a stadium of the
ACB basketball league. 483 useful surveys were returned
during four matches. Sample respondents are
predominantly male (68.1%) with an average age of 36,62
years (12,30).
Perceived service quality was measured following the
suggestion of Calabuig, Mundina and Crespo (2010) with a
modified version of the scale. In order to measure de
outcome quality, the scale of Alexandris, Kouthouris and
Meligdis (2007) was adapted to the specific event.
Overall satisfaction was measured with the scale of
Hightower et al. (2002). Reliability was performed as
internal consistency and all the scales obtained an
acceptable Conbrach s alpha coefficient (0.856 0.923).
Validity of the service quality scale was assessed through
an external criterion related to the concept valuated
(service quality) using a Pearson s correlation. We found
positive and significant correlations (p< .001) between
quality dimensions and overall service quality (0.352 -
0.656).
Results:
The first step in order to know the relationship between
quality dimensions and spectators satisfaction was to
perform a correlation analysis. A positive and significant
correlation among all variables was established (r = .384 -
.489; p< .001). The strongest correlation was between
game quality and overall satisfaction (r = .489; p< .001).
The next step was to perform a multiple regression
analysis with the aim to determine the influence of each
dimensions of quality on predicting spectators satisfaction.
Then, quality dimensions were established as independent
variable and overall satisfaction as dependent.
The resulting model was significant explaining the 46.8%
of the satisfaction variance. Regression coefficients
indicated that outcome quality (=.323, p<.001) and game
quality (=.310, p< .001) have the most important effect on
spectators satisfaction. The staff has a non-significant
influence on satisfaction.
Discussion and conclusions:
In most cases, tangibles have been confirmed as strong
predictors of spectators satisfaction. According to our
results, the most important dimension predicting
satisfaction is the outcome quality. It should be noted that
staff has non-significant effect on satisfaction. This last
result differs from yoshida and James (2010), who found
that employees had the highest influence on overall
satisfaction in two different samples (USA and Japan).
These results may be explained because sporting events
in Spain differ from these in USA and Japan. In Spain, for
example, during time-outs or breaks there is barely
entertainment, and therefore there is little contact with the
employees of the event.
Sport managers should consider these results to offer their
spectators what they really look for in an event.
Accordingly, they should increase the quality of both the
outcome and the tangibles, since obviously the
management of the game quality cannot be controlled.
References:
Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., & Meligdis, A. (2007). Increasing
customers loyalty in a skiing resort. The contribution of place
attachment and service quality. International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(5), 414-425.
Calabuig, F., Mundina, J., & Crespo, J. (2010). EVENTQUAL: Una
medida de la calidad percibida por los espectadores de eventos
deportivos. Retos: Nuevas Tendencias en Educacin Fsica,
Deporte y Recreacin, 18, 66-70.
Hightower, R., Brady, M.K., & Baker, T.L. (2002). Investigating the
role of the physical environment in hedonic service consumption:
An exploratory study of sporting events. Journal of Business
Research, 55(9), 697-707.
Ko, y.J., Zhang, J., Cattani, K., & Pastore, D. (2011). Assessment
of event quality in major spectator sports. Maanging Service
Quality, 21(3), 304-322.
yoshida, M. & James, J.D. (2010). Customer satisfaction with game
and service experiences: antecedents and consequences. Journal
of Sport Management, 24, 338-361.
yusof, A. & See, L.H. (2008). Spectator perceptions of physical
facility and team quality: A study of a Malaysian super league
soccer match. Research Journal of Internatonal Studes, 8(2), 132-
140.
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MARKETING STUDy OF DEMAND FOR
SPORTS FACILITIES By ELDER
PEOPLE
Author:
Jess Martnez Del Castillo
email:
jesus.martinezd@upm.es
Co-authors:
Jimnez-Beatty, Jos Emilio Santacruz, Jos Antonio
Martn, Mara Espada, Mara
University:
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Universidad de Alcal
Faculty:
Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Fsica y del Deporte-
INEF/ Departamento de Ciencias Sociales de la Actividad
Fsica y del Deporte
Abstract
The aim of this study is to carry out a marketing research
about the sports facilities desired by elder sedentary
people who are interested in incorporating physical
activities into their lifestyles. In a study carried out in
Australia (Booth et al., 2000), it was found that finding
footpaths safe for walking, and access to local facilities
were significantly associated with being active.
Furthermore, few scientific studies have been undertaken
with particular regard to demand for sports facilities by
elder sedentary people (Metcalfe, 1983; Hobza & Dohnal,
2008; Ke-yin, xue-rong, & He-jiao, 2010). In a study
carried out by Jimnez-Beatty (2002) focused on where
the sedentary people over 65 years old in the Municipality
of Madrid (Spain) would like to practice physical activitities,
it was found that 62% would prefer a sport facility, 18% a
leisure centre, 10% would use parks or other public places
and 5% would do it at home. Considering the sports
facilities mentioned above 61% of the people would attend
in the mornings and 30% in the afternoons. The majority
(78%) would walk to the sports facilities and only 8% would
use the bus. In another study carried out in Guadalajara
Province (Jimnez-Beatty, Martnez del Castillo, Graupera,
2006), different results were found: 41.2% would prefer a
sports facility, 34.7% at a center with sports facilities
(homes and nursing homes); 13% would use parks or
other public places and 4% would do it at home in parks,
they would 13%, and in the home, 4%. In the above
facilities, 45.8% would practice in the mornings, and 43.7%
in the afternoon. Most of these people (82%) would come
walking to the place of practice, and 5% would use the
bus.
The present study has used a quantitive methology. A
cross-sectional study was carried out during 2006 by
means of face-to-face interviews to a random sample of
119 sedentary people over 65 years old, living in Spain and
who were interested in participating in any physical activity.
Participants were selected through a multistage probability
sampling. The inclusion criteria were being 65 years old or
more and resident in the sampled streets in Spain. The
participants completed a brief questionnaire which included
questions about age, gender and variables about sports
facilities (p.e. Jimnez-Beatty et al., 2006). Contingency
table analysis was performed, including the value of
Pearson chi-square and significance (p < .05). The phi
correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relationship
among sports facilities variables, and the
sociodemographic variables.
The results obtained from the study showed that the
majority of the people would like to practice a physical
activity in a sport leisure centre (56.7%) or in a centre
which holds the appropriate installation for it (12.5 %). Only
3.3% would prefer to practice at home and 6.7 % would do
it in a park or in a public place. The relationship between
type of sports facility and age was low, but significant ( =
.38; 2 df 5, 17.28; p = .004). There was no relationship
between type of sports facilitiy and social class or gender.
Regarding when they would prefer to practice any physical
activity, 45% would prefer to do it in the mornings, 36.7%
in the afternoons and 18.3% would do it either in the
mornings or in the afternoons.There was no relationship
between when they would prefer to practice and social
class or gender or age. As to the preference of transport,
the majority of them (89.7%) would walk to the place of
practice, while other alternatives of moving such as the
bus (only 1% would use it) or the car (4.3%) are less
considered. The relationship between mode of transport
and age was low, but significant ( = .31; 2 df 3, 11.31; p
= .010). There was no relationship between mode of
transport and social class or gender.
Taking into account the results obtained in the rest of Spain
with reference to the sports facilities that elder people
would use, it has been found that the results are very
similar to those obtained in Madrid. In contrast, in the study
made in Guadalajara the results showed that there are
less people who ask for sports facilities and more people
who would prefer space for physical activities in old people
s homes. These differences are probably due to the fact
that in this province elder people rarely consider the sports
facilities appropriate for their age. Consequently, they
expect to practice physical activities in areas they think to
be designated for them. Concerning the moment of the day
they would prefer to practice physical activities, almost half
of elder people in Spain would do it in the mornings,
including the elder people from Guadalajara, and
especially the population living in Madrid. Such differences
could be related to their lifestyles. However, it would be
interesting to carry out deeper research studies about this
matter in the future. Finally, in these three studies, it has
been shown that the majority of elder people would prefer
to walk to the sports facilities. These results confirm the
importance of having an appropriate location of sports
facilities for elder people, already highlighted in the
literature.
References:
Booth, M. L., Owen, N., Bauman, A., Clavisi, O., & Leslie, E.
(2000). Socialcognitive and perceived environment influences
associated with physical activity in older australians. Preventive
Medicine, 31, 1522.
Hobza, V., & Dohnal, T. (2008). Theoretical foundations of
municipal sport infrastructure development conceptual planning.
Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica, 38(4), 7-15.
Jimnez-Beatty, J.E. (2002). Study of demand for sports facilities
by elder people. Doctoral thesis: Universidad de Len (Spain).
Jimnez-Beatty, J.E., Martnez del Castillo, J. y Graupera, J.L.
(2006).Public administration in Guadalajara Province and the
integration of elder people into the society through the programme
of physical activities of social services. Alcal de Henares:
Universidad de Alcal-Ibercaja.
Ke-yin, S., xue-rong, Z., & He-jiao, L. (2010). Theoretical demands
and selection of sports facilities for improving people's livelihood.
Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education, 44(2), 84.
Metcalfe, A. A. (1983). The urban response to the demand for
sporting facilities: a study of ten Ontario towns/cities. Urban History
Review, 12(2), 31-46.
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COMMUNICATION: AN ANALySIS OF
PROVIDING MATERIAL BUSINESS
SPORTS FIFA WORLD CUP 2010
Author:
Andr Luz
email:
aluz@correo.ugr.es
Co-authors:
Moreno, Valentn Molina - Universidad de Granada Saleh,
Oweidi Bishr Ahmad - Universidad de Granada
Campestrini, Geraldo Ricardo Hruschka - Brunoro Sport
Business
University:
Universidad de Granada
Abstract
Aim of paper and research question
This study focuses on the use of the communication of
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) on the Internet as a
means of promoting greater transparency of suppliers of
sporting goods companies present at the 2010 FIFA World
Cup. Also outlined several opportunities this field offers for
companies seeking to communicate ethically and
effectively with stakeholders.
The main objective is to describe and explain, using
content analysis through websites, social and
environmental practices related to some of the most
important international suppliers of sports equipment that
were part of the last FIFA World Cup held in South Africa in
2010. We also aim to analyze social issues specific to the
event as well as the commitment of these companies,
especially Adidas (official sponsor of the Cup) and Nike,
illustrating the importance of participation and engagement
of these organizations in the biggest sporting event in the
world and other social actions developed by them.
Literature Review
Currently, the socially responsible behavior associated with
good corporate governance practices are essential to
enable the company to generate wealth and value for all
stakeholders and ensure their survival on a sustainable
basis.
The CSR in the sport is viewed with fresh eyes, especially
from the nineties, when one of the largest corporate
scandals in the field of human rights came to light. Several
media outlets have criticized Nike, for the company had
subcontracted the manufacturing of its products to
companies and countries where the prevailing low wages,
working conditions were poor, and many human rights
were trampled. Nourishing these scandals, the criticism
came to public opinion - miniscule wages in Indonesia, the
employment of children in Cambodia and Pakistan, poor
working conditions in China and Vietnam - have sullied the
reputation of the corporation (Locke, 2003).
CSR initiatives in the sports sector gained considerable
ground in recent years. Many sports organizations have
taken responsibility in areas where CSR is key to the
dissemination of fundamental values, such as health
promotion and physical activities, social and cultural
enrichment, violence prevention, education, justice and
humanitarian aid. This "corporate engagement" describes
the range of a firm commitment to the market or a specific
event, including financial commitment as a sponsor and
social responsibility activities and market development
(Hopkins, 2007).
Methodology
This study is based on a literature review and content
analysis of web documents and reports from the official
websites of the seven suppliers of sports equipment at the
last FIFA World Cup 2010 held in South Africa, and is
therefore assuming websites that were created with the
purpose of presenting the different actions of organizations
for different audiences and its stakeholders, as clear
evidence concerning the terms of CSR (Esrock & Leichty,
1998). We analyzed the existence and content of the
following items: Specific Channel of Social Responsibility,
Code of ethics, Social Balance, Mission, Vision, Values,
Sustainability Report, Foundation and activities and social
actions directly related to the event.
Results and Conclusions
Companies like Nike and Adidas use in an exemplary way
the Internet as a means of disseminating CSR, clearly
demonstrating its concern with the CSR and image of its
products in society. Available on their Web sites with text
Mission, Vision, Values, sustainability reports, CSR specific
channels and activities of their foundations and joint
actions with other agencies (eg UNICEF). Moreover,
companies like Umbro and Joma are lacking information
regarding the activities and social activities available on
their websites.
The results show that, from the year 1990, several
stakeholders have pressed suppliers of sports equipment
since the negative repercussions of cases of child
exploitation (the most famous was the case of Nike),
demanding changes from the garment sport industry
worldwide and the sports managers in terms of their social
performance. This pressure, which is also directly related
to the expectations of the global community, in turn, led to
the social policies of these organizations, as well as
practices and outreach strategies, transforming the Internet
today in one of those main channels. Thus, contributing to
better engagement and communication with different
stakeholders (especially customers).
References:
Esrock, S. L., & Leichty, G. B. (1998). Social responsibility and
corporate web pages: Self-presentation or agenda-setting? Public
Relations Review, 24(3), 305-319.
Hopkins, M. (2007). Corporate social responsibility and
international development: Is business the solution?
Earthscan/James & James.
Locke, Richard M. 2003. "The promise and perils of globalization:
The case of Nike," en Thomas A. Kochan and Richard
Schmalensee (Directors): Management: Inventing and Delivering
future ITS. Cambridge (Massachusetts), MIT Press, pp. 39-70.
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ACTUALLy RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE VOLUNTARy, SPORT AND SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITy IN THE UNIVERSIDAD
TECNOLOGICA DE PEREIRA
Author:
Claudia Morales Parra
email:
lori0707@gmail.com
Co-authors:
MORALES PARRA
CLAUDIA LORENA
University:
UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLOGICA DE PEREIRA
Faculty:
VICERECTORIA RESPONSABILIDAD SOCIAL y
BIENESTAR UNIVERSITARIO
Abstract
Objetive
Socialize the relations between sport, volunteers and
social responsibility in The Universidad Tecnolgica de
Pereira, Risaralda (Colombia), seeking to promote the
sport as a potential and social tool, in a social, academic,
sporting and economic space.
IS THE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITy AND THE
VOLUNTARy TOOLS FOR THE SPORT, OR SPORT IS A
TOOL TO DEVELOP THE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITy
AND THE VOLUNTARy?
The Universidad Tecnologica of Pereira, has the purpose,
to incorporate transversely in the institution and its
objectives, the social policy, to minimize the social
imbalances, environmental and economic, promoting
ethical and professional training, committed with the
transformation of social dynamic, sustainable and viable;
in addition to, maintain and promote the welfare and
quality of life of its stakeholders, focusing its efforts on the
social inclusion of the most vulnerable and strengthening
alliances with public and private companies, to facilitate
the development of these, contributing to building a
knowledge society.
How ever, The UTP, has been developing and
implementing gradually, impact strategies inside and
outside the University, linking the University community,
well fed, the Triad Business-University State, that
unquestionably contributes to the achievement of joint
outcomes and comparable to what is sought as an agent
of social change.
In this sense, University is an institution highly committed
to social responsibility, as a fundamental and process
items in the lines of training, extension and research, that
search to reduce student desertion for economic reasons,
produce to society, socially responsible professionals and
committed to the development of the region and country
and be part of the solution to problems that are
experienced and are visible in Risaralda, including: 1.
population that is difficult for them to access higher
education. 2. Population, can not stay there for viable
economic, social, financial after admission, and other. For
this reason, it has managed resources and promoted
programs that respond to what voice at once, the highest
desertion of the student population by the creation of a
strategy called FONDO DEL PLAN PADRINO, which have
an aims to collect resources that have been donated,
agreements and other projects implemented in different
sectors of society, to be invested in the provision of socio-
economic support for economically vulnerable students can
continue their professional training at the institution,
including, high-performance athletes entering under this
classification.
In this vein, the university has a methodological strategy,
to ensure their athletes in the first phase called access,
secure income to university education, a situation that
could become for many of them, a remote possibility in
economic terms. Subsequently, and going beyond to gain
access to college, one of the main purposes is to achieve
his academic permanence alternately with their practice
sport within the University, appropriately, effective and
relevant to their living conditions, during their university
course, responding to minimum socio-economic conditions
that some of them have not yet settled. Finally, in its third
successful exit phase, the university seeks to assist in the
successful completion of the academic year of high-
performance athlete inside and the beginning of his career
practicing this new role. These athletes during their
academic stay should be responsible and develop for a
prescribed period, sports project initiation of their own
discipline sport, through the social service to be carried out
with vulnerable groups close.
Moreover, within the institution, and through the Sports
Science and recreation program, by specific subjects,
practices and professional practices, have been advancing
for some years, a series of processual activities, training
and voluntary nature, attending different population
segments (children, youth, adults, seniors and disabled
people), for academic activities and free time, contributing
to the achievement of this mission and aims, and therefore
a society increasingly in need of social actors fundamental
for development and social change.
Finally, the joint between sport, social responsibility and
volunteers, it is not a new phenomenon in Latin American
countries and certainly in Colombia, the implications and
relationships that are opening and showing, In the context
of a society more committed, fair, equitable, participatory
and accountable, are increasing, and stimulate the current
sports leader, to promote sporting and voluntary activity,
as protective agents and catalysts of change, generating
on a higher development from the academic, social,
political, sporting and economic.
References:
Direccionamiento Estratgico, Oficina de planeacin; Universidad
tecnolgica de Pereira, 2007.
www.iesalc.unesco.org.ve
www.utp.edu.co
Voluntariado Juvenil y Responsabilidad social universitaria,
Universidad del rosario, Fundacin Colombia Presente, Santa Fe
de Bogot, octubre de 2008.
Desarrollar una estructura de voluntariado; voluntarios de las
Naciones Unidas PUND
Los objetivos del milenio y la responsabilidad social. Una
metodologa de Investigacion; Pinto, Juan Alfredo. Santa Fe de
Bogot.
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Sport Fans
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Themes
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238
FANS AND EMOTION: WHy EMOTION
MATTERS IN STUDyING SPORT
CONSUMER BEHAVIORS
Author:
Dae Hee Kwak
email:
kwakd@umich.edu
University:
Abstract
Aim of paper
Sport provides a unique opportunity to explore how
emotions operate in people. However, the prevailing sport
consumer behavior research has focused on emotion as
an outcome variable and little research has examined the
motivational function of such transitory emotional states on
subsequent behavior and cognitive processing. The
purposes of this study are: (1) to explore which emotional
dimensions are associated with fans when they read an
article about their favorite team, and (2) to investigate the
influence of stimuli-induced emotion on making irrational
judgments and future predictions.
Sport as an entertainment represents a unique form of
experiential consumption. According to Holt (1995),
consuming spectator sport involves various experiential
elements of consumption behavior (e.g., accounting,
evaluating, and appreciating). For instance, attending a
professional sporting event at a stadium can evoke a full
range of emotional responses, ranging from positive
emotions such as feelings of excitement and awe to
negative emotions such as anger and feelings of
disappointment (Holt, 1995). In a similar vein, consumers
report that they watch sport broadcasts because of the
emotional rewards they receive from watching (Raney,
2006). When compared to other types of entertainment
media genres (e.g., comedy, reality show, drama,
animation, late night talk show) sport fans have reported
more intensive emotional responses when viewing sport on
television (Gantz, Wang, Paul, & Potter, 2006). The level of
arousal or suspense is even greater in sport because
competitive sporting events are a type of unscripted
performance in which outcomes are uncertain (Deighton,
1992). Therefore, it appears evident that emotion is an
essential psychological component associated with
consuming spectator sport.
In the past few decades, however, sport consumer
behavior research has tended to overlook the implication
of emotional aspect in modeling sport consumer behavior.
The large body of sport consumer behavior research has
been expanded around the notion that people are rational
beings and make logical decisions. However, from fans
perspective, feelings and emotions guide their decisions
and behaviors, not logical and analytical process.
Cunningham (2011) contended that it is crucial for sport
marketers to understand their fans emotions and feelings
that drive their behaviors. Therefore, understanding the
role of emotion on fan behavior has great research
potential and can expand our knowledge about sport
consumers.
Methodology
In an effort to investigate the role of emotion on sport
consumer behavior, three experimental studies were
conducted in this research. Fictitious magazine articles
(i.e., positive, negative, and neutral) about the universitys
athletic team were created to evoke either positive or
negative feelings among participants. Study 1 (N = 280)
examined the role of team affiliation on emotional response
toward the article. The purpose of Study 1 was to compare
the strength of emotional response as a function of group
affiliation. Participants were recruited from undergraduate
courses in the department of sport management from two
large research universities in the Unites States. Controlling
for team identification scores, group affiliation had a
significant impact on triggering different emotional
outcomes depending on the article valence. Study 2 (N =
145) was conducted to examine the effect of stimuli-
induced emotion on predicting the teams future
performance. Participants were asked to predict the teams
upcoming seasons performance after reading an article
about their favorite team. Finally, Study 3 (N = 93) was
conducted to explore various strategies that participants
used to resist counter-attitudinal (i.e., negative) message.
Using a thought listing procedure, four main strategies
feeling negative, making counterarguments, bolstering
attitude, and derogating source, were identified (Tormala &
Petty, 2004).
From a series of empirical studies, the findings showed
that emotion plays a critical role in sport fans cognition
and decision making. First, personal relevance was found
to be a significant predictor of various emotions (i.e.,
pleasure, arousal, dominance, pride, and shame; Study 1).
In addition, the results from Study 2 and Study 3 showed
that stimuli-induced emotions can function as a motivator
of cognition and decision making. Emotions elicited from
team-related stimuli triggered different projections about
the teams future performance (Study 2), and facilitated
greater resistance toward negative messages (Study 3).
Overall, the findings of this study demonstrate the
importance of studying emotion in sport consumer
behavior research. Understanding various functions of
emotion can help better understand the multifaceted and
dynamic nature of fan-team relationship. In future
research, it would be useful to apply neurological
approaches (e.g., physiological measures, functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging; fMRI, eye-trackers, etc.) to
further explore the role of emotion on sport consumer
behavior.
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References
Deighton, J. (1992). The consumption of performance. Journal of
Gantz, W., Wang, Z., Paul, B., & Potter, R. F. (2006). Sports versus
all comers: Comparing TV sports fans with fans of other
programming genres. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media,
50, 95-118.
Holt, D. B. (1995). How consumers consume: A typology of
consumption practice. Journal of Consumer Research, 22, 1-16.
Raney, A. A. (2006). Why we watch and enjoy mediated sports. In
A. A. Raney & J. Bryant (Eds.), Handbook of Sports and Media (pp.
313-329). Mahwah, NJ: Earlbaum.
Tormala, Z.L., & Petty, R.E. (2004). Resistance to persuasion and
attitude certainty: A meta-cognitive analysis. In E.S. Knowles & J.A.
Linn (Eds.), Resistance and persuasion (pp. 65-82). Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
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240
ExPLAINING TEAM IDENTIFICATION:
BASKING IN REFLECTED GLORy
REVISITED
Author:
Ingar Mehus
email:
Ingar.Mehus@svt.ntnu.no
Co-authors:
Solberg Harry Arne
University:
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Faculty:
Dept. of Sociology and Political Science - Sport Science
Abstract
Studies involving team identification show that spectators
high in team identification are more likely to be high in
direct- and indirect sport consumption, pay more for
tickets, spend more money on merchandise, and stay loyal
to their favorite team in periods of poor performance.
Obviously, team identification is important in terms of
explaining spectator behavior, and possibly securing a
stable source of income for the clubs. However,
antecedents of team identification appear to be poorly
understood (Dimmock & Gucciardi, 2008). In a recent
study on Norwegian football spectators, Mehus and
Osborn (2010), found that team identification is marginally
influenced by social background, with motives of
excitement turning out to be the strongest predictor of
team identification. However, the study was not able to
control for the effect of a team having a winning- or a
losing record. According to Cialdini et al. (1976), spectators
align themselves more closely with a winning team than a
losing team, creating the effect of Basking in Refelcted
Glory BIRGing. It was hypothesized that spectators
following teams with a winning record would identify more
strongly with their favorite team compared to spectators
following a team with a losing record. The present study is
considered a follow-up study from that of Mehus and
Osborn (2010), including teams with both winning- and
losing records.
Methodology
The data comes from an email-survey of more than 12000
Norwegian football spectators. Fourteen of the 16 elite
clubs provided us with email addresses to all their
spectators who purchased tickets and season cards during
the 2010 season. Questions concerning Team identification
(Wann & Branscombe, 1993), motives for watching football
(Mehus, 2005), importance of facilities and importance of
the quality of the match were included. In this paper, only
teams accumulating more than 500 respondents were
included, totalling 9632 respondents from 10 teams.
Discussion
All independent variables turned out to have significant
impact on Team identification. Male spectators identify
more strongly with their favorite team compared to female
spectators. Age and education have a negative impact,
indicating that young spectators with lower educational
attainment identify strongly with their favorite team.
Excitement motives turned out to be the strongest
predictor of team identification, replicating findings from the
study of Mehus and Osborn (2010). Clearly, placing on the
table is important. However, the effect is opposite of what
was hypothesized on the basis of BIRGing (Cialdini et al.
1976). Placing low on the table has a positive effect on
Team identification. The importance of excitement motives
could be part of the explanation, since fighting for survival
in the lower part of the table is experienced to be more
threatening to the identity and serve to activate Team
identification in a stronger fashion. However, spectators
saying that the quality of opponents and importance of the
match matters, score lower on Team identification. The
contradictory results suggest that creating Team
identification is a complex matter, and strategies for
facilitating Team identification are discussed.
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References:
Cialdini, R. B., Borden, R. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman,
S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three
(football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social
Dimmock, J. A., & Gucciardi, D. F. (2008). The utility of modern
theories of intergroup bias for research on antecedents to team
identification. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 284-300.
Mehus, I. (2005). Sociability and excitement motives of spectators
attending entertainment sport events: Spectators of soccer and ski-
jumping. Journal of Sport Behavior, 28(4), 333-350.
Mehus, I., & Osborn, G. (2010). Consuming Football: The
Norwegian experience, the English impact, and the possibilities of
interdisciplinary research. Scandinavian Sport Studies Forum, 1,
89-113.
Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1993). Sport fans: Measuring
degree of identification with their team. International Journal of
Sport Psychology, 24, 1-17.
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TIPPEKAMPEN, TURKISH NIGHTS AND
TORRES: THE TEAM IDENTIFICATION
OF SCANDINAVIAN LIVERPOOL FC
FANS
Author:
Anthony Kerr
email:
a.kerr@latrobe.edu.au
University:
Centre for Sport and Social Impact - La Trobe University
Faculty:
Law and Management
Abstract
Aim of the abstract
Globalisation and improved communications technology,
notably satellite television and broadband Internet, are
important trends that have expanded the marketplace for
professional sport teams. As a result, brands such as the
English Premier Leagues (EPL) Liverpool FC have more
than 100 million supporters and hundreds of fan
organisations worldwide. Kerr (2009) calls these foreign
fans, satellite supporters, and astute marketers should
exploit the opportunities that these supporters represent.
For instance, Scandinavia is a fertile market for English
football and one Liverpool FC fan club in Scandinavia
boasts 25,000 members. Given the importance of foreign
consumers in an increasingly-competitive marketplace, this
study addresses the challenge of understanding why these
satellite supporters chose the Liverpool FC and identifies
the key drivers of their consumer behaviour.
An individuals decision to purchase a sport product is
largely dependent upon their level of identification with a
team. Team identification, or the extent to which a fan
feels psychologically connected to a team (Wann, Melnick,
Russell, & Pease, 2001, p. 3), is critical to the profitability
of a sport organisation. Highly-identified fans are more
likely to attend their teams games, monitor them in the
media, purchase team merchandise and to recognise, and
purchase, products from team sponsors. There has been
considerable attention paid to the identification of domestic
team fans, however, despite notable contributions (such as
H. Hognestad, 2009; H. K. Hognestad, 2006; Nash, 2000),
understanding why satellite supporters do so remains
largely unexplored.
This case study explores the identification of Scandinavian
Liverpool FC satellite supporters and their membership in
a community that meets in cyberspace to celebrate their
shared fandom. Founded in 1892, the Liverpool FC is the
most successful club in the history of English football and
will be long-remembered for their dramatic Champions
League triumph over AC Milan. There are more than 200
online supporter branches affiliated with the club and this
study was possible due to the cooperation of one such
organisation, the Liverpool FC Supporters Club
Scandinavian Branch (www.liverpool.no).
Respondents followed a link on the Norwegian website that
led to www.surveymonkey.com and 941 questionnaires
were completed. The supporters completed a range of
questions that related to their initial decision to support the
Liverpool FC (derived from a review of the team
identification literature and earlier pilot studies), their
loyalty to the club, and their sport consumption behaviour.
Eleven respondents also agreed to participate in a virtual
interview conducted in an online chat-room. The
questionnaire data was analysed using SPSS 15.0 while a
colour-coded key was developed to isolate the themes that
emerged from the interviews.
As many professional sport teams have become
household names with millions of satellite supporters
worldwide, in a changing global marketplace the challenge
is to understand these consumers. This study highlights
seven key drivers in their decision to support the Liverpool
FC: i) media coverage; ii) style of play; iii) the presence of
particular player(s); iv) team success; v) history of success;
vi) stadium and vii) participation in the highest division.
Furthermore, satellite television and official, and unofficial,
supporter websites were, and remain, critical vehicles used
by Scandinavian satellite supporters to express their
passion for the English club.
English football broadcasts have historically fuelled
Scandinavian interest in many British teams and the
weekly Tippekampen was almost a cultural institution for
many supporters. Moreover, while supporters highlighted
the importance of team success, marketers are largely
unable to control their core product, on-field competition.
As a result, management should not focus on winning in
their marketing campaigns but should rather manipulate
other drivers in order to attract a larger international fan
base notably the teams international exposure, its style
of play, player personnel, and the home stadium or use
the Internet to cultivate the satellite supporters of
tomorrow. This study generates valuable insights into the
psychology of these supporters, their allegiances and
consumption behaviour. Such an outcome is invaluable for
sport marketers who seek to capitalise on the opportunities
presented by globalisation and improved accessibility to an
international marketplace. Indeed, in a congested sport
marketplace, satellite supporters may prove critical for the
future of many sport franchises.
References:
Hognestad, H. (2009). Transglobal Scandinavian? Globalization
and the contestation of identities in football. Soccer & Society, 10(3-
4), 358-373.
Hognestad, H. K. (2006). Transnational Passions: A Statistical
Study of Norwegian Football Supporters. Soccer & Society, 7(4),
439-462.
Kerr, A. K. (2009). Online Questionnaires and Interviews as a
Successful Tool to Explore Foreign Sports Fandom. In N. K. L.
Pope, K. L. Kuhn & J. Forster (Eds.), Digital Sport for Performance
Enhancement and Competitive Evolution: Intelligent Gaming
Technologies. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Nash, R. (2000). Globalised Football Fandom: Scandinavian
Liverpool FC Supporters. Football Studies, 3(2), 5-23.
Wann, D. L., Melnick, M. J., Russell, G. W., & Pease, D. G. (2001).
Sport Fans. The Psychology and Social Impact of Spectators. New
york, Ny: Routledge.
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IDENTITy AND FAN BEHAVIOR
Author:
Gerard Kyle
email:
gerard@tamu.edu
Co-authors:
Jun, Jinhee Theodorakis, Nikos
University:
Trexas A&M University
Faculty:
Recreation, Park & Tourism Sciences
Abstract
Study Purpose
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the
influence of identity on Greek football fans? attachment to
their home team?s stadium and game attendance. We
suggest that various football-related objects have the
potential to become embedded within individual self-
conceptualizations with implications for a range of
behavior. The game, the team, and even the stadium can
each be powerful symbols reflective of individual and
collective selves. With this in mind, we tested a model
using data collected from Greek football fans where their
attachment to the home stadium was hypothesized to be
the product of their identification with the game and team.
We also hypothesized that fans? attachment to the
stadium would impact their attendance to games.
The relationships specified in our hypothesized model are
derived from theory on identity (Stryker, 1968; Stryker &
Burke, 2000; Stryker & Serpe, 1982). We suggest that
identity is a driver of fans? attachment to their home
stadium and game attendance. We also measure
identification at three levels of specificity; a) identification
with game of football, b) identification with the team, and c)
identification with the stadium. Consistent with past work
modeling attitude ? behavior relationships (Azjen, 1991),
we hypothesized that increasing levels of specificity would
add to stronger prediction of behavior. Also, a key mediator
of identity and its influence on behavior reflected in the
model is fans? attachment to the stadium. Following theory
on identity noted above, an accompanying expectation
associated with the role of a fan is a reverence for the
team?s stadium and, ultimately, attendance.
Method
Data were collected prior to a professional football game of
the Super League in Greece. A total of 300 surveys were
distributed and 293 were collected. A supervisor along with
10 trained interviewers was situated throughout the
stadium and approached fans at concession outlets.
Identification with the game of football was measured
using items drawn from Kyle et al.?s (2007) modified
involvement scale. Team identification was measured using
items drawn from Wann and Branscombe?s (1993) team
identification scale. Finally, stadium identification and
attachment was measured using Kyle et al.?s place
attachment scale. All measured were translated into Greek.
Following tests for non-normality and an analysis/treatment
of missing data (multiple imputation), we tested the
measurement and structural model (path model) using
LISREL).
Results
Results from the test of our structural model are depicted
in Figure 2. The findings illustrate that;
a. Fan identity was positively predicted by identity
affirmation (B=.37, p<.001) and accounted for 14% of its
variance. The stronger the self-verification provided to the
individual through their football fandom, the stronger their
identification with the specific football team.
b. Place identity was positively influenced by both identity
affirmation (B=.67, p<.001) and fan identity (B=.21, p<.001)
accounting for 60% of the variance. As fan?s identification
with both the sport and team increased, so too did their
identification with the football stadium.
c. Place dependence was positively influenced by place
identity (B=.53, p<.001) and accounted for 28% of the
variance. As respondents? identification with stadium
increased, so too did their dependence on the venue.
d. Affective attachment was strongly and positively
influenced by place identity (B=.91, p<.001) and accounted
for 83% of its variance. As respondents? identification with
stadium increased, so too did their emotional attachment to
the venue.
e. Social was strongly and positively influenced by both
identity affirmation (B=.49, p<.001) and place identity
(B=.40, p<.001) accounting for 68% of the variance. As
respondents? identification with the game and stadium
increased, so too did the intensity of their social ties
related to the venue.
f. Last, social bonding was a positive predictor of both the
number of games respondents? typically attend each year
(B=.32, p<.001) and their attendance within the past year
(B=.25, p<.001). The variance accounted for by social
bonding was ten and xi percent, respectively.
Discussion
These findings highlight the importance of identity for
understanding fan behavior. We observed that identity was
a key driver of fans? attachment to their team?s stadium
and game attendance. While elements of identity have
been included in other models depicting loyalty processes
(Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998, 2004; Pritchard, Havitz & Howard,
1999), absent has been a theoretical explanation for their
integration. An identity-based framework such as we
propose also has the potential to offer insight on a variety
of other fan behavior beyond game attendance; e.g., fan
violence, purchasing team merchandise.
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IMPROVING ONLINE MARKETING IN
THE SPORT INDUSTRy: A LOOK AT NBA
FANS SATISFACTION CRITERIA
Author:
Nicolas Lorgnier
email:
lorgnien@canisius.edu
Co-authors:
Abdourazakou, yann ORourke, Shawn
University:
Canisius College
Faculty:
Master of Sport Administration
Abstract
Sport marketing and sport quality researchers have
generally focused on customer satisfaction in the stadium
(yoshida & James, 2010; Shonk & Chelladurai, 2008;
Greenwell & al, 2002) in order to enhance service quality,
as the satisfaction of the customer is strongly correlated to
enhanced loyalty, positive word-of-mouth, improved profits
and lower marketing expenditures (Anderson & al., 1994;
Olivier, 1999; Palmentier & al., 2006). However, within the
last 50 years multiple alternatives to physical attendance
have emerged. Moreover, one-way communication
channels have been replaced by interactive media and the
Internet 2.0 now introduces new opportunities (and
challenges) to enhance fans' experience. Among these
new channels: extended browsing capabilities and internet
applications (apps and widgets). Moreover, such new
channels emerge on the Internet, and also on 3G and 4G
networks (Smartphone, and the like), allowing users to
access the information almost everywhere and at anytime.
These innovations dramatically impact consumer behavior.
Two-way communication and mobility deeply transform the
market and its segmentation and the change grows fast.
Thus, innovation leads the way to more complex marketing
approaches from players, teams and leagues. Now
involved in multichannel communication strategies, they
connect with the fans via their website, Facebook, Twitter,
youtube and so on. Then, each channel becomes a
potential source of satisfaction or dissatisfaction for the
customers and impacts their loyalty. But as the industry
quickly evolves, little time is given to researchers to adapt
their models.
As a gap exists in the literature, this first approach brings
together contributions in sporting event satisfaction,
website satisfaction and sport communication in order to
build a more specific conceptual framework to explore the
dimensions of a sport online experience. Media users
have long been recognized to have an active role when
selecting a media to use. Uses and gratification theory
suggest that individuals are goal-oriented and seek the
source that best addresses their needs (Blumber & Katz,
1974) and improves their satisfaction, notably in an online
environment (Stafford, Stafford & Schkade, 2004). In the
sport industry, Pedersen, Miloch and Laucella (2007)
introduce a model for online sport communication based
on consumer segmentation (involvement with sport entity
and user motivations) and companies products (content,
design, performance, usability, commerce). However, the
authors dont provide information aiming to determine
criteria of satisfaction. Filo, Funk & Hornby (2009) identify
15 information themes which should be accessible on a
sport event website to increase consumer satisfaction. But
such information is related to the event itself (location,
venue, parking, etc.). The website is seen as a means to
access information about the sporting event to come and
the study aims at assessing the effectiveness of the
website to increase the attendance to the event--the
website isnt considered as the object of satisfaction for
itself. Outside of the sport business, marketing researches
synthesized by Khawaja & Bokhari (2010) set up a cross
industry typology to study dimensions of websites quality,
but one may wonder if such dimensions strictly apply to
the sport industry.
The purpose of this paper is two-fold: First, it aims at
establishing a conceptual model to assess customer
satisfaction in their online experience of the championship
and the players. The resulting frame work analyzes such
customer satisfaction through 3 dimensions: Website
ergonomics and accessibility of the information; Core
product satisfaction; and Ancillary services satisfaction.
Second, the contribution analyzes the impact of specific
variables on the 3 dimensions of satisfaction.
The method used for the study is also two-fold: (1) pre-
questionnaires have been submitted to students in the
Masters of sport administration at Canisius College
(Buffalo, Ny) and University of Lille 2 (France). Students
were asked to think critically about the topic and provide
propositions to enhance such new approach of the topic (in
the classroom and online). This preliminary constructive
phase was critical in helping researchers to compose with
limited scholarship available on the topic and the fast
changes of fans communication capabilities; (2) a broad
online study is currently undertaken. The paper will provide
an overview of the data collected by a survey in Europe
and North America (Canada and USA). Questionnaires are
broadcasted on the internet, via various websites and
social media, and administrated by Checkbox 4.7. Data is
analyzed with SPSS and R.
Research findings assess fans satisfaction criteria and
discuss their segmentation. Further discussion will relate to
communication strategies and provide directions for future
research.
References:
Filo, K., Funk, D. C., & Hornby, G. (2009). The role of web site
content on motive and attitude change for sport events. Journal of
sport management, 23, 21-40.
Khawaja, K. F., & Bokhari, R. H. (2010). Exploring the factors
associated with quality of website. Global journal of computer
science and technology, 10 (14), 37-45.
Pedersen, P. M., Miloch, K. S., & Laucella, P. C. (2007). Strategic
sport communication. Champaign: Human Kinetics.
Shonk, D. J., & Chelladurai, P. (2008). Service quality, satisfaction,
and intent to return in event sport tourism. Journal of sport
management, 22, 587-602.
yoshida, M., & James, J. D. (2010). Customer satisfaction with
game and service experiences: antecedents and consequences.
Journal of sport management, 24, 338-361.
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SPORT FANS AND MOTIVES FOR
ATTENDANCE - A STATUS
QUAESTIONIS FROM THE LITERATURE
Author:
Mariana De Carvalho
email:
msmfcarvalho@gmail.com
Co-authors:
de Carvalho, Mariana (1, 2) Sarmento, Jos Pedro (1)
Scheerder, Jeroen (2) 1 Universidade do Porto Sports
Faculty (Portugal) Center of Research, Education,
Innovation and Intervention in Sport 2 Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven Faculty of Kinesiology &
Rehabilitation Sciences (Belgium) Research Unit of Social
Kinesiology & Sport Management E-mail address of the
lead author: msmfcarvalho@gmail.com
University:
Universidade do Porto - Portugal
Faculty:
Faculdade de Desporto - Gesto Desportiva
Abstract
Introduction/Objectives
The desire to understand the sport consumers behavior is
a long-term objective of the sport-marketing professionals.
A better comprehension about the sport fans, the motives
that get supporters into the stadium and the reasons that
can make them buy merchandising can help to build a
whole picture about the followers of a team or sport.
Therefore, the wide-ranging idea of this literature review is
to systematize the knowledge about the profile of the sport
fans and to understand what takes people into the stadium
and what can make them stay at home. This investigation
will allow scholars and practitioners to establish common
research designs and target populations in a better way. In
this manner, the present pioneer contribution can be of
help in order to perform studies about attendance, motives
for attendance, marketing strategies and club
management.
Background
Sport management researchers have tried to define the
concept of a sport fan, to classify sport consumers when it
comes to their fandom and to establish different models of
sport consumption. However, this field of knowledge is yet
to be explored and some gaps have to be filled. The
biggest current problem is that until present, sport
researchers and managers couldnt find a common
language about these issues. The main reasons for the
huge variability in this field of knowledge can be
interpreted as following. Firstly, the studies were performed
in different countries and continents, therefore, the vast
cultural differences can be identified in the study designs,
in their main focus and, consequently, in the results.
Secondly, several authors established different sport
consumption models, having as a consequence different
findings that cannot be compared accurately. Thirdly, as we
analyze studies about attendance we can find evidence
that different sports have supporters with diverse
consumption motives, which stops researchers from
establishing a common model. And last, sport consumption
is changing a lot, as so the marketing strategies and the
organizations view about consumers. Hence, the results
are different throughout times.
Methods
In our status quaestionis from the literature we focus on
the definition of sport fans, spectators and consumers. We
summarize the several models of sport consumption
existing. Finally, we analyze the motives that make people
attend games and dislocate themselves to the stadium, or,
on the other hand, make them stay at home. Thus, we
review the sport consumption content presented in the
literature and organize it in a holistic way.
Results
Sport consumers differ a lot: fans values, attitudes and
behaviors are quite varied. The modern sport fan, called
the elusive fan by Rein&colleagues(2006), holds high
expectations for the presentation of a sport event, has
multiple media viewing options, and is selective in how
money can be spent in the live viewing of sport attractions.
Therefore, fans have been classified by, among others,
(i)the number of hours dedicated to the club, (ii)the type of
dedication (attending games at the stadium or at home),
and (iii)the kind of consumption (amount of money spent).
Validated instruments can be located in several languages
about the motives that make people attend games or
sports events (e.g. Wann et al.,1999;Trail et al.,2000;Funk
et al.,2009). Wann&colleagues validated the Sport Fan
Motivation Scale to measure eight factors known as
influencing the fans behavior: eustress, self-esteem,
escape, entertainment, economic, aesthetic, affiliation and
family. This was considered to be a good starting point, but
it had some methodological implications. Trail&colleagues
presented a theoretical model proposing a predictive
relationship between the motives and the actual behavior
of fans and sport spectators. This model includes nine
similar motives for being a sport fan. Funk&colleagues
provided a parsimonious measuring tool of motives to
explain sport event attendance. The SPEED scale
(Socialization, Performance, Excitement, Esteem, and
Diversion) demonstrated the ability to explain 75% of the
variance in team commitment. Recently, other perspectives
have been brought to light. Constrains on sport consumer
behavior are also being studied. Fink&Parker(2009)
studied the motives to attend games of other teams than
our favorites, and found that drama, skill and social were
rated the highest in both game types (favorite teams or
not).
Conclusions/Research propositions
Overall, we notice heterogeneity on the existing data about
sport consumers, sport consumers definitions and
consumption motives. Therefore, research in this area is
still in an embryonic stage. Future studies should focus on
the percentage of attendance that can be explained by
each motive and the relationship between motives,
pursuing the achievement of a broad-spectrum knowledge
about the studied topics.
References:
Fink J & Parker H (2009). Spectator Motives: Why do we watch
when our favorite team is not playing? Sport Marketing Quarterly,
18: 210-217.
Funk D, Filo K, Beaton A & Pritchard M (2009). Measuring the
motives of sport event attendance: bridging the academic-
practioner divide to understanding behavior. Sport Marketing
Quarterly, 18: 126-138.
Rein I, Kotler P & Shields B (2006). The Elusive Fan: Reinventing
Sports in a Crowded Marketplace. New york: McGraw-Hill
Companies.
Trail, G.; Anderson, D. & Fink, J. (2000). A theoretical model of
sport spectator consumption behavior. International Journal of Sport
Management, 1: 154-180.
Wann D, Schrader M & Wilson A (1999). Sport fan motivation:
questionnaire validation, comparisons by sport, and relationship to
athletic motivation. Sport Behavior, 22 (1): 114-139.
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HOW ATTRACTIVE IS WOMENS
FOOTBALL REALLy? SURVEy
RESULTS FOR THE WORLD CUP 2011
IN THE CITy OF BOCHUM
Author:
Markus Kurscheidt
email:
markus.kurscheidt@rub.de
Co-authors:
Schtte, Norbert Krmann, Jasper
University:
University of Bayreuth
Faculty:
Abstract
Aim of the abstract/paper
In the scope of a comprehensive ex ante market research,
this paper presents survey results for the case of the 2011
FIFA Womens World Cup (WWC) city of Bochum in the
Ruhr Area. The analysis focus is set on measuring as well
as explaining the intention to buy (ITB) a ticket for WWC
matches in Bochum as a key indicator for the actual
purchase when controlling for a variety of socio-
demographic and psychographic variables. The aim is to
detect significant determinants of the ITB and, thereby, to
deduce strategic advice on how to effectively reach target
groups.
Literature review
There still is a considerable lack of research on womens
football in general [2], but particularly so in management
and marketing [1]. Apart from a couple of commis-sioned
spectator surveys [3, 4], there are literally no international
studies on the economic aspects of womens football.
Likewise, large-scale surveys in the run-up and during
major sport events are rarely found in the literature [5, 7].
Methodology
Since in such an analysis of the potential demand the
population is unknown, the only solution for the survey
sampling is a thorough cluster sampling [6]. The reason is
that the spatial drawing potential, i.e. the local market size,
for the attendance demand for womens football World Cup
matches is undetermined. Hence, a random multistep
sampling of clusters of theoretically likely visitors in a
sensibly chosen geographical area of the event (for the
case of Bochum, the Greater Bochum region and the Ruhr
Area) should be a suitable procedure, in particular, as the
pooled sample size increases.
Therefore one subsample for the target group (1) of mens
football fans has been taken at the season opening
2009/10 of the professional mens football club VfL
Bochum (n=881). The subsample (n=1.069) on target
group (2) of womens football fans consists of a test match
of the German womens national team vs. Russia (n=389)
in August 2009, a number of home matches of the Ruhr
Area based first division clubs FCR Duisburg and SG
Essen-Schnebeck, a girls football festival in Bochum, and
a small sample from the Womens Football Cup Final in
Cologne. Moreover, subsamples (n=714) had been
generated for the target group (3) of event visitors in the
Greater Bochum and Ruhr Area outside football events
(IIHF World Cup 2010 opening match between Germany
and the USA in Gelsenkirchen, a big rock festival in
Bochum, and a popular arts event as part of the Ruhr 2010
program for the European Capital of Culture). Finally,
target group (4) of general residents is less defined and
set up from subsamples (n=1.431) drawn at the Citizens
Registry and Information Center of the City of Bochum as
well as in a number of samples from mall-intercepts or
comparative procedures, a bit from all over the Ruhr Area.
Whereas the in-depth data analysis of the described large
overall sample is still in progress (to be finalized soon),
earlier results on the first 2009 subsamples (n=1.270) from
the mentioned (i) season opening of the mens football
club VfL Bochum and (ii) the womens national team test
match, both surveyed at the Bochum stadium, indicated
the prospects of an extended analysis of such rich survey
data sets.
In the Logit regressions, the strongest explanatory power
for the ITB is found for the intention to visit the Fan Fest,
some awareness variables (knowledge of Bochum being
WWC city and of local women's football clubs; esp. sample
(1)), a general positive attitude (nice that the WWC is
hosted in Germany/Bochum), the expectation of a great
ambiance like at the mens World Cup 2006 (esp. sample
(1)) as well as frequent shopping in Bochum and listening
to local radio stations (both esp. sample (2)).
The findings suggest that there actually is a substantial
demand potential for WWC matches and the Fan Fest
among the key target groups of womens and mens
football fans alike. Inter alia, this is supported by the
evidence that socio-demographic characteristics (income,
education, age, gender) do not appear significant for the
individual ITB. The Bochum LOC should, first, focus its
promotion on the local radio and in shopping areas by
stressing the good ambiance to be expected at the WWC.
Second, apart from raising the awareness, the campaign
should be clearly image-oriented, emphasizing
opportunities of hosting the WWC. Third, the Fan Fest
may be used as a point of last-minute ticket sales given
the assertive ITB of visitors met there.
References:
Desbordes, M. (Ed.) (2007). Marketing and Football: An
International Perspective. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Hong, F. & Mangan, J. A. (Eds.) (2003). Special Issue Soccer,
Women, Sexual Liberation. Soccer & Society, 4 (2/3), 1-270.
IFM Sports (2007). FIFA Womens World Cup China 2007:
Spectator Research Executive Summary. (Presentation slides)
November 26, 2007.
Klein, M.-L. & Mintert, S. (2007). Zuschauerbefragung Frauen-
Bundesliga. Rckserie 2006/07 Gesamtauswertung. (Research
report for the DFB) Ruhr-University Bochum.
Lee, C.-K. & Taylor, T. (2005). Critical Reections on the Economic
Impact Assessment of a Mega-Event: The Case of 2002 FIFA
World Cup. Tourism Management, 26 (4), 595-603.
Li, M., Pitts, B. G. & Quarterman, J. (2008). Research Methods in
Sport Management. Morgantown, WV: FIT.
Preu, H., Kurscheidt, M. & Schtte, N. (2009). konomie des
Tourismus durch Sportgroveran-staltungen: Eine empirische
Analyse zur Fuball-Weltmeisterschaft 2006. Wiesbaden: Gabler.
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FOUR SPORT TOURIST FAN TyPES:
2010 WORLD CUP, FLOW-ON TOURISM
AND OTHER ATTRIBUTES
Author:
Heather Gibson
email:
hgibson@hhp.ufl.edu
Co-authors:
Kang, Sung-Jin,
Walker, Matt,
Kaplanidou, Kiki,
Thapa, Brijesh,
Geldenhuys, Sue,
Coetzee, Willie
University:
University of Florida and Tshwane University of Technology
Faculty:
Tourism Recreation and Sport Management
Abstract
Study Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate the flow-on
tourism of international sport tourists attending the 2010
FIFA World Cup in South Africa. Four types of sport tourist
fans were examined (i.e., avid, frequent, casual, and
disinterested) to answer the following research questions:
(1) are there different patterns of flow-on tourism, and (2)
can each fan type be distinguished by demographic and
behavioral characteristics?
Literature Review
A challenge for host communities is to encourage event
visitors to participate in a range of activities or flow-on
tourism. However, as Faulkner et al. (1998) warned, the
potential for flow-on tourism may be limited during the
event as most visitors tend to be sport junkies . Likewise,
Ritchie (2004) found that interest in other tourist attractions
was related to fan type. Avid fans, whose prime motivation
was sport, and frequent fans (those with mixed motives)
were less likely to participate in non-sport related tourism
activities than casual fans whose primary motives were
tourism. Gibson et al. (2003) found similar patterns
whereby social fans were more likely to take part in other
activities than pure sport fans. Such patterns represent a
challenge to communities seeking to maximize tourism-
related benefits (Garnham, 1996; Taks et al., 2009).
Method
A stratified random sample of 8422 FIFA World Cup
visitors were surveyed in the nine host cities during match
days. Every fifth person/group was asked to complete a
self-administered questionnaire. For this study, N=6606
international respondents were included. Of these 73.2%
were male, mean age 35.27 years (SD=9.53).
Frequencies and multinomial logistic regression were used
for data analysis. Sport tourist fan was the dependent
variable. Predictor variables included gender, age,
education, attendance at matches and other World Cup
events, tourist attractions visited, overall destination image,
event image, intention to attend next World Cup,
willingness to recommend and revisit South Africa, and
travel group composition.
When asked about the four sport tourist types 35.3%
(n=2216) classified themselves as Avid Fans (main reason
for visiting is the football, supporting team, and attend
many matches); 59.8% (n=3752) were Frequent Fans (like
football, attend some matches also interested in other
attractions); 3.2% (n=202) were Casuals (Don t really
support a team but will attend a match); and 1.7% (n=105)
were Disinterested (no interest in football or attending
matches). The results of the multinomial logistic
regression show the test of the 2 log likelihood for model fit
was 2=786.25 (p<.001). This indicates the four types of
sport tourist fan can be distinguished by significant
predictor variables with an overall correct prediction rate of
63.6%. Avid Fans (predicted group) were distinguished
from Disinterested fans (reference group) using log-odds
coefficients by more likely to be male (=.87), higher
education (=.41), attend matches (= 3.18), attend the
next World Cup (=.57), hold a favorable image of the
World Cup (=.53), not part of a convention (= -2.16) or
visit the National Parks (=-.70), and no expressed
intention to revisit South Africa (=-.75), but would
recommend it to others (= .60). Frequent Fans (predicted
group) were distinguished from Disinterested (reference
group) by being male (=.70), travelling with family
(=1.00), attend matches (=.3.11) and other World Cup
related events (=1.62), they are not part of a convention
(=-1.71), have no interest in shopping (=-.56), but
participated in water based activities (=1.33). They intend
to be at the next World Cup (=.59), will recommend South
Africa to others (=.68), but are not likely to visit Africa
again (=-.57). The Casuals (predicted group) were
distinguished from the Disinterested (reference group) by
attending a match (=1.50), taking part in water based
activities (=1.42), and their willingness to recommend
South Africa to others (=.72).
Different sport tourist fans types were identified at the FIFA
World Cup and these fans differed in their event-related
motives (Ritchie, 2004). The avid fan epitomized the "sport
junky" as suggested by Faulkner et al. (1998) and was
interested in little else outside of the stadium. This stands
in contrasts to the frequent fans for which the trip was a
vacation. However, these fans also participated in other
World Cup events and tourism activities. Likewise, the
Casuals reported participating in other tourist activities.
Thus, if flow-on tourism is to be leveraged efforts appear
likely to yield more return among visitors who have mixed
motives, not just sport. Indeed, Taks et al (2009) found that
a desire to learn about the destination was related to flow-
on tourism among event spectators. Other good news, for
South Africa is that all sport tourists would recommend the
country to others, but did not express an intention to
return, although Brazil 2014 may benefit.
References:
Faulkner, B., Tideswell, C., & Weston, A. (1998). Leveraging
tourism benefits from the Sydney 2000 Olympics, Keynote
presentation, Sport Management: Opportunities and Change,
Fourth Annual Conference of the Sport Management Association of
Australia and New Zealand, Gold Coast, Australia, 26-28,
November.
Garnham, B. (1996). Ranfurly Shield Rugby: An investigation into
the impacts of a sporting event on a provincial city, the case of New
Plymouth, Taranaki, New Zealand. Festival Management and Event
Tourism, 4, 145-149.
Gibson, H., Willming, C., & Holdnak, A. (2003). Small-Scale Event
Sport Tourism: Fans as Tourists. Tourism Management, 24, 181-
190.
Ritchie, B. (2004). Exploring small-scale sport event tourism: The
case of rugby union and the Super 12 Competition. In B. Ritchie &
D. Adair (Eds.). Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impacts and
Issues (pp. 154) 135-57-67). Clevedon, UK: Channel View
Publications.
Taks, M., Chalip, L., Green, B.C., Kesenne, S., & Martyn, S. (2009).
Factors affecting repeat visitation and flow-on tourism as sources of
event strategy sustainability. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 14, 121-
142.
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254
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT SPORT
ACTIVITIES ON THE BRAND EQUITy OF
FOOTBALL CLUBS
Author:
Vitor Pataco
email:
vpataco@netcabo.pt
Co-authors:
Verissimo, Jos M.
University:
Technical University of Lisbon
Faculty:
ISEG
Abstract
Aim of Paper
The Portuguese sports clubs -- Benfica, Porto and Sporting
-- are well-known brands across Europe. These sports
clubs have several activities that correspond, from a
marketing perspective, to brand extensions. This paper
examines brand equity and brand extensions, and
identifies the impact of different sports activities on the
equity of the main brand.
In Europe, the sport business in general and football in
particular, is a lucrative industry. For example, each of the
European top ten clubs generates revenues over 200
million each season. To survive the increasingly
competitive marketplace, sports managers have to adopt
brand management practices and position their brands in
the minds of sponsors and fans, thus building relationships
to gain or maintain brand equity (Gladden et al., 2001).
Therefore, branding and brand management has become
a main priority. Brand extensions and brand equity have
captured the attention of academics (Keller & Lehmann,
2006) and practitioners alike. However, few studies have
examined brand equity in the sport context. At the sports
activity level, research into the brand equity is even
scarcer, despite the fact that many clubs offer several
activities, such as handball, swimming, basketball, and
running. This is the case of Benfica, Porto and Sporting.
Methodology, Research Design and Data Analysis
A positivist approach was adopted and a quantitative
methodology used for data collection and analysis. An
invitation was sent to 225.459 individuals to respond an
online questionnaire early in 2009, after access to clubs
databases was granted. These individuals were fans,
partners and supporters registered in the clubs web sites.
The questionnaire measures brand equity, brand
extensions and respondents emotional attachment to their
favorite team. Scales and questions were drawn from
previous work by you and Donthu (2001), Ross, James
and Vargas (2006), and others. Cronbachs reliability
analysis and exploratory factor analysis was used extract
different factors of brand equity: brand loyalty, brand
awareness, brand associations and perceived quality.
There was an attempt to follow Aakers (1991) work on
brand equity. Multiple linear regression was used to test
the research framework and analyse the impact of each
sport activity on the brand equity for each sport club.
Results, Discussion and Implications
An impressive 16.923 individuals completed the survey,
corresponding to a response rate of 7.5%. Results show
that different sports activities have a positive impact on the
main brand equity. In addition, the emotional relationship
with the brand is the strongest factor in explaining brand
equity, even more so than football, the core sport activity of
these clubs. These conclusions are aligned with previous
studies stressing the relevance of the emotional
relationship in brand building and development of positive
attitudes towards the brand. Results also suggest that
promotional support of brand extensions, on one hand,
and perceived fit between the sports extension and the
parent brand, on the other, are major drivers of brand
equity. Therefore, club managers should keep these
findings in mind when implementing strategies to reinforce
the brand, for example by introducing new sports activities
or developing existing ones.
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References:
Aaker, D.A. (1991). Managing Brand Equity. New york: The Free
Press.
Gladden, J.M., Irwin, R.L., & Sutton W.A. (2001). Managing North
American Major Professional Sport Teams in The New Millennium:
A focus on building brand equity. Journal of Sport Management,
15(4), 297-317.
Keller, K.L. & Lehmann, D.R. (2006). Brands and Branding:
Research Findings and Future Priorities. Marketing Science, 25 (6),
(November-December), 740-759.
Ross, S.D., James, J.D. & Vargas, P. (2006). Development of a
Scale to Measure Team Brand Associations in Professional Sport.
yoo, B. & Donthu, N. (2001). Developing and validating
multidimensional consumer-based brand equity scale. Journal of
Business Research, 52(1), 1-14.
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Sport For Good
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Themes
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258
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HOW DID A NEW SPORT TEAM MAKE
CHANGES TO A COMMUNITy?
Author:
Hirotaka Matsuoka
email:
matsuoka-hiro@waseda.jp
Co-authors:
[yanagi],[Hisatsune] [Kato], [Kiyotaka]
University:
Waseda University
Faculty:
Faculty of Sport Sciences
Abstract
Introduction
It has been argued that sport makes significant changes to
our society. Sporting activities including sporting events
and sport clubs are able to create social capital and to
contribute to solve various community problems (Nicholson
& Hoye, 2008; Okayasu et al., 2010). The community
value of professional sport was also identified in the
previous research (Zhang et al., 1996). Especially, newly
established professional sport teams have not only
economical but also socio-psychological impacts in
community and among fans and spectators (James et al.,
2002; Lock et al., 2009; Nigel et al., 2011). However, only
a few empirical studies have been conducted to investigate
such impacts. In using the case of a new professional
basketball team, the present study examined whether
perceptions of spectators on the community value of sport
team, psychological commitment to hometown, and
motives to attend games changed from a year before the
new team entry to just after the opening of its first season.
Method
The target professional basketball team of this
investigation was launched in Akita, Japan in October,
2010. Its proposal was accepted by bj-league (Professional
Basketball Japan) in May, 2009. In order to collect data
from spectators in a year before the team s first season, a
survey was conducted on the spectators of a pre-season
game in Akita in September, 2009. Since the new team
had not been introduced, we selected a game played by
two teams from different cities. Each data collector
selected subjects from each block of seating in the arena
according to approximate proportions of age and sex of
spectators in that block. A total of 391 usable
questionnaires were collected.
For the data after the team s introduction, the second
survey was conducted on the spectators of two games
played by the new team in Akita in November, 2010. The
way of distributing questionnaires were the same as the
way in the first survey. A total of 474 usable questionnaires
were collected.
In order to examine perceptions of spectators on the
community value of sport team, we employed items to
assess the perceptions on the new team s contribution to
community activation and enhancement of people s
interests in basketball. Three items were used to measure
psychological commitment to the community. The
questionnaire also included a set of questions pertaining to
demographic characteristics, spectating behaviors, and
motives to attend basketball games.
Results
Initially, since Zhang et al. (1993) revealed that
demographic variables affected the perceptions on the
community value of professional sport, we assessed the
similarity of spectators in 2009 and in 2010. As a result,
there were no significant differences on age and sex
between the two groups. While the average age of
subjects in 2009 was 38.4, it was 38.2 in 2010 (t = .26,
n.s.). The rate of female among the subjects in 2009 was
53.2%, whereas it was 51.6% in 2010 (2 = .66, n.s.).
The results indicated that spectators in 2010 did report a
higher level of evaluation for the team s contribution to
community activation compared to spectators in 2009, M =
4.44 and M = 4.26 respectively (t = 3.17, p < .01). There
were also significant differences between the two groups
with respect to the perceptions on the new team s
contribution to heighten people s interests in basketball.
Spectators in 2010 reported higher levels of appreciation
regarding the influence of the new team launch upon
adults and children s interests in playing and watching
basketball.
Furthermore, the level of psychological commitment to the
community, assessed with three items ( = .90), among
spectators in 2010 was significantly higher than the level
among spectators in 2009, M = 4.28 and M = 4.16
respectively (t = 2.31, p < .05). Regarding motives to
attend games, there were also significant differences
between the two groups on five dimensions of motive.
Spectators in 2009 were high in skills, whereas spectators
in 2010 were high in escape, social interaction, drama,
and entertainment.
Discussion
This empirical study showed the important pieces of
evidence that a newly established sport team affects
perceptions of spectators on the community value of sport
team, psychological commitment to hometown, and
motives to attend games. The level of evaluation among
spectators with respect to the new team s contribution to
community increased after the new team was established.
The psychological commitment to the community among
home-game spectators was also enhanced after the team
s introduction. These findings proved the significant value
of professional sport teams and might encourage
community activation through professional sport.
References:
James, J., Kolbe, R., & Trail, G. (2002). Psychological connection
to a new sport team: Building or maintaining the consumer base.
Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11(4), 215-225.
Lock, D., Darcy, S., & Taylor, T. (2009). Starting with a clean slate:
An analysis of member identification for a new sports team. Sports
Grant, N., Heere, B., & Dickson, G. (2011). New sport teams and
the development of brand community. European Sport
Management Quarterly, 11(1), 35-54.
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260
CAREER/LIFE TRANSITION - A
PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TO
ELITE SOCCER PLAyERS AND Ex-
PRISONERS
Author:
Pedro Carvalho
email:
pguedes@ubi.pt
Co-authors:
Neto, Jos O.
Sousa, J. Antunes
University:
UBI-CIDESD
Faculty:
Dept of Sports Sciences
Abstract
Aim
Standing from a holistic point of view we consider sport as
an important human activity that can contribute to improve
human quality of life after the professional period. In this
paper we want to understand and gain insight about the
way some special groups where sport is/was present, feel
subjectively their own well being over their life-span. We
intend to understand how do individuals perceive their
actual well being after (1) finishing their athlete career as
high elite soccer players (winners of the 1986 European
club championship) and (2) after being released as
prisoners submitted to a sportive plan during the time they
were in prison. Are there differences between groups?
Theoretical background and literature review
The concept of transition has, during the past decade,
become a well-delineated topic of study among sport
community (for a broader review see Wylleman, Alfermann
and Lavallee, 2005). In Portugal there are no official
programs to uncover transition processes as we see in
other countries [see Anderson, D. and Morris, T. (2000) for
deeper review]. Studies carried out in several countries
reveal different sensations and effects. Most of the ex-
players declare efforts were inadequate resulting in
negative feelings of subjective well-being after their
retirement; other underlines the impact of family and
friends support as an essential element for their happiness
[see Agresta, Brando and Neto (2008)]. In the present
study we followed very closely Coackley and Cassandra
(2006) where findings centered around four core themes:
(a) how former players understand and describe the sport-
career transition experience; (b) systems of support to help
with the sport-career transition; (c) how to prepare for the
sport-career transition; and (d) subjective well-being. We
also used instruments to measure the satisfaction of life.
Scores on the SWLS (satisfaction with life scale, in Diener,
Emmons, Randy and Griffin, 1985) correlate moderately to
highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and
correlate predictably with specific personality
characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is suited for use
with different age groups. Using the Conceptual Model of
Adaptation to Career Transition (Taylor & Ogilvie, 1998) we
could compare 3 different groups of people: elite players,
ex-prisoners and normal people as a control group.
Methodology, research design and analysis: Using semi-
structured interviews, former players were asked to provide
information about their sport-career transition experience,
a comprehensive description of it, and the subsequent
effect on subjective well-being. The same was applied to
ex-prisoners and to the control group, composed by
normal people that used sport as a mediator of their
sociability process.
Using the interpretive tradition of phenomenology, the
Conceptual Model of Adaptation to Career Transition and a
triangulation method [Data triangulation, which entails
gathering data through several sampling strategies, so that
slices of data at different times and social situations, as
well as on a variety of people, are gathered, Alan Bryman
quoting Denzin, 1970] as the main theoretical framework,
interviews with 3 different groups were conducted: 20
soccer players from 1986s Oporto FC soccer team, 20 ex-
prisoners submitted to sport activity as an instrument to
socialize and a 20 individuals of a control group,
considering it as composed by normal people.
The results pointed to the idea that regular and leisure
sport activity during all the life time creates a pacific sense
of well-being in life. More extreme sport activities, either at
a high competitive level or in prison, have more negative
impacts in well-being after the transition period. The main
sport policy implication would be to enhance the need of
new corporate social responsibility of clubs, associations,
other sport national boards and administrative
organizations as public institutes to re-absorbed ex-
prisoners. In fact, CSR mandates that the corporation has
not only economic and legal obligations, but also certain
responsibilities to society that extend beyond these
obligations (McGuire et al., 1988).
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References:
Agresta, Brando and Neto (2008) Causas e Conseqncias
Fsicas e Emocionais do Trmino de Carreira Esportiva Physical
and Emotional Causes and Consequences of Career Termination in
Sports Rev Bras Med Esporte Vol. 14, No 6 Nov/Dez, 2008
Anderson, D., & Morris, T. (2000). Athlete lifestyle programs. In D.
Lavallee, & P. Wylleman (Eds.), Career transitions in sport:
International perspectives (pp. 5980). Morgantown, WV: Fitness
Information Technology.
Archie B Carroll (1999) Corporate social responsibility. Business
and Society; Sep 1999; 38, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 268.
Bryman, A. (2001). Social Research Methods. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press
Coakley, S. Cassandra (2006) A Phenomenological Exploration of
the Sport-Career Transition Experiences that affect Subjective Well-
Being of Former National Football League Players.
Creswell, J. W. (1995). Research Design: Quantitative and
Qualitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Diener, Ed, Emmons Robert A., Randy j. Lar.sem, and Griffin,
Sharon (1985) The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of
Personality Assessment, 49, 1
McGuire, J. B., A. Sundgren, and T. Schneeweis (1988) Corporate
social responsibility and firm financial performance. Academy of
Management Journal, 31 (4): 854-872.
Wylleman, Alfermann and Lavallee, 2005).
S. CeciImage ErpiImage, P. Wyllemanb and M. ZupanImage (2004)
The effect of athletic and non-athletic factors on the sports career
termination process. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Volume 5,
Issue 1, January 2004, Pages 45-59.
Wood, D. (1991). "Corporate Social Performance Revisited".
Academy of Management Review, Vol.4, pp. 691718.
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262
ASSESSING THE ROLE OF
COMMITMENT WITHIN yOUTH SPORT
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
Author:
Aubrey Kent
email:
aubkent@temple.edu
University:
Temple University
Faculty:
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management
Abstract
The inner-city environment (particularly in the United
States) is such that negative influences are prevalent, and
often lend themselves to higher rates of youth crime rates
and increased numbers of high school drop-outs (U.S.
Conference of Mayors, 2009). Americas Promise Alliance
(2009) recently released graduation rates from the 50
largest cities in the U.S. In their report, Cities in Crisis
2009, they found that roughly half (53%) of all young
people in the nations 50 largest cities are graduating from
high school on time (62.1% in Philadelphia for the 2005
class). This represents a considerable distance from the
national graduation rate of 71%.
In the face of this, many organizations have taken on the
mission of providing additional mentoring for young people,
where so often educational budget constraints prevent this
from happening within the mainstream. In assessing the
efficacy of such programs however, the terminology of
outcome is often confused with that of output. In short,
inputs represent total dollars spent on certain programs,
while outputs represent the mere existence and delivery of
such programs, as expressed in easily gathered data such
as participation rates and dollar amounts spent. Outcomes,
in contrast, represent the actual timely and enduring
change in attitudes and behavior that can occur within
participants, as a result of participation in such programs. It
seems that a fundamental perception problem exists within
the non-profit framework, in that many organizations view
assessment as an unnecessary burden that takes
resources away from the participants they serve, or fail to
see it as a strategic device for securing external resources
(Urban Institute, 2009).
There is a generally accepted conclusion that participation
in community youth organizations has been found to relate
to a variety of positive outcomes (e.g., Larson, 2000), and
Mahoney et al. (2005) acknowledged that many organized
youth programs are high on many features that promote
positive development. When discussing youth development
programs that are also related to sport, Fraser-Thomas et
al. (2005) state that positive developmental outcomes are
very clearly experienced by the participants. The
mechanisms by which this occurs, however, is not yet
clear. The research to be presented represents 18 months
of data collection with 3 non-profit organizations in
Philadelphia which use sport to attract urban youth to their
programs. Beyond sport, these programs attempt to make
enduring changes in the community by also stressing
character development, education, responsibility, and
healthy life choices to their program participants, who
range in age from 6 to 18 years of age.
Germane to the theme of the 2011 EASM conference,
commitment is among the assessed attitudes for youth in
the programs. Based on the distinction of foci versus
bases of commitment articulated by Becker (1992), the
current research attempts to assess outcomes (5 Cs of the
Positive youth Development Model; Lerner et al. 2005), as
a function of the foci of commitment (whether to sport or to
organization), and/or their stage placement of involvement
per the Psychological Continuum Model (Funk & James,
2001).
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References:
Americas Promise Alliance (2009) Cities in Crisis 2009. Retrieved
from http://www.americaspromise.org/Resources/Research-and-
Reports/c/Cities-In-Crisis-2009.aspx
Becker (1992 Becker, T. E. (1992). Foci and bases of
commitment: are they distinctions worth making? Academy of
Management Journal, 35, 232 - 244.
Fraser-Thomas, JL, Cote, J, & Deakin, J. et al. (2005) youth sport
programs: An avenue to foster positive youth development Physical
Education and Sport Pedagogy, 10(1), 19-40.
Funk D, & James J. (2001). The psychological continuum model: a
conceptual framework for understanding an individuals
psychological connection to sport. Sport Management Review, 4,
19150.
Larson, R. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth
development. American Psychologist, 55, 170183.
Lerner, R. M., et al. (2005). Positive youth development,
participation in community youth development programs, and
community contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from
the first wave of the 4-H study of positive youth development.
Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17-71.
Mahoney et al. (2005). Organized activities as developmental
contexts for children and adolescents. In JL Mahoney, RW Larson,
and JS Eccles (Eds.), Organized activities as contexts of
development. Laurence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
U.S. Conference of Mayors (2009). Retrieved from usmayors.org
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264
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PHILANTHROPy IN PROFESSIONAL
SPORT: ExPLORING CONSUMER
PERCEPTIONS AND BEHAVIORAL
INTENTIONS OF ATHLETE CHARITy
Author:
Christopher Mull
email:
cmgoblue@umich.edu
Co-authors:
Lee, Seung Pil Babiak, Katherine
University:
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
As culturally influential individuals, professional athletes
have begun to engage in philanthropy over the past
decade and have formalized their charity by starting their
own philanthropic foundations (Babiak, et al., 2011). Given
the growing emphasis on strategic philanthropy and the
interest of teams and sponsors on the appeal of athletes,
there is a need to consider the perspectives of consumers
and fans to better understand their perceptions, attitudes,
and behavioral intentions towards athletes charitable
initiatives. The study had two main objectives: (1)
investigate the extent to which the level of athlete /
charitable cause fit influences consumer perceptions and
behaviors; (2) explore whether consumers view athletes
who have charitable foundations as more likeable,
trustworthy and sincere than athletes without formalized
philanthropy and whether those views translate into
behavioral outcomes.
To examine consumer perceptions and attitudes towards
charitable athletes, we draw on themes from bodies of
literature including: celebrity endorsers (Upadhyay &
Singh, 2010), philanthropy and charity (Pracejus & Olsen,
2004), and sport management (Walker & Kent, 2009). The
guiding theoretical framework we use to measure
consumer attitudes and potential behavioral outcomes (i.e.,
willingness to donate, purchase merchandise, tickets etc.)
is the Expectancy-Value Model. According to the EV
Model, a persons attitudes toward an object (or an athlete)
is determined by the subjective values or evaluations of
the attributes associated with the object (philanthropic
tendencies or more commercial interests). Because
attitude is defined as a learned predisposition to respond
to an object in a consistently favorable or unfavorable
manner, there is a strong link implied between attitude and
behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Thus, a consumers
attitudes toward an athlete may be determined by the
consumers evaluations of the athletes attributes both on
and off the field of play.
A quasi-experimental approach was employed where 24
professional athletes in the National Basketball Association
(NBA) were identified; 12 who had formed a charitable
foundation, and 12 other NBA players who had not formed
a charitable foundation. Brief scenarios were designed
highlighting information about the charitable players
including their performance data (on the court) and
information about their charity (name, focus, total amount
donated in grants). Similar scenarios were created for the
athletes without foundations, but information about a
fictitious clothing company (name, revenues, industry) was
presented instead of information about the foundation.
Respondents were asked about fit of athlete activities,
perceptions about the athletes sincerity, likeability,
trustworthiness, reputation, and their interest in purchasing
tickets or merchandise with the athletes name on it. 630
students at a Midwestern University in the United States
completed the survey.
The study yielded a number of significant results. Briefly,
correlation analysis and regression showed that the athlete-
charitable cause fit is the most influential factor affecting
consumer perceptions (e.g., sincerity, trustworthiness,
likeability), attitudes and behavioral intention (e.g., donation,
purchase). Second, the independent sample t-test showed
significant differences of perceptions and behavioral
intentions including familiarity (p< .001), trustworthiness (p=
.034), sincerity (p= .005), and likelihood of encouraging
others to buy tickets (p<.012), between athletes with and
without foundations. Overall, this study suggests that
consumer perceptions (familiarity, trustworthiness, and
sincerity), are more positive toward athletes with foundations
than those who are not charitable. Moreover, consumer
behavioral intentions are more favorable toward
philanthropic athletes than those who are not involved in
pro-social initiatives, as respondents were more likely to
donate to an athletes charity than purchase from the
fictitious small business (p< .001).
The results imply that athlete-charity fit plays a significant
role in consumer perceptions and behavioral intentions.
While consistent with previous research regarding CSR,
sponsorship, cause-related marketing, and effects of
celebrities on consumer decisions, these results are
pioneering as the first significant findings on consumer
perceptions of individual athlete philanthropy. However,
one must consider the reliance on a single Midwestern
University as an important limitation in the study.
As seen in endorsement deals and sport sponsorships,
companies often connect with celebrities and athletes in an
attempt to sway consumer attitudes or behaviors about a
specific brand or product. This important role of
brand/cause fit also plays a major role in executing
effective strategic philanthropy for athletes. This suggests
that not only must athlete philanthropists focus on internal
and external factors when deciding upon pro-social
undertakings, but also on the alignment of the cause and
the brand (i.e., themselves). Because the sport industry is
dictated by consumer demand and willingness to pay,
athletes, brand managers, and even team and league
executives would be remiss to ignore consumer reception
of athletes philanthropic undertakings.
References:
Babiak, K., Mills, B., Tainsky, S. & Juravich, M. (2011). An
investigation into professional athlete philanthropy: Why charity is
part of the game. (Forthcoming in Journal of Sport Management).
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and
behavior: an introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Pracejus, J., & Olsen, D. (2004). The role of brand/cause fit in the
effectiveness of cause-related marketing campaigns. Journal of
Business Research, 57, 635-640.
Upadhyay, y., & Singh, K. (2010). When sports celebrity doesnt
perform: How consumers react to celebrity endorsement? The
Journal of Business Perspective, 14, 67-78.
Walker, M., & Kent, A. (2009) Do fans care? Assessing the
influence of corporate social responsibility on consumer attitudes in
the sport industry. Journal of Sport Management, 23, 743-769.
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Tourism & Sports
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Themes
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268
A STUDy ON SNOW SPORT IN
SAPPORO --ACCELERATED DECLINE,
POLARIZATION, AND PRIVILEGED
ACCESS
Author:
Fumio Tsukahara
email:
tsukahara.su@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Nobuhiro Ishizawa
Rihito yamamoto
yoshiyuki Mano
University:
Sapporo University
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to describe the
dynamic state of snow sport participation from the
viewpoint of socio-economics as well as to consider factors
that might promote or control snow sport participation in
Sapporo, a northern Japanese city of 1.9 million people
that has an annual snowfall of over five meters.
The snow sport population of Sapporo has been
decreasing. According to Kureha (2002) and Tsukahara
(2010), in the last 15 years the Japanese snow sport
population has decreased from approximately 13,676,000
to 7,319,000 so many local governments with snow sport
grounds have been facing ski area managerial problems.
The Division for Sport within the Sapporo Municipal Office
reported that the number of estimated guests of a ski area
in Hokkaido had decreased from approximately 8,600,000
in 1991 to 4,660,000 in 2005. Similarly, the number of ski
areas has declined from 146 in 1994 to 106 in 2008 so the
market scale of snow sport in Hokkaido is shrinking, too.
However, the Sapporo local government aims to revive
snow sports in order to improve the sports participation
rate and to strengthen the identity of local citizenry.
Although Kawanishi (1999; 2000; 2006) analyzed
the managerial problems affecting various ski grounds in
Hokkaido, including the importance of inbound visitors for
managers and local governments from the detailed
fieldwork, his studies did not take note of local snow sport
participants. Books written and edited by Suda (1998;
2006), a popular Japanese physical education scholar,
have tried to clarify lifestyles in northern regions, but snow
sport population in Sapporo was out of his field of vision.
Therefore, despite the need to recognize this reality so as
to make sport policy effective and to evaluate it, no one
has yet described the dynamic decline of the snow sport
population in Sapporo. Without this study, we cannot have
any idea about who does snow sports and what factors
can be found that would control the snow sport
participation in this region?
In order to answer to these questions, this study
analyzes the Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities,
which is one of the most popular survey records carried
out every five years. This survey includes information on
sport participation and is executed by the Statistics Bureau,
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication. In order to
investigate local sport life and culture, we also analyzed
the Questionnaire regarding Sapporo Citizens Sport
Participation and Environment, which was commissioned
for us by the Sapporo local government and was carried
out between December 2009 and January 2010.
The findings in this study can be summarized as
follows:
1) The snow sport population in the Sapporo
metropolis has decreased from 30.2% in 1986 to 12.3% in
2006, at an accelerated pace as much as 3.0 pt. down
from 86 to 91, 3.9 pt. down from 91 to 96, 4.6 pt. down
from 96 to 01, and 6.4 pt. down from 01 to 06. We
analyzed this decline by sex and age group with cross
tabulation and found that snow sports might be enjoyed
more by male and the younger groups than female and the
elder groups (see fig. 1).
2) The average days of snow sport participation
has increased from 10.3 days in 1996 to 14.9 days in
2006. Therefore, considering the circumstances mentioned
above, Sapporos snow sport participators have become
more specific group, i.e., the polarization on snow sport
participation in this region has been progressed (see fig.
2).
3) According to a result of binary logistic
regression analysis on snow sport participation from the
viewpoint of socio-economics, it becomes evident that
Sapporos snow sport participation is ordered by
generation, occupation, annual income, and sport
experience in ones college days. Being in over age 50 is
an inhibiting factor, and being a professional or engineer,
earning more than 3 million yen as annual income, or
having sport experience in his / her college days, are
promoting factors (see tab. 1).
We conclude our presentation with a discussion
on the relationship between these findings and social
stratification theory, which indicates that snow sport can be
considered as a privileged culture in Sapporo. If this is the
case, it might be quite difficult to promote snow sport for all
Sapporo citizens, so we will need a new policy to
encourage more people to do snow sports irrespective of
their socio-economic background.
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References
Akitaya, E. and Suda, T. [Edit] (2006) Lifestyles and Physical
Activities in Northern Area. Hokkaido University Press. [in
Japanese]
Kawanishi, K. (2006) A Study on a Turn-around Management of
Public Skiing Parks. Sapporo Gakuin University Review of
Business Administration 23(1), pp.125-170 [in Japanese]
Kawanishi, K. (2000) A Survival Strategy of Ski Grounds in
Hokkaido. Sapporo Gakuin University Review of Business
Administration 16(34), 53-141 [in Japanese]
Kureha, M. (2002) Regional Characteristics of Ski Population in
Japan. Tsukuba University Journal of Human Geography 26,
pp.103-123 [in Japanese]
Takenoshita, K.1964Social Factors Affecting Sports
ParticipationResearch Journal of Physical Education7 (4)10-
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SUCCESS OF MAJOR COLLEGIATE
SPORT TEAMS ON THE
TRANSFORMATION OF SPORT
IDENFITICATION, DESTINATION IMAGE,
AND SPORT TOURISM BEHAVIOR
Author:
Kevin Byon
email:
kbyon@uga.edu
Co-authors:
Zhang James (University of Florida) Gibson, Heather
(University of Florida) Baker, Thomas (University of
Georgia)
University:
University of Georgia
Faculty:
Department of Kinesiology
Abstract
Background
Winning is the most promising means for a successful
sport team because it could lead to optimal consequences
including better financial performance for the team and
positive psychological consequences for sport consumers
(Cialdini et al., 1976; Zhang et al., 2003). Sport consumer
behavior literature revealed that a fan s level of sport
identification is an important predictor of various sport
consumer behaviors (Wann & Branscombe, 1993).
Researchers have also investigated why consumers travel
considerable distances on a regular basis to watch sports.
Gibson (2003) identified a wide range of variables that
influence factors of sport tourism behaviors. Of these,
destination image has been repeatedly found to
substantially impact tourism-related behaviors.
Despite the importance of theoretical contributions and
practical applications of understanding the
interrelationships among awareness of winning, sport
identification, destination image, and sport tourism
behaviors, no study has empirically examined the
theoretical relationships of these variables.
Purpose of Study
This study explored the effects that non-resident s
awareness of a winning sport team may have on sport
identification, destination image, and sport tourism
intentions. Based on the review of literature, a theoretical
model (model A) was proposed that included four
constructs: (a) awareness of winning, (b) sport
identification, (c) destination image, and (d) sport tourism
intentions. Additionally, an alternative model that was
nested within the proposed model was developed to
determine which model best fit. The hypotheses of model
A indicated that awareness of winning directly affected
sport identification, which had direct relationships on both
destination image and sport tourism intentions. In this
model, destination image was proposed to have a direct
relationship with sport tourism intentions. Model B omitted
a path from sport identification to sport tourism intentions.
Methods
Participants for this study were those who requested
tourism information from the Alachua County Visitors and
Convention Bureau about Gainesville, Florida, United
States. This list contained approximately 6,000 people from
all states in the U.S. From this sampling frame, 2,000
people were selected using a systematic random sampling
technique that selected every 3rd person on the list. Two
mailing surveys were conducted and 236 were returned for
a response rate of 11.8%. Of those, 199 were included for
statistical analyses. Previous research indicated that 10-
20% of response rate from mail survey was typical
(Oppermann, 2000). The data had adequate normality and
missing data were imputed using mean substitution and
regression imputation.
To measure destination image, the Scale of Destination
Image (SDI) was used that included 18 items under four
factors (Infrastructure, Attractions, Value for Money, and
Enjoyable). To assess team identification, we adapted the
Point of Attachment Index (PAI) that included 19 items
under six factors. Sport tourism intentions were measured
using the Event Sport Tourism Intention Scale (ESTIS) that
consists of 9 items and three factors (recommend to other,
intentions to revisit, and intention to attend sport events).
The awareness of winning was measured by nine
questions that assessed the degree of behavioral
experience of the recent Gator men s basketball and
football championships.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation
modeling (SEM) were used to examine psychometric
property of the proposed model and perform a model
comparison by chi-square difference test. Once the best
fitting model was identified, the structural relationships
among the constructs were examined.
A CFA revealed the structural model fit the data reasonably
well (2 = 187.79, p < .001; 2/df = 2.68; RMSEA = .092;
SRMR = .07; CFI = .93). As a result of SEM, the proposed
model showed the best model fit (2 = 188.08, p < .001;
2/df = 2.61; RMSEA = .09; SRMR = .069; CFI = .93). A
SEM revealed awareness of winning exhibited positive
effect on sport identification ( = .29), which in turn
positively related to both destination image ( = .35) and
sport tourism intentions ( = .47). Destination image had a
significant positive effect ( = .40) on sport tourism
intentions.
The current study contributed to the body of knowledge on
sport tourism literature by finding the structural relationship
of awareness of winning, sport identification, destination
image, and sport tourism intentions in the context of
intercollegiate sport events. Sport organizations may use
such findings to promote partnerships with the host cities
and local communities when seeking financial and service
supports and negotiating facility agreements. In addition,
cities and communities may utilize the information to justify
expenditures on sport facilities and events. City tourism
bureaus may include the information in their marketing
campaigns to attract visitors.
References:
Cialdini, R. B., Borden, R. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman,
S., & Sloan, L. R.
(1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 406-415.
Gibson, H. J. (2003). Sport tourism: An introduction to the special
issue. Journal of Sport Management, 17, 205-213.
Oppermann, M. (2000). Tourism Destination Loyalty. Journal of
Travel Research, 39, (August), 78.84.
Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1993). Sports fans: Measuring
degree of identification with the team. International Journal of Sport
Zhang, J. J., Lam, E. T. C., & Connaughton, D. C. (2003). General
market demand variables associated with professional sport
consumption. International Journal of Sport Marketing and
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CyCLING SPORTS TOURISM: A
SySTEMATIC REVIEW AND META
ANALySIS OF VOLUME, VALUE AND
MARKET SEGMENTS
Author:
Mike Weed
email:
mike.weed@canterbury.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Bull, Chris Dowse, Suzanne Mansfield, Louise Lovell, Jane
Wellard, Ian
University:
Canterbury Christ Church University
Faculty:
Centre for Sport, Physical Education & Activity Research
(SPEAR)
Abstract
Aim of Paper
The aim of this paper is to conduct a worldwide systematic
review and meta-analysis of scientific and practice
evidence on the volume and value of cycling sports
tourism, and to derive actionable market segments from
the meta-analysed data.
Literature Review
Research on sports tourism has been dominated by event
sports tourism (Weed, 2006). However, there are some
clear examples of substantial sports participation tourism
markets, including ski sports tourism, golf sports tourism
and cycling sports tourism. This latter of these, cycling
sports tourism, has been a growing area of niche interest
within the study of sports tourism, with examples of
research existing in most developed countries around the
world (e.g. Picton & Bull, 2003, Simonsen & Jorgenson,
1998).
Of course, the provision of facilities and the development
of resources for cycling sports tourism in a region also
provides for leisure day trip cycling participation by local
residents, which can have an impact on the health and
quality of life of the local population. Various models have
been developed to estimate the economic value of such
health impacts (Kahlmeier et al, 2010) and such benefits
can be included in assessments of the potential economic
impact of cycling provision in a particular region.
Methodology
The systematic review methodology is now widely used in
evidence-based policy-making and practice in areas as
diverse as urban regeneration, housing, criminal justice,
education, social care, economic development and public
health. Systematic review differs from a traditional
narrative literature review as it explicitly focuses on an
objective, replicable, systematic and comprehensive
search of literature and research evidence, and includes a
transparent audit trail of methods and processes (Coren &
Fisher, 2006).
The worldwide systematic review reported here draws on
the evidence-base in the research and practice literature
on cycling sports tourism and leisure cycling around the
world to answer the following review questions:
1) What are the potential economic benefits, environmental
impacts, and health and quality of life outcomes achievable
from the provision of cycling tourism and leisure cycling
opportunities in a particular region?
2) What are the key factors and inputs that are required to
maximise economic impacts from visitors and health and
quality of life impacts for local residents, and to minimise
any negative environmental impacts?
Following standard systematic review search protocols and
quality assurance assessments, 49 studies were included
in the final review (from initial search returns of over
12,000), including eleven studies containing sufficient data
to conduct a meta-analysis of cycling sports tourists
spending, and four full datasets from which a more detailed
meta-analysis could derive market segments.
Results, Discussion and Conclusions
CyCLING SPORTS TOURISTS SPENDING: The cycling
sports tourism product varies considerably, from trails that
are part of long point-to-point networks, like the C2C route
across the North of England, to those that are relatively
small circular routes (e.g. the Viking Trail in Kent,
England). As such, these summary figures represent
mean values across a range of studies, adjusted for
sample size and sampling artefacts, and inflated (and
where necessary converted across currencies) to 2010 UK
prices. The meta-analysis derives a value of 7.15 per
day for cycling sports tourists that do not stay overnight,
from an aggregate sample of 2,162 cyclists across eight
studies (low=5.50/high=12.74). For for cycling sports
tourists staying overnight, a value of 48.32 per person per
day is derived from an aggregate sample of 2,411 cyclists
across six studies (low=36.50/high=95.14). Finally, the
mean value for all cyclists, regardless of whether an
overnight is involved is 15.81, derived from an aggregate
sample of 6,874 cyclists across eleven studies
(low=13.50/high=28.00).
CyCLING SPORTS TOURISM MARKET SEGMENTS:
Initial meta-analysis suggests seven market segments with
distinctive behavioural and spending profiles, the first two
of which do not bring additional spend to the local
economy, but do have a local economic impact as a result
of the health costs saved by their physical activity
participation. These segments are: near residents, far
residents, near day-trippers, far day-trippers, near
holidayers, far holidayers, and cycle tourers. Perhaps
surprisingly, cycling tourers, those cycling sports tourists on
a traditional point-to-point cycling holiday, comprise less
than 1% of the overall market. The detailed behavioural
profiles, and the volume and value of each of these
segments will be discussed in detail in the presentation.
References:
Coren, E. & M. Fisher (2006). The conduct of systematic research
reviews for SCIE knowledge reviews. London: Social Care Institute
for Excellence.
Kahlmeier, S.et al (2010). Health in All Policies in Practice:
Guidance and Tools to Quantify the Health effects of Cycling and
Walking. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 7(Supp1), S120-
S125.
Picton, K and Bull, C.J. (2003) Economic Impact of Cycle tourism in
Relation to the Viking Cycle Trail in Thanet, Unpublished Report for
Kent Highways.
Simonsen, P. and Jorgenson, B. (1996) Cycling Tourism:
Environmental and Economical Sustainability? Unpublished Report,
Bornholm: Bornholm Research Centre, Denmark.
Weed, M. (2006). Sports Tourism Research 2000-2004: A
Systematic Review of Knowledge and a Meta-Evaluation of
Method. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 11(1), pp. 5-30.
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"SPORT TOURISM IN IRAN"
OPPORTUNITIES, THREATS AND
PRACTICAL APPROACHES
Author:
Nahid Atghia
email:
natghia2000@yahoo.com
University:
Alzahra University
Faculty:
Physical Education/Sport Management
Abstract
Background:
Today the tourism industry has developed to a large extent
around the world, and through this way many countries
could have overcome their economical problems such as
low level of per capita income, unemployment, and lack of
foreign currency incomes. In 1996 the direct and indirect
tourism incomes were about 444 billion dollars equal to
35% of the worlds exports; so foreign currency income
from tourism industry is increasing every day. In away that
tourism income is four times as much as in 60s; and in
1998 it has reached 10% of world income and so it created
204 million job opportunities.
Regarding the above issue, due to the variation of climate
from one point of view and the existence of famous
historical and cultural monuments from another point of
view, Iran is unique. However, it hasnt been able to take
advantage of its potentials.
The study on tourism situation in Iran and its foreign
currency incomes, shows the fact that Iran is one of the
ten most important countries from the view point of
historical and ancient places, but it only allots less than
1/1000 of its income to the tourism industry. Especially Iran
has many tourist attractions which needs walking,
travelling in desert, mountain climbing, skiing, boating,
horse and camel riding for visiting.
Objective:
This paper introduces Irans various sport tourism
attractions meanwhile investigates the opportunities and
threats in developing this industry in Iran, it also presents
approaches for improving the current sport tourism
situation in Iran. So, the main objective of this research is
the investigation of sport tourism situation in Iran via
reviewing researches which have been conducted in this
field.
Methods:
This research is conducted by reviewing researches which
have been performed in Irans provinces with sport tourism
attraction like Isfahan, Kerman, Fars, yazd, Ardabil,
Hormozgan, Hamadan and Khuzestan provinces.
So, the main data in those researches collected from
tourism experts of cultural inheritance and tourism
organization, experts of sport in Physical Education, and
active tourism centers directors in provinces as mentioned
above.
Results:
The significant results which were gathered by reviewing
researches in this matter, can be divided as follows:
The current opportunities for improving sport tourism in
Iran
1) Variation in ecologic environment in Iran like plateaus,
deserts, mountains, sea and lakes as well as different
degrees of temperature until 40 degrees between north-
western and south of Iran.
2) Hot water springs in mountains for hydrotherapy.
3) Historical and ancient places which are difficult to pass
for visiting.
4) Variation in local sport games and traditions among
different provinces.
5) Irans strategic location in the Middle East because it is
neighboring with many countries like Persian Gulf and
Caspian Sea area, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan and
Afghanistan.
Irans current threats in sport tourism
1) The lack of educated experts in sport tourism.
2) Deficit in desirable and qualified sport and well-fair
services in sport tourism places.
3) Shortage in advertising and introducing these places via
mass-media in and out of Iran.
4) The lack of safe and restful transition system.
5) Distrust of private investors to invest their capital in
developing sport tourism industry in Iran.
Conclusion:
The results of this review study on researches that have
been done about Irans sport tourism has shown that Iran
has many potentials in developing sport tourism but some
obstacles that are mentioned above dont permit it to
develop. So, regarding the collected data, the following
practical approaches can be presented for improving the
current sport tourism situation in Iran:
1. The usage of national and international mass-media to
introduce Irans sport tourism attractions.
2. The attraction of private investors participation to
investigate in places which are potentially capable of
sport tourists attraction.
3. Educating experts in P.E faculties with sport tourism
specialty.
4. Increasing the public knowledge about tourism and
specially sport tourism and its economical benefits in
schools and Universities.
5. Improving public services in places which have
potentials for attracting sport tourists.
References:
Adabi,Javad, A survey on effective factors in Iran tourism with
emphasis on the natural attractions, master dissertation, Tarbiat
Modarres University ,Tehran,2005
Atghia,Nahid, Interaction of sport management and marketing
,research in sport science quarterly, Tehran, 2001
Honarvar,Afshar,A survey on effective factors in tourism
development regarding the international sport events in Iran,
Master dissertation, Tarbiat Moallem University,Tehran,2006
Mousaee,Meysam,Tourism industry economy and cultural
inheritance in Iran, planning and statistic center of cultural and
artistic office, Tarbiat Modarres University ,Tehran,2000
Naseri, Masoud ,Recognition of tourism industry improvement in
Iran and a model designing for tourist attraction development,
Master dissertation, Tarbiat Modarres University ,Tehran 2002
Noubakht,Farzad & et al, The study on Meshkin city sport tourism
potentials, 4th student conference, Alzhra University,Tehran,2006
Parsaeean ,Ali and Mohammad Arabi, Tourism in total overview,
cultural researches center,Tehran,2003
Weed,M.(2006) Sport tourism researches 2000-2004:A systematic
review of knowledge and a meta-evaluation of method. Journal of
Sport & Tourism 11:1 pp.5-30
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SPORTS TOURIST DESTINATION
BRANDS. THE CASE OF GREECE
Author:
Georgia yfantidou
email:
gifantid@phyed.duth.gr
Co-authors:
yfantidou Georgia, Costa George, Michalopoulos Maria,
Trigonis Ioannis
University:
Democritus University of Thrace
Faculty:
Department of Physical Education & Sport Science
Abstract
Introduction
Beerli and Martin (2004), indicate that: (1) motivations
influence the affective component of image; (2) the
experience of vacation travel has a significant relationship
with cognitive and affective images, and (3) the socio-
demographic characteristics influence the cognitive and
affective assessment of image. The tourists level of
experience of vacation travel has a positive and significant
relationship with the cognitive image among first-time
tourists to the destination and with the affective dimension
of the image among repeat tourists. Konecnik and Gartner
(2007) included awareness, image, quality, and loyalty
dimensions in the model, they applied the brand concept in
the extension line of destination image studies. That is, the
generally accepted three image types (i.e., cognitive,
affective, and conative) were elaborated in creating brand
equity for a destination brand in their study. They support
the importance of an image dimension in the brand equity
model. Boo et al. (2009), support the important role of
image in the brand equity model, in that destination brand
image was identified as a key correlate of destination
brand loyalty in the proposed model. The aim of the
present study was to reveal the components for sports
tourist destination branding.
Methodology
Sample
Data consisted of a stratified sample by age and gender of
1675 tourists (773 men and 845 women, m.v. 57) from fifty
countries who visited Greece in summer 2007. The range
of age was from 17 years old to 80 years old (Mean=36
years). Roughly half were married (45.1%), while
singles/never married were (43.7%). The majority were
employed full time (61.9%), while 18.9% were students. As
far as education is concerned, the majority were graduates
of university or a 4-year college (32%). Annual family
income varied from 20.000-60.000 euros for 48.1% of the
participants.
Measurement tools
The questionnaire is based on the Tourist Roles
Preference Scale and translated in Greek, German and
Russian, with control of cross-cultural validity. Having the
questionnaire in four languages covered the majority of
tourists visiting the region. The questionnaire included 89
Likert Questions or closed-ended questions that recorded:
(1) a description of tourists activities, (2) a description of
characteristics of tourist destination, (3) an examination of
major human needs, (4) demographical and personal data.
Procedure
The questionnaires were distributed at the two main
airports in Greece: Eleftherios Venizelos at the city of
Athens and Macedonia airport at the city of Thessaloniki.
The questionnaires were distributed to the foreign tourists
after check in at the airport when departing from Greece,
and for Greek tourists in transit to their final destination in
Greece after their vacation.
Results
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Multidimensional
Scaling Analysis (MDS) verified the 15 tourist roles of
Gibson and yiannakis (2002) and Sports tourism is defined
by 3 out of 15 roles: Explorer (outdoor sports), Thrill
Seeker (extreme sports) and Active Sport Tourist. For the
examination of predicting sports tourist role, binary logistic
regression was used according to gender, age and 22
psychological needs by step wise method. Crosstab
analysis between the 3 sports tourist roles and the 23
statements that indicated the degree (6-5-4-3-2-1) to which
each of the following pairs of words best describe the
vacation destination showed the destination characteristics
that each sports tourist role prefers. All three sports tourist
roles have the same preferences at destination
characteristics, that is undeveloped, inland, novel,
inexpensive, quiet, cold, exclusive, foreign, calming,
familiar destination, adult oriented, risky, close to home,
indoors/hotel, urban, passive, artificial environment,
deserted, man made place, primitive, inaccessible.
Discussion-Conclusion
This research revealed the suitable components of sports
tourist destination brands: roles, needs, destination
characteristics, sports tourist profile. Cai et al. (2009),
assert that academic research in destination branding has
used the concept of image formation as synonymous with
branding. Accordingly, image formation encapsulated by
slogans is an operational approach to destination
promotion whereas destination branding is a strategic
management process. The research could help the
managers to design better sports tourist destinations that
cover tourists' needs. Also, Greece has a multiple
landscape and is in the middle of Europe and Asia, so this
could help to create new sports destinations and to gain
new target groups.
References:
Boo, S., Busser, J. & Baloglu S. (2009). A model of customer-based
brand equity and its application to multiple. Destinations. Tourism
Management, 30, 219-231. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2008.06.003
Beerli, A. & Martn, J. (2004). Tourists characteristics and the
perceived image of tourist destinations: a quantitative analysis - a
case study of Lanzarote, Spain. Tourism Management, 25, 623-
636. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2003.06.004
Cai, L. (2002). Cooperative branding for rural destinations. Annals
of Tourism Research,, 29( 3),. 720742.
Gibson, H. & yiannakis, A. (2002). Tourist roles. Needs and the
lifecourse. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 358-383.
Konecnik, M. & Gartner, W. (2007). Customer-based brand equity
for a destination. Annals of Tourism Research, 34(2), 400-421.
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THE STRUCTURE AND ROLE OF THE
DESTINATION IMAGE OF SPORT
EVENT PARTICIPANTS
Author:
Erika Shibata
email:
ericaspobiz@yahoo.co.jp
Co-authors:
Harada, Munehiko; Waseda University
Matsuoka, Hirotaka; Waseda Uniersity
University:
Sendai University, Japan
Faculty:
Department of Sport Science
Abstract
Background
Tourism has become an acknowledged leisure industry in
Japan. According to the Japan Tourism Agency (2010),
domestic travel spending has reached to 23.6 trillion yen,
which exceeds other major industries, such as steel (22.5
trillion yen) and petroleum/coal (20.8 trillion yen). This
expansion led to the inauguration of the Japan Tourism
Agency in 2008. Among the various plans the Agency is
committed to, sport tourism has gathered much interest
and expectation, and the Agencys convocation of the
Sport Tourism Promotion Association in May, 2010
illustrates how this field is recognized as an effective
means for invigorating and promoting destinations.
However, Harada (2010) states that although Japan
possesses world-class, rich environmental resources, it
faces many challenges in developing such resources into
attractive sport tourism products. For sport destinations to
be appealing to tourists, destination marketing is
necessary (Takahashi et al., 2010); Tasci et al. (2007)
claim that one of the important factors in this approach is
destination image (DI) management, i.e. taking into
account that image has a strong affect on tourist behavior
(Bigne et al., 2001; Chi et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2007).
Although research on DI formation of general tourists exist
(Echtner et al., 1993; Walmsley et al., 1998; Baloglu et al.,
1999; Beerli et al., 2004; Martin et al., 2008), it is limited in
sport tourism. Therefore, a study on DI of sport tourists is
critical to create and manage an appropriate DI of sport
destinations for effective positioning and marketing
strategy.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to reexamine the previously
developed DI scale (Shibata & Harada, 2010) and its
factors, and to apply a more effective model to verify the
interrelation of DI, evaluation, satisfaction, and behavioral
intentions of participants at a sport event, who stay at the
destination for more than 24 hours.
Methodology
First, a literature review was conducted to select additional
items from semantic differential scales that evaluate
destinations, atmosphere, and space. Second, new items
to be added into the previous scale and the possibility of a
fifth factor were discussed with experts in the field of sports
management. Third, questionnaires with a modified DI
scale were distributed to 1,043 participants at an Ultimate
Frisbee tournament held on November 6-7, 2010 at Fuji
City, Japan. Then, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
was conducted with the collected data, and finally, a
structural equation modeling analysis (SEM) was applied
to test the interrelation between the DI, evaluation,
satisfaction, and behavioral intentions of the participants.
Results
Since the tournament was a Freshman Cup for first and
second year university players, the average age was 19.3
years old. 51.1% of the players had experience competing
in tournaments held in Fuji City, yet only 22.0% had visited
the city for purposes other than participating in a sport
event. The goodness of fit for the CFA showed GFI=.944,
CFI=.960, RMSEA=.075, and the path coefficient from the
five factors to each corresponding observed variable
ranged between .52~.92. These five factors of DI were
named Feeling, Atmosphere, Space, Activity, and Access,
respectively. The correlation coefficients of the five factors
were from -.02 to .75, and both Atmosphere and Space
showed a similar reaction to other factors, which suggests
a necessity for further examination in future studies. As to
the goodness of fit for the SEM, GFI=.880, CFI=.909,
RMSEA=.091 indicated the effectiveness of applying the
tourism model to sport event participants. Significantly, DI
had a direct influence on evaluation, satisfaction, and
behavioral intention, yet evaluation was the highest (.59,
p<.001). Furthermore, the results spoke of a strong
indirect influence of DI on behavioral intentions through
evaluation (.59, p<.001) and satisfaction (.64, p<.01),
rather than a direct one (.28, p<.001).
Discussion
This study reinvestigated the factors and scale for
evaluating the DI of sport event participants, and how DI
affects evaluation, satisfaction and behavioral intentions.
From the CFA, five factors of image became apparent, and
this provided an explanation as to what aspects of the
destination sport event participants regard as important for
building an image of the place. In addition, the SEM
results revealed how DI played an important role as an
antecedent to evaluation and future behavior. Since the
opportunity for sport event participants to engage in
various activities at the destination may be limited,
understanding and managing such aspects of image will
enable sport event organizers and municipalities to
effectively use the destinations resources to raise
evaluation and satisfaction levels in future events, attract
more participants, or utilize sport events as part of their
destination marketing.
References:
Echtner, C.M. and Ritchie, J.R.B. (1993) The measurement of
destination image: an empirical assessment. Journal of Travel
Research, 31(3): 3-13.
Harada, M. (2010) The sport management era. Sport Facility,
October issue: 22-23.
Japan Tourism Agency (2010) Promoting sport tourism to become a
tourism nation. Sport Tourism Promotion Association documents.
Takahashi, K., Otsu, M., and yoshida, J. (2009) Tourism from the
start. Chuo-Keizaisha.
Tasci, A.D.A, Gartner, W.C. and Cavusgil, S.T. (2007)
Conceptualization and operationalization of destination image.
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31(2): 194-223.
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280
The Contribution of
Sport Economics to
Sport Management
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Workshops
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282
THE RELEVANCE OF PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT IN THE MANAGEMENT
OF FOOTBALL yOUNG TALENTSL
Author:
Fabrizio Montanari
email:
fabrizio.montanari@unimore.it
Co-authors:
Francesco Bof, SDA Bocconi School of Management,
Milan, Italy (corresponding author) e-mail:
francesco.bof@sdabocconi.it
University:
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia
Abstract
Over the last decades, human capital has grown in
importance and has become to be considered by both
academics and managers as a critical ingredient for the
organizational and team performance (e.g. Becker, 1983;
Pfeffer, 1994; 1998). According to this perspective,
organizations, especially those competing in labour-
intensive contexts, try to improve their performances
through the development of their human capital, which
consists of their members acquired knowledge, skills and
abilities (Becker, 1983; Huselid, Jackson & Schuler 1997;
Pennings, Lee & Van Witteloostuijn, 1998). In particular,
the more knowledge and intellectual capital are the
sources of a sustainable competitive advantage, the more
organizations are looking for the selection of the best
people available, the so called talents (Derr, 1987;
Hacker, 2001; Byham, Smith & Matthew, 2002). However,
talent management (i.e. selection, training and retention) is
very difficult, because talents are rare and, thus, there is a
strong competition among different organizations to attract
and retain the best talents (e.g. Pfeffer, 2001).
In the sport industry, the problem of talent management is
relevant. In such a context, in fact, human resources
strongly influence organizational performance (Wright,
Smart & McMahan, 1995). Thus, sport clubs are looking
continuously for new talents. Nowadays, European football
clubs, and Italian in particular, are engaged in a strong
reflection about players management policy. After Bosman
ruling, Italian football clubs (like most European ones) have
remarkably increased their expenditures in buying players
and in players salaries. As a result, most European
football clubs are struggling under severe financial strains
(Deloitte, 2010). According to these warning economic
results and recent UEFA normative pressures (i.e. financial
fair play), Italian football clubs are becoming more aware
of the need in changing players management policy in
order to improve their financial situation. In particular, they
are trying to increase their ability in developing young
players through their academies. This change is supposed
to bring several advantages: for example, clubs could
reduce their expenditures for the acquisition of new players
or they could have players more motivated with a strong
commitment to the club.
However, it is not easy to achieve these results, since, as
also pointed out by Slack (1997), the attraction and
development of football talents presents its own problems
and difficulties and requires adequate techniques,
infrastructures and resources (both human and economic).
In particular, the issue of evaluating and measuring a
players performance is increasing its relevance. Football
clubs seem to be more aware of the importance of
developing adequate methodologies and techniques, which
could be able to evaluating different aspects of a players
performance (Montanari, Silvestri & Bof, 2008). In other
terms, consistently to performance management indexes
traditionally adopted in other organizational contexts, it
seems to be a strong interest in developing indexes that
are not just limited to on field performance (Bof &
Venturini, 2009).
According to previous observation, this paper has two main
research goals. The first aim of this study is to analyze the
experience of Parma FC by adopting the case study
methodology (yin, 1984; Eisenhardt, 1989). We chose to
analyse this experience, because it could be considered,
for European sport and football clubs, as relevant
benchmark model in youth management and scouting
policies. In order to evaluate the clubs organizational
model, we combined different data collection methods
(interviews, document analysis, etc.) and analyzed the
following interrelated aspects:
- Strategic goals
- Organizational structure and resources
- Performance measurement systems
The second goal of this paper is to propose some ideas
that can stimulate the discussion about performance
measurement. In particular, we will focus on performance
measurement indexes that could be able to measure
different aspects of a young players performance, not just
sport (on the field performance). The discussion will
consider also evidences emerging from other national
contexts (i.e. other European football clubs) and other
sport contexts that adopt advanced performance
evaluation systems (e.g. NBA, Italia League of volleyball).
References
19
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References Becker, G. (1983): Human Capital, University of
Chicago Press, Chicago.
Bof, F. & Venturini, F. (2009): La valutazione delle performance
sportive: il caso FCI (Fabio Capello Index). Rivista di Diritto ed
Economia dello Sport, 3: 69-94.
Byham W.C., Smith A.B., Matthew J.P., 2001. Grow your Own
Leaders. Prentice Hall: NJ
Deloitte (2010): Deloitte Football Money League 2009.
Derr, B. (1987): "Managing High-Potentials in Europe: Some Cross-
Cultural Findings." European Management Journal, 5 (2): 72/80.
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989): Building Theories from Case Study
Research. In: Academy of Management Review, 14: 532-550.
Hacker, C.A. (2001): How to Compete in the War for Talent. DC
Press: Sanford.
Huselid, M., Jackson, S. and Schuler, R. (1997): Technical and
Strategic Human Resources Management Effectivenes as
Determinants of Firm Performance. In: Academy of Management
Journal, vol. 40: 171-188.
Montanari F., Silvestri G. e Bof, F. (2008). Performance and
individual characteristics as predictors of pay levels: The case of
the Italian Serie A. European Sport Management Quarterly, 8 (1):
27 - 44.
Pennings, J., Lee, K. and Van Witteloostuijn, A. (1998): Human
Capital, Social Capital and Firm Dissolution. In: Academy of
Management Journal, 41: 425-440.
Pfeffer, J. (1994): Competitive Advantage through People. Harvard
Business School, Boston.
Pfeffer, J. (1998): The Human Equation. Building Profit by Putting
People First. Harvard Business School, Boston.
Pfeffer, J. (2001): Fighting the War for Talent is Hazardous to your
Organizations Health. Organizational Dynamics, 29 (4): 248-259.
Slack, T. (1997): Understanding Sport Organizations: the
Application of Organization Theory. Human Kinetics, Champaign.
Wright, P.; Smart, D. and McMahan, G. (1995): Matches between
human resources and strategy among NCAA basketball teams. In:
Academy Management Journal, 4: 1052.
yin, R. (1984): Case Study Research: Design and Methods. SAGE,
Beverly Hills.
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UNCERTAINTy OF OUTCOME VERSUS
SPORT CLUBS' BRAND STRENGTH: AN
ANALySIS OF ATTENDANCE DEMAND
IN GERMAN PROFESSIONAL
FOOTBALL
Author:
Tim Pawlowski
email:
pawlowski@dshs-koeln.de
Co-authors:
Anders, Christoph
University:
Faculty:
Abstract
Introduction (research question and literature review)
Notwithstanding the general increasing imbalance of
leagues in European profes-sional football (Pawlowski et
al., 2010) attendance figures in the German first football
division (1. Bundesliga) have increased continuously
during the recent past. Therefore, although the uncertainty
of outcome hypothesis is deeply ingrained in the
economics of professional team sports literature
(Downward, Dawson, & Dejonghe, 2009) it is questionable
if spectators (in Germany) really care about uncertainty of
outcome. In fact Czarnitzki and Stadtmann (2002) found
empirical evidence that fans rather care about the
reputation of clubs than about the uncertainty of outcome.
We follow this idea and try to extend their research in three
dimensions: (1) First and foremost we extent their concept
of clubs' reputation (which just reflects the previous
seasons on-field performance of the club) with focusing on
perceived sporting suc-cess as well as brand image and
an overall index of clubs' brand strength, i.e. the
differential effect that brand knowledge has on consumer
response to the marketing of that brand (Keller, 2008, 48);
(2) We consider and distinguish between uncertainty of
championship outcome (Janssens & Ksenne, 1987) and
uncertainty of outcome of the qualification for the UEFA
Champions League; (3) To control for possible
heterogeneity (Simmons, 1996) we distinguish (in our
analysis) between the total match day attendance and the
number of casual spectators (stadium attendance minus
season ticket holders).
This is an ongoing research project and based on a
modified version of a prior presentation.
Methodology (research design and data analysis)
An econometric model is built with the number of
spectators for every game over the season 2005/06 of the
German first football division (n=306) as dependent
variable. Since there is an individual capacity constraint for
each stadium and a considerable number of games were
sold-out, a generalized Tobit estimator for individual cut off
points is used (Green, 2003; Long, 1997).
Individual clubs brand strength values were derived by
Feldmann (2007) based on an inquiry amongst n=2,812
individuals with a general interest in football. Her theo-
retical model is validated applying a factor analysis and
shows that the constructs perceived brand image and
perceived sporting success are the key dimensions of
football club's brand strength which serves as explanatory
variable in our models. Furthermore, uncertainty measures
serve as explanatory variables like the uncertainty index
developed by Janssens and Ksenne (1987) for the
championship outcome, a modified measure to control for
the uncertainty of outcome of the qualification for the UEFA
Champions League and the Theil (1967) measure for
uncertainty based on unbiased betting odds provided by
betfair.com. In addition we control other factors that were
previously found to influence stadium attendance.
Results (discussion and implications/conclusions)
Since the values of the pseudo-R2-statistic (McKelvey &
Zavoina, 1975) measure up to 60 percent, the estimated
regression models show rather high variance explanato-ry
power. The controlled factors (e.g. drawing potential:
positive; regional income: positive, elastic demand; costs
of attending a match: negative, inelastic demand) show the
expected impact on stadium attendance. Furthermore, in
line with Czar-nitzki and Stadtmann (2002) we could detect
that uncertainty plays a minor role in explaining attendance
figures in the first German football league while the overall
index of clubs brand strength has a highly significant
impact on stadium attendance.
While several factors that were (previously) found to
influence stadium attendance are not manageable (e.g.
drawing potential, regional income, travel costs) or hardly
manageable (e.g. current sporting success) our findings
suggest concrete manage-ment implications. Marketers of
clubs have possibilities to increase stadium atten-dance
with improving either the image of the club or the
perceived sporting success of the club. The latter is
possible also for rather less successful clubs by
developing marketing concepts that relate the recent
performance to the general possibilities of a club (e.g. St.
Pauli's campaign "World Club Championship beaters" after
a win against FC Bayern Munich in 2001/02).
References:
Czarnitzki, D. & Stadtmann, G. (2002). Uncertainty of outcome
versus reputation: Empirical evidence for the first German football
division. Empirical Economics, 27, 101-112.
Feldmann, S. (2007). Bewertung von Sportmarken. Messung und
Wirkungen der Markenstrke von Fuballbundesligavereinen
(Marktorientierte Unterneh-mensfhrung, Bs. 28). Frankfurt am
Main et al.: Peter Lang.
Keller, K. L. (2008). Strategic brand management. Building,
measuring, and manag-ing brand equity (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle
River (NJ): Pearson.
Pawlowski, T., Breuer, C. & Hovemann, A. (2010). Top clubs
performance and the competitive situation in European domestic
football competitions. Journal of Sports Economics, 11(2), 186-202.
Simmons, R. (1996). The demand for English league football:
A club-level analysis. Applied Economics, 28(2), 139-155.
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SPORT SATELLITE ACCOUNTS: THE
EUROPEAN PROJECT
Author:
Chris Gratton
email:
c.gratton@shu.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Kokolakakis, Themis
University:
Faculty:
Sport Industry Research Centre
Abstract
It is widely recognised that sport is now a significant sector
of economic activity. Terms such as the 'sports industry' or
the 'sports business' are now used regularly at national
and, increasingly, international level. What is less certain is
what is meant by these terms. In some discussions,
particularly in the United States, the sports business refers
mainly to the major professional team sports that generate
vast income through sponsorship, payments for
broadcasting rights, and income from paying spectators. In
the European context, the sport industry is much broader
and encompasses businesses involved in supplying goods
and services across the whole of sport including those for
mass participation sport.
Many European countries first tried to estimate the
economic importance of sport in the 1980s as part of a
coordinated Council of Europe project (Jones 1989).
However, in these studies, the overall definition of sport
and the methodology used to estimate its importance
varied from country to country which meant that it was not
possible to make meaningful international comparisons.
On 11 July 2007, the European Commission adopted the
White Paper on Sport, in which it announced that:
The Commission, in close cooperation with the Member
States, will seek to develop a European statistical method
for measuring the economic impact of sport as a basis for
national statistical accounts for sport, which could lead in
time to a European satellite account for sport.
Prior to this his announcement there was an initiative of
the Austrian EU Presidency to develop a framework for
sport satellite accounts and to establish an EU Working
Group on Sport & Economics (WG). This paper delivers
the results of this initiative for the UK by reporting the
outcome of the first attempt to construct a UK Sport
Satellite Account. The paper also provides comparisons
with the other two European countries to have completed a
satellite account for sport using the same methodology,
Austria and Cyprus. Over the next year Poland, Germany,
and the Netherlands will produce their own sport satellite
accounts following the same methodology allowing
comparisons across 6 European countries. Hungary will
also produce thier sport satellite account either in late 2012
or early 2013. Early in 2011, the EU Commission
contracted a consortium, of which the present authors are
part, to carry ourt a sports satellite acccount for the whole
EU. This work is currently ongoing.
The Satellite Accounts illustrate a very detailed
methodology for measuring the size of the economic
activity generated by the industry they examine. This is
done by preserving consistency with the national accounts,
which make use of international nomenclatures. At the
end, the SSAs integrate their findings in an input-output
framework through industry-by-products Supply and Use
Tables (SUTs). This is the approach followed for the
production of the UK Sport Satellite Account, and for
Austria and Cyprus.
The SSA will be consistent among European countries due
to a consensus on the definition of the sport industry. This
implies an agreement on which economic sectors,
categories, and sub-categories are sport related. Also the
methodology is consistent across countries. For the first
time this research allows comparisons of the structure of
the sport industry for different European countries.
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References:
Jones H (1989) The Economic Impact and Importance of Sport: A
European Study. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
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DISCUSSION (AND SOLUTION) OF THE
MEASUREMENT OF PROFESSIONAL
PLAyERS AS A SPECIFIC INTANGIBLE
ASSETS
Author:
Ignacio Urrutia
email:
ignacio.urrutia@ie.edu
University:
Instituto de Empresa University
Faculty:
Business Administration
Abstract
The main aim of this paper is to discuss the feasibility of
intangible asset accounting in financial reporting with
reference to the professional players of the elite football.
When Real Madrid invested 94 M to buy to Cristiano
Ronaldo, this money could be considered as expenses or
assets, if we used the definition of assets and we apply in
this specific intangible asset, we could consider two ways,
the easy way or the difficult way , Rowbottom (1998) said
lack of reliable measurement is the major obstacle to the
recognition of intangible assets, in this sense the easy way
would be to consider to Cristiano Ronaldo as an expense
because we dont have skills to recognition the market
price but is this a good practices? The accountability of
Cristiano Ronaldo is discussed, emphasizing on the
difficulty to respect the principle of sincerity as well as to
reach the objective of fair view. In this sense, traditionally
financial reporting requirements allow replacement cost,
value in use and net realisable value measurements in
addition to acquisition costs. The dominant valuation bases
for intangible asset accounting are acquisition costs,
replacement costs and market values (Rowbottom ,1998)
and each of these valuation requires the existence of a
market. This is argued to be the main obstacle to the
widespread recognition of intangible assets in financial
reporting. Recognition is dependent upon measurement.
Measurement is dependent upon the existence of a
market. The key factor is that we could reliable
measurement or if we could to create a framework to
establish the market price.
Taking into account the dispositions of the norm IAS 38,
the above opinion defines more precisely the identifiable
character of non-current namely as: an incorporeal
immobilisation is identifiable if it is separable from the
activities of the entity, that is liable to be sold, transferred,
rented or exchanged in a separate manner or with a
contract, another asset or liability or it results from a legal
or contractual right even if this right is not transferable or
separable from the entity or from the other rights and
obligations.
The measurement of intangible assets is problematic due
to a lack of verification through reference to an active
market, if we want to do some solution, we need to classify
to the players, if we understand to professional player
careers and their performance, we could to establish levels
of Expected performance and expected return.
Question research:
Is it possible to create a new classification of players with
the aim that they could explain the levels of expected
performance in the sport and economic values?
Methodology:
In Urrutia ( 2008) added a classification of players as:
homegrown, international and star to analyze the
innovation methodology of recruiting, in Kase K et all (
2009) added a classification of players as: homegrown,
promising, international and star player. This categorization
responded to the development stage in the footballers
career, in Kase K et all ( 2009) discovered that only the
variables in the table remain significant: players age,
position in league in previous season of buyer club ,
number of seasons as professional player and goal-scoring
record over the players career as international.
In this paper we have introduced a new classification
because we had analyzed all the squad of the Liga BBVA
and we had determined four levels of career (homegrown,
first Division, International and Star player) and into the
levels have definition the next table:
The market price ( Urrutia et all, 2009) will depend on the
first definition, players age, position in league in previous
season of buyer club, number of seasons as professional
player and number of the match with his national team.
Discussion and Conclusion:
Rowbottom (1998) argued that identifying and measuring
human resource assets may be possible in the football
industry. The human resource asset, the player
registration, is subject to sufficient control through unique
industry structures to justify recognition as an intangible
asset. The existence of an active market for player
registrations facilitates reliable measurement, with this
market and the classification of the players, we could
identify three ways:
1.- First of all, the star player ( E1 and E2) must to
valuation with the criteria of economic value.
2.- Second of all, the case of the International ( I, IB, IC)
and first division ( NA, ND) must to valuation using of
market values.
3.- Third criteria , the case of the First division ( NB,NC)
and International ( ID) must to valuation using
Acquisition or historical cost.
References:
Dawson, C. (1989) "The Moving Frontiers Of Personnel
Management: Human Resource
Management Or Human Resource Accounting", Personnel Review,
18/3: Pp3-12.
Norm IAS 38.
Rowbottom, N (1998) Intangible asset accounting and accounting
policy selection in the football industry. A thesis submitted to the
Faculty of Commerce and Social Science of The University of
Birmingham for the degree of Doctor of philosophy.
Urrutia, I. ( 2008) The design and analysis of the recruiting
methods of players: media sport stars and junior players. Soccer
and society., Volume 9, Issue 4 October 2008 , pages 551 563.
Urrutia, I., Kase, K., Barajas, A., Castillo, P., ( 2009) Transfer
market: analysis of variables which determine the players market
value. EASM, Amsterdam.
Vernhet A ,Bernard A. (2010). Professional players: specific
intangible assets. EASM, Prague 2010.
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290
METHODOLOGIES USED TO ASSESS
THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF NASCAR
EVENTS
Author:
Bruce Larson
email:
bruce.larson@wku.edu
Co-authors:
Upright, Paula, Dr.: Western Ky Univ Smith, Darren, Dr.:
Western Ky Univ Gibson, Fred, Dr.: Western Ky Univ
Teague, Travis, Winston Salem
University:
Western Kentucky University
Faculty:
Associate Professor: Kinesiology, Recreation, & Sport
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to introduce the different
methods employed in determining the economic impact of
NASCAR events on local, state, and regional economies.
Much research has been completed using a variety of
methods used in determining the impact that sporting
events have on economies. ( Vogelsong, Graefe, & Estes
2001, Loomis & Walsh 1997, Brown, Rascher, Nagel, &
McEvoy 2010, Compton 1999, and Compton & Lee 2000)
A partial list of the methods employed in the sport
management field would include but not be limited to the
following; the travel cost method, the contingent valuation
method, the unit day value, the benefit transfer, and
methods that combine a combination of previous models.
Determining which method to use in a given situation is
discussed in order to give the reader a better appreciation
for the technique to employ in determining the impact of
their event on a communitys economy.
Several economic impact studies of NASCAR events are
presented in order to provide specific examples of
techniques commonly utilized in providing actual or
estimated economic activity. These techniques could easily
be modified and adopted in order to analyze the entire
realm of motorsports events, as NASCAR is only one
branch of motorsports that spans the continent. The
processes used in the studies are easily transferred across
international boundaries.
The authors will be presenting the methods used in the
recent, unpublished, study of the economic impact of
NASCAR events on a local and state economy. The study
will involve collecting a convenience sample of individuals
attending events at the Kentucky Speedway located in
Sparta, Kentucky. The events will take place between July
7 and July 9, 2011. Analyzing the economic activity will
require the study to employ a method that determines the
actual spending of individuals and groups attending. The
data collected will be analyzed using IMPLAN (2010)
software. While this softwares ability to analyze economic
activity is specific to the United States the techniques it
uses can, with modification, be used at the international
level. Tables and figures will be presented which outlines
the direct impact the event(s) had on the surrounding
community.
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References:
Brown, M.T., Rascher, D.A., Nagel, M.S., & McEvoy, C.D. (2010).
Financial management in the sport industry. Scottsdale, AZ.
Holcomb Hathaway, Publishers.
Compton, J.L. (1999). Measuring the economic impact of visitors to
sports tournaments and special events. Virginia: National
Recreation and Park Association.
Compton, J.L. & Lee, S. (2000). The economic impact of 30 sports
tournaments, festivals, and spectator events in seven U.S. cities.
Journal of Park & Recreation Administration 18(2) 107-126.
Loomis, J.B. & Walsh, R.G. (1997). Recreation economic decisions:
Comparing benefits and costs (2nd ed.). State College, PA.
Venture.
Vogelsong, Graefe, & Estes (2001). Economic impact analysis: A
look at useful methods. Parks and Recreation, 36 (3) 28.
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MEASURING THE ECONOMIC IMPACT
OF SWIMMING SPORT EVENTS:
COMPARISON OF TWO STUDy CASES
Author:
Patricio Sanchez-Fernandez
email:
patricio@uvigo.es
Co-authors:
Angel Barajas
University:
University of Vigo
Faculty:
Faculty of Business and Tourism
Abstract
Background
Sport events involve economic and social impact in the
areas where they take place. There are different
instruments in order to measure the economic impact. On
one hand, we have macroeconomics instruments such as
Input-output Analysis or Computable General Equilibrium.
On the other hand, it is possible to apply microeconomics
tools as the Cost-benefit Analysis.
There is also a growing literature about this topic:
Matheson (2002), Preuss (2004), Baade (2006), Baade et
al (2008), Rodrguez Guerrero (2008) or Gibson et al
(2009). However problems arise when we intend to
measure the economic impact of sport events not
considered as mega-events. Macroeconomics instruments
are not suitable for this purpose and the microeconomics
ones need several adaptations for small-scale events.
In the field of swimming events can be quoted the following
works: Sport England, (1999), Wilson, R. (2006), Parent,
M.M & Seguin, B. (2007) and Ipsos MORI North (2008).
Objectives
The most common methods used for economic impact
studies of mega events need an adaptation when we focus
in events held in small cities. Even from one event to
another some changes need to be done.
Thus, this work has several objectives: using a cost-benefit
analysis (CBA), we look for the relevant information to
gather when you performance a study of this nature. We
have analysed the differences that can arise in a study a
small-scale sport event when some features change. We
have tested our adapted model applying it to two particular
cases. Namely we conducted two research related to two
different Swimming Championships. The first one was the
Junior Spanish Championship hold in Ourense in July
2009 and the second one was the Open Spanish Master
Championship hold in Pontevedra in January 2011.
Methods
Once the cost-benefit analysis was selected, the benefits
and costs of the event (focus mainly in tangible) were
identified.
Some direct and indirect estimation, namely, the expenses
and the number of spectators that allowed us to calculate
the net impact, have to be done.
These two studies are focused on the tangible benefits and
costs. These are the following:
expenses of the organization, spectators and participants
in the city
investments of the sponsors (only from outside the city)
expenses realised by the organization outside the city
(negative effect).
Two surveys were conducted.
Date 16th-17th July 2009
Place: Os Remedios / Sample 146
Date 28th-18th February 2011
Place: Pontevedra Swiming Pool / Sample 275
The final calculation of the economic impact for the city
(net benefit) was determined by the difference between the
income or positive effects except the costs or negative
effects for the city. That is to say, the objective was to
measure the income coming from outside the city that
financed expenses inside of it.
Results
Both events have quite similar patterns of behaviour even
when there are some relevant differences in their features.
The Junior Championship, as participants are children or
teenagers, has a high number of spectators. There were
on average 2 spectators for each participant, The Master
Championship is mainly for the participants who are the
spectators.
The introduction of three possibilities for answering the
economic related questions in the questionnaire, has
allowed us to get a 97.8% of response. This is really
relevant. We have checked that the results among the
different sources are consistent.
The economic impact of the Spanish Junior Championship
in the city of Ourense was of 269,964 euro. In the Master
Championship the economic impact raised until 373,721
euro in Pontevedra.
We have also obtained the ratio that relates the net impact
of the event with to the total investment (including the
income of all the sponsors). Thus, it can be stated that for
the Master Championship by each inverted Euro there is a
positive effect of 15.53 Euro.
Conclusions
Both events have a strong positive economic impact in the
cities where are hold. This benefit is possible because both
cities had the necessary infrastructure already built.
The use of this method will provide a valuable help to
decide, on the basis of economic criteria, about the
relevancy (or not) of celebrating sports events in a locality.
It is important to state that in a medium-size city such as
Ourense or Pontevedra there are no other events which
are able to generate similar economic profits.
Master Championships have the ability of gathering an
important number of persons with good purchasing power
that give some advantages in order to obtain a positive
economic impact in the city.
References:
Baade, R. A. (2006). The economic impact of mega-sporting
events in Handbook on the Economics of Sport. Andreff, W. &
Szymanski, S. (Ed). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Baade, R. A., Baumann, R. W. & Matheson, V. (2008). Assessing
the economic impact of college football games on local economies.
Journal of Sports Economics, 9(6), 628-474.
Gibson, H., Kaplanidou, K., Kang. S. & Bell, H. (2009) Small-Scale
Event Sport Tourism: A Case Study of Six Events. Paper presented
at the 17th Annual European Sport Management Conference,
Amsterdam, Holland
Matheson, V. A. (2002). An examination of sporting event economic
impact studies. The Sport Journal, 5(1)
Preuss, H. (2004). The economics of staging the Olympics. A
comparison of the games 1972-2008
Preuss, H. (2009). Economic aspects of Olympic Games in Beijing
2008. In EASM Conference 2009. Amsterdam.
Ipsos MORI North (2008). Manchester World Sport 08: The
economic impact evaluation study of the 9th FINA World Swimming
Championship 2008 (25m). Manchester City Council.
Parent, M.M & Seguin, B. (2007). Factors That Led to the
Drowning of a World Championship Organizing. Committee: A
Stakeholder Approach. European Sport Management Quarterly,
Routledge.
Sport England, (1999). Measuring Success 2: The Economic
Impact of Major Sports Events. Londres
Wilson, R. (2006). The economic impact of local sport events:
significant, limited or otherwise? A case study of 4 swimming
events. Managing Leisure, Vol. 11, n 1.
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294
THE DEMAND FOR FOOTBALL: ABOUT
THE GROWTH IN NEW MEDIA
PRODUCTS AND THE RISK OF
CANNIBALISM
Author:
Harry Arne Solberg
email:
harry.solberg@hist.no
Co-authors:
Ingar Mehus Norwegian University of Science and
Technology Department of sosiology
University:
Sr-Trndelag University College
Faculty:
Trondheim Business School
Abstract
The demand for elite sport has received substantial
attention in sport economic literature. See, for example,
Borland & McDonald (2003) and Simmons (2006) for an
overview. For many years, analyses of this issue were
mainly synonymous with analyses of the demand for
tickets at arenas. This, however, has altered in recent
years. Although it has been an option to watch sport on TV
for several decades, there has been a manifold growth in
TV sport in recent years. Additionally, technology
innovations have opened up for new products, for example
watching sport on the Internet and mobile phones.
This development has provided sport fans with a number
of new alternatives compared to some years ago. In turn,
this represents both opportunities and challenges for
producers and distributors operating at the supply side, i.e.
sport governing bodies, event organisers and teams. On
one hand, they now have more options to reach fans than
ever before. On the other hand, it can be complicated to
find the optimal mixture of products on an increasing
number of communication channels. In order avoid
cannibalism, the producers need information about how
sport fans rank the alternative products. To what degree
TV and Internet regarded as an alternative to attending
arena? (Alland & Roy, 2008)
This requires information about the price elasticity for the
various products. For many years, traditional TV viewing
was free of charge, with the exception of license fees and
general admission fees to cable- and satellite operators.
This pattern has changed significantly, since Pay TV
channels and many other providers of sports programmes
charge fees from their customers (Hammevold & Solberg,
2006).
This development raises several questions about the
preferences of sports fans, of where some will be
addressed in this paper. The research is based on a
survey of Norwegian football spectators. It measures and
compares their preferences for alternative football
products, including willingness to pay.
Data collection - methodology
The data comes from an email-survey of more than 12000
Norwegian football spectators. Fourteen of the 16 elite
clubs allowed us to use the email addresses to those who
purchased tickets and season cards during the 2010
season. The questionnaires focused on attitudes we
expected could influence their demand for football.
Results
The results in Table 1 reflect the respondents willingness
to pay for various categories of TV football. Table 2
focuses on how they ranked alternative products against
each other. These questions were answered by means of
a Lickert scale ranging from 1 to 7, with 1 indicating strong
disagreement and 7 strong agreements.
Discussion
The results illustrated that the respondents were more
willing to pay for watch their favourite team on TV than
their national team as well as the final rounds in FIFA and
UEFA championships for national teams. They also
documented that fans in general preferred to be at the
stadium instead of watching the matches on TV. The
survey documented mixed results with regards to the
teams they preferred to watch on TV. The conference
presentation will go into details on these matters and
present regression analyses that explain the factors which
influenced the variables in the tables.
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References:
Alland J. & Roy J (2008) Television Broadcast Demand for National
Football League Contests Journal of Sports Economics. 11, 629-
640,
Borland J. & McDonald, R (2003) Demand for Sport. Oxford
Review of Economic Policy. 19, 478-502
Hammervold R. & Solberg. H. A. (2006) TV Sport Programs Who
is willing to pay to watch? Journal of Media Economics. 19, 147-
162
Simmons, R. (2006). The demand for spectator sports. In:
Handbook on the Economics of Sport. (Eds.) W. Andreff and S
Szymanski. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA: Eward
Elgar.
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296
THE PRIMARy ECONOMIC IMPACT OF
THE BUNDESLIGA FOOTBALL CLUB 1.
FC KAISERSLAUTERN ON ITS HOME
TOWN AND HOME STATE
Author:
Thomas Knecke
email:
koenecke@uni-mainz.de
Co-authors:
Preuss, Holger Schtte, Norbert
University:
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
Faculty:
Insitute of Sport Science
Abstract
Background and research question
Public and political discussions in Germany very often
address whether spending taxpayers money on
Bundesliga football clubs e.g. on infrastructure and
security is justified. Frequently, it is argued that this
money is a sound investment in the regional economy due
to the economic relevance the clubs have on their home
regions. But estimations concerning this impact are very
often contradictory. Consequently, it was necessary to
develop a sound model (Preuss/Knecke/Schtte, 2010)
and to test it with real data.
The aim of this presentation is to apply the theoretical
model to practice. Therefore, we collaborated with the
popular German Football club 1. FC Kaiserslautern,
which played in the Second Bundesliga when data
collection took place in 2009. It was of interest to quantify
the primary economic impact created through the clubs
participation in regular season competition not only for its
home town Kaiserslautern but also for the state in which it
is located, Rhineland-Palatinate.
Research question: What is the primary economic impact,
the 1. FC Kaiserslautern generates for Kaiserslautern and
Rhineland-Palatinate during the Bundesliga-season
2008/09?
Corresponding to the research on sporting mega-events
(e.g. Preu, 1999; Brill et al., 2002; Ruetter/Popp/Busin,
2008; Preu et al., 2010) the authors developed a reliable
model for calculating the exogenous impact on a region of
interest (e.g. a city or state) through a football clubs
regular season competition (c.f. Preuss/Knecke/Schtte,
2010). This exogenous shock (or primary economic
impact) would not be generated for the region if the
specific club did not exist or compete at such a high level.
Based on Keynesian theory, the actual impact of the
football club was captured by considering all relevant
financial flows into and also out of the region(s). The two
important contributors to the impact are spectator spending
at home and away matches and the clubs cash flows.
Methodology
To capture spectator spending, a paper and pencil
questionnaire tested at many other spectator events (e.g.
Preu, 1999; Preu et al., 2010) was adapted and used
during three home matches in April and May 2009. A total
of 1.104 questionnaires could be used for the analysis of
spectator spending during home and away games. The
clubs cash flows were analysed concerning their primary
economic impact on the two regions at hand. To do so, the
accounting department of the 1. FC Kaiserslautern was
instructed to regionalize the clubs cash flows concerning
their respective origin (in the case of monetary flows into
the club) and their destination (in the case of monetary
flows out of the club).
When calculating the total primary impact of the club on a
particular region, it was important to avoid double counting,
e.g. when the club receives money from ticketing or
merchandise, while that money was also evaluated by the
consumption pattern of the spectators. For both, the city
impact and the state impact, two individual calculations
had to be made.
Results
The primary economic impact by the clubs regular season
competition turned out to be approximately 18 million for
the city of Kaiserslautern and approximately 11 million for
Rhineland-Palatinate. It will be discussed, why the impact
for a larger region was smaller than for a smaller region.
It has to be kept in mind that the primary impact calculated
here does not consider any indirect, induced, or intangible
effects. These effects could not be calculated due to lack
of data. As a result and also due to the conservative
approach applied, the real economic impact of the club
was most likely (much) greater than pointed out here.
Further steps
The primary impact of the clubs participation in the First
Bundesliga will be calculated for the 2010/11-season and
should be presented at EASM 2011.
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References:
Brill, M./Schulz, L./Suchy, P./Zrker, M. (2003): Kaiserslautern 2006
Ein Szenario zu den Wirkungen der Fuballweltmeisterschaft.
Arbeitspapiere zur Regionalentwicklung. Heft 1. Kaiserslautern.
Preu, H. (1999): konomische Implikationen der Ausrichtung
Olympischer Spiele von Mnchen 1972 bis Atlanta 1996. Kassel.
Preuss, H./Knecke, T./Schtte, N. (2010): Calculating the Primary
Economic Impact of a Sports Clubs Regular Season Competition:
A First Model. In: Journal of Sport Science and Physical Education
No.60, 17-22.
Preu, H./Schtte, N./Siller, H./Stickdorn, M./Zehrer, A. (2010).
Regionale konomische Auswirkungen der EURO 2008 fr
sterreich. Wiesbaden.
Rtter, H./Popp, J./Busin, C. (2008). Wirtschaftliche Wirkungen der
UEFA EURO 2008TM in der Schweiz. Ex-post Analyse
(provisorische Ergebnisse). Online:
http://www.fif.unibe.ch/unibe/wiso/fif/content/e6012/e6025/e6026/e6
952/BerichtImpact-EURO2008-ExPost_ger.pdf (November 11,
2009).
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298
UNDERSTANDING THE BEHAVIOUR OF
SPORTS BETTORS: ARE LOTTERy
DEMAND MODELS REALLy
APPLICABLE TO FOOTBALL POOLS?
Author:
Plcido Rodrguez
email:
placido@uniovi.es
Co-authors:
Garca Jaume Professor in the Department of Economics
and Business, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Prez Levi
Associate professor in the Department of Economics,
University of Oviedo. Researcher at Fundacin
Observatorio Econmico el Deporte Rodrguez Plcido
Corresponding author: placido@uniovi.es. Fundacin
Observatorio Econmico del Deporte. Laboral-Ciudad de
la Cultura. Luis Moya Blanco, 261. 33203 Gijn (Spain).
Professor in the Department of Economics, University of
Oviedo. Direct
University:
University of Oviedo
Faculty:
Economics
Abstract
Aim of the paper and research question
Apart from a few jurisdictions, legal sports betting in most
European countries is currently limited to people gambling
on the outcome of professional football matches through
football pools. This pari-mutuel betting medium based on
correctly forecasting the outcome in a number of football
games has long occupied a uniquely prominent place in
the European gambling market offering a potential single
large jackpot when no other form of gambling did
Recently the European Union (EU) has been taking
aggressive actions to eliminate state-run monopoly sports
betting operations in EU countries in order to open up
domestic football betting to more competition. This change
opens up the possibility of legal internet football betting as
well as widespread sports book making like what currently
exists in the United Kingdom (UK) in all countries in the
EU.
Within this framework, improved understanding of the
behaviour of football bettors will help policy makers, lottery
operators and football pools managers understand the
likely consequences of changes in existing sports betting
regulations and enhance understanding of the costs and
benefits of existing sports betting regulations.
Literature review
Previous studies dealing with the demand for football pools
(Forrest, 1999; Garca and Rodrguez, 2007; Garca et al.
2008; Forrest and Prez, 2010) are based on considering
the football pools as being sufficiently similar to a lottery.
Thus, the earlier empirical research on this field is based
fundamentally on the application of demand for lottery
models in order to capture the effects on football pools
sales of ticket pricing, jackpot announcements or prize
structure. However, football pools are not a lottery in the
sense that the winning combination is not the outcome of a
draw but is instead related to the final results of several
football matches. Thus, unlike lotto games, where players
just chose the numbers they play, in football pools bettors
use historical information on the performance of both
teams and players to make their forecasts (Pujol, 2009).
Research design and data analysis
Using fixture-to-fixture data we estimate a demand
equation for football pools in Spain in order to test if
demand for lottery models are really applicable to football
betting. In particular we are interested not only in evaluate
whether pools sales are influenced - besides the
conventional economic determinants - by game
characteristics, such as the overall expected value, the
prize structure and the composition of the list of games in
the coupon, but also in test whether other relevant
influences on demand for lotto are also applicable to the
particular case of the demand for football pools. This
allows us to develop new evidence about football bettors
behaviour.
Results
According to preliminary results, the previous empirical
evidence is reinforced. Lottery demand models seem fit
well with football pools data. Exogenous events affecting
players strategy (lotto fever, lotto mania, prize fatigue,
conscious selection, gamblers fallacy, halo effect,
addiction ) are also applicable to the particular case of
the demand for football pools, suggesting new evidence
about football bettors behaviour. A nave explanation of
these results could be that the introduction of a rollover
rule made the (football) pools more like lotto.
Demand for lottery models are really applicable to football
pools. Decision makers should take this key aspect into
consideration when optimally managing sports betting.
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References:
Forrest, D. (1999) The past and future of the British football pools,
Journal of Gambling Studies, 15, 161-176.
Forrest, D. and Perez, L. (2010) Football pools and lotteries:
substitute roads to riches?, Applied Economics Letters, in press.
Garca, J., Perez, L. and Rodrguez, P. (2008) Football pools sales:
How important is a football club in the top divisions?, International
Journal of Sports Finance, 3, 119-126.
Garca, J. and Rodrguez, P. (2007) The demand for football pools
in Spain: the role of prices, prizes, and the composition of the
coupon, Journal of Sports Economics, 10, 1-20.
Pujol, F. (2009) Football betting as a cyclical learning process,
Working Paper 05/09, Department of Economics, University of
Navarra, Spain
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300
IS THE SPORTS INDUSTRy
COMPETITIVE UP AGAINST OTHER
LISTED INVESTMENT FUND MARKETS?
Author:
Troelsen Troels
email:
Troelsen@cbs.dk
Co-authors:
Jrgensen Kenneth Neumann, Master in Applied
Economics & Finance, Copenhagen Business School,
Vesterheden Jakob, Master in Applied Economics &
Finance, Copenhagen Business School, Dejonghe Trudo,
Professor Economics and Sports Economics, Lessius
Business College, Catholic University Leuven
University:
Copenhagen Business School
Abstract
The hypothesis of this paper is to test if a mutual
investment fund exclusively based on listed shares from
the sports industry (SIF) is competitive to listed Morning
Star rated investments funds. The drivers and
differentiators of the sporting industry are the unique
network structure (Troelsen,2008;
Szymanski&Hoehn,1999), managing competitive balance
in a league (Troelsen & Dejonghe, 2006; Troelsen, 2008;
Downward e.a., 2009) and game theory (Osborne, 2007;
Dejonghe,2 007). (Fig1).
PriceWaterhouseCooper (2010) estimated revenues in
sports in 2009-2013 from ticketing, media, sponsoring,
merchandising et.al. to increase 3.8%/p.a. to US$133b in
2013. Andreff(2008) roughly estimated the global market
for all sporting goods and services in 2004 on 550-600b.
The European Commission defined in 2007 sport in
economic terms, the Vilnius Definition of Sport , by which
the sport industry represented 3.0-3.6% of private
consumption.
Setting up the SIF (SIF only contain listed assets, no
derivatives, analyzed in relation to risk and return, the
selection algorithm-process blind folded and regulated by
the Danish mutual fund legislation with the 5-10-40%
rule The sports industry consist of a strong network
The co-dependency between clubs, fans, stadiums,
sponsors, merchandisers, apparel, consultancy and media
are the network creating mutual value added for the sport.
(Stabell&Fjeldstad,1998; Dejonghe,2007; Troelsen,2008).
Kronenberg (2007) and Szymanski (2010) stated that the
economy of clubs and the sports industry is not strongly
correlated to the macro-economic business cycles.
Competitive balance
A lower CB, measuring the uncertainty of outcome of
matches, results into higher popularity of a sport
(Troelsen&Dejonghe, 2006; Troelsen, 2008) keeping fans
and media interested. A club would be self-destructive if
trying to eliminate the competition (Bhler&Nfer, 2010).
This phenomenon is counterintuitive to most economics,
where eliminating the competition and creating sustainable
advantages is key to success.
Winning or profit
In sports stakeholders have conflicting goals between profit
or winning. Even in the closed leagues in North America.
Game theory is pushing the players salaries over a fair
break even for the club because losing games is even
more expensive (Downward e.a.,2009). The outcome of
this cocktail is financial losses. Only leagues with tight
management can be profitable.
Portfolio Optimization
Portfolio theories states that rational investors prefer higher
return to lower, and lower risk to higher - and that higher
returns indicates higher risk. Investment theories are
analyzed for defining the SIF selection-of-assets-model.
(Grinblat&Titman,2004; Gitman& Joehnk,2006; Elton
e.a.,2007). Modern-Portfolio-Theory (MPT), Harry
Markowitz (Markowitz,1952);The Single-Index-Model
(SIM), Sharpe(1963); The constant-correlation-model (CC),
Elton&Gruber(1973); Bayesian shrinkage method (BMS),
(Ledoit&Wolf,2003). Followed by Post-Modern Portfolio
Theory where The Black-Litterman (BL) model after testing
is chosen for the portfolio allocation model, developed by
Fischer Black and Robert Litterman.
Portfolio Construction
The hypothetical 3y portfolios are constructed based on
information from 01-01-2008, using historical data from the
previous 3 years (2005-2007). SIF is assigned asset
allocation mixes and then held unchanged for the following
3 years (control period 2008-2010). Afterwards SIF is
evaluated with other investment funds for the performance
in the 3 year control period (2008-2010).
Benchmarks
SIF is benchmarked with other mutual funds but not with
PE or hedge funds. There is no limit on geography or
industry for the benchmarks. The funds must have been
active from 2005-2010 and selected from the largest
Danish banks, Danske Bank, Nordea and Jyske Bank. SIF
s costs are 1.65%, deducted from the return of the SIF to
enable a fair comparison. The analysis of 62 alternative
investment funds resulted in BL as a proxy for SIF.
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The performance of the benchmarks is better than SIF
The returns for the benchmark mutual funds are higher
than SIF but with a higher SD which leads to a higher
Sharpe s ratio. The improved returns delivered outweigh
the lower variation for SIF relative to the benchmarked
mutual funds. Interesting is, that in the extra-ordinary
circumstances of 2008-2010, the risk of the sports assets
was much lower than the benchmarks and in many
portfolios with returns close to the benchmarks.
SIF is competitive and ready to serve investors demand
Even the average SIF fund performs slightly poorer, 10%
of the benchmark funds performed worse when comparing
Sharpe s Ratio and only 27.4% of mutual funds
outperformed SIF in the 95% confidence. (
This indicates that SIF is worthy of serious investors
considerations, providing a competitive risk and return
relative to the market. The sports industry will for many
investors be a more interesting industry to invest into. The
confidence is big and the marketing will be more color- and
powerful as part of the growing experience and
entertainment industry.
References:
Andreff W. (2008) Globalization of the sports economy, Revista di
Diritto ed Economia dello Sport, Vol IV, Fasc 3, p.13-32
Bhler A. & Nufer G. (2010). Relationship marketing in sports.
Elsevier Ltd.
Consolidated acts (no.807).Bekendtgrelse af lov om
investeringsforeninger og specialforeninger samt andre kollektive
investeringsordninger m.v.. Finanstilsynet 28-8-2009.
Dejonghe T. (2007) Sport en economie: een aftrap, Nieuwegein,
Arko Sports Media Downward P. , Dawson A. & Dejonghe T. (2009).
Sport Economics Theory, Evidence and policy. Elsevier Ltd.
Elton E., Gruber M., Brown S. & Goetzman W. (2007). Modern
portfolio theory and investment analysis 7th edition. John Wiley &
Sons Inc.
Elton E.. & Gruber M. (1973) Estimating the dependence structure
of share prices - implications for portfolio selection. Journal of
Finance, 28; 1203-1233
Executive order (no.1004). On short-selling Danish Law Gazette A
Finanstilsynet 10. October.
Gitman L. & Joehnk M. (2006). Fundamentals of investing 9th
edition. Peachpit Press.
Grinblatt M. & Titman S. (2004). Financial markets and corporate
strategy 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill.
IFR (July 2009). Europisk omkostningsanalyse.
InvesteringsForeningsRdet (IFR)
Ledoit, O. & Wolf, M. (2003). Improved estimation of the
covariance matrix of stock returns with an application to portfolio
selection. Journal of Empirical Finance, 10, 5; 603-621.
Ledoit, O. & Wolf, M. (2004) Honey, I shrunk the sample
covariance matrix", Journal of Portfolio Management, 31,1, Fall.
Markowitz, H. (1952). Portfolio Selection. Journal of Finance 7(1);
77-91.
Osborne M. (2007). An introduction to game theory. Oxford
University Press.
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2010) Back on track? The outlook for
the global sports market to 2013, London,
PriceWaterhouseCoopers, Hospitality and Leisure Sector
Rom, B. & Ferguson, K. (1993). Post-modern portfolio theory
comes of age. Journal of Investing, winter.
Sharpe, W. (1963). A Simplified Model for Portfolio Analysis.
Management Science 9; 277-293
Sortino, F. & Forsey, H. (1996). On the use and misuse of
downside risk. The Journal of Portfolio Management, winter
SportsEconAustria (2007) The Vilnius Definition of Sport, official
manual, SportsEconAustria, Vienna and Vilnius)
Stabell C. & Fjeldstad . (1998), Configuring value for competitive
advantage: On chains, shops and networks. Strategic
Management Journal, 19.
Swisher, P. & Kasten, G. (2005). Contributions Post-modern
portfolio theory.
Szymanski, S & Hoehn, Th (1999). The Americanization of
European football. Economic Policy,28, April.
Szymanski, S. (2010). The financial crisis and English football:
The dog that will not bark. International Journal of Sport Finance,
5;28-40.
Troelsen, T. (2008). Sports league design, A conference to mark
the 2008 European Football Championsship. University of Bern,
May.
Troelsen, T. & Dejonghe, T. (2006) The Need of Competitive
Balance in European Professional Soccer : A Lesson to be learned
from the North American Professional Leagues., Presented at the
14th ESAM Congress (European Association for Sport
Management), Nicosia, Cyprus.
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302
Organisation and
Management of Elite
Sport Systems
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Workshops
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304
TALENT IDENTIFICATION AND TALENT
DEVELOPMENT IN SWEDISH SPORTS
Author:
PG Fahlstrm
email:
pergoran.fahlstrom@lnu.se
University:
Linnaeus university
Faculty:
Department of Sport science
Abstract
Talent identification and talent development strategies are
frequently discussed especially during the period after the
closing of each Olympic event. One very frequently used
definition of talent states that talent is an unusually high
level of demonstrated ability, achievement or skill in some
special field of study or interest (Bloom 1985). This
definition indicates that the inborn skills and abilities are
not enough. It has been argued that regardless of the
talent ten years or 10.000 hours - of intensive training is
needed to win international competitions (Ericsson et al.
1993). Talent is in fact often regarded as less important
than rational, goal-oriented long-term training (Ericsson,
Prietula & Cokely 2007). Still in the pursuit of success and
medals the Sport Federations and scouts are intensively
searching high and low for the ultimate talents.
This project focused on the Talent Programs within the
Swedish Sport Federations and had three main research
questions:
How do the Federations define the concept talent?
How do they organize the talent identification?
How are their talent development programs organized?
Interviews were conducted with National Team Executives
from a sample of Swedish Sport Federations, selected in
collaboration with the Swedish Sports Confederation.
The results show that the federations believe that the
innate talent is not so important. The talent is developed
through long-term exercise that requires great desire and
ambition. This is strengthened and preserved better if you
are in a stimulating and ambitious environment. They also
believe that early competition results dont guarantee for
later success.
The results point to some paradoxes. Although the
federations believe that talent is not so important, and
although they say the early results do not guarantee later
success they put a lot of effort and resources on finding
the talents.
Further more they describe the talents as unique, they
state that the talents develop differently and have different
strengths and weaknesses. Despite this they try to create
general talent models, talent stairs. The risk is that they
find the athletes that fit in to the model instead of the
athletes who are potential winners.
The discussion also focuses on the 10.000 hours principle
(Ericsson 1993) and stresses that more and developed
research is needed to establish a better understanding of
the significant factors of the talent development process.
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References:
Bloom, Benjamin S. (red) (1985) Developing talent in young
people. New york: Ballantine Books.
Ericsson, K., Anders, Krampe, Ralf T. & Tesch-Romer Clemens.
(1993) The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert
Performance Psychological Review, (1993): 6
Ericsson, K, Anders, Prietula, Michael J. & Cokely, Edward T.
(2007) The Making of an Expert, Harvard Business Review,
Jul/Aug 2007. (85) 7/8: 114-121.
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306
WHAT CHARACTERIZE THE
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE IN
SUCCESSFUL ELITE SPORT
ORGANIZATIONS? A STUDy OF THE
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE IN THE
NORWEGIAN SKI ASSOCIATION AND
THE NORWEGIAN BIATHLON
ASSOCIATION.
Author:
Per ystein Hansen
email:
per.oystein.hansen@nih.no
University:
Norwegian School of Sport Sciences
Faculty:
Department for Cultural and Social Studies
Abstract
Objective
Everyone participating in elite level sports has the same
objective; to win. A key to success is the role of national
sports associations in facilitating and supporting
development of elite athletes. Previous research within elite
sport systems has emphasized the importance of structure
to achieve international success. Furthermore, international
comparisons show that there has been a convergence of
national elite sports systems among developed countries
over the last 20 years (Houlihan & Green, 2008). With the
existing research on elite sport as a point of departure, this
paper goes beyond the structural aspects of elite sport and
argues that despite that there has been a convergence in
elite sport systems, this cannot explain why some nations
and/or sport associations managed to sustain successful.
The paper argues that it is less likely that structure and
design can explain why some sport associations manage to
sustain high levels of success. More precisely, the paper
analyzes how the organizational culture (top sport culture)
within two successful sport associations in Norway (the
Norwegian Ski Association (NSA) and the National Biathlon
Association (NBA)) might have influenced their ability to
reproduce success over a period of 15 years. An important
aspect of studying top sport culture relates to how leaders
and coaches facilitate a top sport culture and how the
culture influences the levels of sustained success. This is
the core of the paper.
In my opinion, there is a lack of scientific research on the
importance of organizational culture within the field of elite
sport systems. As the elite sports systems have become
more and more similar in terms of structure and design,
the organizational culture might play an important part in
explaining why some sport organizations manages to
achieve and sustain international success. To answer the
research question; what characterize the organizational
culture in successful elite sport associations? the paper
draws upon literature developed by studying organizations
that because of their low rates of serious failures are
termed High Reliability Organizations (HROs) (cf. Weick &
Sutcliffe, 2001). Examples of HROs are nuclear power
plants, air traffic control towers and air craft carriers. The
organizational culture within HROs is distinguished from
how Edgar Schein (1991) defined organizational culture
(how we do things here) by emphasizing the importance of
not being deadlocked in one way of solving problems
which is reflected in the phrase what we expect around
here (Weick & Sutcliffe, 2001:122). The organizational
culture in HROs is further characterized by a continuous
updating of routines and practices (e.g. Standard
Operating Procedures), and a culture for reporting
deviations (small failures) that might lead to organizational
failure is thus highly valued (Weick, 1987; Weick &
Sutcliffe, 2001).
Methodology
The study was designed as a set of related qualitative
case studies, in which this is one of four cases. The case
study contains 4 units that will be analyzed (cf. Gerring,
2004); 1) the NSA men elite team, 2) the NSA women elite
team, 3) the NBA men elite team, and 4) the NBA women
elite team. The analysis is conducted on the basis of a
total of 24 in-depth interviews, distributed among athletes,
coaches and sporting directors within NSA and the NBA
which have been competing or working within the
associations in the period 2002-2010. In addition, persons
at the Norwegian Top Sport Centre (Olympiatoppen) who
have been working with NSA and/or NBA have been
interviewed as this organization is likely to have influenced
the organizational culture in NSA/NBA.
As the interviews recently has been finished, only
preliminary results exists. However, these findings
suggests that despite some differences in the
organizational culture between NSA and NBA, there are
some important similarities that might explain why these
two associations have managed to sustain successful.
When the paper is to be submitted 1st of July, these
findings will presented in more detail and a more
comprehensive discussion will then be developed. The
paper thus present an alternative explanation to elite sport
success than previous research within this field.
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References:
Gerring, J. (2004). What is c case study and what is it good for?
American political science review, 98(2), 341-354
Houlihan, B., & Green, M. (2008): Comparative elite sport
development. In: Houlihan, B, & Green, M. (eds.): Comparative
elite sport development: Systems, structures and public policy (1-
25). Amsterdam: Elsevier, Butterworth Heinemann
Schein, E. (1991). What is culture? In: Frost, P.L., Moore, M.L.,
Lundberg, C., & Martin J. (eds.): Reframing organizational culture.
Newbury Park, California: Sage
Weick, K. E. (1987). Organizational Culture as a Source of High
Reliability. California Management Review, 29, 112-127.
Weick, K. E. & Sutcliffe, K. H. (2001). Managing the unexpected:
Assuring high performance in an age of complexity. (1 ed.) San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ELITE SPORT
SCHOOLS. A COMPARISON OF THE
CAREER TRAJECTORy OF ELITE
ATHLETES IN FLANDERS, AFTER
ATTENDING OR NOT ATTENDING AN
ELITE SPORT SCHOOL
Author:
Veerle De Bosscher
email:
vdebossc@vub.ac.be
Co-authors:
De Croock Stephanie
University:
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Faculty:
Physical Education and physiotherapy
Abstract
Introduction
As a rule of thumb, research has shown that elite athletes
roughly need 8 to 10 years and 10,000 hours of high
quality training to develop as an elite athlete and perform
at high levels (Ericsson 2003). Much of this investment of
time and effort coincides with a talented persons
secondary and tertiary education phases. It is impossible
for athletes to combine an average of 20 hours training a
week with regular schooling, without losing potential
development either in one or both and with high dropouts
as a result (Wylleman, De Knop & Sillen, 1998). Many
countries have established programmes to help athletes to
combine their academic career with a sports career. In
Flanders (the Northern Dutch speaking part of Belgium) for
example, the so called elite sport schools were
established in 1998 for secondary education and aimed to
facilitate the development of both the athletic and the
vocational careers of their pupils. Also the European Union
has shown a significant concern, to protect athletes in
relation to their education and their integration into working
life (European Commission, 2004; 2008). Dawn and Henry
(2010) identified four different types of responses of
nations to address this issue varying from centralized to
decentralized systems with higher and lower state support.
Flanders uses a centralized system, where the state is
facilitator, and where athletes (from 12 18 yrs of age) are
encouraged to follow the trajectory of talent development
primarily via these elite sport schools, involving increased
funding throughout their secondary education.
Aim
The objective of this research is to investigate the
effectiveness of the elite sport schools, from an athletes
perspective, at the level of educational as well as athletic
development.
Methods
The effectiveness is approached from a multidimensional
perspective, where both the processes and performances
are evaluated. The SPLISS model (Sport Policy factors
Leading to International Sporting Success) was used to
evaluate elite sport schools, including several pillars or
policy dimensions, at three levels: inputs (resources)
throughputs (processes) and outputs (results) (De
Bosscher et al., 2006; 2010).
A total of 408 (64%) elite athletes who ever graduated at
an elite sports school and 341 (69%) elite athletes who
followed a different trajectory completed a written online
survey, containing both open ended and closed questions.
Results
Looking at performances (outputs), the study revealed that
since 2005, (only) 35 elite athletes reached a top 8
position in Europe. 19 of them (54%) went to an elite sport
school, this is 4.6% of all 408 athletes. These figures are
already slightly higher than a few years ago, which
certainly indicates that elite sport schools are growing. yet,
their impact should not be overrated as elite athletes spent
an average of only 2,8 years at an elite sports school,
having already gone through 6 years of specialisation in
their sport in clubs. These figures differ by sport.
In terms of processes, 66% of all elite athletes who went to
an elite sport school, are generally satisfied about the
different support services that they received; 14% are not.
Mental coaching, nutrition and career coaching are the
areas that most need improvement. Remarkably, 41%
dropped out of school early. Interestingly, this qualitative
evaluation is considerably worse for athletes who did not
attend an elite school, varying from 35% of the athletes
who indicated that they did not receive any service at all to
for example 75% who lacked study, mental and career
coaching.
Discussion
While there is a high quality of support services delivered
to elite athletes in elite sport schools, after 12 years of
existence it appears that there are only slight differences
between the two groups in terms of both sport and study
performances. In some sports (like Triathlon, Gymnastics,
Badminton and table tennis) high performances were only
achieved by athletes who went to an elite sport school,
whereas in other sports (like athletics, swimming, judo and
tennis) athletes performed well through both trajectories. In
cycling athletes even performed better with their own
teams and clubs, and in Handball there were no high-level
performances at all. These are salutary lessons for
Flemish policy makers, who invested 2.25 million euros in
these schools in 2009 (11.5% of elite sports funding).
Furthermore, it is noted that elite sport schools are going
through a learning process. This can be seen not only in
the performances at youth championships, but also in the
practices of elite sport schools, as elite athletes after 2005
reported receiving more and better services than before.
References:
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, & Van Bottenburg (2007). Sports Policy
Factors Leading to International Sporting Succes. Published
doctoral thesis. Brussels, BE: VUBPRESS.
De Bosscher, V., Bingham, J., Shibil, S., Van Bottenburg, M., De
Knop, P. (2008). A global sporting arms race. An international
comparative study on sports policy factors Leading to international
sporting succes. Aachen, De: Mayer & Meyer.
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, & Van Bottenburg (2008). Vlaanderen
sport. Ook aan de top. Een internationale vergelijking van het
topsportbeleid en topsportklimaat in zes landen. Nieuwegein: Arko
Sports Media. ISBN
Ericsson, K.A. (2003). Development of Elite performance and
Deliberate Practice: An update from the perspective of the expert
performance approach. In K. Strarkes & K.A. Ericsson. Expert
Performance in Sport. Advances in research on Sport Expertise
(pp49-55). Illinois, Champaign IL: Human Kinetics
European Commission (2204). Education of young sports persons.
Final report (lot1), in the European yaear for Education and Sport,
Report by PMP in partnership with the Institute of Sport and Leisure
Policy, Loughborough University, England.
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JAPAN S ELITE SPORTS SySTEM:
A CASE STUDy OF WOMEN'S
MARATHON TEAM
Author:
Tetsuro Fujiwara
email:
tfujiwara55@yahoo.co.jp
Co-authors:
[TAKAHASHI, [Masahiko]
[Dr.MANO], [yoshiyuki]
University:
Waseda University
Faculty:
Research Institute for Sport Business
Abstract
Japanese women's marathon runners have left the
excellent results, which were 8 prize winners including 4
medals in 7 times Olympic Game s women s marathon,
such as Naoko Takahashi Gold Medalist in Sydney 2000
Olympic Games and Mizuki Noguchi Gold Medalist in
Athens 2004 Olympic games, and 19 prize winners
including 10 medals in 12-time IAAF World Championships
in Athletics.(Table 1)
The rate of prize winning by Japanese women s marathon
runners in both Olympics Games and IAAF World
Championship in Athletics is 40% and their medal winning
rate is 21%. Women s marathon becomes one of the
world-class women's sports in Japan. The nationwide
television viewing rates of women s marathon races in
Japan have been extremely high for the last 25 years, so
women s marathon races have been established as one of
the spectator sports event.
The aim of this research is to clarify why did the women's
marathon runners in Japan come to be able to do a lot of
medal and prize winning in the Olympic games and World
Championships, then why medal and prize winning runners
have been decreasing in late 2000 s.0
The questionnaire survey was executed against 363
runners who belongs corporate running teams and 20
medal or prize winners in the Olympic games or World
Championships. We investigated the history of the number
of corporate running teams and individual track and
marathon record for the last 30 years
Behind the background for runners to enhance their
performance in Japan,0private corporations hire some
runners as their employees for a full-time worker or a
contractor, and then the corporations organize women s
track and field sports team with roughly 10 runners. The
corporations provide their payment, travel expenses,
training camp expenses, hiring cost for a manager and a
trainer and sometimes they even build a dormitory for
runners convenience. By increasing a number of women's
track and field teams as such corporate team
organizations, lots of runners produced impressive results
in each marathon race in Olympics Games and IAAF
World Championship in Athletics.
The nationwide television viewing rates of women s
marathon races in Japan have been extremely high for the
last 25 years, so women s marathon races have been
established as one of the spectator sports event.
Eki-den , which is a long distance team relay, by corporate
teams competition and major marathon races are 4th and
5th popular sports as a TV program by Japan Broadcasting
Corporation
Women's track and field teams aim at All-Japan Industrial
Women s long distance relay which is held in December
every year.
I examined how many teams joined its elimination race
and its final race. And I researched the top-20 runners
personal season best records for each race of 5,000m,
10,000m and marathon for the last 30 years and compared
the change of each record to the increase and decrease in
teams.
Lots of organizations, which were mostly private
corporations, had entered into this market in order to
establish women s track and field team, which is generally
called Eki-den team. In the early 1980s, there were only a
few teams, and they started training runners in order to be
selected as a representative of Japan for the Los Angeles
Olympics Games in 1984, which had the first Olympic
marathon race. In 1990s, lots of women s track and field
teams were organized. Looking into top-level runners
personal records in Japan for each marathon race and
long distance race such as 5,000m and 10,000m, those
records had been dramatically improved from early 1980s
to late 1990s.
As a result, we ve found out S-Curve between early 1980 s
and late 2000 s like product development theory in
manufacturing industry for both corporate teams numbers
and top 20 s marathon record . It was startup stage in
1980 s, then strengthening term came out and it continued
from early 90 s to mid 2000s, in late 2000 s stagnation
period happened.
However, these day Japanese Women's track and field
teams have not been able to produce stronger results in
international marathon races.
Here, we discuss the current challenges of corporate
teams by referring to the number of prize winners in the
Olympics or international marathon races coming down, no
Japanese runners on the top 20 in the world rankings last
year, and no early-20 runners gaining power.
References:
KANAMORI Katsuya, Marathon runners trends from the view of
Japanese marathon record(in Japanese), Fukuoka University
Journal of literature and science 13(3), p287-p405, 1969 February
KANAMORI Katsuya, A study on the strengthening of marathon
runners, International Journal of Sport and Health Science 13(5),
p263, 1969 July 31st
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312
PROMOTING STUDENT-ATHLETE
INTERESTS IN EUROPEAN ELITE
SPORTS SySTEMS
Author:
Dawn Aquilina
email:
Dawn.Aquilina@idheap.unil.ch
University:
University of Lausanne
Faculty:
IDHEAP - Swiss Graduate School of Public Management
Abstract
Introduction / Research Issues
The analysis of sports policy often focuses on a limited set
of stakeholders, and relatively rarely engages in the
discourse of rights (as opposed to, for example, discourses
of effectiveness, efficiency and economy). This
presentation will seek to demonstrate through the case of
education / sporting policies for student-athletes that a
review of stakeholder interests can be informed by a
consideration of a discourse of rights and specifically by
the consideration of the roles, rights and responsibilities of
different actors (the state, the European Union, the athlete,
the education institution, and the national federation) in this
policy domain.
The background to this discussion is the demonstration by
the European Union of a significant and growing concern
for the protection of athletes in relation to education and
training and their integration into the workforce in a post
athletic career. This is explicit for example in a number of
statements in documents such as the sporting Annex to the
Nice Treaty, and to the conclusions of the French
Presidency delivered in Nice in 2000, the White Paper on
Sport (European Commission, 2007) and the recent
Communication adopted by the European Commission
entitled: Developing the European Dimension in Sport
(European Commission, 2011). Promotion of equity or at
least good practice thus remains a key concern. It actively
continues to find alternative means of engaging in dialogue
with other global stakeholders to discuss this matter.
Presidency Conclusions (11-12 December, 2008) in
Brussels stated that the European Council Declaration on
sport has acknowledged the need to strengthen the
dialogue with the International Olympic Committee and
representatives of the world of sport, in particular on the
question of combined sports training and education for
young people. (17271/08 Annex 5). By including this issue
on the agenda, the European Council has demonstrated
the increasing importance attributed to the effective
management of a dual career of elite sport and education
by young sportspersons.
Methodology
A life story approach (Miller, 2000) was adopted to elicit
these student-athletes own personal life experiences and
look at the decision-making processes they made use of,
in order to combine an academic and sporting career
successfully. The helped identify struggles and constraints
such as the hindering of a student-athletes academic
development and sought to propose ways of how some of
these difficulties may be overcome with the help of
coaches, educators, managers and policy makers.
Findings and Discussion
While it will be noted that the European Union has to date
had a seemingly limited scope in influencing policy at the
nation state level within this context, it will be argued that it
is the Nation State therefore that has to assume
responsibility to ensure that student-athletes have access
to opportunities and support to combine a dual career
successfully. Bergsgard et al., (2007:153) observed that
the level of priority given to elite sport varies considerably
between countries, due in part to different national cultural
values and traditions, political and administrative
structures, and relationships between governmental and
civil society sport organisations. Therefore it is a matter for
each nation state to decide how important sporting
achievement is, usually by taking a local democratic
decision whether to invest in promoting elite athletes.
However, the main argument presented here is that if they
do decide to do so, as demonstrated by the three countries
(Finland, France and the UK) investigated in this research
study; nation states have a moral responsibility towards
their elite athletes. The critical message here is that nation
states should not leverage sporting success by mortgaging
the future of student-athletes, and in particular by
diminishing their access to educational rights. The athlete
may serve the interests of the state, the national
federation, or the educational institution by attaining high
level performance, and these bodies may serve the
athletes purposes in developing their athletic potential, but
such a system implies a set of mutual obligations in which
the interests of all parties (particularly of young athletes
who may be most vulnerable) should be protected.
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References:
Bergsgard, N., Houlihan, B., Mangset, P., Nodland, S.,
Rommetvedt, H., (2007). Sport Policy: A Comparative analysis of
stability and change. London: Elsevier.
European Commission (2011) Communication: Developing the
European Dimension in Sport. Brussels, European Commission:
http://ec.europa.eu/sport/news/news984_en.htm
European Commission (2008) News: Study on the training of young
sportsmen and sportswomen in Europe. Brussels, Sports Unit -
European Commission;
http://ec.europa.eu/sport/news/news492_en.htm
European Commission (2007) Treaty of Lisbon amending the
Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the
European Community. Brussels, European Commission:
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/cg00014.en07.p
df
Miller, R., L. (2000). Researching Life Stories and Family Histories.
London: SAGE Publications, Inc.
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314
ATHLETE FUNDING INITIATIVES IN
CANADIAN HIGH PERFORMANCE
SPORT
Author:
Lucie Thibault
email:
lthibault@brocku.ca
Co-authors:
Babiak, Kathy
University:
Brock University
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
Athlete development and excellence in international
competitions have been central to Canadas sport system
for many years. As so aptly noted by the leaders of
Athletes CAN, an organisation created in 1992 for athletes
by athletes, athletes are the raison dtre of the sport
system and as such it is critical that the sport experience
be positive for athletes (Athletes CAN, 1994, p. 3). In fact,
the concept of an athlete-centred / participant-centred
sport system has been raised as an important principle for
Canadian sport. For example, the Canadian Sport Policy
called for a system where athletes / participants are the
primary focus in the development of policies, programs,
and procedures. Athletes / participants [should be] involved
throughout the system in decisions that directly relate to
them (Sport Canada, 2002, p. 13).
Athletes are also central to the Canadian Sport Policy. In
this policy document, the importance of closing the gaps
in athlete development was identified as a priority (Sport
Canada, 2002, p. 9). The policy called for a systematic,
analytical and collaborative approach to the development
of high performance athletes (Sport Canada, 2002, p. 9).
Furthermore, it sought increased opportunities for the
seamless development of athletes, taking into account
their age, maturity, and skill development needs while
promoting their health, well-being, and general quality of
life (Sport Canada, 2002, p. 9).
The purpose of this paper is to examine and analyse
programs and services that have been developed to
support athletes and their development in Canadas sport
system over the past 10 years. Although the focus is
predominantly on initiatives of the federal government and
national nonprofit organisations, we also analysed
programs and services in various areas of the country
aimed at financially assisting and supporting high
performance athletes in their development and their quest
to reach the podium in international competitions. Among
the sources of funding for athletes, we discussed the
Athlete Assistance Program, a federal government
program (also replicated by provincial governments), the
Canadian Olympic Committee Athlete Excellence Fund,
Own the Podium, along with the support of two charitable
nonprofit organisations assisting high performance
athletes, Canadian Athletes Now Fund, and B2ten.
Corporate support of Canadian athletes is also discussed
particularly in light of the decreased opportunities following
the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter
Games.
While there has been a considerable increase in funding
commitments for sport by the federal government,
nonprofit sport organisations, and corporations leading up
to and following the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and
Paralympic Winter Games, calls for ongoing support for
Canadas high performance athletes are still being heard
(cf. Ekos Research Associates, 2010). In their study of
high performance athletes in Canada, researchers from
Ekos Research Associates noted that athletes often leave
their athletic careers because of insufficient support
(financial and technical). Given the extent of resources
invested in developing these athletes to reach international
results and the important role they play in being
ambassadors of Canada in high profile sport events, their
support is central to their success and longevity in the
sport system.
In light of retrenchment, fiscal restraints, and reduced
involvement in public affairs, as well as increased focus on
adopting the neoliberal approach, governments have had
to decide what services and programs to offer, what
services and programs not to offer, and what services and
programs are best delivered by the private sector (cf. Albo,
2002; Cochrane, 2007). Using concepts from the neoliberal
approach, we discuss the emergence of alternative
sources of funding for athletes and the increasing role the
private sector (nonprofit and for profit organisations) is
playing in the funding of Canadian high performance
athletes. In addition, the climate for Canadian athlete
funding following the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter
Games is addressed.
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References:
Albo, G. (2002). Neoliberalism, the state, and the left: A Canadian
perspective. Monthly Review, 14(1), 46-55.
Athletes CAN. (1994, September). Athlete-centred sport.
Discussion paper. Retrieved from
http://www.athletescan.com/Content/Publications.asp
Cochrane, A. (2007). Understanding urban policy: a critical
approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Ekos Research Associates (2010). 2009 Status of the high
performance athlete. Final report. Ottawa, ON: Author. Retrieved
from http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/sc/rpts/rpt-eng.pdf
Sport Canada. (2002). Canadian Sport Policy. Retrieved from
www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/pol/pcs_/csp/2003/polsport_e.pdf
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NORDIC ELITE SPORT: SAME
AMBITIONS - DIFFERENT TRACKS
Author:
Svein S. Andersen
email:
svein.andersen@bi.no
Co-authors:
Lars Tore Ronglan
University:
Norwegian School of Sport Scienes/ Norwegian School of
management
Faculty:
Leadership and organization
Abstract
Aim
The paper compares the elite sport systems in the four
Nordic countries. Denmark and Norway developed special
elite sport institutions in the mid and late 1980s. In Sweden
major changes in elite sport has been accommodated
within existing institutional structures. In Finland a stable
overall institutional structure framed elite sport until the mid
1990s. However, during the last 15 years the elite sport
system has suffered from fragmentation and lack of
legitimacy due to wider societal changes as well as doping
scandals. In this way the four countries illustrate how an
overall trend of convergence can be combined with
significant diversity between national elite sport systems.
Literature review
Research on the development of international elite sport
systems have argued out that elite sport organizations in
Western countries have become increasingly homogenous
during the last two decades (Augestad, Bergsgard 2008;
Houlihan & Green, 2008) Important determinants of public
policy are found in supranational policy network, rather
than in domestic policy alone (Houlihan & Green 2008:9).
However, a trend towards isomorphism does not imply that
elite sport in various countries, or within specific sports,
organize or pursue key elements in elite sport in very
similar ways. How general ideas, cognitive models and
norms in the international environment are exploited
depends on characteristics of the local national context
(Sahlin & Wedin 2008, Thornton & Ocasio 2008). Both in
terms of the overall structure of organized sports, and
specific arrangements for elite sports, the Nordic countries
have in important respects become much more different
over the last 30 years. Such differences relate to
leadership capabilities, priorities, resource allocation and
working methods in national elite sport systems.
Methodology
The paper is based on research carried out by a group of
researchers that are specialists on their own national
systems. Descriptions and analysis of individual countries
are based on comprehensive literature review and data
collection; combining documents with informant interviews.
To ensure comparability, the interpretation and analysis of
data have been discussed in two work shops. Data have
been coded in two steps. The initial coding was used to
identify similarities and differences across countries. The
theoretical coding used a framework from institutional
theory to identify patterns of convergence and divergence.
Results
Elite sport systems in the four Nordic countries are not
only becoming more different, but it happens in ways that
run counter to what one might expect based on general
pattern of political and societal organization in the four
countries. Norway is generally characterized by
decentralization of authority and dislike for elites, but ends
up with the most centralized system and a high degree of
legitimacy for elite sport. Denmark, where the state has
been most reluctant to intervene in civil society and the
economy, ends up with the strongest role for the state.
Finland, with the strongest tradition for centralization ends
up with the most decentralized, fragmented system.
Sweden, known for its ability to modernize and react to
international trends in society and in thy economy
preserves an overall system that tends to reproduce
traditional political cleavages.
The divergent paths of Nordic elite sport systems are
schematically presented in figure 1.
Figure 1: The divergent paths of Nordic elite sport systems
here
The resulting systems of elite sport organization are not
only different in terms of structure, priorities and practices.
The also represent different frames for identifying,
discussing and improving elite sport efforts. In Denmark
and Norway reforms in the 1980s and further elaboration
of national elite sport systems created a relatively stable
framework for discussions about various types of support.
In Sweden, the changes in elite sport over the last
decades have reinforced some of the tensions between
mass- and elite-sport in the system. In Finland, the
fragmentation and loss of overall coordination, together
with doping scandals, has led to loss of support and
legitimacy for elite sport. It is no surprise, then, that the
public discourse in Sweden and Finland has focused on
the need for overall reform of the elite sport systems.
References:
Augestad, P. & Bergsgard, N. A. (2008) Norway. In Houlihan, B.
and Green, M. (eds.) Comparative Elite Sports Developments.
Systems, Structures and Public Policy. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Houlihan, B. & Green, M. (2008) Comparative Elite Sport
Development, in Houlihan, B. & Green, M. (eds.) Comparative
Elite Sport Development. London: Elsevier
Green, M. & Oakley, B. (2001) Elite sport systems and playing to
win: Uniformity and diversity in international approaches, in
Leisure Studies 20 (4) pp. 247-267.
Sahlin, K. & Wedin, L. Circulating Ideas: Imitation, Translation and
Editing, in, Greenwood, R., Oliver, C., Sahlin, K. & Suddaby, R.
(eds.) The Sage Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism.
London: Sage (218-242
Thornton, P.H. & Ocasio, W. (2008) Institutional logics, in
Greenwood, R., Oliver, C., Sahlin, K. & Suddaby, R. (eds.) The
Sage Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism. London: Sage
(99-129)
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THE NEW ERA IN AUSTRALIAN HIGH
PERFORMANCE SPORT INSIGHTS
FROM AN INTERNATIONAL
COMPARATIVE STUDy ON ELITE
SPORT CLIMATE AND POLICIES
Author:
Camilla Brockett
email:
camilla.brockett@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Brockett, Camilla Westerbeek, Hans
University:
Victoria University/ Australian Sports Commission
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
With increasing competition to win medals at major events
such as the Olympics and World Championships, many
nations are focused on finding a competitive advantage.
Interestingly, international high performance sport systems
are becoming more similar than dissimilar as nations are
employing common strategies in their quest for
international sporting success (Green & Houlihan, 2005).
In 2008, De Bosscher and colleagues examined the elite
sport systems and policies of six nations (Belgium,
Canada, Italy, Netherlands, Norway and the United
Kingdom). This landmark study was based on a theoretical
model outlining nine pillars important for international
sporting success (De Bosscher et al., 2006):
Four of the six nations showed a substantial increase in
funding over the last decade, suggesting a corresponding
increase in the price of success (De Bosscher et al.,
2008). In addition to financial support (P1) the most
successful summer sporting nations (Italy, UK and the
Netherlands) also scored highest in athletic and post
career support (P5), training facilities (P6), and coaching
provision and coach development (P7). However, the two
wealthiest and most populated nations (Italy and UK)
scored poorly on talent identification and development
system (P4). Greater competitive advantage may exist for
these countries if/when they invest in systematic
identification and development of talented athletes. Whilst
an elegant study, it was concluded that a number of pillars
were underdeveloped in the sample nations; namely, talent
identification and development (P4), coaches provisions
(P7) and scientific research/ sport science support (P9).
In 2011 Australia joined the research network investigating
Sports Policy factors Leading to International Sporting
Success (SPLISS). The collective purpose of this study is
to measure the competitiveness of elite sport systems and
policies. Specifically for Australia, this was an opportunity
to identify and evaluate factors critical to the nations
sporting success, and improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of the national elite sport system.
METHODS
Based on the theoretical model developed by De Bosscher
et al. (2006), data was collected using centrally developed
sport policy questionnaires containing over 200 open and
closed questions. This dataset was completed by
researchers resulting in an inventory of qualitative and
quantitative data across the nine pillars (including over 100
critical success factors (CSFs). A secondary source of
data will also be collected as part of this study (elite sport
climate survey) and analysed with SPSS, but in regard to
this paper this will be work in progress.
Over 30 interviews were conducted with Australias key
sport policy makers (including senior executives, managers
and senior researchers), who provided qualitative and
quantitative data to populate a robust data inventory.
Although comparative analysis across the contributing
nations is yet to occur, the process of objectively
documenting Australias elite sport system and its evolution
has been very insightful.
Australias sports system is the envy of many, but it is
essentially a 30-year-old system. In 2009 an independent
review of Australian sport highlighted major concerns and
challenges for Australia to sustain international sporting
success. In response, the government released a new
sport policy outlining their vision for a system overhaul.
Since that time, the Australian Sports Commission (ASC)
and the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) have been
working closely with State partners and National Sporting
Organisations (NSOs) to develop and deliver a truly
national elite sport framework.
Much of the new system is still embryonic, but this study
has confirmed significant progress has been made to
establish a more cohesive national elite sport system. In
particular, evidence for a national sports policy framework
with a clear vision for achieving international sporting
success; a universal cooperative agreement between key
government providers, including improved clarity of roles
and responsibilities; as well as development of a national
elite sport strategic plan and nationally agreed priorities for
sport funding can be reported. Along with great advances,
this study has also revealed that elements of the elite
system still require successful integration into the new
framework such as Australias talent identification and
development (TID) program. Considered to be a world-
leading program, Australian sport policy makers have
shifted funding and accountabilities for pre-elite
development from the TID program to the national sporting
organisations (NSOs). This significant change in working
paradigm presents a unique challenge for the TID program
as they move from managing and directing TID initiatives,
to more of an educational, case management role for
NSOs.
References:
Green, M., & Houlihan, B. (2005). Elite sport development. Policy
learning and political priorities. London: Routledge.
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., & van Bottenburg, M., & Shibli, S.
(2006). A conceptual framework for analysing Sports Policy Factors
Leading to International Sporting Success. European Sport
Management Quarterly, 6, 185-215.
De Bosscher, V., Bingham, J., Shibli, S., van Bottenburg, M., De
Knop, P. (2008). The Global Sporting Arms Race. An international
comparative study on sports policy factors leading to international
sporting success. Aachen: DE: Meyer & Meyer..
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CENTRALIZATION RECONSIDERED/
CHANGES IN FRENCH ELITE SPORT
POLICy
Author:
Emmanuel Lelore
email:
emmanuel.lelore@insep.fr
Co-authors:
Mignon, Patrick
University:
INSEP
Faculty:
Sport Sociology Laboratory
Abstract
The question
We have based our research on the principle established
by Oakley and Green of a global sporting arms races
(2001) and convergence of elite sport policies through
nations. The aim of this paper is to question the present
changes occurring in French elite sport and appreciate the
role and weight of the different logics which intervene in
this process.
In the case of France, convergence could be a withdrawal
of the state. France has been considered for a long time
as the most centralized model of elite sport policy, similar
to former Eastern European countries where it took its
model. Its originality has been in the special compromise
between State and sport governing bodies, in a kind of
reciprocal dependency. But under the pressure, among
several other factors, of international sport competition,
cuts in public founding and professionalization of the
majority of Olympic sports, the role of state has been
reappraised and we can presently observe the building of
another sport compromise between traditional and new
actors (local authorities, business) which is called new
sport governance.
Literature review
Research on elite sport policy is under developed in
France. Sport sociology has been more interested in sport
activities in general than in elite sport, except to analyze
the impact of elite sport on athletes health or social
condition. Most of literature on elite sport policy, in France,
consists in studies or reports from insiders who have tried
to describe the organization or evaluate the cost of
medals.
Methodology
The paper is the result of the research which has been
made possible thanks to integration in SPLISS project. We
have collected data from various sources (reports from
political representatives, official or non official studies and
reports, and public statistics) and above all we have
conducted interviews with different actors to understand
what is now called shared governance.
Results
We have identified the following factors to understand the
new sport governance and the problems it will be faced.
Two are independent from sport issues but have
consequences on sport. At the state level, this is a new
public spending policy (RGPP) which wants to prevent
recruiting civil servants and to improve performance in
public services. The consequence for sport is to limit
grants to sport bodies, to negotiate grants against sport
performances, to decrease the recruitment of state sport
technical specialists, to suppress some of the
decentralized sport institutions (CREPS) and to distinguish
between sport for all and elite sport. At the local
authorities level, cities, departments and regions have
been spending lot of money in all kinds of sport and now
want to play a bigger role.
Others come from actors of the sport world who have been
boosted by the increasing media coverage of some sports
and big sport events; by debates around interpretation of
French individual athletes and teams results; by the two
process of professionalization, those of athletes or
coaches and those coming from rationalization of sports
governing bodies; the emergence of coaches who have
became sports experts through their success; by the will to
attract funds from private sector.
All these factors converge around the idea that the system
which has been established progressively from 1960 to
1985 has came to its end. In this context, all the actors are
claiming a bigger role in elite sport policy: sport governing
bodies want to be more autonomous from the state, local
authorities want to define their own sport policy, sports
experts want to gain decisional power and State wants to
keep authority on elite sport policy.
Presently, we assist to the maintaining of state
centralization through: financial investments in a national
institution like INSEP; the will to coordinate the sports
policies of the different sport governing bodies, for example
through a program of top level coaches training, under
State supervision and certification, and coordination of
research; the dependence of the majority of sport
federations towards public funds.
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References:
Knop, P. (2008). The global sporting Arms Race, an international
comparative study on Sports Policy factors Leading to International
Sporting Success, Meyer & Meyer sport.
Juanico Rgis (2009) Assemble Nationale, Avis n1968, Tome Ix,
Sport, Jeunesse et Vie Associative, au nom de la commission des
affaires culturelles et de l'ducation sur le Projet de Loi de
Finances pour 2010 (n1946).
Lozach Jean-Jacques (2010) Snat, Rapport d'information n184,
au nom de la commission de la culture de l'ducation, sur l'avenir
des Centres Rgionaux d'Education Populaire et de Sport (CREPS)
Oakley, B. and Green, M (2001). The production of Olympic
champions: international perspectives on elite sport development
system. European Journal of Sport Management, 8, 83-105.
Rapport d'analyse SEJS du PAP 2011 (2010) Budget des
ministres chargs de la jeunesse, des sports et de la vie
associative pour 2011, l'analyse du SEJS.
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CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF ELITE
ATHLETES WHO GRADUATED FROM
AN ELITE SPORTS SCHOOL
Author:
Stephanie De Croock
email:
tsg64483@scarlet.be
Co-authors:
De Bosscher, Veerle
University:
Vrije universiteit Brussel
Faculty:
physical education and fysiotherapy
Abstract
Introduction
The way to the top for young talented athletes is long and
complex. Research conducted on talented, elite, and
former elite athletes has shown that a sports career not
only occurs in different phases, but that these sport phases
are parallel to, and influenced by the development of
young talented athletes in other domains (Wylleman &
Lavallee, 2003). Bloom (1985) differentiates three phases
in an athletic career (initiation phase, developmental
phase en phase of mastery). Wylleman and Lavallee
added a fourth phase discontinuation phase. Each phase
comes with normative transitions at the academic and
vocational, psychosocial and psychological level of an
athletes development. An increased competition for elite
sport success at the international stage (De Bosscher,
Bingham, Shibli, van Bottenburg, & De Knop, 2008) and
the fact that athletes start performing at the international
level at younger ages (Wiersma, 2000), has led towards
initiating systematic training and competition at an earlier
age. This raises questions about the different transitions,
early specialisation, dropout and development of general
motor skills (van Bottenburg, 2009).
Aim
This study aims to analyse the career development of elite
athletes on a sport by sport basis, by applying the
transition model of Wylleman and Lavallee (2003). It
focuses in more depth on the career trajectory of elite
athletes who graduated at elite sport schools.
Method
Using a retrospective analysis a total of 408 (64%) elite
athletes who had ever graduated from an elite sport school
completed a written online survey about their career
development, background characteristics, support services
and performance determining factors.
Results
During the initiation phase, children often try various
sports. This research shows that, as a young talent, 41%
of the graduated athletes had practiced another sport
alongside their current sport as an elite athlete. Several
studies analysing the background of elite athletes show
that the majority of them started in their favourite sport
before the age of 12 (Unierzyski, 2002). This was
confirmed in this study, but is very sport specific. The
initiation stage started the earliest in tennis, gymnastics
and swimming, between the ages of 5 to 7 and the latest
(11 years) in cycling.
Thereafter, a period of talent development and elite sport
practice follows, which requires an average of 8 to 10
years of intensive training and specific guidance (Bloom,
1985; Ericsson, 2003; Ericsson & Charness, 1994). As the
talent development phase runs parallel to, and is
influenced by, the educational and professional
development of talented youngsters, and also because
school attendance is compulsory, the Flemish elite sport
schools were founded in 1998 with the objective of
optimising the combination of elite sport and education.
The average entry age at the elite sport school is 14 to 16
years. In sports requiring an early specialisation such as
tennis and gymnastics, more than 50% of the athletes
already enter at the age of 12 years while in cycling, 50%
of the athletes enter at the age of 16 years. 60% (n=201)
of all respondents believed that their entry age was just
right whilst 24% considered it to be too late and 16% too
early. On average a student spends 2.8 years at the elite
sport school.
Investigating the moment at which athletes leave the elite
sport school shows that 41% (n=133) dropped out
prematurely at an average age of 15.5 years.
The next step is the Perfection phase, which is only
achieved by a few elite athletes. There are only a limited
amount of sports in which elite athletes can make a living
and of all graduated elite athletes, 11% (n=19) reported
themselves to be full time athletes whilst 73% (n=129)
were combining elite sports with either half or full time work
or studies.
Discussion
The main point of note in this study is that the impact of an
elite sport school in Flanders on the overall career of an
elite athlete should not be underestimated nor overrated.
Notwithstanding the fact that elite sport schools are an
adequate solution for the problem of the overlap of
primary/secondary education with the initiation and
development phase, and thus the Flemish government
spends large amounts of money to improve quality in these
schools, extra attention should also be paid to the quality
delivered in talent development programmes in sports
clubs. Furthermore talent development programmes
cannot be generalised for all sports. Since young talents
come in contact with their sport at an increasingly younger
age, an optimum talent detection and development system,
including high quality sport specific guidance, remains of
crucial importance.
References:
Bloom, B.S. (1985), Developing talent in young people, Balantine,
New york
Knop, P. (2008). A global sporting arms race. An international
sporting success. Aachen, DE: Meyer & Meyer.
Ericsson, K.A. (2003). Development of Elite performance and
Deliberate Practice: An update from the perspective of the expert
performance approach. In K. Strarkes & K.A. Ericsson. Expert
Performance in Sport. Advances in research on Sport Expertise
(pp49-55). Illinois, Champaign IL: Human Kinetics
Ericsson, K.A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance. Its
structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 725-747
Smit, S. (2002). Previous sport participation of elite sportsmen ans
sportswoman. Uitkomsten van Sport for all and elite sport: rivals or
partners?, het 9e World Sport for All Congress, IOC, Arnhem, p 25.
Unierzyski, P. (2002), Why some good juniors succeeded and
some other did not. Retrospective analysis of players born in 1981-
1983. Uitkomsten van het 25e European Coach Symposium. The
Coaches Workshopfor Europe. Tennis Europe, Vale do Lobo, p 1-6
Wylleman, P., & Lavalllee, D. (2003). A developmental perspective
on transitions faced by athletes. In M. Weiss (ED), Developmental
sport and exercise psychology: A lifespan perspective.
Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Van Bottenburg, M. (2009). Op jacht naar goud. Het
topsportklimaat in Nederland, 1998-2008. [the hunt for gold. The
elite sport climate in the Netherlands, 1998-2008]. Niewegein, NL:
Arko Sports Media.
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A RESOURCE BASED APPROACH OF
COMPETITIVENESS IN ELITE
ATHLETICS
Author:
Jasper Truyens
email:
jatruyen@vub.ac.be
Co-authors:
De Bosscher, Veerle Heyndels, Bruno De Knop, Paul
University:
Faculty:
Physical Education & Physiotherapy
Abstract
BACKGROUND
In the economic and sport management literature, there is
no clear conceptualisation of the term competitiveness. In
elite sport studies, competitiveness is used to describe
personal characteristics of athletes (Corrado, Basso &
Schiavon et al., 2005), the dominant position of teams in
national or international competition (Bar-Eli, Galily &
Israeli, 2008) or the growing internationalisation of
international competitions (De Bosscher, Du Bois &
Heyndels, accepted; Digel, 2002; Du Bois & Heyndels,
2008). Referring to elite sporting success itself,
competitiveness is related to the output of the process, a
perspective that encompasses the throughput or
production process of elite success. The increase in
medal-winning capability of countries in international
competition is explained by an increasing number of
nations taking a more strategic approach to the
development of medal-winning elites (De Bosscher, 2007;
Green & Oakley, 2001; Houlihan & Green, 2008; Oakley &
Green, 2001). What's more, despite the extensive scientific
focus on elite development systems, there is a lack of
studies on elite sport development at sport specific level
(Sotariadou & Shillbury, 2009) that describe and measure
specific practices at organisational level. Within economic
research, the resource-based-view conceptualises
competitiveness starting from the relationship between
internal resources of an industry and its performances (an
inside-out perspective). Precisely these internal resources
and more especially, the policy dimensions in elite athletics
and their contribution to nations competitiveness in
athletics are the focal point of attention in this paper.
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGy
The purpose of this research project is to develop a
conceptual model to evaluate sport policy factors in
athletics. Based on a resource-based perspective, this
paper attempts to explore the key ingredients or factors
from a sport specific perspective leading to a competitive
advantage or competitive position in elite athletics. After a
literature review on the effectiveness of national governing
bodies, the specific determinants contributing to the
effectiveness (professionalization, governmentality, new
managerialism, etc.) and elite athletics development, 21
national high performance directors for athletics were
interviewed and 13 high performance directors participated
in a survey to explore on successful and crucial domestic
policies in the elite athletics development process.
Inductive-deductive analysis (Patton, 2002) contributed to
the development of different policy dimensions grouped in
11 policy areas of elite sport development. These groups
or pillars of sport policy are conceptualised in a model
based on the SPLISS model (De Bosscher, 2007) and the
value system (Porter, 1985), which reflects all activities that
bring a product from its initial to final stages of production
(Sagheer & yadav, 2009). Bhlke & Robinson (2009)
modulated the different key factors in elite sport,
conceptualised by De Bosscher et al. (2006; 2008) and
Houlihan & Green (2009) in a value system approach of
Michael Porter (1985), which reflects all producing
activities in the development of a competitive advantage in
industries competition.
RESULTS AND FURTHER RESEARCH
Qualitative research and inductive/deductive clustering lead
towards the development of a sport specific conceptual
model to measure the competitiveness of nations in
athletics. Specific practices and policies representing the
production process in elite athletics were grouped in 11
pillars or groups of elite athletics development (financial
support for sport and athletics, structure and organisation of
athletics policies, youth participation in athletics, talent
detection and identification, talent selection and
development, athletes career support, athletics training and
competition facilities, coach education and provisions,
(inter)national competition opportunities, scientific support
and the elite sport culture). Activities in the value system of
elite athletics development are divided into athlete
development processes and supporting activities for the
athlete development. The major contribution of this sport
specific inventory of policy factors leading to success is its
organisational scope: specific practices for national
governing bodies in the elite development process are
described and grouped in a functionalistic model for elite
development. Further empirical research is necessary to
validate the value system for elite athletics development in
an empirical environment and to improve theory
development on domestic sport policy factors at sport
specific level. A large scale study to evaluate nations
competitiveness in athletics based on this conceptual model
and the allocation of specific weighting values to crucial
dimensions will increase the validity of the model.
References:
Bar-Eli, Galily, Israeli (2008). Gaining and sustaining competitive
advantage: on the strategic similarities between Maccabi Tel Aviv
BC and FC Bayern Mnchen. European Journal for Sport and
Society, 5 (1), 75-96.
Bhlke, N. & Robinson, L. (2009). Benchmarking of lite sport
systems. Management Decision, 47(1), pp. 67-84.
Corrado, D., Basso, C., Schiavon, M., Pellicia, A., & Thiene, G.
(2005). Pre-Participation Screening of young Competitive
Athletes for Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death. Journal of the
American College of Cardiology, 52, 1981-1984.
De Bosscher, V., De Knop,P., van Bottenburg, M., Shibli, S. (2006).
A conceptual framework for analysing Sports Policy Factors
Leading to international sporting success. European Sport
Management Quarterly, 6 (2), 185-215.
De Bosscher, V.(2007). Sports Policy Factors Leading to
International Sporting Success. Published doctoral thesis. Brussel:
VUBPRESS. ISBN-978-905487-421-8 (347p)
De Bosscher, V., Du Bois, C., & Heyndels, B. (accepted). The more
the better : Internationalisation, competitiveness and performance
in Athletics (1984-2006). Sport in Society.
Digel, H. (2002). A comparison of successful sport systems. New
Studies in Athletics, 17(1), 37-50.
Dubois, C., & Heyndels, B. (2007). Revealed Comparative
Advantage and Specialization in Athletics. Paper presented at the
International Association of Sports Economists.
Gerrard, B. (2005). A Resource-Utilization Model of Organizational
Efficiency in Professional Sport Teams. Journal of Sport
Management, 19, pp. 143-169.
Green, M., & Oakley, B. (2001). Elite sport development systems
and playing to win: uniformity and diversity in international
approaches. Leisure Studies, 20, 247-267.
Houlihan, B., & Green, M. (2008). Comparative elite sport
development. Systems structures and public policy. London:
Elsevier.
Houlihan, B. & Green, M., (2009). Modernization and Sport. The
reform of Sport England and UK Sport. Public Administration, 87(3),
678-698.
Oakley en Green (2001). Still playing the game at arms length?
The Selective reinvestment in British sport, 1995-2000. Managing
Leisure, 6, 74-94.
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and Evaluation Methods.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Porter, M.E. (1985). Competitive advantage. New york: Free Press.
Sagheer, S. & yadav, S.S. (2009). Developing a conceptual
framework for assessing competitiveness of Indias agrifood chain.
International Journal of Emerging Markets, 4(2), 137-159.
Shibli S., Bingham, J. & Henry, I., (2007). Measuring international
sporting success. In I. Henry (Ed.). Transnational and Comparative
Research in Sport: Globalisation, Governance and Sport Policy,
London: Routledge.
Smart, D.L., & Wolfe, R.A. (2000). Examining Sustainable
Competitive Advantage in Intercollegiate Athletics: A Resource-
Based View. Journal of Sport Management, 14, pp. 133-153.
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The Contribution of Science
to Practice in Football
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Workshops
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328
CHALLENGES OF SPORTS MANAGERS
IN THE ARTIFICIAL TURF FIELDS
Author:
Jose Luis Felipe
email:
joseluis.felipe@uclm.es
Co-authors:
Jose Luis Felipe, Pablo Burillo, Ana Gallardo, Carlos
Boned, Mari Plaza, Javier Snchez-Snchez, Leonor
Gallardo
University:
European University of Madrid
Abstract
Abstract INTRODUCTION
Sport managers play a crucial role in the design process of
an artificial turf football fields (Felipe et al., 2009). Once
built the facility is when the sport managers role becomes
very important. They should work to create a suitable
management project to the reality of their town and provide
the best profitability, both social and economic (Burillo,
2009).
METHODOLOGy
The purpose of this study was to know the challenges and
difficult in the management of the artificial turf football
fields showed by the sport managers. We used a
qualitative methodology, based on Grounded Theory
(Strauss & Corbin, 2002). The instrument used was a
semi-structured interview. The study sample was
composed of 24 sports managers from artificial turf football
fields with more than 5 years of experience.
Management of the facility
The main problem we found is that only 33% of sports
managers have participated in facility design. They are
who best know the social context, sporting and economic
where to install the artificial turf field. Therefore, they must
be a key element in the proposed design of the facility
(Lopez, 2001). Most of the problems identified after open
the installation (inadequate system of fencing, access
systems, inadequate changing dimensions, etc.) could
have been solved with their participation.
One of the main advantages of artificial turf is the ability to
use the facility. In our case, the average utilization is at
43.4 h. The average use of artificial grass is about 35
hours per week more than the natural grass (Synthetic Turf
Council, 2008). The problem is over-exploiting the facility.
According Burillo (2009), the using of more than 35 hours
of artificial turf football fields generates a premature loss of
his mechanical properties, resulting in a reduction in the
lifetime of the facility. According to these data, only 21% of
the football fields are developing a proper exploitation, the
rest can be seen as "an exploitation of the facility".
75% of sport managers said that it is impossible to achieve
self-financing in a public sport facility. While social benefits
are much easier to get, economic benefits are not so easy.
The problem with economic amortization of an artificial turf
field is that the price is between 2 and 20 times higher
than natural grass (Claudio, 2008) and when the field is
hired, is being charged a public tax and not a price to the
user, which only covers some of the cost of service
offered.
Thus, it is essential that the manager has done a proper
cost study, to know exactly the price per hour of use of the
facility, and to establish a use rate that covers 100% of the
costs incurred. Nowadays this fact is not happening. 40%
of sport managers do not control any variable costs
(electricity, water, gas, etc.). In addition, nearly 60% of the
managers say they do not know the hourly cost for the
facility that remains open. This means that 20% of
managers, who claim to know the variable costs of
installation, have not bothered to do a cost study, so we
can say that their management is not efficient.
Maintenance of the facility
It is alarming to see how more than 40% of sport
managers do not know the cost of maintaining of the
facility. This means that maintenance aims to extend in
time the mechanical properties of the fields (ESTO, 2008).
As the total annual cost of maintenance, the average has
been 9,181. Several studies show that maintenance can
range between 3,000 and 12,000 depending on the
tasks performed and their frequency (Sports Turfs
Managers Association, 2005).
CONCLUSIONS
1. Many of the problems founded after the facility is open
could have been resolved with the advisory of the sport
manager on the use, management and subsequent
maintenance of the facility. Thus, the architect could design
the facility adapted to the needs of the context.
2. 21% of the artificial turf football fields are suffering over-
use.
3. For sports manager the social amortization of the facility
is achieved, but the economy amortization is almost
impossible to achieve during the life of the artificial turf
field.
4. Most of sports managers do not control key parameters
in the management of the facility such as variable
expenses or the study to establish the cost per hour of use
of the facility.
5. 40% of sports managers do not have a specialized
maintenance plan to prevent the premature deterioration of
the surface.
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References
Burillo, P. (2009). Los campos de ftbol de csped artificial en
Castilla-La Mancha. Hacia un modelo de seguridad, funcionabilidad
deportiva y satisfaccin de sus usuarios. Tesis Doctoral,
Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo.
Claudio, L. (2008). Synthetic turf health debate takes root.
Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(3), 116-122.
ESTO. (2008). Football Turf Today and Tomorrow, 1st European
Synthetic Turf Organisation Conference. Brussels: ESTO.
Felipe, J. L., Gallardo, A., Burillo, P., & Gallardo, L. (2009). El
gestor deportivo como pieza clave en el mantenimiento del csped
natural. Jardineros, 43, 30-33.
Lpez, A. (2001). Criterios de gestin tcnicos en la construccin
de una instalacin deportiva. II Congreso de Ciencias de la
Actividad Fsica y del Deporte, Valencia.
Sports Turf Managers Association. (2008). A guide to synthetic and
natural turfgrass for sports fields selection. New Hampshire: Sports
Turf Managers Association.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (2002). Bases de la investigacin
cualitativa. Tcnicas y procedimientos para desarrollar la teora
fundamentada. Medelln: Universidad de Antioqua.
Synthetic Turf Council. (2008). Synthetic turf: Research verifies
numerous usage benefits and minimal health & environmental
risks. Atlanta: Synthetic Turf Council.
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A BEST PRACTICE MODEL OF PLAyER
ASSESSMENT AND RECRUITMENT IN
Author:
Seamus Kelly
email:
seamus.rowan@ucd.ie
University:
DUBLIN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGy
Abstract
Aim of Paper
The ability of top-level football coaches to identify true
talent is a highly sought-after quality that ensures clubs or
national teams do not lose time, money and prestige by
investing in the wrong players (Christensen, 2009: 366).
In professional football, the recruitment of playing talent,
either internally via the trainee system or externally via the
transfer system and, regardless of the considerable fees
that may be involved, is a prime measure of managerial
acumen. Based on semi-structured tape recorded
interviews with twenty-five players, five agents and twenty
managers, this paper proposes a best practice model for
the assessment and recruitment of professional football
players. This best practice model (Smith & Stewart, 1999)
may be used in an attempt to reduce the uncertainty
involved in the recruitment of players in general and
foreign players in particular. Arguably, this model provides
a framework in which a more holistic, multi-disciplinary
perspective is adopted which clubs and managers may
utilise to more reliably inform their player recruitment
decisions.
Organisational/managerial context
While most UK based clubs remain focused on youth
development, some have placed a greater emphasis on
the recruitment of cheaper, more experienced players from
abroad (Walters & Rossi, 2009). Player assessment is an
ongoing process of evaluating players current and
prospective who demonstrate appropriate levels of
performance for inclusion in the first team squad. This is a
multi-faceted approach involving the systematic
assessment of football players from anthropometric,
physiological, psychological and sociological perspectives.
In addition, computerised systems such as Computer
Coach (Boon & Sierskma, 2003: 278), player quality
indexes based on observable player characteristics and,
actual game statistics such as the Opta index may also be
used. In addition to a players on-field performance,
managers may also have a list of desirable characteristics
when recruiting or assessing players (Reilly & Williams,
2003). For example, a players willingness to learn,
professional attitude, mental strength, dedication and work
ethic may also play a significant role in the judgment made
about current and/or prospective players (Reilly & Williams,
2003; Christensen, 2009).
Organisational/managerial practice/issues
Traditionally, football scouts and managers have
subjectively assessed and recruited professional football
players based on their intuition and gut feeling
(Christensen, 2009). Based on the data gathered in this
research, professional football managers still utilise
traditional methods of player assessment. In this regard,
perhaps professional football managers could adopt in
addition to intuition and gut feeling more rational,
scientific methods of player assessment in guiding their
player recruitment decisions. What is particularly evident
from this research is the central role that a players
lifestyle and off-field behaviour plays in the recruitment and
assessment process. Thus, building on previous academic
research on player assessment in general and player
recruitment in particular, this model attempts to provide a
more holistic approach to player recruitment. In addition
and, in an attempt to ensure greater coherence between
theory and practice, this model has been reviewed and
assessed by a number of UK Premier League clubs, sports
scientists, managers and coaches in professional football.
Implications for sport and sport management
The implications for professional football clubs in general
and football mangers in particular are clear. Firstly, in
addition to more traditional methods of player assessment
and recruitment, football managers should adopt more
rational scientific methods. Secondly, information relating
to a players lifestyle and off-field behaviour should be
given greater importance in guiding player recruitment
decisions. In this regard, the proposed model could serve
as a useful framework in alleviating the uncertainty
surrounding the recruitment of football players in general
and foreign players in particular. This could lead to more
optimal spending of money and assist in reducing the
possibility of making poor player recruitment decisions.
Arguably, this conceptual model could also facilitate better
player management decisions in other professional sport
organisations
References:
Christensen, M.K. (2009). ?An eye for talent?: Talent identification
and the ?practical sense? of Top-Level soccer coaches. Sociology
of Sport Journal. 26, 365-382.
Walters, G. & Rossi, G. (2009). Labour Market Migration in
European Football: Key Issues and Challenges. Birkbeck Sports
Business Centre Research Paper Series. (2) 2, August 2009.
Boon, B.H. & Sierksma, G. (2003). Team formation: Matching
quality supply and quality demand. European Journal of
Operational Research. 148, 277-292.
Reilly, T. & Williams, A.M. (Eds.) (2003). Science and Soccer.
London: Routledge.
Smith, A. & Stewart, B. (1999). Sports Management: A Guide to
Professional Practice. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
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THE ROLE OF MEDIA ON ATHLETES
PERFORMANCE AND STRESS
CREATION
Author:
Ezatollah Shamansouri
email:
ezat_shahmansoori@yahoo.com
Co-authors:
Talebi Khosro
University:
Islamic Azad University of Arak .Iran.
Faculty:
Department of Physical Education
Abstract
The present research aimed at exploring the role of media
in stress creation and athletes performance from the
athletes views. Based on the present research purposes,
media include journals, newspapers, television and sport
reporters which each of them are effective on athletes'
behaviors. Stress is defined as a state that results from
the demands that are placed on the individual which
require that person to engage in some coping behavior.
Stress is a known cause of many psychological diseases
and disorders, as well as many social and behavioral
changes, such as: Depression, feelings of apathy and low
selfworth,crying spells. Anxiety, increased tension,
fearfulness .Changes in eating habits. Sleep disorders,
insomnia, and fatigue (Landsbergis, P.A. 2003). Lane and
Terry (2000) defined mood as "a set of feelings, ephemeral
in nature, varying in intensity and duration, and usually
involving more than one emotion". They proposed a
conceptual framework for predicting performance from
mood states assessed by the Profile of Mood States or its
derivatives. The conceptual model indicated that
depressed mood influences the intensity of other mood
states, and determines the functional impact of anger and
tension on performance. In the field of Sport Psychology,
many models have been created to explore arousal and
anxiety levels as they relate to athletic performance. The
Multidimensional Anxiety Theory by Martens et al (1990),
for instance, focuses on the anxiety response that
accompanies high levels of stress. It takes into
consideration two different elements: cognitive anxiety and
somatic anxiety. Cognitive anxiety signifies distractions
which involve inability to concentrate, disruptions in
attention, and negative performance expectations (Kyle
Ott,2006). In general, The Multidimensional Anxiety Theory
hypothesizes that as cognitive anxiety increases, athletic
performance decreases. The research tried to address
following questions: What are the role of media in stress
creation? What is the role of stress in athletes
performance? The population universe consisted of 800
athletes who participated in Iran's football league. In the
research, 200 athletes were selected as samples
according to random stratified sampling. Data gathering
tools was stress questionnaire and athletes performance
quality. We used a questionnaire which had been
confirmed by a group of experts. In addition we examined
the reliability of the questionnaire (Chronbachs Alpha
=0/85). The findings of the study showed that there is
significant difference between media performance and
stress and also stress and athletes performance.
According to the research findings, 75 percent of
respondents believed that media have significant role in
creating stress pressures because of following reasons:
too much attention to competition's sensational margins,
dissemination of false news , augmenting excitement and
stress levels among athletes and others, magnifying sports
insignificant events and cause athletes' loss of attention
and focus, resulting in athletes performance drop.
Several previous studies have asserted that the media in
general facilitate corruptionof modern sports (Hargreaves,
1982; Lasch, 1977; Whannel, 2003) and that they
therefore reinforce immoral and unethical forms of social
behavior. These studies considered the role of the media
within a wider process of sports professionalization,
commercialization, and spectacularization (Dino
Numerato2009)
.
References:
1- Dino Numerato(2009). The Media and Sports Corruption:An
Outline of Sociological Understanding, International Journal of
Sport Communication, 2009, 2, 261-273 2009 Human Kinetics,
Inc.
2- Hargreaves, J. (1982). Sport, culture and ideology. London:
Routledge
3- Kyle Ott, B.S. & Marieke Van Puymbroeck,(2006). Does the
Media Impact Athletic Performance? The sport journal, Vol 9N 3,
2006
4- Lasch, C. (1977, April 28). The corruption of sports. The New
york Review of Books, pp. 2430.
5- Lane, A. M., Terry, P. C., Beedie, C. J., Curry, D. A, & Clark, N.
(2001). Mood and performance: test of a conceptual model with a
focus on depressed mood. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2,
157-172.
6- Landsbergis, P.A. (2003). TheChanging Organization of Work
andthe Safety and Health of WorkingPeople: A Commentary.
Journal ofOccupational and EnvironmentalMedicine, 45 (1).
7- Martens, R., Vealey, R. S., Burton, D., Bump, L., & Smith, D. E.
(1990). Development and validation of the Competitive Sports
Anxiety Inventory-2. In R. Martens, R. S. Vealey, &
8- Whannel, G. (2003). Media sport stars: Masculinities and
moralities. London: Routledge
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A QUALITATIVE APPROACH TO
EMOTIONS AND SOCIAL NETWORKS
AS KEy ISSUES OF THE REAL MADRID
FOOTBALL CLUB BUSINESS MODEL
Author:
Jess Rodrguez-Pomeda
email:
jesus.pomeda@uam.es
Co-authors:
Fernando Casani Jess Rodrguez-Pomeda
University:
Faculty:
Economics & Business
Abstract
Aim of the abstract- research question:
Explore how emotions and social networks could be the
base for an evolved business model as relevant football
club shows.
Theoretical background or literature review:
The new business models
Nowadays large market share does not guarantee a
sustained success, because of demand volatility. The
transformation of traditional value chains points to value
networks, where linear provider-client relationships are
abandoned, and flexible links are built. So, new value
propositions are focused on the customers emotions (as
well as employees ones) in order to create users
communities. These communities act as social networks
linking people with the twofold role of prosumers (they
generate value for the network, and also consume the
value generated by other people within it).
Emotions and social networks as drivers of the sports
business models
Individual agents are connected within the social network
developed by the organization. Their decisions about
production and use derive from other network members
actions and information. Trends emerge, evolve, and
disappear within the network as an effect of some
members will, and they influence on network members
behavior. When goods and services values are assessed
taking into account their symbolic nucleus, then the
consumer pay for them if she (or other people) considers
that they worth the money. This is, network members
considerations have a decisive impact on the consumers
emotions that command purchasing decisions. Emotions
are psychological, cultural, and social phenomena (Illouz,
2007). Storytelling paves the way for aligning emotions and
goods and services within the network.
Methodology, research design and data analysis.
Empirical study
Our case study of the Real Madrid business model is part
of a larger design comprising twenty organizations within
the creative sector (Casani, coord., 2010). Some authors
include sports in the creative sector, considering
entertainment as a part of it. So, we have deal with
organizations which a creative base in their stakeholders
relationships.
We have gather information about the organization from
secondary sources (President's statements, brochures on
the club characteristics, financial data, ...), and then run
interviews with its managers. In the interviews, collected
data from secondary sources was checked in order to test
the consistency of the official discourse about emotions
and values, as well as about how the club develops some
social networks. A questionnaire about its strategy, culture,
and organization completes the data. Field work was done
by, at least, two members of the research team to offer a
complementary vision of the interviews results.
Data analysis
Content analysis is used to deal with recorded material
obtained from the interviews. We have used Atlas-TI
software to analyze discourses, with the aim of verify if the
logic behind the Real Madrid business model (as we see
it) is consistent with senior officials' declarations.
Results, discussion and implications/conclusions.
Laureate football clubs as Real Madrid is has a long
tradition of boosting emotions with a sound storytelling
aimed to forge the legend, as his President Perez says.
Stories about the clubs values and results are useful to
articulate relationships between his main stakeholders.
These are, in order, as follows: partners and supporters,
clients, regulatory bodies, media, and providers. This is,
the official discourse gathers a set of emotions (based on
the club declared values) needed to build sustainable (and
profitable) relationships with relevant stakeholders.
The Real Madrid business model growths from his legend,
image, and values. Football players, media contents, TV
rights, and commercial activities are closely linked with
them. Relationships with (and income from) sponsors and
corporate partners depends on fame and successful show.
This case study offers an interesting characterization of
emotions promotion within social networks in order to
articulate a rocketing business model. This could be a
useful example for other sports clubs the world over.
Further research is needed to elucidate what the main
emotions in this scheme are, and on what is the proper
way to develop them within social networks.
References:
Casani, F. (coord.) 2010. Sectores de la nueva economa 20+20.
Industrias de la creatividad
[New Economy Industries 20+20. Creativity industries]. Madrid:
Fundacin EOI.
Demil, B., & Lecocq, x. 2010. Business Model Evolution: In Search
of Dynamic Consistency.
Long Range Planning, 43, 227-246.
Illouz, E. 2007. Cold intimacies: The making of emotional
capitalism. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Potts, J.; Cunningham, S.; Hartley, J., & Ormerod, P. 2008. Social
network markets: A new definition of the creative industries. Journal
of Cultural Economics, 32(3), 167-185.
Smith, A.C.T., & Stewart, B. 2010. The special features of sport: A
critical revisit. Sport Management Review, 13, 1-13.
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UEFAS PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMMES: A UNIQUE AND TAILOR-
MADE EDUCATION PROJECT
Author:
Thomas Junod
email:
thomas.junod@uefa.ch
Co-authors:
Beecroft, Neil
University:
UEFA
Faculty:
National Associations Development
Abstract
Aim of paper
The paper analyses the uniqueness of the new UEFA
personal development programmes. Recently, UEFAs
efforts in developing cooperation with leading universities
and researchers have resulted in the setting up of a three-
stage education programme for professional staff of its 53
member associations, certified by the academic
community. In September 2010, the UEFA Certificate in
Football Management (UEFA CFM) was launched,
followed, one year later, by the Diploma in Football
Management (UEFA DFM). These blended learning
programmes are tailored to the needs of UEFAs member
associations and aim to increase and share management
skills specific to football. They also grant access to the last
stage, the Executive Master in European Sport
Governance (MESGO), developed with other European
team sports.
Thus, this paper presents the efforts of UEFA in interacting
further with the academic community. Furthermore, it
evaluates the results of their cooperation.
Organisational/managerial practice/issues
The UEFA CFM and DFM are courses combining e-
learning modules with face-to-face seminars. Run by
academic experts, each module focuses on an important
aspect of the management of football associations. For the
UEFA CFM, which is more theoretically orientated, the
modules cover the organisation of football, strategic
management, operational management, event
management, marketing and communication. The UEFA
DFM, which is more practice-orientated, focuses on the
organisation of a football match/event and looks at the
management of volunteers, stadium management,
marketing operations, and PR and media operations.
These courses are issued, in ECTS credits, through the
Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP)
at University of Lausanne.
Organisational/managerial context
The Knowledge and Information Sharing Scenario (KISS)
project, in place since 2005, focuses on workshops where
UEFAs 53 member associations meet to collect and
compare know-how and invaluable expertise in order to
create good practices adapted to local contexts.
Furthermore, over the last few years UEFA has
increasingly engaged with the academic community by
establishing a series of initiatives, notably the UEFA
Research Grant Programme, to assist the European
football family to reach more informed decisions.
Based upon the KISS project, and in cooperation with the
academic world, UEFAs personal development
programmes aim to help managers of UEFAs member
associations enhance and increase their knowledge of
football management.
This paper focuses on the collaboration of UEFA and
leading professors and universities in sports management
across Europe, with the common objective that participants
will not only be able to apply what they learn back at home
in their respective associations, but also exchange
experience with representatives of other national
associations, thereby also serving the development of
football management in Europe as a whole. The paper
concludes by showing how interactions between academic
experts and professional experts are reciprocally beneficial
and foster new ideas, projects and actions in the field of
sport management.
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THE CLASSIFICATION OF yOUTH
ACADEMIES IN GERMAN
PROFESSIONAL FOOTBALL CLUBS
Author:
Jo Van Hoecke
email:
jvhoecke@vub.ac.be
Co-authors:
Schoukens, Hugo Simm, Stefan Isakowitz, Marcel De
Sutter, Robbie
University:
Double PASS, Spin-off Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Faculty:
Department of Sport Management and Policy
Abstract
Introduction and aim of the paper
Last decade the development of home grown players for
the professional game can be considered as a key
strategic issue of the German Football League (DFL).
Since the season 2001/02 clubs of the 1. and 2.
Bundesliga are obliged to establish an Academy / Centre
of Excellence (Leistungszentrum) to prepare the most
talented youngsters for a professional career in football.
Therefore clubs have invested more than half a Billion
Euros in this period to organize their R&D-department in
an appropriate way (Deutsche Fussball Liga, 2011). To
increase the efficiency of these investments, together with
the German Football Association (DFB), the Bundesliga
has also implemented the quality and performance
management system Foot PASS. In this way, first and
foremost, they want to guide the clubs and their managers
through the unavoidable process of professionalization.
Moreover, since 2007 this auditing system is also used to
classify the academies and to distribute the money from
the UEFA Solidarity Fund (7.5 Million Euros in 2009/10).
The aim of this paper is to present the overall results of the
second evaluation and certification with Foot PASS 2.0 last
season (2010/11).
Literature
According to Chappelet and Bayle (2005), the expression
"managing performance" means defining, measuring,
controlling, and managing the performance of an
organization or a network of organizations. This latter is
definitely the case for a national sport organization for
which the quality of services and partnership relations is
considered as an essential operational performance factor.
In this way, many national sport organizations are trying to
professionalize their system and the various links in the
chain in order to improve communication and the
implementation of their actions. Through offering such a
quality system to clubs or other training structures, a
federation's ability to control the sport system can be
greatly strengthened. Behind this idea is the emergence of
a system close to that of franchising by the federation that
unifies and favours the development of the sports in
question based on a more qualitative, uniform approach.
This supposes a clearly defined and global strategic
project on the part of the federations and one that is
formalised and shared by its various components
(Chappelet and Bayle, 2005).
Methodology
After a first round of 50 audits and re-audits with Foot
PASS 1.0 (2007-2010) a new version of this Professional
Academy Support System has been developed (Van
Hoecke, et al., 2010). Foot PASS 2.00 is based on an
adapted framework with 8 dimensions which provides key
indications of performance of an academy in a professional
football club. These key functions are: 1) strategic and
financial planning (STRA), 2) organizational structure
(ORG), 3) talent identification and development (DEV), 4)
athletic and social support (SUP), 5) academy staff
(STAF), 6) communication and co-operation (COM), 7)
facilities and equipment (FAC) and finally 8) effectiveness
(EFF) which consists of key performance indicators to
measure the actual productivity of an academy.
Last season (2010/11) this new quality system has been
used for the objective evaluation and certification of 23
clubs; more precisely 14 clubs of the Bundesliga and 9
clubs of the 2. Bundesliga which were audited for the first
time in 2007/08. All data are collected during standardised
documentary and practical audits, conducted by two teams
of independent and highly experienced auditors.
Results
Table 1 shows the average scores of the 23 participating
clubs on the different dimensions of Foot PASS. In general,
the median of the total scores (TOT) is 55.1%, with a
maximum of 70.0% and a minimum of 27.8%. In
comparison with the first audit, we see that 60% of the
clubs has improved significantly. The highest scores are
found for strategic and financial planning (STRA) and
facilities (FAC). On the other hand, lower means and
medians were found for talent identification and
development (DEV), athletic and social support (SUP).
Despite the indicated increase of local players in a number
of clubs, the productivity of more than half of the evaluated
academies is still a point of interest. In this context it is
important to note that there is a strong correlation (p=.01)
between the score for effectiveness (EFF) and the total
score (TOT). Furthermore, significant differences (*p=.05;
**p=.01) between First and Second League clubs are
found for the total score (*), as well as for the availability
and quality of the staff (**) and facilities (*).
Based on the total score and the sub scores on the
different dimensions, 4 clusters were made as a basis for
the certification. Table 2 shows some descriptive statistics
concerning the total score of the clubs in the different
clusters. Significant differences (*p=.05; **p=.01) between
the groups can be found for six of the eight dimensions
(STRA*, DEV**, STAF**, SUP**, COM**, FAC**).
References:
Chappelet, J.-L., & Bayle, E. (2005) Strategic and Performance
Management of Olympic Sport Organisations. Champaign: Human
Kinetics.
Deutsche Fussball Liga (2011). 10 Jahre Leistungszentren. Die
Talentschmieden des deutschen Spitzenfussballs. Frankfurt am
Main: Deutsche Fussball Liga.
Van Hoecke, J., Schoukens, Simm, S., & De Bosscher, V. (2009).
Measuring the performance of professional youth academies: The
case of the Bundesliga. In: Westerbeek, H. & Fahlstrm, P. (Eds.).
Proceedings of the 17th Conference of the European Association
for Sport Management, 173-175. Nieuwegein: Arko Sports Media.
Van Hoecke, J., Schoukens, Simm, S., Isakowitz, M., & De Sutter,
R. (2010). Refinement of the Foot PASS model for a high quality
certification of professional football clubs. In: Proceedings of the
18th Conference of the European Association for Sport
Management, 167. Prague: EASM.
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THE APPLICATION OF LEAN SIx SIGMA
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN THE
VALUE CREATION STREAMS OF F.C.
PORTO
Author:
Filipe Borges Albernaz
email:
albernaz@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Delgado, Catarina Sarmento, Jos Pedro
University:
University of Porto
Faculty:
Faculty of Sports / Faculty of Economy
Abstract
When it comes to Sports Management, in the absence of
techniques and tools developed specifically for managing
sports organizations and taking into account the
specificities of its core business, we must not rely simply
on a better practices approach. Instead, we must turn to
the systematic approach offered by business schools.
There are good examples of successful applications of
business techniques in sport organizations. According to
Callejo and Forcadell (2006), in the early 21st century,
Real Madrid (Spain) became the world leader in the soccer
market, overtaking Manchester United (England), pioneer
in the practice of commercial exploitation of their brand to
international levels. The marketing strategies used then
have been and remain successful, leaving no doubt that
there is proximity between practices in the industries of
manufacturing, services and sports.
In this study, we will analyze the applicability and
adaptability, to a football club, of some of the Lean Six
Sigma (LSS) tools. LSS is a methodology that combines
the strengths of two of the most popular tools for improving
performance of organizations in the 1990s, Six Sigma and
Lean management/ thinking (Delgado et al., 2010). In
sports organizations, as in service and manufacturing
organizations, Lean may come in as a methodology to
reduce waste and inefficiency, from the clients
perspective, whereas Six Sigma may come in as a
methodology that focus on refining the process, reducing
the variability, to obtain the same result at least 99.9997
percent of the time (ibid.). Combined, they offer three
unique key features that produce a deployment approach
that is better than the ones used by other improvement
initiatives: (i) the integration of the human and process
elements of improvement; (ii) a clear focus on getting
bottom-line results; and (iii) a method that sequences and
links improvement tools into an overall approach (Snee,
2010). As a business strategy, Lean Six Sigma is a
methodology that increases process performance resulting
in enhanced customer satisfaction and improved bottom-
line results (ibid.).
Unfortunately, there is still a limitation to the
implementation of LSS tools in sports organizations, mostly
due to the lack of a theoretical framework in the existing
literature in the process analysis field. In particular, since a
football club has several business units attached, each
with its own customers, products and services, processes
and value creation streams, we must first analyze the
processes within each stream-oriented product or business
unit. For instance, there is the value stream for the
management of the membership portfolio, the value stream
of the process of hiring a player, the value stream oriented
to a football match or a training camp (Woratschek and
Schafmeister, 2005), etc. That analysis can be done
resorting to Value Stream Mapping (VSM), one of the most
commonly used tools in lean methodology. Jimmerson
(2010), a pioneer in application of value stream mapping
on healthcare industry, states that the concepts regarding
the latter are simple, nevertheless, applicable to any
business model. The value stream differs from the value
chain as the latter is a model of mapping the value
creation process for the industry sector. According to
Woratschek and Schafmeister (2005), despite many
theoretical studies in the area of analysis of value creation
for sports organizations, empirical investigations are still
needed.
Case presentation
The football club studied is F.C. Porto, SAD (FCP), a
Portuguese football club of great national and international
representativeness, and with a certain degree of
professional management.
Data collection and analysis
Data will be collected primarily from semi-structured
interviews to the agents involved in management decision
process in every key strategic unit of the football club.
It is expected to (1) obtain the main value creation streams
of FCP and identify opportunities for its improvement and
(2) identify possible professional management tools used
by the organization.
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References:
Callejo, M. B. and Forcadell, F. J. (2006). Real Madrid Football
Club: a new model of business organization for sports clubs in
Spain. Global Business and Organization Excellence, 26 (1), pp.
51-64.
Delgado, C., Ferreira, M. and Branco, M. C. (2010). The
implementation of Lean Six Sigma in financial services
organizations. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management,
21(4), pp. 512-523.
Jimmerson, C. (2010). Value Stream Mapping for Health Care
Made Easy. New york: Productivity Press. New york.
Snee, R. D. (2010). Lean Six Sigma: getting better all the time,
International Journal of Lean Six Sigma, 1 (1), pp. 9-29.
Woratschek, H. and Schafmeister, G. (2005). New business models
for the value analysis of sport organizations, Economic
Discussionpapers (Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche
Diskussionspapiere).
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CO-CREATION, IDENTIFICATION AND
THE SERVICE-PROFIT CHAIN - THE
CASE OF SPORT EVENTS
Author:
Chris Horbel
email:
chris.horbel@uni-bayreuth.de
Co-authors:
Woratschek, Herbert Popp, Bastian
University:
Faculty:
Department of Services Management
Abstract
In the sport marketing literature, fan loyalty and
identification with the team are seen as the main
determinants of fan behavior. Sometimes, the sport fans
loyalty is increasing the worse the team is performing.
Hence, in contrast to sport economic literature, satisfaction
with the outcome of the game appears to have little or no
link to loyalty, at least for some of the sport fans. In
addition, loyalty of sport fans is fascinating because loyalty
to a team is a highly meaningful concept for sport fans
(Tapp, 2004).
Customer loyalty is generally perceived to be one of the
main drivers of profits. In service marketing, the concept of
the service-profit chain is used to explain how a firms
operational resources are linked to marketing outcomes
and financial performance (Heskett, Jones, Loveman,
Sasser, & Schlesinger, 1994). Generally, it is assumed that
a high level of perceived service quality makes customers
satisfied. When customers are highly satisfied they turn
into loyal customers and financial performance is
increasing (Heskett et al., 1994).
In the past, some extensions to the service-profit chain
have been discussed. In particular, identification, like
satisfaction, has been found to be a facilitator of loyalty
and has therefore been added as an alternative path in the
service-profit chain (Homburg et al., 2009). However, past
research suggests that identification is not only a driver of
loyalty, but also positively influences customer satisfaction
(McAlexander, Kim & Roberts, 2003).
Furthermore, the idea of collaborative value creation for
the benefit of the customer has been widely discussed in
the last years (Vargo & Lusch, 2008). The notion of co-
creation suggests that several parties combine their
resources in order to create value. If other parties are also
involved in value co-creation, management of service
quality must include management of the relationships with
other parties involved in the co-creation process.
In this paper we suggest two extensions (see figure 1) of
the conventional service-profit chain that account more
effectively for the complexity of the factors that influence
customer loyalty:
1. Identification with the team as a second factor besides
satisfaction is included and its interrelationships with
the other variables in the service-profit chain are
assessed.
2. Service quality is split up into several dimensions
contributed by different parties, in order to integrate the
concept of value co-creation.
Two quantitative studies in two consecutive seasons
(2007/2008 and 2008/2009) of the German football league
(Bundesliga) were conducted to test the structural model.
Our first sample consisted of 705 football fans, the second
sample of 590 football fans. Subjects were included in the
studies if they had visited football games during the
previous 2 years. Measurement scales for all constructs
were taken from literature or developed within a
preliminary qualitative study. All items were measured on
seven-point Likert scales ranging from totally disagree to
agree completely.
The measurement models provided a good fit to the data.
The findings provide strong support for the proposed
hypotheses (see table 1). In both studies, similar results
were found indicating that they are consistent over time
and across samples. All of the path coefficients (except H9
in Study 2) reveal the expected positive sign and are
statistically significant.
In our study we added identification with a team to the
basic service-profit chain and proposed both a direct effect
on loyalty, as well as an indirect effect mediated by
satisfaction. It was found that the effect of team
identification on loyalty is much stronger than the influence
of satisfaction. It could be shown that customer satisfaction
and identification are not independent paths leading to
customer loyalty and profits, because customer satisfaction
also mediates the relationship between identification and
loyalty. A second contribution of the study derives from the
integration of the idea of value co-creation into the service-
profit chain and revealing significant effects of the service
quality dimensions contributed by different stakeholders on
customer satisfaction. Finally, it emerged that identification
exerts an influence on service quality, at least for some
dimensions. Hence, it is evident that there are
interrelationships between the conventional service-profit
chain and the social identity-based service-profit chain
(Homburg et al., 2009).
The findings of our study have various implications for
managers. Most important, a sport event should not be
seen as a product. It is a platform, where several parties
(fans, spectators, businessmen, families, etc.) co-create
value. Furthermore, identification is a dominant variable for
the success of a sporting event. Managers should
therefore carefully assess and communicate the values
that the team brand can provide.
References:
Heskett, J. L., Jones, T. O., Loveman, G. W., Sasser, W. E., &
Schlesinger, L. A. (1994). Putting the Service-Profit Chain to Work.
Harvard Business Review, 72(March-April), 164-174.
Homburg, C., Wieseke, J., & Hoyer, W. D. (2009). Social Identity
and the Service-Profit Chain. Journal of Marketing, 73(2), 38-54.
McAlexander, J. H., Kim, S. K., & Roberts, S. D. (2003). Loyalty:
The Influences of Satisfaction and Brand Community Integration.
Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 11(4), 1-11.
Tapp, A. (2004). The loyalty of football fans - We'll support you
evermore? The Journal of Database Marketing & Customer
Strategy Management, 11(3), 225-246.
Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2008). Service-dominant logic:
continuing the evolution. Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 36(1), 1-10.
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344
THE FOOTBALL TRANSFER MARKET:
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES
Author:
Bastiaan Smilde
email:
bastiaansmilde@hotmail.com
Co-authors:
Tom Bason
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Sport Business Management
Abstract
Research aim and preliminary research question
The aim of this research is to find evidence for the
hypothesis that football clubs overestimate the on-field
value of football players when they buy them on the
transfer market, despite the potential commercial worth
these players posses. More specifically, in many cases a
players on-field performance is disproportional to the
financial consequences of the transfer. A database of the
all the central attackers that have moved towards or within
the UK Premier League in the 2007-2008 season is
assembled and analyzed on the basis of a number of
performance attributes. An alternative BCG matrix is used
to answer the research question: Do strikers generally
justify the transfer fee that is being paid for them?
Despite the vast sums of money being spent on football
players, there is little theory being written on the process.
The most notable piece of work is Moneyball: The Art of
Winning an Unfair Game, which, using sabermetrics, looks
at the opportunities available to baseball managers looking
to sign unheralded players (Lewis, 2003). This theory has
been expanded to football, with the rise of Olympique
Lyonnais being attributed to it (Kuper & Szymanski, 2009).
It has also been noted that the new transfer regulations
hinder the smaller clubs, giving larger clubs an advantage
in the transfer market (Camatsos, 2005), enabling them to
sign the more expensive and, in theory, better players.
This study uses quantitative data on the striker transfers in
the UK Premier League over the 2007-2008 season.
Information is gathered on the relative on-field value of the
player over the course of the preceding seasons,
neutralizing the effects of playing for a successful team
that for example provides more goal scoring opportunities.
Twelve strikers have been taken out of the database for
practical reasons, the remaining 35 players are assessed
on the following attributes: appearances, minutes per goal,
percentage of team goals, price per goal, assists, and
individual awards. Points between +5 and -5 have been
awarded to each player for every attribute, developing a
ranking for players on-field value. These statistic have
been compared with the purchase prices, providing the
opportunity to position every transfer within a BCG matrix
(for a detailed description of this methodology: see Smith,
2002). Conclusions are drawn on the basis this matrix: a
vast sum of players within the high-cost / low-value
segment will give support to the research question posed.
Results and implications
We see an interesting dichotomy in our preliminary results.
Roque Santa Cruz cost Blackburn Rovers 4.4 million and
has scored 25.6% of the team goals over two seasons
(191.000 per goal), whereas John Utaka cost Portsmouth
8.8 million and has only scored 6.7% of the total team
goals within a three season period (1.1 million per goal).
It has to be taken into consideration that part of a players
transfer fee is determined by his commercial value, but in
terms of on-field performance many players have not
justified their price. An implication of this research is that
clubs have to reconsider its practices in light of the
financial fair play regulations that UEFA is about to
implement from the 2012-2013 season on. Overspending
on players is not allowed since that season, and therefore
clubs are more constrained to making the right choices
when buying new playing talent. We suspect that the future
transfer market will show more considerate practices.
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References:
Camatsos, S. ., 2005. European Sports, the Transfer System and
Competition Law: Will They Ever Find a Competitive Balance.
Sports Lawyers Journal, 12, pp.155-80.
Kuper, S. & Szymanski, S., 2009. Why England Lose & Other
Curious Football Phenomena Explained. London: HarperSport.
Lewis, M.M., 2003. Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game.
New york: W.W. Norton & Company Inc.
Smith, M. (2002). Derricks Ice-Cream Company: applying the BCG
matrix in customer profitability analysis. Accounting Education, 11
(4), pp. 365-375.
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346
FOOTBALL-RELATED CONSUMPTION
IN GERMANy
Author:
Christian Alfs
email:
alfs@uni-mainz.de
Co-authors:
Preuss, Holger
University:
University of Mainz
Faculty:
Abstract
Introduction: Sport is everywhere in our life and it is not
only lifestyle and fun. Sport also creates jobs, GDP and a
significant turnover. In general politicians accept that sport
contributes to the overall welfare and economic
development of a country, however this fact is generally
not based on grounded evidence. In Germany, the last
scientific studies on this topic were done by Meyer & Ahlert
(2000) who based their data on a study from Weber et al.
(1995). However, the increased media interest in sport, its
professionalisation and overall change towards a leisure-
centred society as well as the demographic changes make
it impossible to use these 18 years old data today.
Furthermore the European Union claims as one of its
targets written in the EU-White Book of Sports to develop
a European statistical method for measuring the economic
impact of sport as a basis for national accounts for sport
(Commission of the European Committees, 2007).
Therefore the first step is to evaluate the sport
consumption in Germany.
Research Question: How much sport do Germans
consume and how does this consumption contribute to the
overall economy? For a very short presentation at EASM
we will only focus on a selection of patterns of football
consumption and will not present the overall importance on
sport on the German GDP. Accordingly, the precise
research question is: How much football do Germans
consume and in what categories? Both active and passive
football consuption will be presented.
Theory: This study is based on consumption theory and
consumer behaviour. Specifically, consumer behaviour
knowledge in the context of sports (Kahle & Close, 2011)
will be the theoretical background for this analysis.
Methodology: In 2009 we interviewed n=5,000 persons
using CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone Interviews)
based on the Rsch telephone sample system (RTS). By
this we secured a representative and randomized selection
of the interview partners. The sample is representative for
Germany considering age, sex and place of residence.
These 5,000 persons were interviewed towards their active
and passive sport consumption behaviour and enabled us
to quantify the sport consumption by e.g. sport, intensity of
practice or motivation behind their activities. Then we
interviewed another n=12,000 persons by CAWI (Computer
Assisted Web Interview) (randomized selection from a
panel representing Germany) to identify the particular
consumption pattern behind a sport practiced. By
multiplying the number of those practicing a sport with a
consumption pattern, we can calculate the sport
consumption of Germans and their meaning for the
German economy.
Results: The particular findings will be limited to the sport
of football. It will be presented what the impact of passive
consumption of football is as well as the turn over created
by those actively playing football. The results show that in
Germany 14% of the population (11.7 million) play active
football at least once in a while. This places football on
the seventh place on the list of most played sports.
Looking at the passive consumption, the results show that
football is the number one sport in Germany. 15% of the
population (about 13 million) consume football passively,
which includes tickets and spending at football games, fan
apparel, memorabilia, books and magazines, pay TV,
gambling, and so on. This places football at number one of
all passively consumed sports in Germany. For
example,the average football player spends 56 per year
on football shoes (sd = 59). In total, this adds up to 656
million Euros per year to the GDP. Further, the average
football fan spends 63 per year on memorabilia (sd =
99), adding up to 737 million Euros GDP impact annually.
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References:
Commission of the European Communities (2007). White Paper on
Sport. COM (2007) 391 final, Brussels.
Kahle, L. R., & Close, A. G. (Eds.). (2011). Consumer Behavior
Knowledge for Effective Sports and Event Marketing. New york,
Ny: Routledge
Meyer, B. & Ahlert, G. (2000). Die konomischen Perspektiven des
Sports: Eine empirische Analyse fr die Bundesrepublik
Deutschland. Band 100 der Schriftenreihe des Bundesinstituts fr
Sportwissenschaft, Schorndorf: Hofmann.
Weber, W., Schnieder, C., Kortlke, N. & Horak, B. (1995). Die
wirtschaftliche Bedeutung des Sports. Schorndorf: Hofmann.
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348
EPIDEMIC LEVELS OF SPORTS
CONCUSSIONS DEMANDS A
MANAGEMENT RE-THINK
Author:
Jon Heshka
email:
jheshka@tru.ca
Co-authors:
Lines, Kris. Staffordshire University - Senior Lecturer.
University:
Thompson Rivers University
Faculty:
School of Law & Adventure Studies Department
Abstract
Sports concussions have reached epidemic levels. A
recent study found that there are an estimated 136,000
sports-related concussions among US high school athletes
annually and that football players account for 57% of the
total figure. In the National Hockey League, there have
been more than 80 incidents of players hurt by a hit to the
head including the worlds best player (Sidney Crosby)
who is still recovering three months later from a
concussion sustained in a game on New years Day and
at least 97 cases of concussions and head-related injuries
in Canadas major junior Western Hockey League. The
National Football Leagues approach to concussions
reached the tipping point last year after six players
sustained head injuries after violent hits in games played
on October 17, 2010 and responded with substantively
increased fines and threats of suspensions.
International rugby and football has similarly struggled with
head injuries, whether caused from aerial challenges or
from repetitive trauma. Research suggests that that sports
medical professionals and teams are still following
outdated protocols for managing concussed players.
This presentation will examine the treatment of different
sports with respect to their management of brain injuries
(concussions). It will look at the equipment used in the
sport to mitigate concussions, game rules governing
inadvertent and intentional contact to the head, protocols
used when a player is suspected of having sustained a
concussion (which range from diagnosis from a trainer on
the sidelines to a medical doctor isolated from the field of
play), regulations which penalize players for hits to the
head, statutory intervention in the form of laws passed to
protect against such head shots, and instances in which
there have been either civil lawsuits or criminal
proceedings.
Differences in concussion management approaches
between sports accounting for the gender and age of the
athletes are also examined. It is interesting that athletes
competing in US college womens lacrosse do not wear
helmets whereas their male counterparts do; recent studies
suggest that female athletes are three times more likely
than men to suffer a sports-related concussion. It will also
contrast the treatment and management of young athletes,
whose brains are still developing and therefore who may
be more susceptible to the effects of a concussion, with
that provided to adult players.
Lighter, harder and stronger personal protective equipment
designed to safeguard athletes (i.e. shoulder and elbow
pads in hockey) has paradoxically contributed to a rise in
head injuries. The theory of risk homeostasis which
suggests that a control measure designed to mitigate the
risk in one area (such as helmets or shoulder pads) is
compensated by behavior such as hitting harder which
serve to elevate the risk to its pre-existing level is
explored.
How a hit to the head is judged to be permissible or
prohibited is also examined. Gridiron football, for example,
essentially has a strict liability approach to head shots
whereby it doesnt matter if the contact was accidental
whereas contact must be intentional in hockey to warrant
serious sanction.
The presentation will critically evaluate the approaches of
sports governing bodies with respect to hockey and
football in North American hockey along with that of rugby
and football in Europe. It will also analyse how these
approaches fit with the major medical consensus
statements on this topic. The paper will then conclude with
recommended best practices to employ in order to retain
the integrity of the game and reasonably protect the health
of its athletes in such fast and furious sports.
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References:
Caine, D.J. (2010). Are kids having a rough time of it in sports?
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44, 1-3.
Creighton, D.W., Shrier, I., Shultz, R., Meeuwisse, W.H., Matheson,
G.O. (2010). Return-to-Play in Sport: A Decision-based Model.
Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 20(5), 379-385.
Delaney, J.S., Al-Kashmiri, A., Drummond, R. & Correa, J.A.
(2008). The effects of protective headgear on head injuries and
concussions in adolescent football (soccer) players. British Journal
of Sports Medicine, 42, 110-115.
Emery, C.A. et al. (2010). Risk of Injury Associated With Body
Checking Among youth Ice Hockey Players. The Journal of the
American Medical Association, 22, 2265-2272.
Fuller, C.W., Junge, A. & Dvorak. J. (2005). A six year prospective
study of the incidence and causes of head and neck injuries in
international football. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, i.3-i.9.
Halstead, M.E., Water, K.D. & The Council on Sports Medicine and
Fitness. (2010). Clinical Report Sport-Related Concussion in
Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics, 126 (3), 597-615.
McCrory, P., Meeuwisse, W., Johnston, K., Dvorak, J., Aubry, M.
Molloy, M., & Cantu, R. (2009). Consensus Statement on
Concussion in Sport: The 3rd International Conference on
Concussion in Sport (Zurich, November 2008). British Journal of
Sports Medicine, 43. 76-84.
Plevretes et al. v. La Salle University et al., No. 07-5186, 2007 WL
4441220.
Price. J. (2011). Current Practices in determining return to play
following head injury in professional football. British Journal of
Sports Medicine, 45(2), e1. Zackery Lystedt Law - Washington
State House Bill 1824.
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350
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THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL MANAGERS
IN FOOTBALL CLUBS IN SAUDI ARABIA
Author:
FAWAZ ALHAKAMI
email:
falhakmi@gmail.com
Co-authors:
ALHAKAMI, FAWAZ KHIRy
University:
Brunel University
Faculty:
School of Sport and Education
Abstract
Recently the Saudi government has taken major steps
towards privatization of many sectors of the economy.
Privatization represents a major shift in the management of
sport organisations from public to privately funded and
controlled. Football has become the first sport subjected to
long-term planning and organisational reforms through
plans for (part-) privatisation, which is going to have major
implications for clubs financial management. Hence,
understanding the existing nature and scope of the
financial management, as applicable to the Saudi football
industry, is an important issue that needs to be analysed if
these plans are to be effectively implemented. This
research offers original insights into the current state and
future prospects of three main aspects of clubs financial
management - planning, controlling and decision-making.
RESEARCH AIM
To investigate the nature and scope of financial
management within football clubs in Saudi Arabia. In
particular, to examine the role of financial managers in
relation to financial and overall management of football
clubs.
THEORy AND METHOD
The regulation of the football industry is slightly different
from other sectors of the economy. Morrow (1999) notes
that the ownership of football clubs is characterised by
highly centralised control. Football clubs are in reality still
owned and managed in a highly centralised way.
Peculiarities regarding the forms of ownership and control
within football clubs lead to different types of conflicts
between various stakeholders. One of the critical conflicts
of interest concerns the tension between financial and
sporting demands in the context of modern professional
football clubs. Football authorities also impose various
restrictions on matters which may affect the competitive
behaviour of clubs. The above issues may directly affect
the level of accountability and disclosure provided by the
clubs. This was the conclusion of Hamil and Walters,
studies (2010, 2009, 2001). They found that this is due to
poor management and financial management in particular,
and in some cases involved fraudulent business practices.
This research builds on literature in the field of
management accounting. Issues for investigation included,
firstly, how financial management and financing strategies
are linked to the overall business strategy and the diverse
interests of different stakeholders. secondly, the link
between conventional management accounting and
strategic decision making (Grundy, 2004; yazdifar, 2003),
such as the use of performance measurement systems,
e.g. the Balanced Scorecard (Kaplan and Norton, 1992). A
third issue was the level of involvement and participation in
decision-making (Lipsky, 1980). A fourth and final issue
concerns the extent of the use of information technology in
communication and ultimately decision-making (Dicken,
2003, Held, 1999;).
The study used a case-study approach. Data were
collected from three different levels of management. Level
one included policy makers within the Ministry of Sports
and youth. Level two comprised participants from the
Saudi Organisation for Certified Public Accountants
(SOCPA). Level three included financial managers from
two football clubs, namely Al-Ittihad and Al-Hilal. Primary
data was mainly obtained through the use of semi-
structured interviews with three people at least in each
level, or nine respondents in total.
In addition to the primary data several secondary sources
were also used such as annual reports, official government
and SOCPA documents, media and press reports.
Background information on the case clubs were obtained
directly from the clubs and other published sources.
Content analysis was used to analyse the data (Hsieh and
Shannon, 2005).
The analysis produced a number of interesting findings.
The financial management profession in Saudi Arabia was
found to be inadequately prepared to deal with the unique
aspects of the football industry. Football clubs are still
largely treated as public sector organisations, subject to
many accounting standards governing this type of bodies.
The non-profit nature of most football clubs was another
crucial factor. The research also revealed a number of
important similarities across the three levels of
investigation as well as the two case clubs. There was an
agreement on the fact that the current financial reporting
practices are not entirely adequate. The lack of appropriate
standardisation is a major contributing factor. A related
practical issue is the lack of published annual reports and
the unusual high level of secrecy that surrounds this issue.
A common view held by the majority of participants was
that accountability and compliance levels are still very
inadequate amongst football clubs. Opinions diverged a
little as to the reasons for this but most participants agreed
on the measures required for future improvement. Another
significant finding was the limited attention given to
financial management and the related lack of involvement
of financial managers in strategic decision making.
References:
DE BOSSCHER, V., BINGHAM, J., SHIBLI, S., VAN
BOTTENBURG, M., DE KNOP, P. The global sporting arms race.
An international comparative study on sports Policy factors leading
to international sporting success. Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport
(UK), 2008. DIGEL, H.
The context of talent identification and promotion: A comparison of
nations. New Studies in Athletics. v.17, 3/4, p. 13-26, 2002.
GREEN, M.; OAKLEy, B. Elite sport development systems and
playing to win: uniformity and diversity in international approaches.
Leisure Studies v. 20, p. 247267, 2001.
LEFVRE, F.; LEFVRE, A.M.C. O discurso do sujeito coletivo: um
novo enfoque em pesquisa qualitativa (Desdobramentos). Caxias
do Sul: EDUCS, 2003.
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352
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USING HIERARCHICAL BAyESIAN
CHOICE MODELLING IN SPORT
DECISION MAKING: THREE CASE
STUDIES
Author:
Heath McDonald
email:
heathmcdonald@swin.edu.au
Co-authors:
Darbyshire, Penny
Chiem, Chi
University:
Swinburne University
Faculty:
Faculty of Business & Enterprise
Abstract
Choice modelling has been extensively used as a tool to
aid managerial decision making in a wide range of
industries for over 80 years. In this paper, we report on
three cases where choice modelling was employed to
guide decision making in sports. Choice modelling, though
well-established in many fields, has not been widely used
in sport consumer research. The technique has been used
to identify recreational choice behaviour (Louviere and
Timmermans 1990) optimal facilities for sports (Scarpa and
Theine 2004), and a simplified technique (conjoint
analysis) has been used to examine season ticket pricing
(Daniel and Johnson 2004), but the approach used here is
novel in its scope and complexity.
Choice modelling is a trade-off technique that places
respondents in hypothetical scenarios and asks them to
make choices between product alternatives. Based on the
way in which respondents make their choices in each
scenario, we are able to understand which specific product
features drive their decision making and therefore, which
features are most important for product choice. In each of
the cases described here, the choice model was estimated
using hierarchical bayes estimation that estimates
parameters for each individual respondent therefore
capturing a greater amount of heterogeneity (Andrews,
Ansari and Currim 2002). This in turn leads to more robust
results and better predictive capability of the resulting
model.
Case 1: Designing season ticket products and pricing
The Port Adelaide Football club (PAFC) is a professional
team in the Australian Football League (AFL). The club
had, in 2007, a churn (non-renewal) rate of almost 21%
and past research suggested they were converting only
around 15% of its supporters to members. This, combined
with declining overall membership (season ticket holder)
numbers, suggested that current product offerings were
not optimised for member attraction and retention.
A total sample size of n=1009 was collected, comprised of
members (n=499) and supporters (n=510). Data was
collected via an online interview and the average interview
length was 28 minutes. The results suggest that current
packages can be altered so that the packages are more
distinct in terms of price and benefits offered. The optimal
number of packages for existing members was three, and
with this improved design churn could be reduced from
21% to under 7%. Revenue from this new configuration
could be increased 180% from existing levels. In 2009,
PAFC will launch a drastically revised set of season-ticket
offerings based on the results of this choice model. Actual
sales data from the 2009 season was compared to model,
showing it to be highly accurate.
Case 2: Converting Supporters by offering a low-game
membership
In a similar vein, the Collingwood Football Club (also part
of the AFL) employed choice modelling to examine the
extent to which a low-game membership (3 or 5 games
versus the standard 11 games) would attract new
members or cannibalise existing members. A sample of
over 1200 members and 800 supporters was surveyed
online. The results showed that a 3 game package priced
at $75 would attract a large number of supporters (non
members) but not cannibalise existing 11 game ticket
buyers, provided those packages were redesigned. Over
5000 of these 3 game packages were expected to be sold
and 96% of buyers were predicted to be new to the club.
The club introduced a 3 game membership, and in the
following year over 5500 were sold with 97% of buyers
being new to the club.
Case 3: Predicting the impact of moving home grounds
There are two AFL teams in South Australia and they both
play games out of the same stadium in a remote suburb of
a city of over 1 million people. In 2010, it was proposed to
move AFL football from that suburban home to a
redeveloped, inner city venue, currently used to host elite
cricket matches. Choice modelling was employed to
estimate the impact on crowds and membership for the
two AFL clubs, as well as the Cricket Club (S.A.C.A.) that
runs a similar season ticket membership over the summer
months. The results, gathered from over 4000 members
and fans of cricket and AFL, gave clear estimations of the
likely impact of the move on attendances and
memberships, as well as helping to shape the design of
the facilities under construction.
A brief summary and results of all three cases will be
presented to illustrate the value of this technique to sports
decision makers.
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354
Managing the Olympic
Experience: Challenges and
Responses. ESMQ 2012
Special Issue workshop
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Workshops
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356
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT OF
NATIONS AT THE SUMMER OLyMPICS
Author:
Wen-Bin Lin
email:
patrick@takming.edu.tw
University:
Takming University of Science and Technology
Abstract
In this paper, the performances of the nations participating
in the last five Summer Olympic Games (Barcelona 1992,
Atlanta 1996, Sydney 2000, Athens 2004, Beijing 2008)
are measured by the data envelopment analysis (DEA).
Models in the paper considers two inputs (GDP per capita
and population) and three outputs (number of gold, silver
and bronze medals won), and the weight restrictions are
included to guarantee that a unit of silver medal
corresponds to a higher value than a unit of bronze medal,
and the highest for gold medal, in addition to constant sum
as single output. The results reveals a unique ranking of
nations based on relatively efficiency, return to scale,
benchmarking and superefficiency for the last five Summer
Olympic Games. Moreover, this paper demonstrates the
metafrontier concept to account for the technological
differences among various nations groups. The interesting
feature of the model is that it ensures the heterogeneous
nations are compared based on one homogenous
technology. The results indicate that the technical change
ratio (TGR) of a particular nation have a significant impact
on its efficiency.
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358
THE FTSEBRITISH OLyMPIC
ASSOCIATION (BOA) INITIATIVE AN
ExAMPLE OF SMART CORPORATE
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITy?
Author:
Stephen Morrow
email:
s.h.morrow@stir.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Robinson, Leigh, Professor
University:
University of Stirling
Faculty:
School of Sport
Abstract
The FTSE-BOA Initiative is a partnership scheme initiated
in 2007 between a number of FTSE 100 companies (the
100 largest companies listed on the London Stock
Exchange by market value) such as Marks & Spencer and
Skandia and select Olympic National Governing Bodies
(NGB) in the UK such as The British Canoe Union and
Pentathlon GB. The partnership seeks to improve the
effectiveness of the Olympic NGBs delivery and
subsequent performance, with the BOA acting as a linking
pin organisation, helping the partners to develop shared
goals and mutual understanding. The partnership provides
support in kind and involve no direct financial transfer.
The aims of this paper are: to establish the effectiveness of
this partnership as an example of smart corporate social
responsibility (CSR); and to identify the perceived benefits
arising from the partnership for Olympic NGBs. Of
particular interest is the extent to which there has been
knowledge transfer of sound business principles and
practice from the for-profit sector to the not-for-profit
sector, given the differences in objectives, ownership,
decision-making structures and processes.
There is a growing body of literature on sport CSR,
particularly on the motivations for engaging in CSR and on
its outcomes, both consumer impacts and financial
consequences (see, for example, Bradish and Cronin,
2009; Ratten and Babiak, 2010). Of particular relevance to
this study is Seguin et al.s (2010) paper on the use of
CSR (or corporate support) rather than event sponsorship
for a one-off major sporting event, the 2005 FINA World
Aquatic Championships. Corporate support was
distinguished from event sponsorship by emphasising that
it is motivated by concerns related to civic engagement
and social responsibility, rather than potential return on
investment. Comparing their findings to Carrolls (1979)
CSR aspects, they reported that these were most clearly
associated with the economic aspect (securing corporate
funding for the event), but also found that leadership and
political and networking skills were also important in
acquiring corporate support, along with the positioning of
the event / sport as a cause. Beyond sport, papers looking
at the effectiveness of partnerships between businesses
and Non Governmental Organisations in the context of
CSR are also of great interest given the different
competencies and strengths on each side of the
collaborative venture (see, for example, Jamali and
Keshishian, 2008).
In this study a qualitative approach was adopted which
involved a series of semi-structured interviews with 12 of
the FTSE-BOA partnerships. The interviews were taped
and transcribed and analysed using content analysis in
order to identify key themes. Case studies were prepared
for each partnership and these were subject to cross case
analysis to identify overarching themes regarding the
FTSE-BOA initiative.
The research demonstrates that the initiative has been
successful with all ONGBs identifying improvements in the
way that they operate. Benefits include access to expertise
and time, improving policies and procedures and easing
access to other agencies. From the FTSE companies
perspective a key benefit is that the focus on in-kind
assistance has allowed them to assist Olympic NGBs in
ways which are focused on CSR; an important
consideration in the straitened economic climate.
Resource dependence has been identified as a significant
factor in previous research into collaborative alliances and
hence is used in this study to understand the implications
of the initiative for both sides of the collaborative
partnership.
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References:
Carroll, A.B. (1979). A three-dimensional conceptual model of
corporate performance, Academy of Management Review, 4(4),
497-505.
Bradish, and Cronin, J.J. (eds) (2009), Corporate social
responsibility in sport, Special Issue, Journal of Sport Management,
23(6).
Jamali, D. and Keshishian, T.(2008). Lessons Learned from
Partnerships Between Businesses and NGOs in the context of
CSR, Journal of Business Ethics, 84(2), 277295.
Ratten, V. and Babiak, K. (eds) (2010), Social Responsibility,
Philanthropy and Entrepreneurship in the Sports Industry, Special
Issue, Journal of Management & Organization, 16(4), 144 pp.
Seguin, B., Parent, M. and OReilly, N. (2010). Corporate support: a
corporate social responsibility alternative to traditional event
sponsorship, International Journal of Sport Management and
Marketing, 7(3/4), 202-222.
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UNDERSTANDING THE IMPORTANCE
OF LEGACy OUTCOMES FOR OLyMPIC
GAMES HOST CITy RESIDENTS
QUALITy OF LIFE
Author:
Kiki Kaplanidou
email:
kiki@hhp.ufl.edu
University:
University of Florida
Faculty:
Tourism, Recreation and Sport Management
Abstract
Aim of paper
The topic of this research focuses on the perceived legacy
outcomes among residents the Olympic Games host cities
overtime. For the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
the concept of legacy has become of great importance and
the need to expand research in this area has been clearly
identified (International Olympic Committee, 2003, 2007).
Despite its acknowledged importance by the IOC, there is
lack of research in understanding the importance of the
various legacy aspects from the residents quality of life
perspective over time. Thus the purpose of this study was
to identify which legacy outcomes are deemed important in
year 2010 for the four recent summer host cities residents
quality of life.
Literature review
Legacy has been defined in terms of structures both
tangible and intangible that remained after the event has
concluded. Tangible structures include infrastructures
related to transportation, sport, tourism, and environmental
protection whether newly constructed or improved (Preuss,
2007). Intangible structures focus on legacy outcomes
such as diffusion of knowledge, social change, governance
reform and lifestyle changes such as physical activity and
attitude change toward exercise adoption (Kaplanidou &
Karadakis, 2010). Legacy outcomes are also viewed
through the lenses of economic, environmental and socio-
cultural changes. The conclusion of the Games leaves a
host city in a post-euphoria phase and thus a potentially
positive attitude toward the legacies of the Games. As the
time goes by, it is not clear which legacies remain
important for the residents. This study explores this issue.
In order to understand how the residents of the past host
cities evaluated the importance of Olympic Games
legacies for their overall quality of life, data were collected
from convenience samples of residents from the four
recent Olympic Games host cities residents: Atlanta,
Sydney, Athens and Beijing. The last four summer Games
were chosen because the legacy concept became one of
the IOCs foci more intensely with and after the Atlanta
Games. Approximately 200 people from each city were
contacted either via phone, e-mail (web survey) or
intercepts at a mall (Beijing only). Four different
questionnaires were created for each of the cities. The
questionnaires were initially created in English. For Atlanta
and Sydney the English version was used. For Athens and
Beijing, the questionnaires were translated in Greek and
Chinese (and then back translated from these two
languages for reliability purposes). The questionnaire items
included questions about the importance of the Olympic
Games legacy aspects for residents quality of life. The
questionnaire items regarding the legacy outcomes were
generated from the examination of the official final reports
from each city in order to be specific and relevant for each
study. Demographic questions were asked at the end of
the questionnaire. Data collection took place during July
2010.
Results
Overall in terms of importance for quality of life for Atlanta
residents, the top five ranked items (on a five point scale
where 1=not at all important, 5= extremely important) were:
Beautification of certain parts of Atlanta (M=3.85);
technological upgrades in telecommunications (M=3.84);
the Centennial Olympic Park (M=3.84) and pride from
having hosted the Olympics (M=3.79). For Sydney, the top
five ranked items were: The promotion of our culture to the
world (M=4.18); The ability to use the stadiums constructed
for the Games (M=4.15); The wider inclusion of people
with disabilities (M=4.15); Accessible pathways for strollers
and wheelchairs (M=4.11); Strong recognition of the
Australian culture worldwide (M=4.1). For Athens, the top
five ranked items were: The new airport E. Venizelos
(M=4.49); Metro expansion (M=4.44); Road network
expansion (M=4.37); More wheel chair friendly buses
(M=4.32); Suburban railway (M=4.22). For Beijing, the top
five ranked items were: Four new subway lines (M=4.1);
Road network expansion (M=4.09); New options for public
transport (M=4.07); New airport terminal at Beijing (M=4.0);
Suburban railway (M=3.99).
Discussion and implications/conclusions
The results suggest that the tangible infrastructure aspects
are important for the quality of life for all host cities but
more important for recent host cities than the older ones.
Residents of remote past Olympic Games host cities (e.g.,
Atlanta) indicated that emotional benefits and some of the
infrastructure that resulted from the Olympic Games are
important for their quality of life. The emotional connection
therefore seems to be more important for the quality of life
of host city residents as time passes from the hosting of
the Olympic Games.
Acknowledgment: The author would like to thank the
International Olympic Committee and the Post graduate
IOC-Olympic Studies Center grant program for their
support for this research.
References:
International Olympic Committee. (2003). Report of the IOC
Evaluation Commission Retrieved March 10, 2010, from
http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_706.pdf.
International Olympic Committee. (2007). SPORT ACCORD 2007:
Legacy And The Olympic Games. Olympic News Retrieved
September 1, 2009, from
http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/olympic_news/full_story_uk.asp?id
=2151
Kaplanidou, K., & Karadakis, K. (2010). Understanding the Legacy
Components of a Host Olympic City: The Case of the 2010
Vancouver Olympic Games. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 19(2), 110-
117.
Preuss, H. (2007). The conceptualization and measurement of
mega sport event legacies. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(3-4),
207-227.
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AN ECONOMIC ANALySIS OF OLyMPIC
GAMES EVENT-SPECIFIC
LEGISLATION: DO THE OLyMPICS
MERIT SPECIAL TREATMENT?
Author:
Steve McKelvey
email:
mckelvey@sportmgt.umass.edu
Co-authors:
McKelvey, Steve Longley, Neil
University:
University of Massachusetts Amherst
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
Commencing with the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, the
International Olympic Committee (IOC) has made the
passage of event-specific legislation a requirement for
hosting the Games, for the purpose of protecting the value
of its official sponsorship program from the impact of
ambush marketing (Grady, McKelvey & Bernthal, 2009).
Such legislation provides the IOC with additional protection
for the commercial use of words, phrases and associative
imagery that not only exceeds the scope of countrys
existing trademark laws, but also pre-existing Olympic
Trademark Protection Acts passed in most nations
(McKelvey & Grady, 2004).
Such event-specific legislation has arguably become
increasingly restrictive. It seeks to make illegal a variety of
activities that would otherwise be deemed legal under
existing intellectual property laws. As a result, numerous
marketing/advertising associations and civil rights
organizations have decried and in some cases legally
challenged such legislation as draconian (Marketing body,
2008). Some academics have begun to argue that event-
specific legislation is not only unnecessary, but is an
unwarranted intrusion on commercial and civil rights, given
that the IOC has not demonstrated any viable financial or
economic interest at stake (Grady, McKelvey & Bernthal,
2009).
This paper broadens the direction of the literature by
moving beyond these, often more normative, legal and
marketing approaches employed in the past, and instead
uses a heuristic economics framework as the primary
analytical tool. From an economics perspective, the
potential justification for this type of legislation is rooted in
the notion that non-sponsors have an incentive to free
ride they appropriate benefits (i.e. by portraying an
official connection to the games, and thus deriving
increased revenues that come from such a connection),
but pay none of the costs. Such free riding can reduce the
overall sponsorship revenues of the Olympics, in that
potential sponsors may be reluctant to pay for official
status if non-sponsors cannot be excluded from
appropriating the same benefits.
In economics terms, this is a form of market failure, in that
there is a misallocation of societal resources; in essence,
free riding prevents the Olympic Movement from fully
appropriating the value of its own property. However, the
difficulty with this free riding argument is that it is the basis
for trademark (and more broadly, intellectual property)
legislation in general, and doesnt explain why the
Olympics deserve special treatment. This paper argues
that either the free riding problem is more severe with the
Olympics than with any other commercial enterprises, thus
warranting the enactment of the supplementary special-
events legislation, or, alternatively, there are other factors
at work with the Olympics that go beyond the basic free
riding argument.
It is this latter issue that is of particular focus in this paper.
The authors argue that the IOC has considerable
monopoly power in the awarding of the right to host the
Games. There are no close substitutes for the Olympics
and the bidding process is, by the very nature of the
Olympics, an all-or-nothing proposition; either a country
gets the Olympics or they do not there is no middle-
ground (Leeds & von Allmen, 2008). Since hosting the
Olympics conveys many potential benefits to a country
(e.g., economic, social, political), countries will attempt to
outbid each other in an effort to secure the right to host the
Games. Some of the more well-known aspects of this
bidding process involve spending lavishly on lobbying IOC
officials, committing to spend billions on the construction of
venues, etc. However, this paper argues that part of this
bidding process also involves countries offering the best
protection to the IOC brand. Thus, promising to enact
highly restrictive special-event legislation simply becomes
another bidding mechanism to help the country secure the
Games. In essence, if one country does not offer the IOC
full trademark protection, another country will.
Thus, while many previous normative analyses in the
literature have well-documented the negative impacts on
the host country of event-specific legislation, our papers
more heuristic approach focuses on why host governments
are so willing to adopt such legislation in the first place. It
concludes that such legislation is the inevitable outcome of
the IOC holding complete monopoly power over the
awarding of the Games. The IOC is accorded special
treatment because of their ability to provide an all-or-
nothing good countries do not want to underbid, for fear
of losing the games. Conversely, regular firms or industries
within a country have no power to secure such special
legislation, since they operate in a competitive environment
and hence have no particular leverage over policymakers.
References:
Grady, J., McKelvey, S. & Bernthal, M. (2010). From Beijing 2008
to London 2012: Examining Event-Specific Olympic Legislation Vis
Vis the Rights and Interests of Stakeholders. Journal of
Leeds, M. and P. von Allmen (2008), Economics of Sport, Pearson,
New york
Marketing body condemns draconian Olympic law (2008, Sept
23). The Register. Retrieved April 1, 2011, from
http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/09/23/olympic_law_unfair_claim/
McKelvey, S. & Grady, J. (2004). An analysis of the ongoing global
efforts to combat ambush marketing: Will corporate marketers take
the gold in Greece? Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport, 14(2), 190-
220.
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A FRAMEWORK TO ASSESS
EUROPEAN OLyMPIC COMMITTEES
GOVERNANCE
Author:
David Qualizza
email:
david.qualizza@uclouvain.be
Co-authors:
Winand Mathieu, Zintz Thierry
University:
Universit catholique de Louvain
Faculty:
Faculty of motricity sciences
Abstract
Aim of abstract
National Olympic Committees (NOCs), face increasing
expectations from their stakeholders (e.g., International
Olympic Committee (IOC); European Union (EU); State
government) to improve the way they are managed and
governed. They are required to fulfill different national and
international regulations and this could be considered a
challenge. This paper aims to identify key factors in order
to analyze the governance of the 27 European National
Olympic Committees (ENOC). The goal is to help a better
understanding of what their governance refers to in their
specific context. For that purpose, we highlight key factors
of governance adapted in the European Olympic context.
The latter will provide researchers and practitioners with a
framework to assess the governance of National Olympic
Committees.
The concept of governance has first been developed in the
For-Profit Organization (FPO) context. The Cadburys
report (1992) gives a definition of governance as the
system by which the companies are directed and
controlled. In the Olympic Movement, awareness for a
better and transparent governance raised just after the Salt
Lake City scandal in 1998. At the same time, the
Fdration Internationale de lAutomobile (FIA, 2001)
developed a report regarding good principles of
governance in the non-profit sport sector. Improvement of
management behaviors in Non-Profit Sport Organizations
(NPSOs) was emerging.
However, a paradox still exists for NOCs. Indeed, the
Olympic Charter (2010) stipulates on the one hand that all
NOCs must preserve their autonomy and resist all
pressures of any kind [] which may prevent them from
complying with the Olympic Charter. On the other hand, it
underlines that NOCs may cooperate with governmental
bodies, with which they shall achieve harmonious
relations. Furthermore, EU recognizes Sport since the
Lisbon Treaty (2009), by the introduction of article number
165 on Sport. ENOCs have thus to deal with paradoxical
requirements from the Olympic Charter as well as with new
recommendations from the EU. Therefore, relations
between ENOCs and their various stakeholders are
considered to be crucial in understanding their
governance. Consequently, we focus on the
communication and relation aspects and put the
following specific definition of governance applied to sport
forward:
The organization and the management of best proceeding
to allow the optimization of relational and communicational
aspects between the different stakeholders of a sport
organization on perpetual evolution in a complex and
changing environment. (Charreaux, 1997, 2005; FIA, 2001;
Arnaut, 2006; IOC 2010).
This definition is complementary to the vision developed by
researchers on the governance of (Olympic) Sport
Organizations (Chaker, 2004; Chappelet, 2010).
Key factors of governance for ENOCs
We highlighted several factors accordingly to the literature
on governance of FPO, Non-Profit Organizations (NPOs)
and NPSOs. We then selected nine key factors, which are
particularly relevant for Olympic Sport Organizations.
Moreover, we developed specific criteria to measure each
factor: (1) Ethic and corporate social responsibility (e.g.
presence of an ethical charter within the NOC), (2) Equity
and democracy (e.g. balanced representation of gender
within the board of an NOC), (3) Relationship transparency
(e.g. the free access to information), (4) Power (e.g.
presence of an organizational charter defining specific
roles), (5) Performance (e.g. using a balanced score card
with performance indicators), (6) Collaboration (e.g. open-
mindedness of NOCs concerning expectations of new
stakeholders), (7) Communication (e.g. good exchange of
information between NOCs and stakeholders), (8)
Autonomy (e.g. degree of independency for a NOC
regarding main stakeholders) and (9) knowledge transfert
(e.g. versatility of members within a NOC). We assume
that these factors are crucial for assessing and enhancing
governance of ENOCs in terms of communication and
relation.
Discussion and next steps
The factors of Olympic Sport Organizations governance we
highlighted would give the ENOCs an opportunity to meet
the expectations of their main stakeholders (IOC, EU and
State government). We suggest to name the governance
framework presented in this paper, dealing with relation
and communication, such as relational governance.
Assessment of the governance of Olympic Sport
Organizations might be facilitated thanks to criteria for
each factor. This framework would also serve as a
reference for actors in ENOCs who could focus on key
specific elements to develop performing sport governance
in line with the expectations of their stakeholders.
A semi-structured discussion with experts involved in a
focus group (Morgan, 1996) is the next step of our
research. It aims to strengthen the relevance of the criteria
we targeted for each factor (1), to examine the perception
of key actors in the Olympic movement ( I.O.C., E.U.,
ENOCs) (2) and to enhance knowledge and develop new
hypotheses (3). References:
Arnaut, J.L. (2006). Independent European Sport Review 2006
final version. Report resulting from the United Kingdown presidency
of the EU 2005. London, United Kingdown.
Chaker, A.N. (2004). Bonne gouvernance dans le sport : une tude
europenne. Strasbourg : dition du conseil de lEurope.
Chappelet, J.L. (2010). Lautonomie du sport en Europe.
Strasbourg : dition du conseil de lEurope.
F.I.A. (fvrier 2001). The Rules of the Game. Conference Report
and conclusions of the Europes first conference on the
Governance of Sport. Brussels, Belgium.
Morgan, D.L. (1996). Focus Groups. Annual Review of Sociology,
22:129-152
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366
A SPORTING PARTICIPATION LEGACy
FROM LONDON 2012: THE IMPACT ON
SPORTS POLICIES IN BIRMINGHAM
Author:
Emily Lovett
email:
e.lovett@newman.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Bloyce, Daniel Ryan, Paul
University:
Newman University College
Faculty:
Physical Education and Sports Studies
Abstract
Introduction
The London bid document for the 2012 Olympic and
Paralympic Games stated that mounting excitement in the
seven years leading up to the games in London will inspire
a new generation of youth to greater sporting activity
(LOCOG, 2005, p23). This legacy is intended to be
experienced across Britain. Very little research has been
conducted on the impact of a bidding city on another city
within the same country. It could be argued that one would
reasonably expect Birmingham, with the second largest
population in Britain, to experience some impact from the
Games. As such, Birmingham will be a key focus within
this paper.
Academic research investigating sporting legacies from
mega-events raises caution in assuming the legacy
impact (Coalter 2004, Girginov and Hills 2008, Bloyce and
Smith 2010). What is of little doubt, however, is that the
build up to the 2012 Games has had significant impact on
sport policy at the national level. The aims of this paper
are to analyse the extent to which policy in Birmingham
reflects the policy objectives for a sports participation
legacy from London 2012 set out in official publications by
the London Organizing Committee of the Olympic and
Paralympic Games (LOCOG), the Department for Culture
Media and Sport (DCMS) and Sport England.
Official documents and reports available online from the
DCMS, Department of Health, Sport England, LOCOG,
House of Commons, National Audit Office, Legacy Trust
Uk and West Midlands 2012 that have been published
since the awarding of the Games to London that relate to
sporting legacy have been subject to documentary
analysis. These documents were compared with policies
published by the Birmingham Sport and Physical Activity
Partnership (BSPAP) in that time. At present, BSPAP are
at the policy formation stage of their legacy action plan.
Therefore we will analyse drafts during the formation of
this policy which will continue until the document is
finalised. Policy documents will be analysed through
coding particular themes comparing national and local
policies.
Based on initial analysis of national policies it is clear that
hosting the forthcoming 2012 Games has already had a
significant impact. This has filtered into local policies in
Birmingham to some extent. However, one might question
the extent to which the impending hosting of the London
Games is proving to be a focusing event (Chalip, 1995) in
Birmingham. After all, the BSPAP legacy action plan is still
only in the formation stage. However, London 2012 has
been considered in developing the wider strategy for sport
in Birmingham. Analysis of the BSPAP Strategy for Sport
2009-13 indicates that the policy was shaped in
accordance with several national policies with objectives
for London 2012. Preliminary findings from analysing the
draft legacy action plan also suggest that BSPAP will be
utilising the fact that the American and Jamaican track and
field teams are using Birmingham as their base-camp
before the Olympics. BSPAP (2011) propose that they will
use the American and Jamaican training camps as a key
focus for engaging the general public in generating a
sporting legacy. BSPAP (2011) also highlight the intention
to build on the skills and number of clubs, coaches, and
volunteers, which clearly reflects the national policy on
volunteer development. This demonstrates the relative
level of power of CSPs in delivering a sporting legacy. At
some level BSPAP appear enabled by the opportunities
that Olympic activities bring. However, they do still remain
constrained by the opportunities specifically available
within the city as extra funding is limited and new facilities
are not an option. We conclude with recognition of the
significant impact of London 2012 on national sporting
policies. We suggest that the legacy experienced across
Britain is, however, determined by those delivering a
participation legacy in local areas and the constraints of
the infrastructure and opportunities available therein.
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References:
Bloyce, D. and Smith, A. (2010). Sport Policy and Development: an
introduction. London: Routledge.
Chalip, L. (1995) Policy analysis in sport management, Journal of
Sport Management, 9: 113
Coalter, F. (2004). Stuck In the Blocks? A Sustainable Sporting
Legacy. In A. Vigor, M. Mean and C. Timms. After the Gold Rush: A
Sustainable Olympics for London (pp91-108). London: ippr/Demos.
Coalter, F. (2007). A Wider Social Role for Sport: whos keeping the
score? London: Routledge.
Girginov, V. and Hills, L. (2008). A Sustainable Sports Legacy:
Creating a link between the London Olympics and sports
participation. The International Journal of the History of Sport,
25(14), 2091-2116.
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THE TWO UNSUCCESSFUL BIDS OF
THE CITy OF MADRID TO THE 2012
AND 2016 OLyMPIC GAMES AND ITS
EFFECTS ON SPORTS VENUES AND
INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE CITy
Author:
Juan Luis Paramio
email:
juanluis.paramio@uam.es
Co-authors:
Beotas Lalaguna, Eduardo Dobson, Nigel
University:
Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain
Faculty:
Physical Education, Sports Science and Human Movement
Abstract
Introduction
Until 1992 the number of cities bidding to host the Olympic
Games remained relatively low. However, the commercial
and managerial success of the 1984 Los Angeles
Olympics and the significant transformations associated
with the 1992 Barcelona Games, which has been
presented as a showcase of sport-led urban regeneration,
represented a turning point with more cities interested in
this global event (Emery, 2001; Gratton and Henry, 2001;
Paramio Salcines, 2011). This situation has led Shoval
(2002) to state that we are in the beginning of a new phase
in the development of the Olympic Games with more
global cities participating in the 2012 and 2016 bidding
process.
Making bids for major events such as the Olympics is very
costly, requires considerable resources and is also a long
term process. As part of this process, some urban leaders
claims that even unsuccessful bids for the Olympic
Games, as in the Madrid case, can be valued as an
strategic decision to promote the main features of the
entrepreneurial city. A plethora of authors such as Essex
and Chalkey (1998); Levin (2010); Lenskyj (2000) and
Hiller (2000) remark that one of the managerial concerns
would be to assess the legacy and effects of bidding for
and mainly failing to get the Olympics, an issue that has
received less attention in literature than it deserves. This
study therefore seeks to examine some of these issues by
focusing mainly on the current state of sports venues and
infrastructure after the two unsuccessful bids of Madrid for
the 2012 and 2016 Games.
Methodology
This analysis builds on the review of existing material of
sport and urban regeneration from scholars from different
disciplines. Regarding the Madrid case, the authors have
incorporated a review of press, the Bid books of Madrid
2012 and 2016 Olympics and several interviews and
personal communications with officials within Madrid 2012
and 2016 Olympic bids.
The Madrid bid for the Olympics was inspired by the much-
acclaimed model of Barcelona. As part of this, one of
Madrids key motivations for bidding for the 2012 as well
as for the 2016 Games was to accelerate significant
transformations in two areas of the city, in the East and
South parts which are difficult to accomplish under normal
circumstances (Ministerio de Fomento, 2001).
The analysis of the documents and interviews showed that
the cost of the Madrid bid for the 2012 Games was 18.6
million; urban leaders stated that around 70% of the
facilities needed for the Games were already in place.
Compared to the 2012 bid project, there are substantial
differences as the cost for the 2016 bid had increased to
an estimated 55.8 million, with 76% of the facilities
already built. If we compare the bid budget for all the cities
that were candidates for the 2016 Games (Chicago, Tokyo,
London, Madrid and Rio de Janeiro) (Paramio-Salcines,
2011, forthcoming), the overall cost was $179.4 million,
with most of them spending similar figures.
Irrespective of the bid outcome, the Madrid project
promised to enhance sporting infrastructure and sport
participation in the city as potential benefits. Of 30 venues
included in the Madrid bid for the 2016 Games, fifteen are
located in the east of the city, 11 are in the west of the city
in the River Manzanares Zone and the rest are in central
areas and in nearby cities. Though the 2016 Madrid bid
emphasized that 76% of the facilities were built, two of the
main facilities, the proposed Olympic Stadium and the
Aquatics Centre, still had not been built. At the time of
writing it remains to be seen how these facilities will evolve
in the near future. Alongside all the positive impacts of the
2012 and 2016 bids on sports venues, there are other
benefits to the city: the opening of new Metro stations, the
building of Terminal 4 at Barajas airport and the
transformation of the River Manzanares for sport and
recreational uses that will improve the socio-economic
conditions and quality of life for large areas. There have
also been negatives effects on the city such as the
increasing debts of the Madrid City Council which might
affect other public projects in other areas of the city and
the running of public services, which is one of the recurrent
challenges that any entrepreneurial city, as the case of
Madrid represents, need to face.
References:
Emery, P.E. (2001). Bidding to host a major sport event: Strategic
Investment or Complete Lottery. In C. Gratton & I. Henry (Eds.).
Sport in the City. The role of sport in economic and social
regeneration (pp. 90-108). Routledge: London.
Essex, S. and Chalkley, B. (1998). Olympic Games: catalyst of
urban change. Leisure Studies, 17, 187-206.
Gratton, C. & I. Henry (2001) (Eds.). Sport in the City. The role of
sport in economic and social regeneration. Routledge: London.
Hiller, H. (2000). Mega-Events, Urban Boosterism and Growth
Strategies: An analysis of the objectives and legitimations of the
Cape Town 2004 Olympic bid. International Journal of Urban and
Regional Research, 24, 439-458.
Levin, P. T. (2010). Failed mega-events as urban development
engines?. The Planned Village for Stockholm 2004, Proceedings of
Shanghai Forum, Shanghai, China.
Lenskyi, H. (2000). Inside the Olympic Industry. Power, Politics and
Activism. State University of New york Press: New york.
Ministerio de Fomento (2001). Madrid Games. Madrid en Juegos.
Direccin General de la Vivienda, la Arquitectura y el Urbanismo,
Ministerio de Fomento: Madrid.
Paramio Salcines, J.L. (2011). Sport and Urban Regeneration. In I.
Henry & and L. M. Ko (Eds.) International Handbook of Sport
Policy Analysis. Routledge: London (forthcoming).
Shoval, N. (2002). A New Phase in the competition for the Olympic
Gold: The London and New york bids for the 2012 Games. Journal
of Urban Affairs, 24, 5, 583-599.
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OLyMPISM & VALUE LEGACIES IN
OLyMPIC/ PARALyMPIC GAMES
Author:
Dikaia Chatziefstathiou
email:
dc130@canterbury.ac.uk
University:
Canterbury Christ Church University
Faculty:
Sport Science, Tourism and Leisure
Abstract
Aim
The aim of this paper is to explore the different meanings
of the ideology of Olympism and how the Olympic and
Paralympic values can be captured in practice in varying
ways which extend beyond the somewhat narrow scope of
sport, exercise and physical activity.
The term Olympism was first coined by the founder of the
modern Olympic Games, the French aristocrat Baron
Pierre de Coubertin. The fundamental principles of
Olympism are stated in the Olympic Charter, of which the
first version is estimated to have been published around
1898. Its definitions have been various and it has been
referred to as a social philosophy which emphasises the
role of sport in world development, peaceful co-existence,
international understanding and social and moral education
(Parry, 1994). In his Memoires Olympiques (1931)
Coubertin interpreted Olympism as a school of nobility and
of moral purity as well as of endurance and physical
energy but only if &honesty and sportsman-like
unselfishness are as highly developed as the strength of
muscles (p. 208). Thus, Olympism aimed at the
harmonious development of the intellectual, moral and
physical aspects of a human being through athletic
competition. Hence it was developed as a philosophy
consciously intended as a set of rules or propositions not
simply about sport and its governance but about how one s
life should be led, and thus clearly can be implemented as
a useful set of values which can be applied across a
variety of contexts and people.
Discussion and implications / conclusions
In the same way that Olympism has been open to several
interpretations throughout the history of the modern
Olympic movement (Chatziefstathiou 2011a; 2011B; 2009),
Olympic education or Olympic pedagogy has also been
defined and delivered in different fashions. If one unpacks
Olympism, will discover that the so-called Olympic ideals
are also entailed in programmes of physical education,
sport education or youth education. It can be argued that
the term Olympic education or Olympic pedagogy refers to
a series of many different activities which although may be
implemented by different organizations or institutions (eg
Olympic Games Organizing Committees, Ministries of
Education, Centres for Olympic Studies) or may adopt a
different pedagogical approach and have different targets
(physical education, lifelong learning or cultural activities),
they nevertheless are based on the same fundamental
principles of the Olympic Charter and are associated with
the Olympic ideals and the multifaceted (and open to
several interpretations) ideology of Olympism. One could
also argue that, as it also happens with the so-called
magic dust of the Olympics, in a similar vein there is a
sense of a magic dust of Olympism in education. Values,
norms and virtues that may already be taught - and not
being named Olympic - in several contexts such as sport,
physical activity, physical education, and youth education,
through the power and the appeal of the Olympic Idea,
they are transformed into what is termed Olympic
education . Such arguments can be seen as critiques of
Olympic pedagogy but can also describe the very essence
of what this pedagogy really is; a rather flexible and useful
tool for educators, coaches, athletes and other interesting
parties who can draw a multitude of examples (positive
and negative) from the mega event of the Olympic and
Paralympic Games to promote principles and codes of
practice. The Olympic and Paralympic Games can act as
the Trojan horse ( ) wherein several
messages can be transferred to the youth of the world in
many different ways inside or outside the school
curriculum, through PE or any other knowledge subject,
through cultural activities or lifelong learning, as well as
through social media or international sport development
programmes (eg Olympic Solidarity and the International
Inspiration Project).
In the long debates about what Olympic education is and
what an Olympic pedagogy can entail or how teachers and
coaches can best serve and deliver Olympic value
legacies, the answer should really be that Olympic
education can involve sport, PE or other knowledge
subjects, culture or different milieus in an individual s
lifelong learning inside and outside the strict limits of
school education. The Olympic Games, one of the biggest
and most appealing mega events of modern times, and
their underpinning philosophy of Olympism though not
always systematic or coherent - have much to offer in the
global educational space through values, practices and
ideas that are flexible, multi-layered and adaptable to
several contexts of broader education.
References:
Chatziefstathiou, D. (2011a)Paradoxes and Contestations of
Olympism in the History of the Modern Olympic Movement, Sport
in Society, Special issue on Olympic reform, forthcoming.
Chatziefstathiou, D. (2011b) Olympism: A learning philosophy for
physical education and youth sport, In K.M. Armour, Introduction to
Sport Pedagogy for Teachers and Coaches: Effective learners in
physical education and youth sport, Sage, London.
Chatziefstathiou, D. and Henry, I.P. (2009) Olympism,
Governmentality and Technologies of Power, Esporte e Sociedade
Journal (Sport and Society Journal), Volume 12, July-August 2009
Coubertin, P. (1931) Memoires Olympiques, Bureau international
de pedagogie sportive, Paris
Parry, J., (1994). The Moral and Cultural Dimensions of Olympism
and their Educational Application, 34th Session of young
Participants.
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RIO 2016- THE UTOPIA OF A
SUSTAINABLE OLyMPIC GAMES
Author:
Carla Araujo
email:
carla_mpompilho@hotmail.com
Co-authors:
Garcia, Rui - University of Porto Faculty of Sport
(Portugal) Graa, Manuel - University of Porto Faculty of
Economics (Portugal) DaCosta, Lamartine - University
Gama Filho (Brasil) 1 Author contact:
carla_mpompilho@hotmail.com familia.luso-
brasileira@gmail.com
University:
University of Porto - Portugal
Faculty:
Faculty of Sport
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
The world yearns for new ways of living, and the Olympic
Games (OG) cant stay out of it.
The aim of this broader research project is to analyse the
candidacy of Rio de Janeiro city to the OG 2016 on a
sustainable base. So, the big question is: How Rio de
Janeiro had used sustainability agenda to achieve the
2016 OG?
We had structured this project in three articles to be
published in 2011 and 2012 (figure 1). This paper is the
first and will try to understand what is sustainable OG on a
globalized world.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Several and respected authors refer the importance of this
mega event (DaCosta, Corra, Rizzuti, Villano, &
Miragaya, 2008), however there are few studies about OG
in a world concerned with sustainable development.
Its seems important to talk about sustainable OG in your
days because Earth belongs to whole ecosystem and not
only to humans. The OG spread values that promote the
Citius, Altius and Fortius, being the sustainable OG a
value of a globalized world, so the Olympics are under
pressure to become cleaner.
Define sustainable OG seems hard, special when the
most sustainable OG would be no Olympics. However, its
never been so important to provide a more actual
definition, so the future of this mega-event can be assure
by sustainable policies, as the world is demanding.
We believe that International Olympic Committee (IOC) is
making an effort to promote a sustainable OG, especially
since Seoul in 1999, when Agenda 21 had been adopted.
But as Furrer (2002) referred, sustainable development as
not been straightforward and is far from being fully
achieved.
The selection of the host city is the tool that the IOC has to
promote the Olympic Values (respect, excellence and
friendship), and the environment and development,
through sport. The IOC has its own understanding of
sustainable development, more focused on environmental
issues. Furrer (2002) argues that sustainable OG should
promote social inclusion, economic well-being and
environmental protection. This view is supported by
authors from other areas, such as Sachs (2002) and
Lomborg (2008) (among others). This concept covers three
dimensions that should be on balance. But others authors
combine this with political and cultural (Sachs, 2002).
Historically this concept emerged in the '80s, with Our
Common Future, Brundtland Threat (Brundtland, 1987),
but the first meeting around the environment and economic
development had taken place in Stockholm 1972. In 1992,
at Eco Rio, the Agenda 21 had been created and the
Commissions on Sustainable Development too. In 1995, at
the UNWorld Summit in Copenhagen, the social dimension
was finally associated. Two years later, a special session
known as Rio+5, endorsed the analysis and
implementation of Agenda 21. Rio+10 in South Africa 2002
followed this, then Kyoto 2007 and Copenhagen 2009, but
no responses to global expectations were made.
It seems that UN meeting arent attaining to a sustainable
world, maybe IOC can make a different with a sustainable
OG that will take the people to act more conscious and
responsible to the Earth.
METHODOLOGy
The methodology of to this study is basis on the
Systematic Review Based, the analysis of official and non-
official documents, specialized books, journal articles,
official homepages and interviews to some sustainable
mega-events experts (Sustainable Sport and Event
Toolkit), members from Brazilian Olympic Committee
(COB), IOC and Olympic studies expertises. The analytical
process will draw the content analysis and discourse
analysis.
IMPLICATIONS AND INSIGHTS
With this review (getting the look of different scholars and
contexts) we want to accomplish a more adequate concept
of Sustainable OG and contribute to sustainable
construction of the OG Rio 2016. We will take Olympism,
sustainability, sustainable development, legacies and
impacts to a new landing of research, one that will take
into account the balance of the three spheres (social,
economic and environment)..
References:
Brundtland, G. H. (1987). Presentation of the report of the world
commission on environment and development. Nairobi: UN.
DaCosta, L., Corra, D., Rizzuti, E., Villano, B., & Miragaya, A.
(2008). Legacy of sport mega-events. Braslia: CONFEF/CREF and
Ministrio do Esporte.
Furrer, P. (2002). Sustainable olympic games: a dream or reality?
Bollettino della Societ Geografica Italiana, Serie xII, v. VII(4).
Lomborg, B. (2008). Cool it: muita calma nessa hora! O guia de um
ambientalista ctico sobre o aquecimento global (Regina Lyra,
Trans.). Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier.
Sachs, I. (2002). Caminhos para o desenvolvimento sustentvel
(4. ed.). Rio de Janeiro: Garamond.
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OLyMPIC ETHICAL DILEMMAS:
ETHICAL STANDARDS IN THE
GOVERNANCE OF A GLOBAL
CULTURAL INSTITUTION
Author:
Ian Henry
email:
I.P.Henry@lboro.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Ling-Mei Ko
Abstract
The IOC lays claim to moral leadership in the world of
sport by defining itself in the Olympic Charter as a body
with a moral rather than simply a sporting mission. The
fundamental principles of Olympism as expressed in the
opening section of the Charter for example include the
following statements
1. Olympism is a philosophy of life? Olympism seeks to
create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the
educational value of good example and respect for
universal fundamental ethical principles.
2. The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of
the harmonious development of man (sic) ?.
(InternationaI Olympic Committee, 2010: p. 10)
Thus the IOC, and the Games as a competition, are
markedly different from, for example, FIFA and the Football
World Cup or the IAAF and its Athletics World
Championship. These organisations may lay claim to
providing major benefits but their raison dtre or their
founding principles are not themselves bound to a moral
project in the same manner.
Nevertheless despite its founding moral agenda the IOC
and the movement has been subject to a range of critiques
which are said to undermine its claims for moral status.
These include not only cases of corruption on the part of
individuals but also criticisms along cultural, economic,
political, social, environmental and sporting dimensions.
We have addressed these critiques elsewhere (Henry,
2011) and have argued that while evident shortcomings
exist (and have to be dealt with) the value of the
movement and the Games is its ability to provide a forum
for intercultural dialogue in which positive outcomes can be
fostered (though their achievement is by no means
guaranteed).
The United Nations, like the Olympic movement has been
subject to allegations of corruption, abuses of power, has
on occasions generated negative outcomes, and may be in
need of reform. However its role in political discourse is not
something which most commentators would be prepared to
abandon. Similarly the role of the Olympic movement in
cultural discourse is one which in principle at least can
generate significant benefits such that our cultural lives
might be diminished were it to cease to operate.
In this paper we argue that the Olympic movement
provides in cultural terms an arena of communicative
action in Habermass terms, one in which cultural action
can be subject to the development of cultural consensus or
compromise in ways related to Habermasian notions of
discourse ethics (Habermas, 1990, Habermas, 1995). We
use two examples promotion of gender equity and of
sport for development to illustrate ways in which
progressive outcomes (though not lacking in controversy)
can claim to be fostered through intercultural
communication in the context of the activities of the
Olympic movement. A consideration of these issues points
the way to ethical governance processes and outcomes for
the movement and its prime organisation, the IOC
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References:
HABERMAS, J. 1990. Moral Consciousness and Communicative
Action, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press.
HABERMAS, J. 1995. Reconciliation through the Public Use of
Reason: Remarks on John Rawls's Political Liberalism. Journal of
Philosophy, xCII.
HENRy, I. 2011. The Olympics: why we should value them. In:
LENSKyJ, H. & WAGG, S. (eds.) A Handbook of Olympic Studies.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
INTERNATIONAI OLyMPIC COMMITTEE 2010. Olympic Charter.
Lausanne: InternationaI Olympic Committee.
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UNDERSTANDING THE COMPETITIVE
ADVANTAGE OF NATIONAL OLyMPIC
COMMITTEES
Author:
Leigh Robinson
email:
leigh.robinson@stir.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Minikin, Brian
University:
The University of Stirling
Faculty:
School of Sport
Abstract
Aim
This research aims to establish why many National
Olympic Committees do not have improved performances
at Olympic Games despite ongoing funding and
experience of preparing teams for Games.
The competitive advantage of an organisation arises from
the strategy that the organisation follows. However, the
standard view of competitiveness where organisations
compete on cost or differentiation is arguably irrelevant to
National Olympic Committees. This is because a reduction
in expenditure on elite sport has the potential to undermine
competitive advantage significantly. There is also little
possibility for differentiation as the overall mission and
objectives of an NOC are enshrined within the Olympic
Charter. As a consequence, a resource based view (RBV)
of the firm (Grant, 2008) can be considered a more
appropriate framework for evaluating the potential of
National Olympic Committees for successful performances
at Olympic Games. The key notion underpinning this
perspective on competitive advantage is that success is
based on resources and the way an organisation can use
its resources to its competitive advantage. This is set out
by Taylor (1998:198) when he states that the driving force
[of an organisation] is from within the organisation and that
its internal capabilities must be developed as a source of
superior performance. Resources are the assets under
the control of an organisation while capabilities are the
ability of an organisation to perform a coordinated set of
tasks and utilize their resources to achieve an end result
e.g. what they can do.
Methodology
The purpose of this research is to understand why National
Olympic Committees appear to be unable to create
competitive advantage that leads to improvements in
performance at Olympic Games. It does this by
investigating the resources and capabilities of the NFs that
are responsible for developing the athletes that to the
Games. The underlying premise of this research is that the
competitive advantage of a NOC is reliant on the ability of
their NFs to deliver elite athletes who can achieve
success.
The national federations within four Pacific countries were
audited using the NF Assessment Tool (Rapilla, 2008;
Minikin, 2009). This tool considers the resources,
structures and capabilities that a National Federation has
in place and assesses the national federation across an
organisational development scale that ranges: 0 = no
development to 4 = professionalised and specialised level
of development. The data required to complete the NF
Assessment Tool was collected by a web-based survey
that asked respondent NFs to indicate what elements they
have in place in their organisation. Responses were
received from all national federations in the countries
under investigation. The questionnaires were reviewed and
any missing information and additional details were
subsequently obtained by a member of the research team
with comprehensive knowledge of the nations under
review.
The research shows that the key resource of the NOCs
under investigation (its NFs) is not developed enough to
create competitive advantage due to poor resources and
low levels of capability. Therefore there is a need for these
NFs to develop further as organisations in order to improve
the potential competitive advantage of their NOCs. There
are a number of ways of doing this; for example, a
programme of knowledge transfer allows what capabilities
that have been developed to be more widely spread. This
mining of experience (Grant, 2008) is a mechanism of
developing capabilities for both the NFs and the NOC, as
is process benchmarking which provides a framework for
NOCs and NFs to understand how more successful
federations develop and manage their resources (Bohlke &
Robinson, 2009). Resources could also be concentrated
on priority sports, which is a mechanism of resource
leveraging utilised by many countries. NOCs also have the
opportunity to develop alliances with other organisations or
countries that are better placed to create elite athletes.
This research also offers a fundamental challenge to the
universality principle of the Olympic Movement as it is
possible to argue that attendance at the Olympic Games is
not appropriate for the NOCs included in this research.
The resource-based view is underpinned by the concept
that strategic planning should be based on capabilities and
resources (Grant, 2008) and thus continuing to plan to
attend the Olympic Games is arguably neither a sensible
nor a reasonable strategy for these NOCs.
References:
Bohlke, N. & Robinson, L. (2009). 'Benchmarking of elite sport
systems. Management Decision, 47(1), 67-84.
Grant, R. (2008). Contemporary strategy analysis (6th ed.). Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
Minikin, B. (2009). A Question of Readiness. Unpublished MEMOS
Project. Lausanne: Olympic Solidarity.
Rapilla, A (2008). A Strategic Planning Tool to assess and enhance
performance of National Federations in Papua New Guinea.
Unpublished MEMOS Project. Lausanne: Olympic Solidarity.
Taylor, M. (1998). A feedforward and feedback framework for
analysing an organisations resources, capabilities and
development needs. Health Manpower Management, 24(6), 196-
205.
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GOVERNING THE OLyMPIC GAMES
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE
HOST CITy: A LOOK AT THE SyDNEy
2000 AND VANCOUVER 2010 MODELS
Author:
Becca Leopkey
email:
bleopkey@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Parent, Milena. M.
University:
Faculty:
Human Kinetics
Abstract
The Olympic Games have grown in both size and
popularity over the last century. Planning for and delivering
the event includes many steps that take place over a 10
(+) year period include the bidding, planning and wrap-up
phases (Parent, 2008). Addressing a complex project
which requires multilateral coordination such as the hosting
of an Olympic Games entails extensive collective effort and
resource sharing between many event stakeholders within
the Olympic Movements organizational network including
the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the
International Sport Federations (IFs), the National Olympic
Committees (NOCs), Organizing Committees of the
Olympic Games (OCOGs), host cities, and nations to
name a few. While researchers have begun to examine the
stakeholders of an event (e.g., Parent, 2008) and the
stakeholder network during the bid (e.g., Turner &
Westerbeek, 2004), deeper analyses are needed. As well,
a recent focus of the Olympic Movement has been legacy
since its addition to the Olympic Charter in 2003. The
impact of legacy on the network of stakeholders remains to
be investigated. As such, this paper will explore and
compare the modes of network governance (i.e., the
structures and controls responsible for monitoring and
managing) utilized during the bidding, planning, and post
games legacy phases of both the Sydney 2000 and
Vancouver 2010 Olympic Games.
Networks, or groups of organizations that work together
towards a variety of goals, have been increasingly
accepted as a legitimate form of multi-organizational
governance by academic researchers due to the many
potential benefits associated with them such as resource
sharing and dealing with complex issues. Network
governance has been defined as the use of institutions
and structures of authority and collaboration to allocate
resources and to coordinate and control joint action across
the network as a whole (Provan & Kenis, 2007, p. 231).
The type of governance utilized in the network can vary
from shared governance to a brokered network where a
central lead organization and/or network administration
organization (NAO) governs (Provan & Kenis, 2007). We
use this governance spectrum to further examine the
network governance in each Games in order to compare
and contrast them within the different phases of hosting.
This research attempts to address some of the concerns
with the network governance literature by investigating a
network over time.
Case studies were developed for both SOCOG (Sydney
Organizing Committee for the 2000 Olympic Games) and
VANOC (Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010
Olympic Winter Games) (yin 2003). These case studies
were built from archival materials (over 300 documents),
web site information and interview data (28 interviews),
which provided the basis for the identification and analysis
of the multi-organizational network governance structures
and processes in this research. During the data collection
key stakeholders and documents of significance
influencing the event planning network were identified. For
example, the municipal, provincial/state, and federal
players for each case in addition to their Host City
Contracts, Bid documents, and multiparty agreements
were highlighted. The data were then open coded using
the data analysis software ATLAS.ti by the first author in
order to identify emergent and reoccurring themes relating
to the governance of each Games. Following the
identification and grouping of initial codes, axial coding
was performed to further explore the relational aspects
between the coded data (Corley & Gioia, 2004). Emergent
themes and organizational information were then
discussed between the authors, and included network
governance modes, changes in the network and OCOG
structure, the main actors involved, and the controls and
documents that impacted the governance of the Sydney
and Vancouver cases.
The findings showed that several forces had an influence
on the overall governance of the Sydney 2000 and
Vancouver 2010 editions of the Olympic Games. These
included foundational documents and contracts, changes
in organizational structure, as well as the power and
position held by various network organizations. Structural
changes appeared in the network for each case; these
changes could be tied to the changes in organizational
goals for each Games governance phase. It was noted
that VANOC had a more stable organizational structure
during the planning phase than Sydney, which changed
several times between being awarded the bid and actually
hosting the Games. The networks investigated both
required a central lead organization and NAO to govern
the activities throughout various phases of the event. In
conclusion, it is evident from the above analysis that
proper network governance and a strong joint effort from
various network stakeholders is required to effectively plan
and implement an Olympic Games and to leave a fruitful
post-Games legacy.
References:
Corley, K.G., & Gioia, D.A. (2004). Identity ambiguity and change in
the wake of a corporate spin-off. Administrative Science Quarterly,
49, 173-208.
Parent, M.M. (2008). Developing a framework of evolution and
issue patterns for large-scale sporting event organizing committees
and their stakeholders. Journal of Sport Management, 22(2), 135-
164.
Provan, K. G. , & Kenis, P. (2007). Modes of network governance:
Structure, management, and effectiveness. Journal of Public
Administration Research and Theory, 18, 229-252.
Turner, P., & Westerbeek, H. M. (2004). Network relationships in
the bidding process for major sporting events. International Journal
of Sport Management, 5, 335-356.
yin, R. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods. (3rd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
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EVENT RIGHTS HOLDERS VERSUS
HOST NATIONS: WHO IS
ACCOUNTABLE, FOR WHAT, AND TO
WHOM, FOR AN OLyMPIC GAMES?
Author:
Milena Parent
email:
milena.parent@uottawa.ca
Co-authors:
Power Shafer, Jessica
Rouillard, Christian
University:
Faculty:
Faculty of Health Sciences/School of Human Kinetics
Abstract
Aim of Paper
To produce an Olympic Games, resources are needed,
which come in part from the rights holder, the International
Olympic Committee (IOC), and from the host nation. While
the IOC holds the rights for the Olympic Games and helps
the organizing committee prepare its Games operations,
the host nation and cities typically provide funding, such as
for venues, and contribute to Games-related services.
While both sides contribute to making the Olympic event
successful, all eyes are on the host country, which raises
the question: who is accountable for what, and to whom,
for the Olympic Games the nation who hosts the event or
the IOC who holds the rights and dictates how it should be
runand what are the consequences?
Accountability is a complex, polysemic concept that can be
defined in broad terms as the relationship between an
actor and a forum, in which the actor has an obligation to
explain and justify his or her conduct, the forum can pose
questions and pass judgement and the actor may face
consequences (Bovens et al. 2008, p. 225).
Accountability includes many dimensions, notably: 1)
accountability hierarchy (or administrative accountability),
similar to a bureaucratic structure where hierarchy defines
to whom you are responsible for your actions (Bovens,
2007); 2) political accountability which centers on the
stakeholders, ensuring that the public sector is
accountable to stakeholders needs (Romzek, 2000); and
3) democratic accountability which focuses on government
actions and ensures that the government functions within
what is deemed democratic behaviour (Bovens et al.,
2008). Though each dimension entails its own specific
challenges, political and democratic accountabilities bring
additional issues (theoretical and empirical) to be put
under scrutiny.
Methodology
A case study (yin, 2009) was used to evaluate the
accountability structures for the 2010 Vancouver Olympic
Winter Games and its organizing committee, VANOC. Fifty-
three interviews were conducted before and after the
Games among Canadian civil servants, as well as with
IOC and VANOC members. Interviews, plus newspaper
articles and the four-month Games-time daily diary from
the first author, were inductively and deductively coded for
accountability forms using ATLAS.TI 6.2 (Miles &
Huberman, 1994). Higher-order themes were determined
(i.e., results).
Results, Discussion, and Implications/Conclusions
The Canadian Government used a Results Based
Management and Accountability Framework/Risk Based
Audit Framework as part of its accountability regarding its
time, decision-making, and public money used. All civil
servants had a clear understanding of their accountability
hierarchy (ultimately up to Parliament for the national level,
and through city council to the general public for the host
cities). The Federal Government was responsible for
ensuring the security of all Games (national and
international) participants, while the host cities were
responsible for municipal services; both were responsible
for the use of taxpayers money. While the Federal
Governments Games-related accountability structure
focused on a government-wide approach, the host cities
were focused on the general public for ultimate
accountability.
In contrast, VANOC and the IOC had no visible
accountability hierarchy, falling more into political
accountability, relying on what was necessary for
themselves and their stakeholders (primarily TOP
sponsors). As an interviewee highlighted, VANOC and the
IOC had a partnership relationship with the host nation, not
a franchiser-franchisee hierarchical relationship. Because
they were using political accountability, VANOC and the
IOC placed importance on sponsors role and satisfaction.
VANOC was also accountable to the sport federations.
VANOC and the IOC were accountable for three aspects:
the money spent in regards to advertising and promotions
on behalf of the sponsors, their brand name, and ensuring
the fair play of athletes and judges during Games-time.
The IOCs rules and procedures seemingly hinder
democratic accountabilitys emergence. Even though the
IOC claims ownership of the Games, it is ultimately the
host city and nation who are remembered and held
accountable by the public. Moreover, extrapolating from
Bovens (2007) accountability definition, if the IOC does
not face appropriate consequences for its actions (cf. Salt
Lake City scandal), can we truly talk about accountability
for the IOC? Thus, while the IOC may hold the rights to the
Olympic Games, the governments have a much larger
operational contribution and responsibility. We conclude
that as the IOC gives its rights to an edition of the Games
to the organizing committee to prepare the event, it must
also allow the host nations government to hold ultimate
accountabilityand therefore part of the rightsfor that
edition of the Games, in line with public perception, if it is
not prepared to follow through with its own proper
accountability processes.
References:
Bovens, M. (2007). Analysing and assessing accountability: A
conceptual framework. European Law Journal, 13(4), 447-468.
Bovens, M., Schillemans, T., & `T Hart, P. (2008). Does public
accountability work? An assessment tool. Public Administration,
86(1), 225-242.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis:
An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Romzek, B. (2000). Dynamics of public sector accountability in an
era of reform. International Review of Administrative Sciences,
66(1), 21-44.
yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods
(Fourth Edition ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
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382
FORECASTING THE PERFORMANCE
OF THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE
LONDON 2012 OLyMPIC GAMES
Author:
Simon Shibli
email:
s.shibli@shu.ac.uk
University:
Faculty:
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
This paper is concerned with forecasting the performance
of the United Kingdom when it hosts the London 2012
Olympic Games. Making forecasts of how nations will
perform in the Olympic Games is an established and
growing area of interest for both academics and media
content providers. Following Beijing 2008, Kuper and
Sterken (2008) conducted an evaluation of the accuracy of
the seven forecasts that were made public. They
concluded that forecasts based on expert opinion (recent
form in elite sport) outperformed forecasts based in
econometric modelling (typically variables such as
population and wealth). Not reviewed in the Kuper and
Sterken research was a forecast made by Shibli and
Bingham (2008) which stated that China would win 46 gold
medals and would be ranked first in the final medals' table.
China actually won 51 gold medals but the forecast of 46
was bettered only by Kuper and Sterken themselves who
forecast 47 gold medals. All other researchers and experts
significantly under estimated the unique home nation effect
that host are able to derive. The Shibli and Bingham
research is more closely related to the home advantage
literature (see Balmer et al 2001 and 2003) than
econometric modelling or form-based expert opinion, and
as such, factors in policy factors at national and IOC level
that may impact on elite sport success. The purpose of
this paper then is to test the accuracy of the Shibli
Bingham model for forecasting the United Kingdom's
performance at London 2012.
METHODS
This research has been conducted primarily using an
extensive programme of desk research as outlined in UK
Sport (2003) to provide the raw data for the regression
analysis. The raw data was then subjected to simple linear
regression examining performance, measured by gold
medals won, over time. Further desk research was
conducted on the value of home advantage to host
nations.
RESULTS
The results of the regression analysis suggest that there is
a strong relationship (correlation = 0.78) between the
number of gold medals won by the United Kingdom and
time over the period 1988 to 2008. Extrapolating the data
on a business as usual basis suggests that the UK will win
17 gold medals. Being the host nation is not business as
usual and analysis of home advantage reveals that since
1988 the host nation has won between 2 (Greece) and 19
(China) gold medals more than it did in the edition prior to
hosting the Olympic Games. Taking the average of all
recent hosts yields a host nation effect of nine gold medals
and we add this to the results of the regression analysis to
derive and overall forecast of 26 gold medals. Replicating
the same analysis for total medals yields a score of 57
medals overall. These findings suggest that the United
Kingdom will win seven more gold medals and ten more
medals in total than it did in 2008.
DISCUSSION
Unusually for a host nation, the UK has set itself a target of
a 'top four' finish in the London 2012 medals' table. This
target was achieved in Beijing 2008 with 19 gold medals.
Should our forecast be accurate and the UK wins 26 gold
medals, this would probably be enough to secure third
place in the medals' table at the expense of Russia. The
UK's recent success in the Olympic Games has been led
by a minority of sports, notably cycling, sailing, and rowing.
In order to drive improvement from 2008 the United
Kingdom will need to maintain its dominance in these
sports and develop gold medal winning capability in a
range of other sports. As a note of caution, there is some
evidence that the IOC and international federations of
sport have sought to prevent certain nations from
becoming too dominant in particular sports. It is already
clear that in cycling it will be difficult for the UK to repeat its
success of 2008 as rule changes mean that nations can
enter only one athlete per event. It is initiatives such as
this that has seen a steady increase in the number of
nations winning a gold medal and the number of nations
winning a medal of any colour. As a result of sporting
success being distributed more widely, the IOC is able to
achieve its goal of the Olympic Games being a 'real
universality' rather than an event for a small minority of
nations. Host nations tend to perform particularly well in
events that are subjectively scored (for example boxing)
and also in events specifically for women.
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References:
Balmer, N.J., Nevill, A.M. and Williams, A.M. (2001). Home
advantage in the Winter Olympics (1908-1998). Journal of Sports
Sciences, 19, 129-139.
Balmer, N.J., Nevill, A.M. and Williams, A.M. (2003). Modelling
Home advantage in the Summer Olympic Games. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 21, 469-478.
Kuper, G. and Sterken, E. (2008) Evaluation of Beijing 2008
Olympic medal tally forecasts: Who has won? Unpublished working
paper Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Groningen,
acquired by personal communication with the authors.
Shibli, S. and Bingham, J. (2008) A forecast of the performance of
China in the Beijing Olympic Games 2008 and the underlying
performance management issues, Managing Leisure: An
International Journal, 13, 3-4, 272-292.
UK Sport (2003) European sporting success: A study of the
development of medal winning elites in five European countries.
UK Sport, London.
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384
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THE INTERACTING RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE HOSTING CITy AND
THE ORGANISING COMMITTEE
DURING OLyMPIC GAMES THE CASE
STUDy OF THE OLyMPIC SUBURB OF
PERISTERI DURING ATHENS 2004
OLyMPIC GAMES
Author:
Ourania Vrondou
email:
ovrondou@yahoo.gr
Co-authors:
Kriemadis, Thanos kourtesopoulou, Anna Alexopoulos,
Panagiotis Papaioannou, Alkistis
University:
University of Peloponnese
Faculty:
Abstract
Literature review
The relationship between the hosting city and the newly
formed organising committees for mega events is by
definition not only a legitimate status but also a plethora of
regulatory mechanisms in order to facilitate the organising
of the competition (IOC, 2000). The magnitude of the
event therefore and the resources needed dictate the
nature and depth of the economic and political relationship
of the two parts needed to complete the event successfully.
The present study examines the Athenian suburb of
Peristeri that hosted the Olympic boxing venue during the
Athens 2004 Olympic Games. The level of decision
making that the city enjoyed as well as the nature and form
of power exercised by the Olympic Committee presents a
case study able to produce results to be generalised
widely amongst host cities.
Methodology, Research design and data analysis
Policy Network is the framework to be engaged in the
present research in each capacity to analyse actors who
are involved in developing policy action to an issue.
Houlihan (1991) gives an insight into how parties become
excluded from specific networks. More specifically, the
study examines the notion as expressed by Hoye et al
(2010) that policy communities and networks may be
facilitated via formal linkages, such as inter-departmental
committees or consultative bodies, but also operate in a
less formal manner through a shared awareness among
those organizations that are affected by a specific issue.
The very nature of the study, dictated qualitative research
as appropriate in collecting data on the meaning people
place on the events, processes and structures, and relating
these meanings to parties relationships. The
representation of both relevant bodies is not restricted to
the top political levels but is extended to the managerial
section where all recorded agreements occurred securing
the validity of the output of the research. Official semi-
structured interviews with representatives of the City of
Peristeri namely the Mayor, two Vice Mayors and three
relevant Olympic city policy sections' managers as well as
four city venue representatives where contacted. The
Athens 2004 perspectives were reviewed through firstly,
the competition manager for the hosted sport of boxing
and secondly, the venue manager during the Games. At
central Olympic level, the Athens 2004 Organising
Committee policy making section of the sports division
namely, the general manager for sports, the manager of
sport policy and operations, the manager for test events
and the manager of competition management were
thoroughly interviewed.
Results
Despite the great degree of communication evident in the
interviews contacted, the Athens 2004 representatives
characteristically defending their centralized role,
underlined the role as organisers of the event having
critical responsibilities towards this mission (Westerbeek et
al, 2006). This emphasised role is backed up with a series
of Olympic documentation and declarations leaving
however room for doubting the power density over the city.
The city on the other hand faces a forced Olympic reality
when the boxing event was in fact pre-decided at central
level before announced to the Mayor (MoU, 2003). A
restricted budget basically allocated to enormous
community needs is facing an unrealistic event support
role that was never prepared for. There was no room for
enthusiasm when city representatives have less than a
year to share resources with other community needs and
face negatively expresses pressure groups. This stance is
reinforced by the insecurity facing the city due to uncertain
post Olympic legacy, intangible community benefits and
unclear ownership assets.
As a highly political activity but also a puzzling managerial
exercise the coexistence of the host city and the centrally
formed organising committee faces a huge challenge in
order to maximise involvement and secure the event
hosted in the area. The exclusion of the city during the
central Olympic policy making, as well as the venue
design, along with the huge Olympic standards enforced in
the area by the Olympic technocrats enforced the initial
hesitation of the city planners and caused disbelief towards
the Olympic system. The lack located at the OG structure
to include any city representatives prior and during the
Games created a series of reporting and managerial
problems dictating the need for reconsideration of the
whole Olympic structure and event roles. The study
evidently demonstrates theory's argument of parties'
exclusion from policy networks urgently formulating
cooperation paths outside the OG structure heavily based
on informal networks. The Olympic Games are facing a
great challenge towards incorporating the city mechanisms
legitimately and managerially in order to gain
organisational success and community acceptance and
support.
References:
Host City Contract (IOC) 2000, IOC, Lausanne.
Houlihan, B. (1991) The Government and Politics of Sport,
Routledge, London.
Hoye, R. Nicholson, M. & Houlihan, B. (2010) Sport and Policy,
Butterworth Heinemann, London.
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) (2003), Athens 2004
Organising Committee, Athens.
Westerbeek, H., Smith, A., Turner, P., Emery, P., Green C.,
Leeuwen, L. (2006) Managing Sport Facilities and Major Events,
Routledge, New york.
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386
EFFECTIVENESS OF OLyMPIC
SPONSORSHIP By FOREIGN AND
DOMESTIC COMPANIES
Author:
yue Meng
email:
ymeng@bournemouth.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Thwaites, Des.
University:
Bournemouth University
Faculty:
Media School
Abstract
As an important tool in the marketing communications mix,
sponsorship is widely used to create an emotional bond
with consumers, improve brand awareness,
corporate/brand image and build blocks of potential
competitive advantage (Roy & Cornwell, 2004; Fahy, et al.,
2004). Little research to date has addressed consumers
responses toward sponsorship from attitudinal and
emotional perspectives, nor have comparisons been made
between sponsorship initiated by domestic and foreign
companies.
Sport is tightly linked to the construction of peoples
nationalism and sports events such as the Olympic Games
are frequently used as a vehicle for building national
identity, promoting the nation-state and delivering cultural
impacts to other regions. It is apparent that the Beijing
Olympic Games (2008) engaged the nation and
represented a source of national pride for the Chinese
people. However, to what extent the event could boost
sponsorship effectiveness in the consumers mind still
remains unclear.
In the light of social identity, self-categorization and
intergroup emotions theories, the present study explored
whether consumers perceive sponsorship initiatives by
foreign and domestic companies differently and identified
the factors contributing to such differences.
Based on an extensive literature review, a number of
hypotheses were proposed drawing both direct and indirect
relationships between consumer ethnocentrism, event
involvement, consumer animosity, attitudes towards the
foreign and domestic sponsors, and product judgements.
12 Beijing Olympic TOP (the Olympic Partners) sponsors
from 7 countries were used in the analysis viz China,
Japan, the U.S., South Korea, France, Canada, and
Switzerland. The 10-item version of CETSCALE developed
by Shimp and Sharma (1987) was adapted to measure
consumer ethnocentrism. Event involvement was
measured by Zaichkowskys 10-item 7-point Product
Involvement Inventory (PII, 1994). Consumer animosity
was assessed by a 6-item 7-point Likert scale modified
from Klein et al.s (1998) study. Speed and Thompsons
(2000) 4-item 7-point semantic differential scale was used
to assess attitudes toward the sponsor. The 6-item 7-point
product judgement measure was modified from Klein et
al.s (1998) study.
Self-administered questionnaires were distributed in China
prior to the Olympic Games. 1,272 valid questionnaires
were received (811 for the foreign country group and 461
for the domestic country group). Both genders were
approximately equal and 57% of the respondents were
from 16 to 25 years old. Over 80% were educated to
college or above.
Exploratory factor analysis was employed for the measure
development. Reliability of the measures was assessed by
Cronbachs alpha coefficients computed in SPSS and
validity of the measures was evaluated by confirmatory
factor analysis using AMOS. The bias-corrected bootstrap
method was performed to test the significance of the
mediation effects. It was found that consumer
ethnocentrism had a direct negative impact on attitudes
toward the foreign sponsor and foreign product judgements
and a direct positive impact on domestic product
judgements. Consumer ethnocentrism also had an indirect
impact on attitudes toward the foreign sponsor via event
involvement and consumer animosity. Event involvement
mediated the positive relationship between consumer
ethnocentrism and attitudes toward the domestic sponsor.
Attitude toward the foreign sponsor was a significant
mediator on the relationship between consumer
ethnocentrism and judgements of the foreign sponsors
products.
This study contributes to the sponsorship literature by
validating the measurement scales in the Chinese context,
and providing the linear and mediation relationships
between emotions, attitudes and behaviours. A number of
suggestions to both the Chinese and international
companies were provided.
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References:
Fahy, J., Farrelly, F., & Quester, P.(2004). Competitive advantage
through sponsorship. European Journal of Marketing, 38(8), 1013-
30.
Klein, J. G., Ettenson, R. & Morris, M.D. (1998). The Animosity
Model of Foreign Product Purchase: An Empirical Test in the
Peoples Republic of China. Journal of Marketing, 62(January), 89-
100.
Roy, D. P., & Cornwell, T. B. (2004). The effects of consumer
knowledge on responses to event sponsorships. Psychology &
Marketing, 21(3), 185-207.
Shimp, T. A., & Sharma, S. (1987). Consumer ethnocentrism:
Construction and validation of the CETSCALE. Journal of
Marketing Research, 24(3), 280-289.
Zaichkowsky, J. L. (1994). The personal involvement inventory:
reduction, revision, and application to advertising. Journal of
Advertising, 23(4), 59-70.
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VIRTUAL GAMES: OLyMPIC
SPONSORSHIP AND NEW MEDIA
Author:
Dana Ellis
email:
delli080@uottawa.ca
Co-authors:
Sguin, Benoit
University:
The University of Ottawa
Faculty:
Human Kinetics
Abstract
Aim of the Paper
With online platforms a leading force in modern business
communications and public relations, the Olympic
movement must continue to adapt and integrate the
platform into all aspects of its own communications mix.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the opportunities
and threats emerging for Olympic sponsorship as a result
of the ever-increasing scope and importance of new media
as a communication platform. To achieve this objective the
following research questions will be examined: 1) how do
Olympic marketing stakeholders view the role of new
media in Olympic marketing and sponsorship? 2) what
opportunities and threats are created by new media for
Olympic sponsorship? 3) How might these opportunities
and threats impact the sponsorship practices of Olympic
sponsors and the brand management practices of Olympic
property owners?
Literature review
Following the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver the
International Olympic Committee (IOC) declared them to
be the first social media Games (IOC, 2010). The IOC
used platforms such as twitter, youTube and Flickr to
engage the public online with much success, including
nearly 200 million impressions from their Facebook page
(IOC, 2010). Similarly the Vancouver 2010 website
recorded 275 million visitors, more than double the number
from Beijing in 2008 (IOC, 2011). With such an increase in
online engagement the consequences for Olympic
sponsorship should not be ignored. For the purpose of this
paper the term new media will be used to describe online
engagement in various forms including websites,
broadcasting, and social media sites such as Facebook
and twitter. An examination of previous literature on new
media and sport marketing revealed only a handful of
articles dealing directly with this emerging area. One such
example is the work of Santomier (2008) who argues that
the value of sport sponsorship has been increased as a
result of thematically linked, integrated, strategic global
marketing initiatives driven by new media applications (p.
15).
Outside of the Olympic context Keller (2003) has
presented a 4 stage process in strategic brand
management to grow and sustain brand equity. As part of
this, he emphasizes the ability of an organization to
understand how strategies should be adjusted over time
(Keller, 2003). There has also been some research in the
specific area of Olympic brand management. For instance
Sguin and OReilly (2008) proposed a model for Olympic
brand management to reduce clutter, fight ambush
marketing and delineate stakeholder responsibilities. This
paper seeks to use these models as a guide to discuss the
potential impacts of digital media on Olympic brand
management practices.
Methodology
This paper consists of 15 interviews completed with six
sponsors from the Vancouver Winter Olympics, six
Olympic marketing personnel, and three Olympic
marketing experts. The interviews lasted between 40
minutes and one hour and 40 minutes and were tape
recorded and transcribed. The interviews were coded and
categorized according to emerging themes related to the
discussion the potential impacts of new media on Olympic
marketing.
From the perspective of Olympic property owners, the
emergence of new media as a platform for sponsorship is
a key trend for the future of the field. Similarly many
sponsors felt that, going forward, many changes to the way
they activate their sponsorship will be born out of the
expanded marketplace offered by new media options.
However, as expected, the emergence of this expanded
platform provides all the above stakeholders, with both
opportunities and threats. New media seems to provide
both sponsors and Olympic property owners with similar
opportunities including a more direct approach to specific
target markets, a chance for direct interaction with
consumers and, most of all, and another way to put their
brand in front of the public. Alternatively, specifically for the
property it offers access to the elusive youth market and
for the sponsors the opportunity to combine with other
sponsors creatively. Threats posed by new media for both
groups include an increased platform for ambush
marketing, while sponsors may experience increased cost
in activating already expensive sponsorships and Olympic
property holders are forced to exert control over multiple
stakeholders in a fast moving and, as of yet, under
regulated environment.
From a brand management perspective these issues add a
level of increased complexity to many already indentified
tasks. These include: integration in a worldwide marketing
mix, articulation of clear guidelines for all stakeholders,
increased competencies for organizing committees and
national Olympic committees, reevaluation of the structure
of sponsorship, broadcasting and online rights agreements,
clearer consideration of target markets, and managing the
consistency of the Olympic brand.
References:
IOC. (2010, March 22). Vancouver 2010: The First Social Media
Games. Retrieved March 26, 2011 from:
http://www.olympic.org/vancouver-2010-winter-
olympics?articlenewsgroup=-
1&currentarticlespageipp=10&currentarticlespage=2&articleid=7818
7.
IOC. (2011). FACTSHEET: Vancouver Facts and Figures. Retrieved
March 26, 2011 from:
http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_Vancouver_2010/Factsh
eet_Vancouver_legacy_February_2011_eng.pdf.
Keller, K.L. (2003). Strategic Brand Management: Building,
measuring and managing brand equity (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.
Santomier, J. (2008). New media, branding and global sports
sponsorship. International Journal of Sports Marketing &
Sguin, B. & OReilly, N.J. (2008). The Olympic brand, ambush
marketing and clutter. International Journal of Sport Management
and Marketing, 4(1), 62-84.
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390
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FRAMING THE OLyMPIC ELITE
ATHLETE FUNDING ISSUE: A CASE
STUDy OF CANADIAN MEDIA
COVERAGE
Author:
Daniel Mason
email:
dmason@ualberta.ca
Co-authors:
xue, Hanhan Humphreys, Brad Johnson, Bruce
Whitehead, John
University:
University of Alberta
Faculty:
Physical Education & Recreation
Abstract
The Government of Canada has invested heavily in
funding elite athletes for the Olympic Games. For example,
the federal government invested $66 million in the Own
the Podium programa national initiative established in
2005, dedicated to placing Canada first in the total medal
count at the 2010 Olympic Winter Games (Canadian
Heritage, 2009). Moreover, the federal budget in 2010
earmarked $44 million for Canadas elite athletes, including
$10 million over two years to renew funding for the
identification and development of elite athletes and $34
million over two years to help finance training programs for
athletes planning to compete in the next Summer and
Winter Olympics (Department of Finance Canada, 2010).
These efforts show the Canadian federal governments
commitment to the pursuit of Olympic medals through the
strengthening of funding support for elite athletes;
however, the decision to fund elite athletes to win medals
has led to significant debate in Canada. In this context,
media coverage of this issue provides a platform to frame
the debate.
Media frames select some aspects of perceived reality and
make them more salient in a news article, in such a way
as to declare the underlying causes and possible
consequences of a problem and establish criteria for
evaluating the potential treatment of the problem (Entman,
1993; Nelson, Clawson, & Oxley, 1997). As such, media
frames organize presentations of facts and opinions and
construct specific discussion base for social or political
issues (Nelson, Clawson, & Oxley, 1997).
This is a work-in-progress study that investigates how the
media frame the elite funding issue in Canada. More
specifically, we examine the discourse in media coverage
of the Olympic Games surrounding funding for elite
athletes. We also sought to examine frames in newspaper
coverage over two time periodsleading up to the 2010
Vancouver Olympic Games and during/after the Games
themselves. In doing so, we sought to examine if the
results of the Games may have influenced the manner
through which media coverage focused on the importance
or value of elite athlete funding.
We conducted a qualitative media content analysis, briefly
contrasted with conventional modes of quantitative content
analysis to illustrate the usefulness of constant comparison
for discovering emergent patterns, emphases, and themes
(Altheide, 1996, p.32) (Altheide, 1996). As we focused on
Canadas experience as a host nation of 2010 Winter
Olympic Games (February 12-28, 2010), we confined the
time scope for news article collection from January1, 2009
through November 4, 2009 (a pre-Olympic period) and
from February 12, 2010 through March 29, 2010 (during
and post-Olympics). About three hundred relevant news
articles were collected from various newspaper
organizations such as the Globe and Mail, National Post,
The Vancouver Sun, and Toronto Star through Canadian
Newsstand Database. All of the articles were
chronologically organized through Microsoft Word and
were then assigned into two case files based on their
publish dates: (1) pre-Olympics, and (2) during and post-
Olympics. The news articles in each case file were then
sorted by format (news, editorial/opinion/column, and
letter). We analyzed the data in four steps. First, we
developed three code categories answering the question
should federal government spend tax dollars on
supporting Olympic-bounded elite athletes? (yes, no, and
neutral articles discussing funding but taking no clear
position in the debate). Second, we flagged each news
article in each case file by attaching specific code category
tags to the article using the program ATLAS.ti 6, then
counted the article number under each code category and
sorted format in each case file. Third, we studied the
media content of articles under each code category to
examine the themes underpinning the debate. For
example, some news articles under yes category linked
funding Olympic elite athletes with national pride; some
emphasized the benefits for mass sport participation.
Frames then emerged from these arguments in each case
file. Finally, frames generated were compared between the
two time periods, to see whether and how frames changed
before and after the Games.
Data analysis is still in progress; thus, we do not include
results and discussion here. However, we feel our study
can make three contributions: (1) the examination of
frames and frame changes in the Olympic context
contributes to the broader literature on media framing; (2)
understanding frames sheds new light on the issue of
government support for elite athletes; and (3) based on the
media frames and frame changes, government policy
makers could have an understanding of various opinions
toward their funding elite athletes behaviour and thereby
develop related strategies to facilitate their funding policies.
References:
Altheide, D.L. (1996). Qualitative media analysis. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Canadian Heritage. (2009, September 25). Government of Canada
helps Canadian athletes Own the Podium in 2010. Retrieved from
http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/Government-of-Canada-
Helps-Canadian-Athletes-Own-the-Podium-in-2010-1050713.htm
Department of Finance Canada. (2010, March 4). Budget 2010:
Leading the way on jobs and growth. Retrieved from
http://www.budget.gc.ca/2010/plan/toc-tdm-eng.html
Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Towards clarification of a fractured
paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 5158.
Nelson, T. E., Oxley, Z. M., & Clawson, R.A. (1997). Media framing
of a civil rights conflict and its effect on tolerance. American Political
Science Review, 91, 567583.
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Sport Policy
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Workshops
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394
WHERE IS THE IMPLEMENTATION IN
SPORT POLICy AND PROGRAMME
ANALySIS?
Author:
Jimmy O'Gorman
email:
ogormanj@edgehill.ac.uk
University:
Edge Hill University
Faculty:
FAS / Sport & Physical Activity
Abstract
Although there is an abundance of research into sports
programmes and policies that inherently discuss
implementation, with the exception of Skille (2008), most
fail to explicitly address this phenomenon, nor do they
consider theories and concepts associated with
implementation evident in social and political sciences.
This paper contends that to ignore such a vital process
may limit or constrain knowledge of not only how and why
sport policies and programmes have been implemented,
but also how we come to make assumptions and
propositions as to their impacts and relative successes or
failures. As such, this paper has a number of objectives.
First, to encourage the incorporation, generation and
innovation of existing implementation theories, concepts
and models into the sport policy analysis lexicon. It is
hoped that this will not only generally broaden the sport
policy analysis research agenda, but specifically generate
and develop a theoretically informed literature on the
practice of sport policy and programme implementation to
enhance sport policy students, academics and
policymakers knowledge of the implementation process.
Second, and to this end, the paper critiques the existing
developments in theory building regarding implementation
evident in the literature. Concurring with several leading
implemenation theorists (De Leon and De Leon 2002;
O'Toole 2004), this paper contends that there is a
problematic relationship regarding the search for a
generalized theory of policy implementation that can be
applied to all policies (De Leon and De Leon 2002), and
the capactiy of proponents of different theories to argue
past one another (O'Toole 2004) which has reached an
intellectual dead end. Indeed, given the paucity of sport
policy implementation literature generally, and the lack of
application of relevant implementation theories and
concepts, following De Leon and De Leon (2002, p. 489), it
is advisable to focus on understanding particular issues
and processes in relation to specific policies and
programmes rather than embarking on a futile search for a
generic meta-theory applicable to all sports policies.
Therefore, it is suggested that researchers analysing sport
policy implementation or analysing policies in which
implementation is an inherent aspect, single or
comparative case studies are more conducive to
increasing our understanding of sport policy
implementation and generating a literary base that aids our
understanding. Third, and in this connection, following a
rejection of dichotomous top-down/bottom-up and
synthesized models, this paper thoroughly considers
Matlands (1995) model of conflict and ambiguity as a
potential fruitful model to aid the understanding of the
implementation of one particular sport policy. Drawing on
qualitative empirical data from an analysis of the English
Football Associations Charter Standard, Matlands (1995)
model is applied to analyse the processes and outcomes
of implementation. However, although Matlands
categories provide a useful analytical typology in this
illustrative example, they fail to adequately account for
processes of communication, bargaining and the use of
power expressed in terms of either coercion or negotiated
agreements (Schofield 2004, p. 290). The paper concludes
by suggesting such gaps in analytical capacity could
potentially be complemented by the policy networks
literature (Marsh and Smith 2001), particularly given that
such frameworks allow analysis to move away from the
inhibitive characteristic of policy implementation research
identifying, confirming or refuting generalistic variables. To
this end, the paper revisits the original data to propose an
intergrated framework of policy networks and Matland's
categories in generating a more reality congruent
framework with which to analyse the implementation of one
specific sports policy. Furthermore, drawing on this case
specific example, calls for more in depth, theoretically
informed analyses of specific sports programme and policy
implmentation are called for.
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th
References:
De Leon, P. and De Leon, L., 2002. What ever happened to policy
implementation? An alternative approach. Journal of Public
Administration Research and Theory, 12 (4), 467492.
Marsh, D. and Smith, M., 2001. There is more than one way to do
political science: on different ways to study policy networks.
Political Studies, 49, 528541.
Matland, R.E., 1995. Synthesizing the implementation literature: the
ambiguity conflict model of policy implementation. Journal of Public
Administration Research and Theory, 5, 145174.
O'Toole L.J. 2004. The theory-practice issue in policy
implementation research. Public Administration, 82 (4), 309-29
Schofield, J., 2004. A model of learned implementation. Public
Administration, 82 (2), 283.
Skille, E.A., 2008. Understanding sport clubs as sport policy
implementers: a theoretical framework for the analysis of the
implementation of central sport policy through local and voluntary
sport organizations. International Review for the Sociology of Sport,
43 (2), 181200.
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396
MANAGING SPORT AS A WICKED
PROBLEM
Author:
Steffie Lucidarme
email:
steffie.lucidarme@ugent.be
Co-authors:
Willem, Annick Magherman, Leen Balduck Anne-Line
University:
Ghent University
Faculty:
Movement and Sport Sciences
Abstract
Introduction and aims
Houlihan (2005) pointed out that notwithstanding the
increased interest of many governments in sport, sport
policy remained on the margins for a long time. In the
early years 2000 other policy areas such as health care,
frameworks and models were developed and revised,
while only few academics did research in the analysis of
sport policies (Houlihan, 2005). This was partly due to the
fact that many academics in sport management questioned
the relevance of their research for sport managers in the
field (Weese, 1995). Another more essential aspect is that
governments have different justifications for their support in
sport. The five most common are health, economics,
community development, social welfare and national pride
(Chalip, 2006). The focus of most Western public sport
policies can be summarized into two main objectives; the
support of elite sport to enhance national performances
and the encouragement of physic activity and competitive
sport participation of the civilians, the so-called sport for
all movement (Hoye, Nicholson, & Houlihan, 2010). Taking
these sometimes conflicting justifications and objectives in
account, it is clear that problems associated with national
sport policies are often complex and contested. To address
these problems this paper wants to point out from a
theoretical perspective what kind of sport policy
approaches are advisable for sport as a public policy area.
Using two different public management perspectives we
want to build a rationale for governance in the field of sport
management.
Theory
The first element in the theory building is that there are
indications in the literature that sport could be a wicked
problems. Three broad characteristics of wicked problems
can be synthesized from previous research: difficulties with
problem definition; uncertainties about causal relations;
and the propensity for remedies to result in new or
unintended problems (Roberts, 2000; Van Bueren, Klijn, &
Koppenjan, 2003). Sam (2009) concluded after his
research that the sport policy problem can indeed be
considered as wicked problems. The management
literature suggests two possible methods to deal with this
type of problems, the network perspective approach
(Edward & Anne, 2008; Roberts, 2000; Van Bueren et al.,
2003) and, the more complex the wicked problems get, the
more evidence-based policy-making comes into place
(John, Irene, & Mavis, 2009). This paper supports the
assumption that sport policy development and
implementation can be best realized through the
implementation of a sport policy network and the use of
evidence-based policy-making to address the more
complex issues. This theoretical viewpoint is illustrated and
explained further in this paper through two different
Flemish sport policy cases. The first case, Topsport
Vlaanderen, offers an unique setting of a network-based
approach to address the wicked problem of elite sport.
Topsport Vlaanderen is a Flemish cycling team which has,
besides regular private partners/sponsors also the elite
sport department of the Flemish government as a partner
and is accordingly also embedded in the elite sport
network of the Flemish government. The second case,
Flemish experimental garden (Dutch: Vlaamse
Proeftuinen), is an illustration of an evidence-based policy
in the Flemish sport policy. The garden contents different
subsidized projects which address new developments
within the field of sport, culture and youth. In the Flemish
context this is a total new concept and an ideal case for
this research.
Method
In this paper a literature review from the public
management field is made. Using the gathered information
a theoretical model for national sport policy implementation
is build. Finally this model is illustrated by using Flemish
policy actions.
Results
This paper brings some new insights from public
management to sport management and wants to contribute
to the theory-building in the research field of sport policy
and sport governance.
*In Belgium, the three communities (the Dutch-speaking
Flemish Community, the French-speaking Community and
the German-speaking Community) are authorized for the
policy area sport. As a result each community has its own
approach towards sport and in this paper we have chosen
to use Flemish examples.
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References:
Chalip, L. (2006). Towards a Distinctive Sport Management
Discipline. Journal of Sport Management, 20, 1-21.
Edward, W., & Anne, K. (2008). Wicked problems, knowledge
challenges, and collaborative capacity builders in network settings.
Public Administration Review, 68(2), 334-349.
Houlihan, B. (2005). Public Sector Sport Policy. International
Review for the Sociology of Sport, 40(2), 163-185.
Hoye, R., Nicholson, M., & Houlihan, B. (2010). Sport and Policy:
issues and analysis. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
John, T., Irene, L., & Mavis, J. (2009). Noisy and definitely not
normal: responding to wicked issues in the environment, energy
and health. Environmental Science & Policy, 12(3), 347-358.
Roberts, N. (2000). Wicked Problems and Network Approaches to
Resolution. International Public Management Review, 1(1), 1-19.
Sam, M. (2009). The Public Management of Sport. Public
Van Bueren, E., Klijn, E., & Koppenjan, J. (2003). Dealing with
Wicked Problems in Networks: Analyzing an Environmental Debate
from a Network Perspective. Journal of Public Administration
Research and Theory, 13(2), 193-212.
Weese, W. (1995). If we're not serving practitioners, then we're not
serving sport management. Journal of Sport Management, 9, 237-
243.
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398
THE PROCESS OF AGENDA SETTING
OF SPORT EVENTS HOSTING
POLICIES: THE CASES OF LAUSANNE
(SWITZERLAND) AND QUEBEC CITy
(CANADA)
Author:
Olivier Mutter
email:
omutter@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Mutter, Olivier McConnell Allard, Coralie
University:
Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration,
Lausanne, Switzerland
Abstract
Research question
Over the past few decades, sport events have become a
very popular instrument to enhance economic
development, tourism, urban regeneration and increased
awareness of destination for cities and countries. Specific
public policies have been developed and implemented by
regions and countries that wish to attract and organize
sport events as a tool for reaching public goals (Chappelet
2006; Leopkey, Mutter and Parent 2010). This paper
focuses on describing and analysing the process of the
agenda-setting phase of these public policies at a local
level, analysing the cases of Lausanne (Switzerland) and
Quebec City (Canada), with the objective of understanding
the process of policy change involved.
Numerous theoretical frameworks have been developed to
analyse the process of policy change including: the stage
model, institutional analysis, the multiple streams
framework, the advocacy coalition framework and the
policy networks (Knoepfel, Larrue, Varone, Hill, 2007; King
2009). Houlihan (2005) has tested most of these
frameworks to assess whether they fit the sport policy
context. He concluded that the advocacy coalition
framework is the most suited to analyse the process of
policy change in sports, and has therefore adapted this
framework to make it more relevant to the analysis of sport
policy. His model combines various independent variables
to explain the process of policy change as the role of
administrative arrangements, resources and interactions
between interests groups, as well as the importance of
values and norms, and finally the specific social and
historical context. We consider that this model is
particularly relevant for analysing the process of agenda
setting of sport events hosting public policies.
Methodology
The methodological framework used for this paper is a
case study approach. The research method includes
document analysis, interviews with political leaders and
senior civil servants at local, regional and national levels,
and sport events organizers. The research has been
conducted on site in Switzerland and Canada in 2009 and
2010.
The final results of the study are still to be analysed.
However, preliminary results highlight the importance of
interest groups (policy entrepreneurs and policy networks),
resources (funding, political legitimacy), administrative
arrangements (governmental organisation, institutional
rules) and policy paradigm (city branding and economic
development through sport) as explaining variables for the
process of agenda-setting of sport events hosting policies.
At this stage of the research analysis, it appears that the
role of policy entrepreneurs (IOC President Juan Antonio
Samaranch (1980-2000) in Lausanne; Mayor Regis
Labeaume (1998-) in Quebec City) and of policy networks
(IOC, State of Vaud, City of Lausanne, Lausanne Tourism
in Lausanne; City of Quebec, Province of Quebec, Private
Organizers in Quebec) is critical to explain the process of
policy change in both cases..
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References:
Chappelet, J.-L. (2006). Les politiques publiques d'accueil
d'vnements sportifs. Paris, L'Harmattan.
Houlihan B. (2005). Public Sector Public Policy: Developing a
Framework for Analysis, International Review for the Sociology of
Sport, London: Sage.
King N. (2009). Sport policy and governance: local perspectives,
Butterworth-Oxford: Heinemann.
Knoepfel, P., Larrue, C., Varone, F. and Hill, M. (2007). Public
policy analysis. Bristol: The Policy Press.
Leopkey B., O. Mutter and M. Parent (2010). Barriers and
facilitators when hosting sporting events: Exploring the Canadian
and Swiss sport event hosting policies. International Journal of
Sport Policy and Politics, Volume 2, Issue 2 July 2010, pages 113
134, Routledge.
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400
19
th
INVESTIGATION OF INSTITUTIONAL
DISCOURSE ON CHANGE IN SOUTH
KOREAN FOOTBALL FROM 1945 TO
PRE-2002 FIFA WORLD CUP
Author:
Sang-yeol Bang
email:
S.Bang@lboro.ac.uk
University:
Faculty:
School of Sport, Exercise Sciences and Health Sciences
Abstract
Objectives and Research Questions
Since Independence from Japanese occupation in 1945,
and in the aftermath of the Korean civil War, South Korea
has experienced important transitions: politically, from
military rule to democracy, and economically from heavy
industrialisation, led by the Cheabol (South Koreas
industrial conglomerate), to a market economy. Within this
period South Korea turned from a developing country to
the worlds 15th richest country, and in football, to one of
the top football nations in Asia. Hence, this study seeks to
understand the construction and legitimisation of change
and development in South Korean football. In relation to
football and politics as well as policy making in football, the
study asks the following question: how South Korean
postcolonial project for development and nation-building
have discursively shaped discourses on change/and
development in South Korean football, starting from the
liberation in 1945 to the pre-2002 FIFA World Cup?
This study adopts postcolonial theoretical debates and
Foucauldian discourse analysis to explore the discourses,
or system of representations (Hall, 2001: 72), on change
in Korean football. Debates on modernity and
modernisation, including the framing of South Koreas
identity in opposition to others (i.e. North Korea, Japan and
the West), are useful lens to investigate changes in South
Korean society in general, and South Korean football in
particular.
Methodology, Research Design, and Data Analysis
Foucaults archaeological analysis on knowledge (1972)
and genealogical analysis on power (1980) are adopted to
make sense of discourses on change (development and
reforms) in football in different historical phases or
transitions of South Korean society: a) from conflict to
post-conflict; b) from authoritarian regime to
democratisation and; c) from industrialisation to market
economy. In applying qualitative research strategy,
documents collected from FIFA (1940s to 2000s) and KFA
(1980s to 2000s), national archive (1940s to 2000s), as
well as Korean media (1940s to 2000s), were analysed.
These include the following:
- Correspondence between FIFA and KFA (100)
- Minutes of FIFA Congress, Executive Committee and
Special Committee (50)
- FIFA Magazine and other reports (20)
- Reports and policy documents from KFA (20)
- Monthly Football Magazine (the voice of KFA and
Korean football committee) (40)
- Other Football related magazines (20)
- Newspaper articles (published between 1940s to 2000)
(600)
- KOWOCs (the 2002 World Cup committee) reports (5)
- Korean governments reports and policy documents (20)
- Minutes of Korean parliament (30)
- History books (3)
- Memoirs/biographies (5)
Results
Discourse on nation-building and modernisation have
dominated debates on football in post-independent South
Korea. In the Cold-War era, nationalist discourses in
opposition to Japan, North Korea, and China had
shaped meanings and values of football in Korea. They
reflected questions of power, prestige, and Korean
territorial sovereignty. Namely, in relation to football
development, the morphology of South Korean football
players, adoption of western scientific approaches to
coaching, and the development of a South Korean
unique style of footballin opposition to North Korean
and Japanese styles were at the centre of the debates on
change in Korean football. From the 1980s, the
involvement of business interests, represented by the
Chaebol conglomerates, in the football affairs had changed
the meaning of Korean football, pushing thus for a more
rationalised and a business oriented approach to
football, as a break with the contested traditional and
amateur values of the past. In the 1990s, the transition
from a military rule to democratisation in Korea and the
hosting of the 2002 FIFA World Cup, witnessed the
emergence of other discourses such as co-prosperity and
co-operation with other Asian nations including the
former colonizer i.e. Japanthe role of Asia in the new
map of international football, and systemic football
development from grass root to elite levels, as the ways
forward for a better performance of South Korea in the
international football arena.
References:
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: selected interviews and
other writings, 1972-1977. New york: The Harvester Press.
Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of knowledge. London:
Tavistock Publications.
Hall, S. (2001). Foucault: Power, Knowledge and Discourse. in M.
Wetherell, S. Taylor & S. yates (Eds.), Discourse theory and
practice: a reader (pp. 72-81). London: SAGE.
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402
19
th
GLOBAL LAW AND THE NATION STATE
IN A WORLD SOCIETy THE
COMPLICATED PROCESS OF
IMPLEMENTING INTERNATIONAL ANTI-
DOPING RULES
Author:
Ulrik Wagner
email:
uw@sdu.dk
University:
University of Southern Denmark
Faculty:
Dept. Leadership & Corporate Governance
Abstract
Aim of Abstract
The purpose of this analysis is to explore how the World
Anti-Doping Code (WADC) is implemented in national
legislation, discuss why this translation process is
complicated and finally outline some critical implications for
democratic policy-making.
Doping scandals in 1998 revealed that sport organizations,
the IOC in particular, no longer were able to combat doping
without political interference. The World Anti-Doping
Agency, created in 1999, is described as a partnership
between sport and politics. In order to implement the Code
various governments in 2005 agreed upon the UNESCO
International Convention Against Doping in Sport enabling
them to make the Code content the basis for national
legislation. Thus, rules formulated by politicians and by the
international sport movement representatives emerged on
a supranational level and subsequently had to be
transformed to and implemented at a national policy level.
Despite efforts to create a common harmonized set of
rules on a global scale we still witness dissimilarities,
lacking efforts to implement to Code content and national
counter activities (Hanstad et al., 2010)
This study adopts understandings of world society found in
new institutional sociology and autopoietic systems theory.
Meyer el al. (1997) claim that many features of nation
states derive from a world society culture. In addition,
Teubner (2002) argues that in contemporary society laws
emerging beyond the state deconstruct the hitherto
existing structural coupling between law and politics. Like
this, additional discourses are allowed to intervene the
process of establishing laws. In this World Society
understanding International Non-Governmental
Organizations play a vital role in defining policy (Boli &
Thomas, 1997). Despite governmental involvement in
WADA the agency can be termed an International Non-
Governmental Organization. Nonetheless, a critical
assessment of World Society theory is that the
institutionalization process (from world society to nation
state level) is not merely a top-down process leading to
isomorphism. Policy outlined at the world society level is
confronted with existing national structures which by
Campbell is termed `translation (2004). This
understanding might explain the heterogeneity when we
observe how the Code is implemented.
Methodology
The creation of the WADC is explored by scrutinizing
textual document referring to the open hearing process
prior to the creation of the Code (2003; 2007). Discourses
emerging from world society are outlined and their impact
is discussed.
Based on policy papers, anti-doping laws and government
statements four cases of the national implementation of the
Code are analyzed and compared: Denmark, Germany,
USA and Russia. Thus two European as well as the two
former rivals of the Cold War-era are selected. Binary
variables (yes/no) derived from reading the WADAs
Models for Best Practice (ver. 7.0) based upon the 2009
WADC enable a qualitative comparative set-up which
sheds light upon differences and similarities of the code
implementation process.
Although the study represents preliminary work-in-progress
first indications show that:
- During the process of creating the Code non-political
organizations had huge influence on the final content of
the rules. This correlates with the assumption prompted
by Teubner, that law-like structures created beyond the
nation state are open for additional world society
discourses, thus undermining the traditional structural
coupling between politics and law.
- Despite the purpose of creating common rules and
harmonized anti-doping efforts, national dissimilarities
occur, e.g. recently Denmark amended their anti-doping
law in order to encompass fitness doping, but still with a
reference to WADC which basically deals with elite
sport, and prior to the 2008 Olympic Games Russian
track- and field athletics faced positive findings which
indicated the existence of decoupling tactics in Russia
as the formal support for the WADC wasnt followed by
the implementation of proportionate national anti-doping
measures.
One of the purposes of creating WADA was to give politics
a central role in the anti-doping campaign. This process,
however, has given the sport federations huge influence on
law-making processes thus undermining the political
control which potentially can become a democratic
problem in so far as it allows non-elected representatives
of sport a key role in defining policies. In particular
because sport federations, contrary to nation states,
operate on a global scale they seem to benefit from laws
created beyond the nation states. From a public
management perspective the contradictions between
globalised sport organizations and political organizations
primarily operating at nation state levels seem to be the
crucial obstacle for a successful anti-doping harmonization.
This indicates the need for a more realistic understanding
of the possibilities as well as constraints of adopting global
policies at national policy levels.
References:
Boli, J. & Thomas, G.M. (1997). World culture in the world polity: A
century of international non-govermental organizations. American
Sociological Review, 62 (2): 171-190.
Campbell, J.L. (2004). Institutional Change and Globalization.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Hanstad, D. V., Skille, E. . & Loland, S. (2010). Harmonization of
anti-doping work: myth or reality? Sport in Society, 13 (3): 418-430.
Meyer, J. ; Boli, J..; G.; Thomas, G. & Ramirez, F.O. (1997). World
society and the nation-state. American Journal of Sociology, 103
(1): 144 181.
Teubner, G. (2002) Breaking Frames Economic Globalization and
the Emergence of `lex mercatoria. European Journal of Social
Theory, 5 (2): 199 217.
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404
PUBLIC SERVICE INNOVATION. THE
INNOVATIVE CAPABILITy OF
PORTUGUESE MUNICIPAL SPORT
SERVICES
Author:
Gasto Sousa
email:
gsousa@docentes.ismai.pt
Co-authors:
Silva, Maria Jos Simes, Jorge
University:
Instituto Superior da Maia, ISMAI
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
The services sector has taken a key position in the
economy, representing a high proportion in wealth creation
and employment (OECD, 2007). In parallel, from a vision
of the services sector as a poor innovator and "absorbing"
the innovation from the manufacturing sector, we are
moving to the vision of the services with their own modes
of innovation, although it is highlighted its heterogeneity
and the need for empirical studies to help clarify how
innovation occurs (Miles, 2008). This research place is
focus on public services, particularly on municipal sport
services, and hopes to contribute to a better understanding
of this subject, setting as its main objective to identify and
analyse the factors influencing innovation in the sport
services of the Portuguese Municipalities and, accordingly,
its innovation capacity.
The theoretical approach is based in the current
conceptual framework on service innovation and new
public management (Sundbo, 2008; Potts, 2009) and has
developed a theoretical framework that justified the
elaboration of an original conceptual model (Figure 1),
which suggests that the innovative capability of municipal
sports services is directly influenced by activities or
innovation processes, and indirectly by factors related to
the structure, strategy and context.
Considering the complexity of the research topic and lack
of appropriate instruments to measure the innovative
capability of municipal sport services, four scales were
developed and validated using exploratory factor and
internal consistency analysis. The research hypotheses
were empirically tested, using structural equation modelling
through path analysis, looking for identify the relationships
of influencing variables. Data were collected through a
questionnaire addressed to policy makers and technicians
of all Portuguese municipalities, which obtained a
response rate of 64.9%, corresponding to 200 of a
population of 308 municipalities.
The results show that (i) innovation activities, i.e.,
operations on a day-to-day bases that organization use to
develop, implement and disseminate innovation are a
strong predictor of its ability to innovate in all types of
innovation : service, process, communication / marketing
and organizational, (ii) the structure of the municipal sport
services influence their innovative capability through an
external orientation to stakeholders, support expressed by
the political and technical leadership to new ideas and their
implementation, by allocating resources and manpower to
the actions necessary to implement the new ideas, and
finally through an internal culture that foster
entrepreneurship; (iii) the internal entrepreneurship and the
formalization of an innovation strategy revealed the higher
levels of influence on the innovation activities, which
highlights their importance on innovation; (iv) proximity to
the macro and micro context in municipal sport services,
has a positive and significant influence on the formalization
of the innovation strategy, while proximity to the macro
context has a positive effect on the openness of the
innovation strategy.
The results of this research allow us to set some
guidelines for policy makers and technicians that work at
the municipal sport services and are looking for promoting
the innovative capability in their region. These entities
need to promote a closer relationship with its surroundings
and formalize its innovation strategy. In addition, the
innovative capability will be based on a policy that supports
internal entrepreneurship and the allocation of funds and
human resources for innovative ideas with the consequent
support of the leadership who must regularly evaluate the
results and impact of innovation.
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References:
Miles, I. (2008). Patterns of innovation in service industries. IBM
Systems Journal, Vol. 47, N .1, pp. 115-128.
OECD (2007). Globalisation and Structural Adjustment. Summary
report of the study on globalisation and innovation in the business
services sector. OECD, Paris.
Potts, J. (2009). The innovation deficit in public services: The
curious problem of too much efficiency and not enough waste and
failure. Innovation: Management, Policy & Practice, Vol. 11. pp. 34-
43.
Sundbo, J. (2008). Innovation and involvement in services in
Fuglsang, L. (Edts.) Innovation and the creative process : towards
innovation with care. Edward Elgar, Cheltenhham, UK.
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406
RIO 2016: SPORT POLICIES?
Author:
Leandro Mazzei
email:
lemazzei78@yahoo.com.br
Co-authors:
BASTOS, FLVIA da CUNHA
BHME, MARIA TEREZA DA SILVA
MEIRA, TATIANA
University:
UNIVERSIDADE DE SO PAULO
Faculty:
ESCOLA DE ESPORTE E EDUCAO
FSICA/GEPETIJ/GEPAE
Abstract
The international sport success can be considered a
valuable tool. Many countries seek this success in order to
achieve a number of other goals in their internal and
external policies (GREEN & HOULIHAN, 2005). This view
is more evident by the current competition between nations
and cities for host international sporting events. Several
countries spend years and years planning sport policies,
mainly to host the Olympic Games, with the perspective of
improvements in internal infrastructure and external image
of the country. The Olympic events reached professional
proportions and amounts of financial investment ever
imaginable before (RUBIO, 2005; PAyNE, 2006).
Therefore, when a city is chosen to host the Olympic
Games, the country should develop consistent policies for
this event and, if possible, gain a prominent worldwide
position in term of number of medals. Exception of the
USA, who always had good ratings in the medal table,
countries like Korea (4th place in 1988), Spain (6th place
in 1992), Australia (4th place in 2000) Greece (15th place
in 2004) and China (1st place in 2008), conquered a
number of Olympic medals so far never achieved in the
professional era of the Games. Some nations have
developed a consistent sport policy before hosting the
edition and kept a considerable development after the
Games. Others, developed a fragile sports policies,
immediate, no building a legacy and with big debts and
problems in the sport development and public
infrastructure. A strong system of sport policy can reflect in
great success in international competitions. Two examples
are the United Kingdom and Canada. The UK
systematized the sports structure in 1997, following the
failure in Atlanta in 1996. In Sydney 2000 and Athens 2004
moved from 36th to 10th place, in Beijing 2008 reaching
the 4th. Canada, through a national plan implemented in
long term, prepared the country to receive the Winter
Olympics in Vancouver in 2010, which lead the conquest of
first place in such games (DE BOSSCHER et al, 2008;
IOC, 2010). The aim of this paper is to analyze the Sport
Policies in Brazil, given that the country will host the 2016
Olympic Games, in the city of Rio de Janeiro. The study
was based on the methodological model of De Bosscher et
al. (2008). Documental content analysis was carried out to
identify specific aspects and actions relating to the nine
pillars and their critical factors for international success in
sport. The documents used were laws, policies and
institutional documents of National Olympic Committee
(NOC) and National Governing Bodies (NGB) of Olympic
sports. The main results show that in the last years the
Brazilian government has passed lottery funds (through
specific legislation Law 10264/2001) to the National
Olympic Committee, which has divided among 30 Olympic
sports (con) federations. Some elite athletes has financial
support of the Sports Ministry (Law 10891/2004) and some
projects for sport development are sustained for the
renouncing of the federal government for tax collection
(Law 11438/2006) (Pillar 1). Since 2002, Brazil has hosted
many international events with the goal of hosting the
Games of 2016 (Pillar 8). Another initiative was the
establishment of the Olympic Public Authority (OPA) in
2010, responsible for coordinating the participation of the
three level of public policies (Union, State and City of Rio
de Janeiro) in the management of the Games, but not yet
in operation (Pillar 2). Other projects are only perspectives,
for example, the Federal Government decided to expand
the goals of national programs which combine sport,
leisure and education (Pillar 3) and the building of specific
places for training facilities (Pillar 6). Meanwhile, programs
aimed to detection, selection and promotion of young
sports talents (Discovery of Sporting Talent program) and
scientific research and innovation in Sport (CENESP
network) in practice, are not in operation (Pillar 4 and 9
respectively). Governmental programs relating to athletic
career and post career support, and coach education and
provisions practically do not exist (Pillar 5 and 7). These
results shows that little have been done in relation to elite
sport policies. One possibility for the analysis is that the
country had few programs for olimpic sports and only after
the victory of Rio to host the Games waited more than a
year, until the general governmental election in 2010, to
implement programs for sport in the country. In conclusion,
this fact directly influenced in the retard of decisions that
will be taken for management Rio 2016 and that also
probably will reflect in the level of the performance of
athletes and Sport Policies of this country.
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References:
De Bosscher, V.; Shibli, J. B.; Van Bottenburg, M.; De Knop, P.
(2008).The global Sporting Arms Race. An international
sporting success. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer.
Green, M., &Houlihan, B. (2005). Elite sport development: Policy
learning and political priorities. London: Routledge.
International Olympic Committee (IOC) (2010).Available in:
<http//www.olympic.org>. Access: 20 jan. 2010.
Payne, M. (2006). A Virada Olmpica. Rio de Janeiro: COI, Casa
das Palavras.
Rubio, K. (2005). Da Europa Para Amrica: A Trajetria do
Movimento Olmpico Brasileiro. Geo Crtica Scripta Nova, Revista
Electrnica De Geografa y CienciasSociales Universidad De
Barcelona, v. Ix, n 200.
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408
GENDER JUSTICE, CITIZENSHIP AND
SPORT:
AN ANALySIS OF UK SPORT AND
PHySICAL EDUCATION POLICy IN THE
CONTExT OF EUROPEAN GENDER
EQUALITy DIRECTIVES, AND SPORT
POLICy
Author:
Cathy Devine
email:
cathy.devine@cumbria.ac.uk
University:
University of Cumbria
Abstract
The European Sport Framework can be considered to
consist of the European Sports Charter (Council of Europe,
1992/2001) and the White Paper on Sport (European
Commission, 2007). Both of these define sport as all
forms of physical activity which, through casual or
organised participation, aim at expressing or improving
physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social
relationships or obtaining results in competition at all
levels.
In 2004, research requested by the European Commission
investigating gender inequalities in sports participation
across Europe?s 25 member states, found significant
gender differences in sports participation in 12 counties
(Van Tuyckom et al 2010). In Belgium, France, Greece,
Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Spain, and the UK, men were
more active; whereas, conversely, in Denmark, Finland,
Sweden and the Netherlands, the reverse was true. The
researchers concluded that in ?some European countries
more efforts must be undertaken to promote the original
goals of the Sport for All Charter? and that to achieve
more female participation in sports will require different
policy responses in diverse European member states.
This paper utilises feminist philosophy and citizenship
theory to explore the extent to which the policy discourse
of sporting citizenship and gender mainstreaming in
Europe and the UK, addresses gender justice. It argues
that despite the widespread adoption of gender
mainstreaming, a discourse of gendered sporting
citizenship has captured UK physical education and sport
policy and practice, and this is hindering further progress
towards gender justice conceptualised as redistribution,
recognition and representation (Fraser 2009).
Sporting citizenship or a big sporting society has been
theorised within a framework of three generations of rights.
Thus, first generation rights are civil and political, second
generation rights are economic, social and cultural, and
third generation are collective rights to, for example, land
and water. However, a wealth of research documents the
extent to which the cultural practice of sport is gendered
terrain. In addition, the meaning of gender justice or
gender equality in relation to physical or movement culture
is contested. Nevertheless, in the UK, the Equality Act
2010 encapsulates four EU directives on gender equality
and Equality Impact Assessments (EIAs) require public
bodies or those providing public services to systematically
assess the likely (or actual) effects of policies on people in
respect of disability, gender and racial equality.
A number of feminist and political theorists have mapped
the contested landscape of gendered citizenship, gender
justice, gender equality and gender mainstreaming. The
three different approaches to gender justice are
conceptualised as: equality (redistribution), difference
(recognition), and critical synthesis or transformation
(emancipation). Adapting this analysis it is argued that
formal sporting citizenship rights might be accorded to all
individuals and regarded as gender neutral, but that
inequalities of opportunities and power derive from both
the sexual division of labour, and the sexual division of
play. Further, that women are more likely to be second
class sporting citizens than men. Thus gender justice in
sport policy could aim at a citizenship of equality but in
relation to the normative universal sportsman (cooption
into male sport, or cultural imperialism); and/or a
citizenship of difference involving sport/movement parity
(but a sexual division of play); or aim at a critical synthesis
or transformation and a universal movement citizenship.
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References:
Council of Europe, (1992, 2001). European Sports Charter.
Strasbourg. Council of Europe. Retrieved January 6, 2011, from
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/sport/sportineurope/charter_en.asp
European Commission, (2007). White Paper on Sport. Brussels.
European Commission. Retrieved January 6, 2011, from
http://ec.europa.eu/sport/white-paper/whitepaper8_en.htm#1
Flintoff, A. (2008). Targeting Mr Average: participation, gender
equity and school sport partnerships. Sport Education and Society,
13(4) 393-411.
Fraser, N. (2009). Feminism, Capitalism and the Cunning of
History. New Left Review. 56, 97-117. New Left Review.
Meier, P., and Lombardo, E. (2008). Concepts of citizenship
underlying EU gender equality policies. Citizenship Studies, 12(5),
481-493.
Millns, S. (2007). Gender Equality, Citizenship, and the EU?s
Constitutional Future. European Law Journal, 13(2), 218-237.
Smith, A., Green, K., and Thurston, M. (2009). Sport Education and
Society, 14(2) 203-222.
Van Tuyckom, C., Scheerder, J., and Bracke, P. (2010). Gender
and age inequalities in regular sports participation: A cross-national
study of 25 European countries. Journal of Sport Sciences, 28(10).
Walby, S. (2005). Measuring women?s progress in a global era.
International Social Science Journal, 57(184), 371-387.
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410
ExPLORATORy STUDy OF THE POLICy
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE
INTERNATIONAL TENNIS SUCCESS OF
COUNTRIES
Author:
Jessie Brouwers
email:
jbrouwer@bond.edu.au
Co-authors:
Sotiriadou, Popi De Bosscher, Veerle
University:
Faculty:
Department Sports Policy and Management
Abstract
Aim of the paper
In this study, tennis, an individual sport that places
emphasis more on Grand Slam tournaments and rankings
rather than on the Olympic Games, was examined in order
to identify the policy factors that influence the tennis
performance of countries. After the identification of policy
factors a conceptual model of these factors was
developed. This study built further on the SPLISS-model
(De Bosscher et al., 2006) and attempted to validate this
model in international tennis.
Over the past 20 years, various studies looked at the sport
policy factors that influence sport performances of
countries (e.g., De Bosscher, De Knop, Van Bottenburg, &
Shibli, 2006; Digel et al., 2006; Green & Houlihan, 2005;
Houlihan & Green, 2008; Oakley & Green, 2001). The
most inclusive study in terms of factors that influence
international sporting success is the Sport Policy factors
Leading to International Sporting Success (SPLISS) study
of De Bosscher et al. (2006). De Bosscher et al. (2006)
identified over 100 factors and distilled them down under
nine key sports policy dimensions or pillars (including
financial support, coherent and coordinated tennis policies,
sport and tennis participation, talent identification and
development, athletic and post career support, facilities,
coaching and coaches education, competition and
scientific research). De Bosscher, De Knop, and Van
Bottenburg (2007) concluded that key success
determinants might be different for every sport or clusters
of sports. Therefore, there is a need to gain an insight in -
and identify- the sport policy factors that influence
international success in each sport. yet, most of the
previous studies on elite sport policies are sport generic
and none of them examined tennis.
Methodology
Qualitative data were collected from a review of generic
and tennis specific policy literature. Thematic and inductive
analysis was used to develop themes and critical success
factors (CSFs) of elite tennis policies. Additionally, in a
short electronic questionnaire (8 questions) international
tennis experts (e.g., managers working at the ITF,
researchers specialised in tennis, former high performance
directors of national tennis organisations) and high
performance directors of private academies and national
tennis associations of successful tennis countries gave
their opinion on the most important factors that influence
the tennis performance of a country. The survey was
expanded with interviews to go in more depth on the policy
areas and factors that the participants indicated in the
survey and to develop the CSFs for each policy area. The
survey responses and interview transcripts were
thematically and inductively analysed using the qualitative
software program Nvivo and complemented the themes
and CSFs revealed by the literature review.
Results/discussion
All the factors that were revealed in the literature review
could be distilled under the nine pillars of the SPLISS-
model. However, the tennis specific literature revealed new
CSFs that were not included in the sport generic SPLISS-
model (e.g., the presence of private academies, a solid
club tennis structure and tradition in clubs, the presence of
commercial academies that offer scholarships to young
players, de-emphasis of winning as success at
developmental levels, adapted competition formulas for
young players). The survey and interviews are conducted
between March and April. For this reason, there are no
results available yet. The conference presentation will also
include the results of the survey and interviews. Based on
the available results of the literature review, it can be
concluded that every sport needs its own model as there
are CSFs that are sport-specific. The study contributes to
other elite sport policy studies which are mainly sport
generic, by the development of a tennis specific model
which illustrates the factors that influence the tennis
performance of a country. Sport specific research is
important as it informs policy makers and high
performance coaches in tennis about the factors that
influence tennis success and allows them to review and
improve the policies in their country. In order to test the
conceptual model in an empirical environment, the
implementation of the factors will be examined in two
countries in a later phase of this study.
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References:
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., & van Bottenburg, M. (2007). Sports
policy factors leading to international sporting success. Brussels:
VUBPRESS.
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., Van Bottenburg, M., & Shibli, S.
(2006). A Conceptual Framework for Analysing Sports Policy
Factors Leading to International Sporting Success. European Sport
Management Quarterly, 6(2), 185-215.
Digel, H., Burk, V., & Fahrner, M. (2006). High-performnce sport. An
international comparison (Vol. 9). Weilheim/Teck: Brauer.
Green, M., & Houlihan, B. (2005). Elite sport development. Policy
learning and political priorities. London and New york: Routledge.
Houlihan, B., & Green, M. (2008). Comparative elite sport
development. In B. Houlihan & M. Green (Eds.), Comparative elite
sport development: systems, structures and public policy. London:
Butterworth-Heineman.
Oakley, B., & Green, M. (2001). The production of Olympic
champions: international perspectives on elite sport development
system. European Journal For Sport Management, 8, 83-105.
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412
University Teaching
in Sport Management
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Workshops
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414
INVESTIGATION OF DISCIPLINES THAT
INFORM AND FACILITATE SPORT
MANAGEMENT: A PILOT STUDy
Author:
Dimitris Gargalianos
email:
dimitris_gargalianos@hotmail.com
Co-authors:
Psimopoulos Constantine
Chelladurai Packianathan
University:
Democritos University of Thrace, Greece
Faculty:
Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences
Abstract
Introduction
Although the relevance of other disciplines to sport
management theory and practice has been pointed out by
scholars (e.g., Chelladurai, 1992), there has never been an
organized attempt to assess the extent to which they
inform and facilitate sport management thought and
practice. While some fields (e.g., economics, etc.) may
have more direct impact on sport management, other (e.g.,
pedagogy, etc.) may have less. It could also be argued that
some of the disciplines may inform the theory and practice
of sport management per se, while others may facilitate
the production and exchange of the services in the sport
industry. For example, exercise psychology inform the
services provided in fitness clubs; sport psychology
facilitates the refining of the teaching and coaching
services in sport; sport philosophy guides in ethical
behavior in management, as well as within the services
offered and so on. It must also be noted that some
disciplines may be related to both sport management
science and the services it provides.
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation, which served as a pilot
for a larger study, was to make a first step in identifying
whether there are disciplines that: a) collaborate with the
theory and practice of sport management and b) contribute
to the production and exchange of services under the
purview of sport management.
Methodology
A questionnaire, developed by the authors, was emailed to
approximately 10% (n=37) (name, year) of the professors
of all levels who teach sport management in
undergraduate and/or graduate programs in
Universities/Colleges around the world (www.nassm.org),
46% of whom responded. The disciplines included in the
questionnaire were extracted from the Joint Academic
Coding System (JACS), which is owned and maintained by
the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS)
and the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) of UK.
Of the 1500+ disciplines listed there only 108 were
considered to be serving the purpose of this study and
were included in the questionnaire in random order.
The participants were requested to read the title and
description of each item and indicate the extent to which
they believed it related to and/or informed: a) sport
management and b) the production and exchange of sport
services. An 11-point response format (0 = not related, 10
= strongly related) was used in both cases. In order to
ensure objectivity of the process and confidentiality of the
subjects / data the questionnaire was in electronic format
(Surveymonkey) and encrypted.
Results
The analysis of data focused on the identification of: a) the
disciplines receiving a score higher than 6 in both sport
management and production / exchange of services under
the purview of sport management, and b) the most highly
rated disciplines related either to sport management, or
sport services, or to both (M 8). Out of the 23 disciplines
that fulfilled these criteria the 3 highest rated (M 9) were:
Strategic Management (9.58), Human Resource
Management (9.41) and Management Techniques
(9.41), while the 3 lowest rated were Counseling (M =
3.94), Landscape Design (M = 3.41) and Conservation
of Buildings (M = 3.05). A very interesting observation was
that the first discipline that included the term Sport in its
title was Hospitality, Leisure, Sport, Tourism (M = 8.35;
rank = 18).
Discussion - Implications
The fact that 23 disciplines were found to fulfill the criteria
presented in the previous section supports the argument
that in order for sport management to become a science
and produce quality services it needs to closely collaborate
with these disciplines. Further, sport management
theorists and practitioners need to gain a better
understanding of them and use the resultant insights to
become more effective / efficient. In addition, cross-
disciplinary research must be undertaken to enhance the
production and exchange of sport services. Finally, sport
management curricula need to be expanded to include
material from those disciplines that are closely related to
sport management.
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Conclusions
It could be concluded that a more thorough investigation of
the disciplines that inform and facilitate sport management
using a more representative sample of the population, as
well as of the ways they collaborate with it might be
necessary in order to acquire a better understanding of the
synergies that develop among them.
References:
Chelladurai, P. (1992). Sport management: opportunities and
obstacles. Journal of Sport Management, 6, 215-219.
Joint Academic Coding System (JACS) (available for public use at:
http://www.hesa.ac.uk/index.php/content/view/1805/296/).
http://www.nassm.org
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416
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ExPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN THE
SPORT INDUSTRy: MOVING
STUDENTS TO THE NExT
PROFESSIONAL LEVEL
Author:
Travis Teague
email:
teaguetr@wssu.edu
Co-authors:
Gibson, Fred Upright, Paula Smith, Darren Larson, Bruce
University:
Winston-Salem State University
Faculty:
Human Performance and Sport Sciences
Abstract
This presentation will focus on discussing the innovative
use of experiential learning within the various sports
industries to not only enhance student learning, but also to
supply a much needed benefit to industry stakeholders in
the form of applied research. The authors have termed
this innovative experiential learning approach as the
Industry Engagement Model (IEM) of internship provision
within sport management curricula.
It is critical that students in sport management programs
have the opportunities to gain hands-on experiences while
still learning within the academic environment. These
experiences usually come in the form of internships or
practica courses that are required aspects of the
curriculum. In most instances these experiential learning
courses are offered near the end of a student's degree
program.
Faculty within the Motorsport Management (MSM) program
at Winston-Salem State University in North Carolina
(United States) have developed a more wholistic approach
to involving students within the sport industry that has
positive benefits not only for the students, but also for the
betterment of the industry. This experiential learning
approach, termed the Industry Engagement Model has five
(5) components.
The components are:
1. Incorporating hands-on experiential learning throughout
the curriculum versus only near the end of the course of
study
2. Developing a systematic plan of indentifying critical
industry issues and a strategy for engaging program
faculty and students to study those issues
3. Leveraging key industry personnel in several fields such
as marketing, facility operations, sponsorship, new
business development, ticketing, etc. to permit your
program faculty and students to study a particular issue
4. Involving students in all phases of the project from
inception to reporting study results to the industry
5. Insuring student reflection at all phases
Every student within the MSM program is required to
participate in a minimum of four (4) experiential learning
events each semester for a total of 32 experiential learning
events within the industry during his/her college career. As
a component of the four experiential learning events, each
student is required to complete a written reflective piece
that ties the experience back to the Motorsport
Management curriculum content and program objectives.
These 32 experiential learning events and subsequent
reflective assignments are in addition to the more
traditional internship and practica courses that are also
required.
Faculty have leveraged industry contacts to develop
innovative techniques to further engage the industry in the
practical hands-on experiences. This presentation will
focus on describing how the program faculty at Winston-
Salem State University and Western Kentucky University
have engaged the industry with the practical experiences
of their respective management programs. This
engagement has come through the designing of very
specific research and applied projects that students and
faculty conduct on-site at the various sporting venues. For
example, at several venues, the faculty and students have
worked directly with industry personnel to design a variety
of survey instruments that have addressed the specific
topics that a particular sport venue was interested in
studying. For example, topics such as customer
satisfaction, sponsorship recognition, fan base ethnicity,
and fan avidity have all been the focus of research projects
with different venues. Interestingly, as industry facility
managers and marketing directors have heard of the
quality of the product the academic programs have
produced, many more experiential learning opportunities
have evolved, many of which have included the industry
organization paying for the student and faculty travel
expenses to come on-site to conduct the specific research
topic of interest.
The focus areas of this presentation will be:
1. A description of the innovative Industry Engagement
experiential learning model
2. A discussion of how the authors have leveraged industry
contacts to produce research projects
3. A discussion of the importance of the reflection within
the experiential learning process
4. How the Industry Engagement Model approach to
experiential learning has enhanced the industry and
increased opportunities for students, including enhanced
career placement
5. How the development of industry research projects for
experiential learning has yielded industry financed
experiential learning for students and faculty
References:
?
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418
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SPORT MANAGEMENT GRADUATES -
WHAT DO THEy DO?
Author:
Ruth Crabtree
email:
r.crabtree@northumbria.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Emery, Paul - La Trobe University
University:
Northumbria University
Faculty:
Department of Sport Development
Abstract
Many researchers (Patel, 2008; Jordon, 2008) have
suggested that Higher Education (HE) provision has
changed dramatically over the past few decades, which
has had a profound effect upon service delivery. In recent
years, researchers have suggested that higher education
provision has largely been driven by central government
reforms related to new funding, accountability, accessibility,
and more recently employability agendas (Bennett,
Dunne, & Carre, 2000; Brookes, 2003). The rise in student
numbers, student fees and new degree structures have all
added to the debate, which researchers suggest have led
to many tensions within higher education systems (Kehm,
Michelsen & Vabo, 2010). Stuart-Hoyle (2007)
emphasises the pressure being placed on HE by
Government with regards to widening participation and
suggests that the importance of curriculum design is vital
to meet the changing nature of HE and at the same time
meet industry and students needs.
Kang, Wu & Gould (2005) also suggest the importance of
understanding industry expectations and what skills and
competencies are required by the sector. One of the
weaknesses they found in their research was the need to
keep the curriculum current (p.46). Given the macro
changes within the sport industry, having a contemporary
understanding of the knowledge, skills and competencies
required of sport students is vital within HE provision.
However, Jordon (2008) suggests that sport curricula in
HE, often appears to have simply evolved with little
thought processes going into it.
Fleming and Ferkins (2005) have also expressed similar
concerns regarding sport programmes in HE, they
acknowledge the growth and development of sport
programmes, mainly due to the professionalization of
sport. However, they state that there has been little
research into the importance of the sport curriculum,
especially with regards to programmes with an emphasis
on the management of sport (Smith & Westerbeek, 2004).
The need for a greater awareness of the skills and
competencies that are required within the sport industry is
a growing concern for many (Morgan & Kingston, 2010)
Lei Hu (2010) suggests that an understanding of
competencies is vital and is a major step towards the
professionalization of the very important fields of training
and development (p.66).
Busby & Gibson (2010) also suggest the need to develop
graduates with a range of skills and competencies that will
prepare them for the careers that they choose. They
identify transferable skills including teamwork, presentation
and IT skills and suggest that HE can enhance graduates
employment chances, when they teach such skills within
their curriculum. Other important skills recognised include:
research skills (Allin, 2010); e-learning skills (Beard,
Wilson & McCarter, 2007); numeracy and literacy skills
(Wilson et. al, 2006); entrepreneurial skills (Chang & Hsu,
2010); critical reflection skills (Fleming & Martin, 2007);
language skills (Hjalager, 2003); practical skills (Morton,
2008); problem solving skills (Martin, West & Bill, 2008)
inter-cultural skills (Butts, 2007); entrepreneurial skills
(Brizek & Poorani, 2006) and citizenship skills (Hums,
2010).
Chappelet (2009) states that whilst the development of key
skills in sport management graduates is fundamental, a
greater understanding of what sport managers actually
do is necessary. He acknowledges that the sport industry
has changed dramatically in the past few decades and that
it is time to gain a greater understanding of the
requirements needed of sport managers, if we are to equip
students with the necessary skills to fulfil the roles that
industry require. Similarly Dale & McCarthy (2006)
suggest that there is a skills shortage within the sport
industry and that a supply of skilled and well-qualified
labour is crucial for the long-term visibility of the industry
(p.49).
Given the concerns expressed above, researchers have
joined together to gain a greater understanding of industry
needs with regards to international sport management
positions. The study involves undertaking an occupational
audit of international sport management positions and
analysing sport management employment opportunities. It
is clear from the research highlighted that there is a great
need for an investigation into the sport management
industry. This study will help to identify current sport
management positions, generic and specific essential
criteria, and the skills and competencies expected from
potential employers. It will also attempt to investigate HE
providers awareness of the industry expectations and their
understanding, when developing sport management
curricula. Finally, it will attempt to build a theoretical
framework for the future pedagogy and curriculum
development of sport management university education.
Such findings will aid both Institutes of Higher Education
that provide sport management programmes, employees
within the sport industry and ultimately students who study
such sport management courses.
References:
Allin, L (2010) Linking research, teaching and learning within the
discipline: evaluating student learning through real life research in
sports development. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport &
Tourism Education. Vol, 9, No.1, pp. 92-100
Beard, C; Wilson, J & McCarter, R (2007) Towards a theory of e-
learning: experiential e-learning. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure,
Sport & Tourism Education. Vol, 6, No.2, pp. 3-15
Bennett, N., Dunne, E., & Carre, C. (2000). Skills development in
higher education and employment. The Society for Research into
Higher Education & Open University Press.
Brizek, M & Poorani, A (2006) Making the case for
entrepreneurship: a survey of small business management courses
within hospitality and tourism programmes. Journal of Hospitality,
Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education. Vol, 5, No.2, pp.36-47
Brookes, M (2003) Evaluating the student experience: an
approach to managing and enhancing quality in higher education. .
Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education. Vol, 2,
No.1, pp.17-26
Butts, S (2007) Developing intercultural communication: a
university project. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism
Education. Vol, 6, No.2, pp. 109-114
Busby, G & Gibson, P (2010) Tourism and hospitality internship
experiences overseas: a British perspective. Journal of Hospitality,
Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education. Vol, 9, No.1, pp. 4-12
Chang, T & Hsu, J (2010) Development framework for tourism and
hospitality in higher vocational education in Taiwan. Journal of
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education. Vol, 9, No.1, pp.
101-109
Chappelet, J (2009) A Glocal Vision for Sport and Sport
Management. European Sport Management Quarterly. Vol. 9, No.
4, pp.483-485
Dale, C & McCarthy, P (2006) I like your style: the learning
approaches of leisure, tourism and hospitality students studying
generic modules. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism
Education. Vol, 5, No.2, pp.48-58
Fleming, J & Martin, A (2007) Facilitating reflective learning
journeys in sport co-operative education. Journal of Hospitality,
Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education. Vol, 6, No.2, pp. 115-121
Fleming, J & Ferkins, L (2005) Cooperative education in sport:
building our knowledge base. . Journal of Hospitality, Leisure,
Sport & Tourism Education. Vol, 4, No.1, pp.41-47
Hjalager, A (2003) Global tourism careers? Opportunities and
dilemmas facing higher education in tourism. Journal of Hospitality,
Hums, M, (2010). The conscience and commerce of sport
management: one teachers perspective. Journal of Sport
Management. Vol. 1, No.24, pp.1-9
Jordan, F (2008) Internationalisation in hospitality, leisure, sport
and tourism higher education: a call for further reflexivity in
curriculum development. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport &
Tourism Education. Vol, 7, No.1, pp.99-103
Kang, S; Wu, C & Gould, R (2005) An exploratory study: students
perceptions of academic faculty and industry practitioner
instructions. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism
Kehm, Michelsen & Vabo (2010) Towards the two-cycle degree
structure: Bologna, Reform & Dependency in German and
Norwegian Universities. Higher Education Policy, Vol. 23, 2,
pp.227-245
Lei Hu (2010) Discovering culinary competency: an innovative
approach. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism
Martin, L; West, J & Bill, K (2008) Incorporating problem based
learning strategies to develop learner autonomy and employability
skills in sport science undergraduates Journal of Hospitality,
Morgan, K & Kingston, K (2010) Promoting a mastery motivational
climate in a higher education education sports class. Journal of
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education. Vol, 9, No.1, pp.
73-84
Morton, J (2008) Learning to be a sport and exercise scientist:
evaluations and reflections on laboratory-based learning and
assessment. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism
Education. Vol, 7, No.2, pp. 93-100
Patel, S (2008) Creating a level playing field: a study of the
admission and experiences of different groups on a university sport
management course Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport &
Smith, A & Westerbeek, H (2004) Professional sport management
education inj Australia. . Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport &
Stuart-Hoyle, M (2007) A foundation degree uncovered: packaging
a realistic programme in response to the widening participation
agenda. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education.
Vol, 6, No.2, pp. 83-91
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A SPORTS FACILITy SIMULATION
SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT GAME:
ENHANCING TEACHING AND THE
LEARNING ExPERIENCE VIA
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Author:
Chris Moriarty
email:
c.moriarty@shu.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Taylor, Peter (Professor)
University:
Faculty:
Academy of Sport
Abstract
Teaching and learning sport and leisure management can
be very dull. Traditional methods are predominantly tutor-
led, with the student in reactive mode at best, and in
recording mode at worst. Assessments can be equally
uninspiring, with unseen exams largely a test of memory
and traditional assignments requiring re-interpretation of
other peoples thinking as represented by the literature.
Alternative methods such as live case studies take a lot of
setting up, are costly in time and entail risks of failure to
deliver both the expected outcomes for organisational
clients and the learning outcomes for students.
This paper considers the development, by the authors, of a
computer simulation for the operation of a sports facility in
response to the issues above. In developing this software
the aims have been to create a tool for learning, teaching
and assessment which is specific to the sport management
field, is student-led and genuinely interactive, which
enlivens the learning experience and is flexible in terms of
time commitment, from a couple of hours to repeated
iterations with changing, externally imposed conditions.
The simulation software can be used for individual or
group assignments which are dependent on students
critically reviewing their own management decisions as
well as understanding key management principles. It is
essentially a contemporary, electronic version of learning
by doing. The use of computer simulation games has a
long history, dating back to the 1960s (Keys and Wolfe,
1990), but there has been a dearth of such products which
relate specifically to the sport management industry, and
particularly those which have been designed with use in
undergraduate and postgraduate education.
A simulation-based approach to teaching trains learners on
how to become metacognitively competent (Salies, 2002).
The steps involved in the process of running simulations
further reinforce critical thinking and autonomous
construction of knowledge. For example, during the
briefing stage, participants engage in activities that
empower them to plan their performance; during the
simulation, performance results are made available
immediately, providing feedback for students to reflect on
immediately (Bullard, 1990). Simulation tools allow groups
or individuals to interact dynamically with a living project
(Cano & Saenz, 2003). Because learners take
responsibility for their learning, they begin to realize that
the process of learning about making good management
decisions is an ongoing process similar to many others
they experience in their lives, not merely a classroom
activity (Salies, 2002).
The simulation software engages students in a continuous
process of:
setting management objectives, performance indicators
and targets;
managing the simulated facility to these objectives by
inputting a range of management decisions into the
simulation;
receiving immediate, software-generated feedback on
performance;
evaluating this performance and re-evaluating objectives,
indicators and targets.
The simulation is based on a fictional English local
authority-owned and managed sports facility, but the
operational parameters have been derived from available
data on such facilities. Students participating in the
simulation receive a detailed handbook which explains the
simulation software, provides information on the operation
and previous performance of the facility, and describes the
tasks required of participants during the simulation. These
tasks include inputting various management decisions into
the simulation via "decision screens" (see Figures 1 and 2
for examples). First participants are required to specifying
objectives and targets for the facility. Following this,
operational decisions are made: these decisions include
setting opening hours for the facility, programming and
pricing decisions for different activity areas within the
facility, and some expenditure decisions. Participants are
briefed to make these decisions with due regard to the
objectives and targets they specify at the outset of the
simulation. Once all decisions have been inputted, the
simulation provides detailed financial and visitor data for
the period of management (see Figure 3 for an example of
this data).
This simulation has been used during the academic years
2009/10 and 2010/11 with second year undergraduate
students at Sheffield Hallam University studying Sport
Business Management. It has formed an integral part of a
10 week Operational Sport Business module - students
undertake three simulation seminars during the 10 week
programme. As part of their assessment for the module,
students were required to complete a short reflection on
their learning during the module and their experience of
the simulation software. Analysis of students' reflections
has revealed that the simulation motivates students due to
its novel and authentic nature, the fact that decisions are in
the participant's hands and the fact that the simulation
presents them with challenging problems and the need to
constantly re-evaluate and re-calibrate decisions.
References:
Bullard, N. (1990). Briefing and debriefing. In D. Crookall & R.
Oxford (Eds.), Simulation, gaming and language learning (pp. 55-
67). New york: Newbury House.
Cano, J.L. and Saenz, M.J. (2003) Project management simulation
laboratory: experimental learning and knowledge acquisition.
Production Planning & Control, Vol. 14, No. 2, 166173. London:
Taylor & Francis
Keys, B and Wolfe, J. (1990) The Roles of Management Games
and Simulations in Education and Research. Journal of
Management, Vol 16, No.2, 307-336.
Salies, T. (2002) Promoting strategic competence: What
simulations can do for you. Simulation & Gaming, Vol. 33, No. 3,
280-283. London: Sage
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A PARADIGM SHIFT: INNOVATIVE
TEACHING IN SPORT MANAGEMENT
Author:
Pam Kappelides
email:
p.kappelides@latrobe.edu.au
Co-authors:
Hoye, Russell (Prof) Nicholson, Matthew (Dr)
University:
Centre for Sport and Social Impact
Faculty:
Law and Managment
Abstract
Aim of paper
The paper outlines the application of constructive
alignment principles in the design and delivery of a first
year undergraduate sport management subject in an
undergraduate sport management degree. The aim of the
paper is to illustrate the application of constructive
alignment in the design of subject learning outcomes,
creation of resources, development of classroom-based
teaching and learning activities and the design of
assessment tasks. The paper draws on the foundational
theories of experiential learning and a multi-linear model of
adult development (Kolb, 1984). The theory defines
learning as the process whereby knowledge is created
through the transformation of experience. Knowledge
results from the combination of grasping and transforming
experience (Kolb, 2001, pg 230). The principles of
constructive alignment seek to link all the processes that
contribute to effective experiential learning in a logical and
systematic fashion, specifically learning objectives,
resources, activities and assessment.
Organisational context
The subject is titled Sport Management and is a first year
subject in the Bachelor of Business (Sport management)
degree at La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia. The
subject has been designed to ensure that students learn
within a framework of clearly-defined outcomes. As a
result, each topic within the subject has a clear learning
outcome, supported by appropriate resources. These
resources provide the foundation for a variety of learning
activities, which are translated into assessment tasks;
tasks that are used to indicate the quality of learning which
took place and reveal the extent to which the learning
outcome has been realised. Learning is optimised when
each stage (learning/subject outcome, resources, teaching
and learning activities and assessment tasks) is aligned,
integrated, mutually reinforced and attended to in detail.
The subjects resources include a textbook, linked to a
USB learning tool designed to engage students with the
theory and practice of sport management. The USB
contains a series of digital videos that introduce students to
key sport management principles delivered by academics,
and a related set of videos of interviews with high profile
managers within the Australian sport industry. Other
resources include case study activities in every tutorial to
support the application of theory, previews activities and
quizzes on-line to review students understanding, and
weekly assessment.
Educational issues, experiences
Many students enter higher education conditioned by their
previous educational experiences to be passive recipients
of what they are taught. Making space for students to take
responsibility for their learning can greatly enhance their
ability to learn from the experience. Some authors describe
this process, whereby students construct ones own
knowledge versus passively receiving knowledge from
others as self-authorship (Kegan 1994; King, 2003). The
nature of this subject is quite different from traditional
classroom-based learning where students attend class one
to two times per week. Here, students are expected to
continually engage with the assigned readings and
assessment via online resources and discussion. It is easy
for students to fall off the pace, and often the subject
coordinator needs to intervene through general feedback
or private correspondence to encourage the group as a
whole, or individuals who are not performing to
expectations, to actively participate. The design and
delivery of this subject is a shift from the traditional method
of undergraduate education whereby traditional methods
are called the instruction paradigm (Barr & Tag, 1995),
where universities have complex structures to provide for
an activity of teaching conceived primarily as delivering 50-
minute lectures or tutorials. Now, however, we recognise
that the instruction paradigm is mistaken as a means to an
end whereby teaching becomes the universitys end or
purpose (i.e. how many students are enrolled, or pass the
subject), rather than the means of instruction. According to
Barr and Tagg (1995), the shift to a learning paradigm
liberates institutions from a set of traditional methods and
allows experiential learning to occur.
For sport management academics seeking to use the
principles of constructive alignment for curricula
development and delivery this paper will assist them to:
1. Engage students within an e-learning environment by
integrating the study of theoretical concepts with real-
world scenarios.
2. Combine theory with practice by using a sequence of (a)
individual self-study documents and resources related to
real-world cases (b) large group discussion of theoretical
and practical issues, and (c) collaboration via small
group creation of fictional organisations.
3. Engage students and encourage them to study by
including a variety of activities. This paper will assist
academics to understand the process of designing a
range of core and supplementary documents and
multimedia resources to compliment theoretical readings
and introduce students to core concepts.
References:
Barr, R.T., & Tagg, J. (1995). From Teaching to Learning-A New
Paradigm for Undergraduate Education. Change,
November/December.
Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of
modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
King, P.M. (2003). Student learning in higher education. In S.R.
Komives, D.B. Woodward, Jr., and Associates (Eds),
Student services: A handbook for the profession, 234-268. San
Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source
of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Kolb, D.A.., Boyatzis, R., & Mainemelis, C. (2001). Experiential
learning theory: previous research and new directions. In R.
Sternberg & L.Zhang (Eds), Perceptions on cognitive learning, and
thinking styles, 228-247. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
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CREATION OF AN ONLINE MASTERS
PROGRAM IN CONJUNCTION WITH A
PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION
Author:
Darren Smith
email:
darren.smith@wku.edu
Co-authors:
Gibson, Fred Upright, Paula Larson, Bruce Teague, Travis
University:
Faculty:
Sport Managment Program/ Department of Kinesiology,
Recreation, & Sport
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to introduce to the audience
the methods taken to create a 100% online masters
degree in the area of Facility and Event Management at
Western Kentucky University. Several years earlier, the
Department of Kinesiology, Recreation, & Sport (KRS) at
Western Kentucky University (WKU) created, in
conjunction with the National Interscholastic Athletic
Administrators Association (NIAAA), a 100% online
masters degree program targeting coaches, athletic
administrators, or other professionals working in the field of
interscholastic athletics who desired a masters degree but
could not afford to quit their jobs, relocate, and begin
taking classes at a university. Currently, that program is
admitting approximately 100 new students each year.
Recently, interest in the areas of facility and event
management has peaked in the undergrad programs at
Western Kentucky University. Feeding off this interest, the
graduate faculty of the Recreation and Sport Administration
program decided to examine the possibility of creating a
new masters concentration in Facility and Event
Management. Several steps were then taken in order to
create this new graduate concentration.
First, the faculty examined the course offerings that
currently existed in the program and compared those
offerings to the educational needs being expressed by
professionals working in the field. Second, courses were
constructed where needed to provide students with the skill
sets needed by employers in the field. The final step
required the faculty to examine the professional
organizations in the area of facility and event
management. After a thorough review, the International
Association of Venue Managers (IAVM) was determined to
be the one most closely paired with KRS goals and
objectives. Three faculty members then arranged a
meeting and traveled to the IAVM headquarters in Dallas,
Texas to discuss the possibility of collaborating with each
other to the mutual benefit of both organizations.
As a result of the meeting, IAVM and KRS entered into a
written agreement that established a mutually beneficial,
nonbinding relationship between the two organizations.
Each agency would promote the other agency in any
marketing, internet advertisements, or other sources used
for promoting the organizations. To form stronger bonds
between the agencies, they agreed to assist each other in
developing programs and workshops that would be
mutually beneficial to the KRS student population and the
IAVM professional membership. KRS agreed to use a text
already in publication by IAVM. It was also mutually agreed
that KRS faculty will assist in the development of future
texts. IAVM agreed to advertise to their membership, which
consists of an international audience of professionals in the
field, of the existence of WKUs 100% online masters
program that has been created with them in mind. The
organizations also agreed to work together to create study
away opportunities so that students could gain a more
broad perspective of venue management, assisting one
another with hosting regional meetings, creation of an
entry level professional certification through IAVM for
graduates of the programs, as well as working together on
research efforts that will be mutually beneficial.
Other areas that KRS needs to address prior to the start of
this new program are the scheduling of courses and
determination of how students will work through the
program requirements. Similar programs at WKU work
through a cohort system where students enter as a group
and proceed through all the classes required as a unit. The
existing faculty who teach in KRS programs are already at
maximum teaching loads. Another issue that confronts the
program will be locating and hiring highly qualified
instructors to teach the courses for the program. Both
IAVM and KRS agree that the quality of the facility and
event management program took precedence over the
quantity of students graduating from the program.
Ultimately, the goal is the have graduates from this
program be highly desired due to their expertise and
knowledge in the area of sport facility and event
management.
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THE CREATION AND DEVELOPMENT
OF AN INTERNSHIP PROGRAMME FOR
POSTGRADUATES IN SPORT
MANAGEMENT
Author:
Stephen Baines
email:
s.baines@londonmet.ac.uk
University:
London Metropolitan University
Faculty:
Business School
Abstract
Aim of paper
The paper will focus on the methodology employed to
activate an internship within a postgraduate programme in
sport management and to analyze initial progress and
results and to assess the effectiveness and value of the
internship experiences using a case study approach. The
intension is to learn from the positive and negative aspects
of these case studies in order to further develop the
internship programme and improve the student experience.
Organizational context
Following the six-year Periodic Review process held within
the Business School of London Metropolitan University in
August 2010, the well-established MA Sport Management
programme received revalidation at the end of November
2010, with the major amendment being the addition of a
12-week internship as an option to a dissertation. This was
a watershed decision by the University as the Master?s in
sport management became the first postgraduate
programme within its large business school to offer this
option. In order to introduce the internship for the spring
entry, urgent planning and activation were required to be
put the option in place. This paper discusses the methods
used and the outcomes achieved after the first semester
and looks forward to further developments required to
provide students with a relevant experiential opportunity to
improve their skills, make beneficial contacts, and obtain
gainful employment in the sports industry on graduation.
Educational issues, experiences
Some university programmes take a strong vocational
approach to sport management education, de-emphasizing
theoretical learning and moving towards practical tools and
operational thinking (Smith & Westerbeek, 2003). The
sports industry has strongly encouraged this trend that is
often manifested in experiential learning such as work
experience and internships. The postgraduate course
leader that headed the MA in sport management course?s
revalidation process believed that it was the right way
forward for the course, and one that would both aid
recruitment and employment opportunities for the students.
It was a development that would expand the University?s
outcomes-oriented approach to education, without
discarding the academic rigour of the course from which
future leaders in the sports industry would derive real
advantage.
The UK?s Quality Assurance Agency?s benchmark
statements for Sport (2008) recognise that the study of
sport has intrinsic intellectual value yet at the same time
programmes of study that have the ability to enhance the
students' employability and career preparation (QAA,
2008). Within the QAA subject benchmark heading of
?Hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism? there is no specific
requirement for students on sport degrees to undertake
work experience or placement, or indeed to complete a
compulsory dissertation in master?s courses.
Although the QAA benchmarking statements provide
guidance regarding curriculum content, the fact that
Universities retain autonomy of programme design may
effect the definition and consistency of sport management
degree content and London Metropolitan University has
some flexibility on the matter by stating in the University's
PG Scheme framework (5.3.2, p. 24):
In subject areas where the dissertation/project typically
involves a significant artefactual element of output (e.g.
arts, design, architecture, etc.) different requirements
necessarily apply, though there is an expectation that it will
involve an equivalent volume of work, include an element
of research, and that assessment will include at least one
element that is a written piece of critical analysis or
reflection.
For these reasons, the revalidation required the new
internship module to include a research project. The other
central assessment is a portfolio that includes a weekly
diary that incorporated both reflection and critical analysis,
and the submission of an evaluation form completed by the
supervisor within the host organization. The paper will
discuss the methods used to design the internship
programme, how the initiative will be assessed and the
outcomes evaluated. It will analyse the techniques
employed to guide and support students in gaining and
pursuing an internship, assess the reasons why students
failed to secure one, and the ways of offering guidance for
further advancement of the students on completion.
The present dire economic climate has made it particularly
difficult for graduates to secure relevant employment on
finishing their degrees and a lack of relevant experience
and contacts are frequent barriers to obtaining a first job.
Internships are a way of potentially providing postgraduate
students with both but the nature of the internship, the
criteria for acceptance, and the assessment attached to it,
are critical if the experience is to be a productive one for
the student and to meet the University?s academic criteria.
The number of postgraduate sport management courses in
UK Universities offering an internship option to a research
project, such as a dissertation, is still relatively small. This
paper may encourage other Universities within the UK, and
indeed other European countries, to consider introducing a
similar option in the best interests of the students.
References:
Honours benchmark statements index, Hospitality, leisure, sport
and tourism (2008) The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher
Education
London Metropolitan University Strategic Plan 2010-2013, from
www.londonmet.ac.uk/londonmet/.../7595%20LMU%20Strategic%2
0doc%20Med%20AW.pdf
London Metropolitan University?s PG Scheme Document (2004)
The Graduate School (September, 5.3.2, p. 24)
Smith, Aaron C. T. & Westerbeek, Hans M. (2003) ??Professional?
Sport Management Education and Practice in Australia?, Journal of
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, Melbourne,
Australia: La Trobe University
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EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATION AND
INSTRUCTION IN AN ONLINE
GRADUATE PROGRAM
Author:
Paula Upright
email:
paula.upright@wku.edu
Co-authors:
Gibson, Fred, Graduate Coordinator; Recreation and Sport
Administration; Western Kentucky University Larson,
Bruce, Curriculum Coordinator; Sport Management;
Kinesiology, Recreation & Sport; Western Kentucky
University Smith, Darren, Assistant Professor; Sport
Management; Kinesiology, Recreation & Sport; Western
Kentucky University Teague, Travis, Interim Department
Chair; Human Performances and Sport Sciences
Department; Winston-Salem State University
University:
Faculty:
Paula Upright, Assistant Professor Sport
Management/Kinesiology, Recreation and Sport
Abstract
Online education is increasingly popular in higher
education with universities investing heavily to keep up
with student demands (Appana, 2008). The aim of this
paper is to explore the administration and pedagogical
considerations of a successful online graduate program at
Western Kentucky University. WKUs vision is to be a
leading American university with international reach and is
the home to many highly ranked and nationally recognized
academic programs. The fastest growing university in
Kentucky for 13 years straight, nearly 21,000 students
grace our campuses.This paper specifically examines the
administrative and instructional considerations of a 100%
on-line Master of Science in Recreation and Sports
Administration with a concentration in Athletic
Administration and Coaching. The cohort-based
concentration goes beyond theoretical instruction and
provides knowledge, skills and professional expertise in
the fields of athletic administration and coaching. This
program is designed to prepare interscholastic athletic
professionals for the leadership skills required as both
disciplines in coaching and athletic administration grow.
The program design also meets the demands of working
physical education professionals and targets highly
motivated individuals. The web-based approach allows
students the ability to increase their understanding of the
field of Athletic Administration without altering their
personal and professional schedules.
According to Combe (2005), successful online graduate
programs require an integration of administration, teaching
and technical support. WKUs online program has
administrative and technical support from the Division of
Extended Learning Office (DELO). DELO provides a cohort
program director, cohort program specialist, instructional
designer and an instructional technology specialist.
Marketing efforts are also coordinated through this
distance learning office. The graduate faculty have diverse
backgrounds and experience in all areas of athletic
administration. The faculty use various instructional tools
and delivery systems including, Blackboard, Skype, Tegrity,
Twitter, Facebook and other social media and instructional
tools. Online instruction requires a different form of
communication and relationship between faculty and
students (Dykman & Davis, 2008). Gallien & Oomen-Early
(2008) state effective online course delivery involves much
more than repackaging of traditional course content.
Classroom methods focus on preparing individuals for the
ever-changing economic, political, legal and marketing
concerns that are a part of the sports industry. The
program is designed for a specific number of students
(cohort) to move through the coursework together, taking
the same classes while building peer relationships. This
sequencing outlines a sure path to degree attainment,
guaranteed placement in classes and additional
admissions and registration services. The instructional
goals of the faculty are to further knowledge through an
application based course structure. This structure is
designed to enhance skills and competencies in athletic
administration and coaching, utilize current working
problems within the profession in order to assess solutions
to established needs and build a professional networking
base for the sharing of issues and problems in order to
integrate a logical problem-solving paradigm. Additionally,
upon completion of the program, participants will be able to
apply for certification through the National Interscholastic
Athletic Administrators Association (NIAAA) to be a
Certified Athletic Administrator or Certified Master Athletic
Administrator.
This paper focuses on the administration and effective
instructional techniques for an online sport management
program. Methods for success, budgeting, innovative
techniques, class scheduling, curriculum development,
selection of faculty and recruitment and retention of quality
students will be discussed. Best practices for teaching in
sport management may be different in the online
classroom. These differences will be explored and
compared with traditional face-to-face techniques used by
sport faculty. The WKU program currently admits
approximately 100 students each year. With increasing
interest in online delivery and sport management
programs, this is a timely and appropriate topic for
discussion among sport educators and management
professionals.
References:
Appana, S. (2008). A review of benefits and limitations of online
learning in the context of the student, the instructor, and the
tenured faculty. International Journal on ELearning, 7(1), 5-22.
Combe, C. (2005). Developing and implementing an online doctoral
programme. International Journal of Educational Management, 1,
118-128.
Dykman, C. A. & Davis, C. K. (2008). Online education forum: Part
twoteaching online versus teaching conventionally. Journal of
Information Systems Education, 19, 157-164.
Gallien, T. & Oomen-Early, J. (2008). Personalized versus collective
instructor feedback in the online classroom: Does type of feedback
affect student satisfaction, academic performance and perceived
connectedness with the instructor? International Journal on
ELearning, 7, 463-476.
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AISTS MASTER IN SPORT
ADMINISTRATION - A MULTI-
DISCIPLINARITy APPROACH
Author:
Coralie McConnell
email:
coralie.mcconnell@aists.org
Co-authors:
STRICKER, Claude
University:
AISTS - International Academy of Sport Science &
Technology
Faculty:
Master in Sport Administration
Abstract
The global & local needs of the industry
Sport has evolved to be much more than just competition
and performance. The growth of the modern sports
industry, an accelerator of economic development, now
covers a broad range of sectors, be it ethics, technology,
finance, law, medicine, education or sociology . This multi-
sector economy has grown significantly over the last
decade, such that sports organisations now face a higher
level of complexity within the industry than ever before.
Against this background has been the emergence of new
types of requirements within the global sporting market.
The professionalisation of key players in the sport industry
requires advanced expertise to face challenges across a
range of disciplines. The need of sports organisations to
adapt to these challenges requires educated professionals
with a unique understanding of the sporting industry. This
context allows us to appreciate the reasons why the
establishment of a multidisciplinary programme is a key
factor for future sport managers.
AISTS Principles
The objective of our institution in establishing a sports
management program is to positively contribute to the
sports industry by taking a multi-disciplinary approach to
education and sciences. Our Master in Sport
Administration (MSA) program curriculum has been built
around a blend of academic disciplines, which are all
necessary to understand the complexity of sports
management and to broaden ones vision of the sports
industry in its entirety.
By undertaking our specific program, sports-minded
professionals will have the opportunity to acquire valuable
academic knowledge in sports management and enhance
their key competences to prepare them for a successful
career in the sports industry.
Application/Methodology
Our institution takes the form of a foundation and is
governed by a Council of representatives from our 8
founding members, both scientific and strategic partners of
the AISTS. Through this organisational structure, we have
been able to build a network of expertise within the
sporting industry across a variety of fields, further
advancing our multidisciplinary approach to education and
development.
The participants of the program are exposed more than
120 international speakers during 7 months of intensive
courses. Leading experts, professors, doctors, corporate
executives and field-experts contribute to this multi-pillared
educational program by deepening the
participantsunderstanding of the most prominent sectors of
the sport industry. Being situated in Lausanne, close to
the International Olympic Committee and various sports
federations, we are at the center of one of the most
important knowledge clusters in the global world of sports.
Learning & Experiences
One of the biggest challenges faced by our institution is to
ensure that specialised experts, who are welcomed as
lecturers, are able to coherently transfer their knowledge to
participants with various experiences and backgrounds. It
would be greatly interesting to evaluate how other
programme organizers are dealing with this pedagogical
challenge.
Over the years, our institution have seen that the best way
for participants to learn is to separate the disciplines by
modules. To ensure that each subject discipline is
structured coherently, external faculty lecturers supervise
each module dependent on their field of expertise.
Utilising this multi-disciplinary structure ensure that we
provide more than generic management skills and that
participants in the programme achieve an in-depth
understanding of what is necessary in order to be effective
sports managers. Our objective is to develop among the
participants an understanding of practices and knowledge
in individual subjects of importance within the context of
the sports industry, for example marketing, technology, law,
etc.
By gathering candidates that are not only bringing
professional expertise from various sectors, but also
different academic, cultural and sporting backgrounds, an
opportunity is created to evaluate sports issues from a
trans-disciplinary perspective. Thus, the educational
context is enriched and provides excellent preparation for
future sport managers that will likely have to manage
issues covering both varied and interrelated subject matter.
An important lesson that could be drawn from other
organizers of sports management programs is the
understanding how they integrate trends and future
challenges of the sports industry within their program and
also, how they integrate transdisciplinarity.
MSA Programme - Continuous Enhancement
Against the background of the constant evolution of the
global sports industry, the institution is using its network
and expertise to integrate new modules and courses on
current emerging in the industry and is working on an
eventual development of trans-disciplinary cases studies. References:
Clark, J, (2010), Back on track? The outlook for the global sports
market to 2013, (pp.25-28) Price WaterhouseCoopers, Hospitaliy
and Leisure sector global publication.
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ExPLORING HOW AUSTRALIAN SPORT
MARKETING STUDENTS READ
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Author:
Paul Turner
email:
paul.turner@deakin.edu.au
Co-authors:
Zutshi, Ambika Fujimoto, yuka Hagel, Pauline
Kattiyapornpong, Uraiporn
University:
Deakin University
Faculty:
School of Management and Marketing
Abstract
AIMS
Reading and comprehension are an integral part of
education. This paper investigates the issues
undergraduate students in a sport marketing class face in
reading journal articles for structure and meaning. A
secondary aim is to explore whether a learning framework
developed by the authors would further assist the reading
of journal articles required in a subject.
Reading is not a simple task for many students. It is not
just about their text processing skills or their ability to
decode textual material to extract its meaning; rather,
reading is an active, complex process of making meaning
in which a reader draws information from several sources
and concurrently constructs a representation of a text's
message (McLoughlin, 1995, p. 29). Many university
students experience challenges in education, in learning
particular academic discourses and the development of
professional literacy (Alexander, Schallert and Reynolds,
2009). Reading and comprehension of advanced reading
material is essential for students in tertiary education, and
reading academic journal articles is required to advance
their knowledge in different disciplines. How students
actually read these journal articles and whether they
comprehend what they have read is often a source of
conjecture for teachers (Rourke, Anderson, Garrison and
Archer, 2001).
METHOD
Students in a third year undergraduate sport marketing
class were provided with an article to read, followed by a
learning framework to support their reading. Subsequently
they were questioned about both the article and the
support framework, covering four main parts to assist with
their reading. These four parts represented a main focus
review; identification of three major authors; a brief
description of each of the three identified authors
contributions and; description of the main implications of
the paper (McCrudden and Schraw, 2010). In total, 26
students participated in this study.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Results and discussion of the investigated issues students
in a sport marketing class face in reading journal articles
and the use of a learning framework can be categorised
under five themes as mentioned below:
1. Usefulness of the exercise
Two students admitted they did not do the reading, while
only one student expressed a negative comment about the
exercise generally. All other comments expressed were
positive, for example, Very helpful to determine main
themes plus implications for the sport. This suggests that
students can benefit from what McCrudden and Schraw
(2010) describe as relevance instructions that direct
students to what to read within articles and how to read the
articles.
2. Usefulness of identification of authors
In terms of author identification the response was mixed
with half of the respondents commenting on the difficulties
they experienced, for example, It [learning framework
helped] did but the authors were difficult to find. The
themes were easier to find. Other, more positive
comments included It encouraged me to go back over the
article to identify the authors and their main points which I
now remember. This is consistent with the suggestions
from past research that the clarity of purpose, assistance
in finding journals and guidance in how to read for
knowledge structure and meaning are important in
assisting students comprehension (Rourke et al., 2001;
Willison and ORegan, 2007).
3. Usefulness linking to assignment work
Responses were very positive overall. Comments such as
Easy to see what info is presented in the article were
made. Biggs (2003) concept of constructive alignment
proposes that academics need to make sure there is an
alignment between any learning tasks objectives and its
assessment criteria, which seems to fit here.
4. Application of key themes
Again, responses were very positive with remarks, such
as, It helps analyse the requirements. This suggests that
students used the learning framework as a support tool in
appreciating how academic journal articles embody
research in their disciplines (Rourke et al., 2001; Willison
and ORegan, 2007).
5. Future use.
Students possible use of the learning framework in the
future generated mixed responses but generally there was
a positive vibe. Comments broadly included that it
assisted the student, it encouraged them to summarise,
and it helps clarify and provide information. This suggests
that a supportive learning framework to facilitate students
mental files or prior knowledge-prior to their reading
(Keene and Zimmerman, 2007) is very important to their
reading and comprehension.
CONCLUSION
This pilot study identifies that sport marketing students at a
tertiary institution in Australia believe that they need
support in reading discipline-specific journal articles and
using a learning framework provided for them can ensure
that they better comprehend the reading of these journal
articles.
References:
Alexander, P.A., Schallert, D.L., & Reynolds, R.E. (2009). What is
learning anyway? A topographical perspective considered.
Educational Psychologist, 44(3), 176-192.
Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university (2nd
Ed), Open University Press, UK.
Keene, E.O., & Zimmerman, S. (2nd Eds.) (2007). Mosaic of
thought: The power of comprehension strategy instruction.
Heinemann, Portsmouth: NH.
McCrudden, M.T., & Schraw, G. (2010). The Effects of Relevance
Instructions and Verbal Ability on Text Processing. The Journal of
Experimental Education, 78, 96-117.
McLoughlin, C. (1995). Tertiary literacy: A constructivist perspective.
Open Letter: Australian Journal for Adult Literacy, Research and
Practice, 5(2), 27-42.
Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D.R., & Archer, W. (2001).
Methodological issues in content analysis of computer conference
transcripts. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in
Education, 12, 8-22.
Willison, J., & ORegan, K. (2007). Commonly known, commonly
not known, totally unknown: A framework for students becoming
researchers. Higher Education Research and Development, 26(4),
393-409.
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434
STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR SPORT
FACILITIES ABROAD
Author:
Amy Giddings
email:
Giddings@drexel.edu
Co-authors:
Valore, Jennifer
Kachurovskyy, Dmytro
University:
Drexel University
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
Sport Management is a relatively new field of study when
compared to other fields and its industry-specific nature
lends itself to experiential learning and programming.
Graduate level students, in particular, come to the field
with work experience in a variety of fields such as
accounting, marketing, sales, administration, law, health
care, coaching, etc. Each of these students is looking to
enter the sport marketplace and, therefore, looks to a sport
management degree to help them achieve this. The
graduate sport management degree helps them to further
define their areas of expertise through practical, hands-on
experiences.
In a unique program at Drexel University, students were
offered the opportunity to be a part of a summer, study
abroad program in Ukraine with a strategic planning focus.
One of the stated goals of this particular sport
management program is to teach students to effectively
organize, evaluate, improve, and utilize new innovations in
the sport industry. In light of this goal, experiences that
can achieve practice and competency in these areas are
sought for these students.
The project that will be discussed in this presentation was
a partnership between the Sport Club Meteor, a sport
facility in Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine, and Drexel University.
The facility director sought sport management students
and a faculty member to provide strategic planning
services for his facility. In exchange, the facility would
provide full financial support for air travel, housing, ground
transportation, and meals to participating students and
their faculty advisor.
The facility director agreed to pay for 5 students and 1
faculty member to participate and travel to Ukraine to
complete this project. Because of the invaluable
experience being offered, it was determined that an
application process be established to select the most
appropriate candidates. Application items included basic
demographic information, undergraduate degree with
relevant coursework, graduate coursework completed,
career goals, writing samples, current resume, and an
interview with the selection committee from the sport
management program.
Students selected for this program enrolled in a 4.5 credit
special topics course. These credits were inclusive of (1)
the pre-trip coursework including the history of sport and
sport development in the USSR, (2) working at the facility
to gain a comprehensive understanding of the facility and
its current status, (3) meeting with key administrators at
the facility to understand their goals, (4) performing a
SWOT analysis for the facility, (5) creating a strategic plan
for the facility, and (6) creating subsequent, relevant,
academic presentations on the experience to disseminate
information.
A summary of the project will be presented in addition to
recommendations for replicating this type of pedagogical
approach to experiential learning in sport management
programs.
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436
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Governance of Professional
European Team Sport
Workshops
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438
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FOOTBALL GOVERNANCE AND EU
POLICy-MAKING AFTER LISBON: A
VETO PLAyER ANALySIS OF UEFA AND
FIFA POSIBILITIES UNDER THE NEW
TREATy
Author:
Borja Garcia
email:
b.garcia-garcia@lboro.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Meier, Henk-Erik
University:
Faculty:
School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences
Abstract
Since the seismic Bosman judgment, sport governing
bodies have long lobbied the Member States to take the
necessary decisions that could grant them, at least,
favourable application of European Union (EU) law (Garca
2007). In the eyes of FIFA and UEFA, the preferred
instrument for achieving that aim would have been a treaty
provision exempting sport from the application of the EUs
free movement and antitrust provisions (Weatherill 2010).
The Treaty of Lisbon denied the sport bodies once more
any exception under EU law, and early legal analysis point
out that it is unlikely to modify the approach taken by the
Commission and the Court of Justice of the European
Union in the application of EU law to sport (Parrish et al.
2010, Weatheril 2010). However, the sport article in the
Treaty sets a new scenario under which to develop EU
sport policy, which also has the potential to induce change
in football (and other sports) governance structures.
This paper aims to explore the extent to which football
governing bodies might find beneficial to engage in the
emerging EU sports policy community. The paper will
make use of Tsebelis veto player theory to analyse the
possibilities open to UEFA and (to a lesser extent) FIFA by
the new sports policy to be developed under Article 165 of
the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.
Now that the EU has the legal base to develop a
supplementary and complementary sports policy, it is
pertinent to explore whether football bodies would benefit
from having any involvement in the development of such
policy. In this paper we set to explore what institutional
status, within EU policy making, would benefit the
governing bodies policy preferences most. This focus on
the governing bodies over other football stakeholders has
a three-fold justification. First, because Article 165 TFEU
itself calls for EU institutions to take account of the specific
nature of sport, its structures based on voluntary activity
and to foster cooperation with third countries and the
competent international organisations in the field of
education and sport when developing EU sports policy.
Second, because the three main EU institutions involved in
the legislative process (Commission, Council and
Parliament) have all expressed their willingness to involve
governing bodies in this process. Indeed, the sports
ministers meeting in the Council recently adopted a
resolution establishing a high-level structured dialogue
with sport that will be coordinated by the rotating EU
presidency (Council of the European Union 2010: 12).
Third, because the involvement in the EU sports policy-
making community might have consequence for the
internal governance structures of sport.
In this paper, our main argument is that, for football
governing bodies, achieving some form of veto power in
the policy process would indeed reduce the risk of
detrimental policy change induced by EU decisions, but on
the other hand veto power can bring about ambiguous
effects since it can result in deadlock, governance
instability and venue shifting. Only if UEFA and FIFA would
be given the status of a sole legitimate representative of
the sport, they could easily prevent detrimental EU induced
policy change. The latter, however, is extremely difficult (if
not almost impossible) to envisage given the trend towards
network and multiple stakeholder governance structures in
European sport that has been well documented in the last
years (see for example Garca 2010, Council of the
European Union 2010).
We support our argument by employing the analytical tools
of veto player (VP) theory as developed by Tsebelis (1995,
2002). VP theory allows analysing the implications of
different institutional rules on decision making outcomes.
The paper will first present some basic theoretical
propositions about the effects of veto power on decision
making output. It will then move to provide empirical
evidence by examining two well-known antitrust cases in
football: The Commission investigation into the selling of
Champions League TV rights and the investigation into
FIFAs international transfer system. Finally, the
conclusions recommend the governing bodies to continue
the strategy of stakeholder management as recently
pursued by UEFA in order to maintain their legitimacy vis-
-vis professional clubs and Leagues. The conclusions
also considers the rising importance of the EU social
dialogue committee in the professional football sector as
an emerging venue in football governance outside UEFA
and FIFAs structures.
References:
Council of the European Union, 2010. Decisions of the 3046th
Council meeting, Education, youth Culture and Sport. 16500/10,
18-19 November 2010.
Garca, B., 2007. 'From regulation to governance and
representation: Agenda-setting and the EUs involvement in sport',
Entertainment and Sports Law Journal, 5 (1).
Garca, B., 2010. 'The governance of European sport'. In: P. Dine
and S. Crosson, eds. Sport, representation, and evolving identities
in Europe, Oxford: Peter Lang, 22-38.
Parrish, R., Garca, B., Miettinen, S., and Siekmann, R., 2010. The
Lisbon Treaty and EU sports policy, Study PE 438.607, Brussels:
European Parliament.
Tsebelis, G., 1995. 'Decision making in political systems: Veto
players in presidentialism, parliamentarism, multicameralism and
multipartyism'. British Journal of Political Science, 25 (3), 289-325.
Tsebelis, G., 2002. Veto players: How political institutions work.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Weatherill, S., 2010. 'Fairness, openness and the specific nature of
sport: Does the Lisbon Treaty change EU sports law?' International
Sports Law Journal, 2010 (3-4), 1-6.
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440
GOVERNANCE IN PLURALISTIC
ORGANISATIONS: A CASE STUDy OF
FOOTBALL CLUBS
Author:
Benoit Senaux
email:
aa9696@coventry.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Gammelster, Hallgeir, Molde University College
University:
Coventry University Business School
Faculty:
BES - Sport and Event Management
Abstract
Commercialised team sports clubs, notably but not
exclusively football ones, often appear highly unstable and
volatile, with a high turnover of coachers and managers,
financial issues despite growing revenues, and knee-jerk
reactions to any poor on-field performance, and more
generally speaking a seeming lack of clear direction and
purpose. This paper aims at better understanding the
dynamic of governance of professional sport clubs by
providing an in-depth case study of two European football
clubs. Following in the steps of Gammelster (2010), we
mobilise the concept of institutional pluralism (Kraatz &
Block, 2008) to better apprehend the complex set of
stakeholders which surround and interact with football
clubs. Within this perspective, stakeholders may not hold a
set of fixed characteristics and attributes (Senaux, 2008)
and the governance issues are not limited to trying to
reconcile different often diverging- demands from different
stakeholders. Rather, professional football clubs are
pluralistic organisations confronted to multiple logics: any
stakeholder may be predominantly influenced by a given
institutional logic, but -because they are also likely to be
confronted to alternative logics which will influence them
and which they can mobilise- their objectives, attributes
and even way of thinking may change over time.
As a result, the picture is fluid. Interactions between
stakeholders and coalition building might still be relevant,
but even a rich network analysis (Rowley, 1997) is not
sufficient to apprehend the dynamic nature of professional
sport clubs governance. In that perspective, clubs are
multiple things to multiple people and their organisational
identity is multi-faceted. This explains the difficulty of
managing stakeholders and prioritising some claims over
others. But it also constitutes an opportunity to envision a
more holistic way of reconciling stakeholder and ensuring
clubs are not faced with constant instability and tensions.
Relying on a case study of two European football clubs -
using a mix of data from different sources (press articles,
semi-guided interviews with various clubs stakeholders,
clubs websites and discussion forums)- this paper
provides a rich description of clubs governance issues
through the management of different situations. As such, it
constitutes the first empirical illustration of the multiple
logics identified by Gammelster (2010) and of their
dynamic, thus confirming and nuancing previous
assumptions. More interestingly, it proposes an analysis of
this dynamic and of the interplay between logics and
critically assesses the necessity for leadership to define
clubs identity by infusing it with value.
The cases outline the role played by high media coverage
in making it easier for different logics to be mobilised by
stakeholders, either sincerely or just as a way to lever
additional support from other groups, thus making the
interplay between logics even more fluid and clubs
governance more difficult in face of higher instability and
volatility. Above all, this paper illustrates the difficulty for
clubs managers to legitimately define the boundaries of
their organisation, the domain of their management, and
the ambiguity that exists in terms of what are the ends and
means in their organisations. In face of constituencies
which may have mixed motives or be guided by mixed
logics, sequential stakeholder management does not
appear as a satisfying solution. Rather clubs difficult
governance can be overcome if the clubs forge durable
identities of their own, thus becoming a valued end in
[their] own right (Kraatz & Block, 2008, p.251). The
challenge however is to shape a legitimate and coherent
organisational identity which reconcile the clubs various
facets (perceived or expected identities) while being
simultaneously confronted to the emergence of new logics
(e.g. increased commercialisation, managerialism) and
ensuring that strong identification from external members
of the organisation (e.g. the supporters) is maintained.
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References:
Gammelster, H. (2010). Institutional Pluralism and Governance in
Commercialized Sport Clubs. European Sport Management
Quarterly, 10(5):569-594.
Kraatz, M. S., & Block, E. (2008). Organizational implications of
institutional pluralism. In R. Greenwood, C. Oliver, R. Suddaby & K.
Sahlin (Eds.), The handbook of organizational institutionalism (pp.
243-275). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rowley, T.J. (1997). Moving beyond Dyadic Ties: A Network Theory
of Stakeholder Influences. Academy of Management Review,
22(4):887-910.
Senaux, B. (2008). A stakeholder approach to football club
governance. International Journal of Sport Management and
Marketing, 4(1):4-17.
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442
EUROPEAN OR NORTH AMERICAN
WAy? THE GOVERNANCE OF ICE
HOCKEy IN FRANCE AND UK
Author:
Neville Clements
email:
bsx188@coventry.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Senaux, Benoit, Coventry University Business School
University:
Coventry University Business School
Faculty:
Abstract
The European model of team sport organisation is typically
characterised by a pyramidal system, open leagues with
promotion and relegation, and autonomous clubs. On the
other side, the North American model relies very much on
closed leagues with teams being franchises, and strong
economic regulation (revenue sharing, draft system and
salary cap etc.). This paper explores the governance of ice
hockey in two medium ranked hockey countries: France
and the UK. Ice-hockey is the main professional team
sport in Canada and the NHL is one of the 4 major league
in North America. Ice-hockey is also the most popular and
leading team sport in a handful European countries
(Finland, Russia and to a lesser extent Sweden and the
Czech Republic). Very few sports, if any, can claim such a
status: basketball is played competitively on both sides of
the Atlantic, but is not the main sport in any European
country though some leagues are very developed. For this
reason, it is interesting to see how ice-hockey is organised
and governed at the periphery.
While the traditional European model is found in France,
ice-hockey at the highest level in the UK is currently
organised very much with a North American model: the
Elite Ice Hockey League (the top division in the UK) is
effectively a closed league, with clubs acting as franchises.
Drawing on institutional theory in organisation studies, this
paper aims at critically analysing the governance of ice-
hockey in France and the UK, and at understanding how
and why it has evolved likewise.
The data used in this paper come from a variety of
sources. We collected secondary data from newspaper
articles and archival documentation to reconstitute the
background and recent evolution of the organisation and
governance of ice-hockey in these two countries. This is
supplemented by semi-directed interviews with clubs
managers to better apprehend their logics, the motives
behind the adoption of each system and the complex
power games, coalition building and network of relations
which characterise all sport organisations. Finally, we
gathered quantitative information in terms of both sporting
and financial performance to assess the respective
qualities of each system and whether a specific model of
governance has any particular impact, but also to
understand potential factors which may explain the
evolution towards or resilience of a given model.
Indeed, the financial and sporting difficulties of ice-hockey
in the UK, might explain the constitution of the EIHL in
2003, initially as breakaway league, but a major
reorganisation of British ice-hockey had already taken
place in 1996. More importantly, the instable history of ice-
hockey in the UK over the last decades and the natural
influence from North America for British hockey might be
explained by the over dominance of football and to a
lesser extent rugby and cricket which does not let much
space for other sports. In France, ice hockey is also a
relatively minor sport, but the organisation of sport in that
country, with strong involvement from local authorities
through the provision of facilities and financial subsidies,
may explain the maintenance of a traditional European
model of sport organisation. Still, such explanations are not
enough and looking at both the normative, regulative and
cultural-cognitive dimensions of the institutional context in
which actors are embedded is necessary.
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444
MONETARy FINES ON GREEK
FOOTBALL CLUBS AS A
CONSEQUENCE OF HOOLIGANISM
Author:
Vassiliki Avgerinou
email:
VASAVG@UOP.GR
Co-authors:
E. PETROU, P. KONSTANTINAKOS, C. MOUNTAKIS
University:
UNIVERSITy OF PELOPONNESE
Faculty:
DEPARTMENT OF SPORT MANAGEMENT
Abstract
Aim of paper
The aim of this paper is to investigate the economic cost of
hooliganism for Greek football clubs of the first division in
the form of monetary fines. Fines are calculated per year
and club for a 23-year period revealing the direct financial
burden of fan misbehavior on Greek football clubs.
Background
Football hooliganism is the spectator disorderliness that
takes place in football-related contexts and embraces
verbal violence, throwing of missiles at players and officials
(ranging from various objects as coins and broken seats to
fireworks and crude incendiary devices), pitch invasions
deliberately engineered to halt the match or attack players,
vandalizing of club, private and public property, fights
between opposing fans or with the police in, around or far
away from football stadia, attacking vehicles carrying rival
supporters, dodging in and out of moving traffic, etc.
(Dunning et al., 1988). A considerable amount of literature
has been devoted to the sociological study of hooliganism,
while there are limited studies regarding the economic cost
of hooliganism on sports and society. Although hooliganism
has been tackled to a satisfactory extent in other European
countries, it is persistent in Greek football.
Acts of spectator violence have direct and indirect costs on
football clubs such as damaged stadia, financial fines to
clubs imposed by the Sports Court, loss of ticket revenue
because of closed-door games and bans on fan travel to
away matches, and a negative effect on football demand
(Avgerinou & Giakoumatos, 2011; Avgerinou, 2010).
According to the Sports Law and the Disciplinary Code,
teams are obliged to take precautionary measures against
actions of their players, coaches, and fans that damage
the reputation of the football game (Disciplinary Code,
2010). The most frequent punishments on clubs failing to
control their fans behavior are monetary fines.
Methodology
Our data on hooliganism and monetary fines imposed on
football clubs are investigated through the decisions of the
Sports Court regarding matches of the Greek First National
Division from 1986-87 to 2008-09 (23 seasons) (EPAE
Sports Court Files, 1986-2006; Super League Sports Court
Files, 2006-2009). We analyze 1,430 decisions on 4,426
incidents of fan misbehavior, ranging from swearing to
violent clashes in the vicinity of stadia, recording the
incidents of fan misbehavior, upon which the cases against
the clubs were built, and the respective fines imposed on
clubs.
Results/Discussion
Our data reveal that in 23% of the matches played during
this period, Greek football clubs receive a monetary fine for
the misbehavior of their fans. The average fine per affected
match is 7,109 euros (in current prices), with a rising trend
in the last five years. In season 2008/09 Super League
clubs paid 1.396,351 in fines. The big five clubs
(Olympiakos, Panathinaikos, AEK, PAOK and Aris) receive
the majority of the fines, with PAOK being the champion.
PAOK fans create incidents in 33.7% of the matches that
result in 7,116 per affected match, while Olympiakos fans
create incidents in 40.8% of the matches that result in
5,587 of fines per affected match. Until 2006, fines were
redistributed equally among the 16 clubs, succeeding only
a transfer of funds from trouble-making clubs to more
peaceful clubs and not an effective measure against
hooliganism. Since 2009 only 30% of the fines is
redistributed to the clubs while the rest 70% goes to the
Football Federation.
The current financial crisis in Greece is expected to affect
the main revenue sources of football clubs. Average
attendance in season 2010/11 is already 10.64% lower
than in the 2009/10 season. The media market is facing
financial problems, as advertising budgets have declined
dramatically. This is expected to affect TV rights paid to
football clubs. Subsidies are also expected to decrease if
the state-controlled betting company, OPAP, is sold as part
of the privatization scheme for the repayment of public
debt. Our findings imply that there are direct financial gains
from a more effective control of spectator violence that
could be useful to clubs in the midst of the financial crisis.
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References:
Avgerinou, V. (2010). The Economic Cost of Hooliganism: the case
of Greece. Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference in Sports
Economics, Cologne, Germany.
Avgerinou, V. & Giakoumatos, S. (2011). The Effect of Hooliganism
on Greek Football Demand. Chapter in Violence and Aggression in
Sporting Contests: Economics, History and Policy, forthcoming
book by Springer.
Disciplinary Code (2010). Hellenic Football Federation.
Dunning, E, Murphy, P., Williams, J. (1988). The Roots of Football
Hooliganism: A Historical and Sociological Study. Routledge and
Kegan Paul: London, UK.
EPAE Sports Court Files (1986-2006) Sports Court Decisions No.
3/22.09.1986 No. 440/2006
Super League Sports Court Files (2006-2009) Sports Court
Decisions No. 01/05.10.06 No. 202/2009
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THE ASSESSMENT OF THE
PERFORMANCE OF THE COACH:
MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN SPORTS
CLUBS?
Author:
Jorge Soares
email:
j.soares@uma.pt
Co-authors:
Antunes, Hlio
University:
University of Madeira
Faculty:
Center for Social Sciences - Department of Physical
Education and Sports
Abstract
This paper aims at analysing the practice of assessing the
performance of coaches in the management of sports
clubs.
The assessment of the performance of coaches is a
systematic and formal process and is a part of the
management of human resources. It assesses the results
obtained by the staff with the aim of improving their
professional performance. Both management based on
objectives and the assessment of the work done by the
staff contribute to a more efficient performance and better
results for the organization.
In Sports clubs whose main activities are competition and
practice, the coach has an important role in achieving
objectives as stated in Cunnings and Dixon (2003), Gilbert
and Trudel (2004). For this reason the performance of the
coach has to be rigorously assessed, structured and
controlled (Chen, 2003; Feltz, Hpler, Roman & Paiement,
2009; Horn, 2002; Mallet & Ct, 2006).
However, literature shows that management and the
performance assessment of the coaches in sports clubs
are neglected or, most of the time, ill conducted and
misinterpreted out of fear. Assessors fear the reaction they
might get from coaches, who in turn fear the
consequences the assessment results might have
(MacLean, 2001 Taylor; Doherty & McGraw, 2008).
223 participants were chosen using random sampling. This
number corresponds to 27% of the coaches working in
sports clubs on Madeira Island, Portugal in the 2009/2010
season.
Individual questionnaires with closed-end questions were
used to collect data. The questions, which were made up
by the data collectors, were validated by 5 experts with
research and papers published in the field of coaching and
coach training. SPSS software was used to treat the data.
Using a dependency test of chi-square, an inferential
analysis was conducted and that resulted in a margin of
error inferior to 0,05.
The results of the study show that the performance
assessment of coaches in sports clubs is a fragile and
rather unstructured practice. Of the 223 coaches
questioned, 42% said their performance as coaches had
never been assessed. Of the coaches that had been
assessed before, about half said they were unable to
specify exactly how many assessments they had
undergone. Nevertheless, most of them (94%) had clear
objectives regarding their performance, the way they did
their job and whether or not they were in competing
regionally, nationally and internationally. The main
assessors and the people responsible for the assessment
were the voluntary sports leaders, even though the coach
himself also did some self-assessment.
The instruments used by the coordinators and sports
leaders to assess coaches were the direct observation of
the training sessions and competitions (21%), the daily
register based on the number of times the athletes
practiced (15%), as well as the coaches reports on the
work done (12%). The participation of the coach in
establishing the objectives and the negotiation with the
leaders were two relevant factors that made coaches
succeed in their roles.
Among the most important objectives of coaching are: an
increase in the physical and technical skills of the athletes
(16%), the development of emotional and social skills of
the athletes (13%) and an improvement in the competition
results (11%).
When comparing the objectives of the performance of the
assessment with the level of intervention of the coaches in
the competition, it was verified that coaches in local and
regional competitions value more the improvement of
physical, technical and tactical abilities of the athletes/team
(p=0,005) and the ability to maintain the number of athletes
throughout the season,(p<0,001). Whereas national
coaches showed more interest in the following objectives:
identifying talents that can compete in a high level of
competition (p=004); ensuring the team remains in the
division it is in, (p=001), and organizing traineeships to
prepare athletes for competitions (p=007).
The results suggest that there should be the introduction of
structured practices that assess the performance of the
coach in sports clubs and differentiation in the assessment
of coaches according to the level of the competition. We
also suggest the introduction and validation of reliable
tools to evaluate the coaches, more than the observation
of training and competitions. To improve the performance
of sport coaches the sport manager needs to check
systematically whether or not objectives are being met.
In the context of sports clubs where voluntary sports
leaders (members of the board) have the power of
decision making, the role of the sports manager or
coordinator in the process of monitoring and observation of
the coach, can be a determining factor for the introduction
of more rational realistic and efficient management, as well
as the improvement in the results of the organization.
References:
Chen, L. (2003). Examination of scale of coaching performance
with the NCAA sample. Measurement in Physical Education and
Exercise Science , 7 (3), 175-197.
Ct, J.; yardley, J.; Hay, J.; Segwick, W. & Baker, J. (1999). An
exploratory examination of the coaching behavior scale for sport.
Avante, 5, N.2, 82-92.
Cunningham , G. & Dixon, M. (2003). New perspectives concerning
performance appraisals of intercollegiate coaches. National
Association of Physical Education in Higher Education, 55, 177-
192.
Feltz, D.; Hpler, T.; Roman, N. & Paiement, C. (2009). Coaching
Efficacy and Volunteer youth Sport Coaches. The Sport
Psychologist, 23, 24-41.
Gilbert, W. & Trudel, P. (2004). Role of the coach: How model youth
team sport coaches frame their roles. The sport psychologist,18,
21-43.
Horn, T. S. (2002). Coaching effectiveness in the sport domain. In
T. S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (pp. 309354).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
MacLean, J. (2001). Performance appraisal for sport and recreation
managers. Austrlia: Human Kinetics.
Mallet, C.& Ct, J. (2006). Beyond Winning and Losing: Guidlines
for Evaluating High Performance Coaches. The Sport Psychologist,
20, 213-221.
Taylor, T.; Doherty, A. & McGraw, P. (2008). Managing people in
sport organizations. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
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COERCIVE ISOMORPHISM ON BELGIAN
FOOTBALL CLUBS: STRUCTURAL,
ECONOMICAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS
OF A CENTRAL IMPLEMENTED
QUALITy MANAGEMENT SySTEM
Author:
Jochen Perck
email:
jperck@vub.ac.be
Co-authors:
Van Hoecke, Jo
University:
Faculty:
LK/SBMA
Abstract
Aim of the abstract:
In recent years various actions has been taken by many
sports federations and leagues to improve the quality of
Belgian (youth) sports clubs (De Knop, et al., 2004). With
the aim of continuous improvement of these sports clubs, a
specific quality management system has been used in
order to increase the degree of professionalization of the
clubs. In this paper the impact of the top-down
implementation of this quality management system on
sports clubs has been examined. The purpose was to look
at the causes and consequences of this implementation
within the Belgian football clubs. Furthermore, there has
been researched to what extent the system affects
structural, economical and social variables in these football
clubs.
Theoretical background:
The theoretical background of this paper analyzes the
principal of coercive isomorphism on Belgian football clubs
(DiMaggio & Powel, 1983). There has been explained how
the principles of quality management and performance
management have led to a (r)evolution in the Belgian
football clubs. Since the Football Federation is using an
objective quality system to control their clubs, it can be
stated that going out from this federation there is a sort of
(in)formal pressure on the football clubs to change towards
a more professional organization (Slack & Hinings, 1994).
One way the Football Federation has been encouraging
the clubs on participating the evaluation audit was by
distributing financial benefits. This extrinsic motive have led
to a second theoretical approach, namely the affect of an
intrinsic/extrinsic motive on the external/internal goal of
professionalization.
Methodology, research design and data analysis:
The sample used for the study is a set of more than 300
Belgian football clubs which has been audited by Foot
PASS (Van Hoecke, et al., 2009) between 2008 and 2011.
The research started with two focus group interviews of
seven random academy managers, with the intention to
find out their opinion and experience regarding the audit.
The findings of these interviews have been used for the
construction of a survey, which examines the effects of the
audit on the inner workings of the club on one hand and
the entering or maintaining of external relations on the
other hand.
Results, discussion and implications/conclusions:
The results indicate that the clubs certainly want to
develop in the direction of the higher quality and more
professional sports organizations. This is reflected in the
fact that the main reasons why most of the clubs
participating the audit are to know how professional their
club is and to receive an objective report that can be
used for improving their youth development. These
intrinsic objectives seems much more important than
extrinsic motives like obtaining financial benefits, which
are given to clubs that participate or in order to achieve a
quality seal of approval to profile themselves to the public.
Other conclusions coming out of the in-depth interviews
are that a participation in the audit provides a structural
improvement in the club and will lead to better associations
with the local authority, schools, other sport clubs and to a
smaller extent with other football clubs. Regarding the
effort and the follow-up of the audit there is a clear
discrepancy between the management of the academy
and the board of the club.
The contribution of this paper can be showed on micro,
meso and macro level. On micro level the results of the
audit may change a lot for the participating clubs and can
contribute to adapt the audit tool on the demands of the
clubs. On meso level, there is the aspect of a changing
policy environment in Belgium with emphasis on improving
youth development. In line with this, the contribution of this
paper is important for the policy. On macro level this
analysis finds its international character in the fact that also
other foreign federations and leagues (wanted to) use the
services of this audit tool.
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References:
De Knop, P., Van Hoecke, J., & De Bosscher, V. (2004). Quality
management in sports clubs. Sport Management Review (7), 57-
77.
DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited:
Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational
fields. American Sociological Review , 48 (2), 147-160.
Slack, T., & Hinings, C. R. (1994). Institutional pressures and
isomorphic change: An empirical test. Organization Studies , 15 (6),
803-827.
Van Hoecke, J., De Knop, P., & Schoukens, H. (2009). A decade of
quality and performance management in Flemish organised sport.
International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing , 6 (3),
308-329.
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450
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OWNERSHIP STRUCTURE AND
FINANCIAL CRISIS IN THE ENGLISH
PREMIER LEAGUE
Author:
Robert Wilson
email:
r.j.wilson@shu.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Plumley, Daniel
University:
Faculty:
Sport
Abstract
Background
English Premier League football clubs are governed via
one of three ownership models; the stock market, the
domestic investor and the foreign investor. Historically, the
stock market model has seen problems with stock value
and corporate goals resulting in 14 clubs delisting between
2001 and 2007 (only 2 clubs remain listed today) (Hamil
and Chadwick, 2010). In their place, the number of
domestic and, more recently, foreign owners has grown
today 9 clubs are owned domestically and 9 by foreign
investors. Foreign ownership has been driven by one (or a
sum) of three drivers; first, as the football industry has
become more commercialised, costs have increased and
traditional owners have been unable to provide the levels
of investment required to compete for league position.
Second, ownership of an EPL club provides a 'trophy'
asset, conferring global notoriety and fame on owners.
Finally, the high value of the broadcasting rights (Hamil
and Chadwick, 2010) and the opportunities for global
expansion indicates that significant revenues (and profits)
can be made.
However, financial data shows that EPL clubs are
leveraged by significant levels of debt (nearly 3bn in
2010) and that a paradox exists; with rising revenues
(approximately 2bn in 2010) and declining financial
performance. Figures from Deloitte (2010) confirms this
trend throughout Europe with greater imbalances between
revenue and costs for clubs in Europe's 'big five' leagues
(see also Andreff, 2007; Ascari and Gagnepain, 2006; Dietl
and Franck, 2007). Recent examples of papers debating
the financial performance of clubs in England have been
largely descriptive offering very little by way of statistical
analysis (see Hamil and Walters, 2010; Emery and Weed,
2006). This study differs by statistically analysing
imbalances between revenue and cost in relation to
ownership structure and league position at a time when
UEFA have signalled their intent through forthcoming
Financial Fair Play regulations for clubs to be run as going
concerns as opposed to apparent financially mismanaged
entities.
Methodology
For the purposes of this abstract data was obtained by
dissecting the annual club accounts of EPL clubs between
2007 and 2009, however, given the findings this will be
extended to provide a longitudinal study over 10 years.
The results were analysed in relation to the five key areas
of financial performance as outlined by Wilson (2011).
These are; growth, profitability, return on capital employed,
liquidity and defensive positioning. Each club was ranked
for each measure and an overall financial health table was
constructed. This meant calculating average results across
the 3 years (10 years in the full paper) of data and ranking
each club against each measure. The financial
performance of each club was then compared against its
relative position in the league. Correlation analysis was
used to test the direction and the strength of the
relationship between on-field performance and off the pitch
returns.
Results/Discussion
Initial results show that there does not appear to be any
systematic link between financial performance and league
performance, that is, clubs that manage their finances
more effectively are not necessarily those that perform the
strongest in the Premier League and vice versa. A
moderate relationship was found to exist in 2007 (r = 0.55),
however this relationship weakens in 2008 (r = 0.45) and
2009 (r = 0.17).
When considering the effect of ownership type on the
league position and financial performance of clubs there
was no systematic link between the two variables. For
clubs owned by domestic investors, the correlation
coefficient values ranged from 0.22 to 0.75 between 2007
and 2009, while the r values for foreign-owned clubs were
between 0.32 to 0.51. A relatively stronger relationship
was seen for clubs owned by domestic investors in 2008 (r
= 0.75) compared to foreign investors (r = 0.32), whereas
in 2009 this finding was reversed, that is, financial
performance is more closely linked to the performance for
foreign-owned clubs (r = 0.51) compared to domestic
investors (r = 0.22).
Whilst the findings are not conclusive, based on 3 seasons
data, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that a
longitudinal study is completed (indeed the relationship
reversal from one year to another warrants further
enquiry), to better understand whether the performance of
Premier League clubs is a function of their ownership
structure and financial health.
What remains however is that clubs owned by foreign
investors are leveraged by significant levels of debt (MUFC
716m, Chelsea 701m and MCFC 194.4m) which
impairs their ability to perform well financially. UEFA is
certain that the FFP regulations will succeed, that however
remains to be seen.
References:
ANDREFF, W. (2007). French Football: A Financial Crisis Rooted in
Weak Governance. Journal of Sports Economics. 8: 6, 652-661.
ASCARI, G and GAGNEPAIN, P. (2006). Spanish Football. Journal
of Sports Economics. 7: 1, 76-89
DELOITTE (2010). Annual Review of Football Finance 2010.
Manchester, Sport Business Group.
DIETL, H.M and FRANCK, E. (2007). Governance Failure and
Financial Crisis in German Football. Journal of Sports Economics.
8: 6, 662-669.
EMERy, R. and WEED, M. (2006). Fighting for survival? The
financial management of football clubs outside the 'top flight' in
England. Managing Leisure. 11: 1-21.
HAMIL, S and CHADWICK, S. (2010). Managing Football: An
International Perspective. Oxford, Elsevier.
HAMIL, S and WALTERS, G. (2010). Financial performance in
English professional football: 'an inconvenient truth'. Soccer &
Society. 11: 4, 354-372.
WILSON, R. (2011). Managing Sport Finance. London, Routledge.
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THE REORGANIZATION OF A
PROFESSIONAL SPORTS LEAGUE A
CRITICAL ANALySIS OF THE
RESTRUCTURING OF THE AUSTRALIAN
NATIONAL BASKETBALL LEAGUE
Author:
Winston Wing Hong To
email:
wto@uwo.ca
Co-authors:
Quick, Shayne
Semotiuk, Darwin
University:
The University of Western Ontario
Faculty:
Faculty of Health Sciences/School of Kinesiology
Abstract
There are numerous examples of professional sports
leagues that have failed. Australia has witnessed
professional soccer (National Soccer League) and rugby
leagues (Super League, Australian Rugby Football
League) disappear, be restructured, or reintroduced under
a new brand and name (soccer: A-League, rugby league:
National Rugby league) (MacDonald & Karg & Lock, 2010;
Commonwealth of Australia, 2006). North America has
seen the closure of a number of professional sports
leagues such as the xFL (American Football), World
Hockey Association (Ice Hockey), and the Canadian
Soccer League (Football/Soccer) (Bostwick, 2007;
Golokhov, N.D.). There are numerous reasons why these
professional sports leagues fail. Poor earning potential,
limited attendance or fan base, the economy, the structure
of the game, or the effectiveness of the organizational
culture and structure are but a few.
In 2009, the top tier professional sports league for the
highest ranked team sport in the non-organized
participation category in Australia (Interim Board of
Basketball Australia, 2008), the National Basketball
League (NBL), was reorganized and placed under the
control of Australias national sport organization (NSO) for
basketball, Basketball Australia (BA). This came about due
to the ongoing volatility of this professional sports league
since its inception in 1979. Prior to the reorganization, the
league was under the governance of the NBL team
owners. The league was restructured and relaunch under
the same name (NBL) in October 2010 (NBL, 2010).
NSO roles traditionally do not include the governance of a
professional sports league, but rather focus on sports
development, high performance, funding acquisition, and
being the national representative of the sport in their
country and to that sports international federation.
Basketball in Australia was different.
This study critically analyzed the strategies implemented
by BA in 2009 in their endeavor to improve the status of
the NBL within the Australian sports market. The research
sought answers to the following questions:
1. What were the trends within failing professional sports
leagues? (National Soccer League, Super League,
Australian Rugby Football League)
2. What steps could professional sports leagues take to
ensure their league survival?
3. Should a government funded National Sporting
Organization (in this case Basketball Australia) govern
countrys premier professional sports league such as the
NBL?
4. Would the implementations of current strategies make
the league more successful that it was in the early 90s?
(financial status, sponsorship revenue, competition level,
game product, fan interest/television viewership)
A qualitative research methodology was used in this study.
The two qualitative research techniques used were in-
depth interviews and a content analysis of secondary
research data. The data collection phase of the in-depth
interviews was from October 9, 2009 to November 4, 2009.
The research participants were randomly selected based
on accessibility. The research participants were from the
following organizations:
Basketball Australia Chief Executive Officer, National
Team Assistant Coach/Former NBL Player (National Sport
Organization)
Basketball Queensland Sport Development Officer
(State Sport Organization)
Gold Coast Blaze Owner, Chief Executive Officer,
General Manager (NBL team)
All in-depth interviews, except one, were tape-recorded
and were conducted in person on the Gold Coast,
Queensland, Australia. The one interview not done face-to
face was conducted over the telephone.
The two secondary data document sets used for the
content analysis were:
1. Commercial Reform of Basketball in Australia: Board
Statements of Future Directions
2. Commercial Reform of Basketball in Australia: Financial
Model
The analysis of the data was coded by the author. Six
themes arose from the coded data and they were,
1. The organizational structure of the old NBL
2. The failure of the old NBL
3. The power transition of the NBL from NBL owners to BA
4. The organizational structure of the new NBL
5. Implementation strategies BA adapted to the new NBL
6. Criticisms of the new NBL
The research concluded that certain trends have been
found with regards to failing professional sports leagues.
These included poor leadership; the entertainment factor,
or lack thereof, of the sport; small attendances; and, the
inability to secure television contracts. An implication of the
study is additional changes were needed in order to for the
league to sustain itself long-term in regards to the NBL .
However it was unclear whether or not BA was the right
organization to govern the NBL.
The limitations of this research study are: research
participants were mostly from one region, the data
collected was coded by hand, the inability of gaining
access to documents, and the research only captured the
restructuring process (did not see how the end product).
References:
Bostwick, B. (2007). An in-depth look at why the xFL failed.
yahoo. Retrieved April 1, 2011 An In-Depth Look at Why the xFL
Failed
Commonwealth of Australia. (2006). The Super League case: A
research paper. Department of the Parliamentary Library.
Golokhov, D. (N.D.). Top 10: Failed Canadian sports ventures.
AskMen. Retrieved April 1, 2011
http://ca.askmen.com/top_10/sports_100/149_fitness_list.html
Interim Board of Basketball Australia. (2008). Commercial reform
of Basketball Australia: Statement of future directions. (2008).
Interim Board of Basketball Australia.
MacDonald, H., Karg, A., Lock, D. (2010). Leveraging fans global
football allegiances to build domestic league support. Asia Pacific
Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 22(1), 67-89.
NBL. (2010). NBL launches new national marketing campaign.
NBL. Retrieved June 2, 2011
http://www.nbl.com.au/news/article/2010/october/nbl-launches-new-
national-marketing-campaign/
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INTERNATIONAL TRANSFERS OF
FOOTBALL PLAyERS: THE LICENSED
PLAyERS AGENTS POINT OF VIEW IN
BRAZIL AND IN PORTUGAL
Author:
Maria Chacon
email:
mariachacon555@hotmail.com
Co-authors:
Batista, Paula Calada, Emanuel Carvalho, Maria
Jos PhD and Assistant Professor, Faculty of Sport,
University of Porto Lawyer, specialized in Sports Law
University:
University of Porto
Faculty:
Faculty of Sport
Abstract
Sport has been considered one of the main factors of
educational, social, cultural and economical development
of humanity in its multiple aspects, expressions and
dimensions (Carvalho, 2010). As introduced by Bourg and
Gouguet (2007) the phenomenon of the professional sport
is highly complex, regarding its internationalization,
organization and funding. Moreover, it is commonly
accepted that the uncertainty of the results is one of the
characterizing elements of the high performance sport.
That is why this is considered one of the factors that most
characterizes and specifies a sportive activity (Filho, 2009).
Effectively, its verified that the uncertainty that should
reflect in the sportive results is the indispensable condition
or element for the sportive and economical triumph of a
specific competition (Carvalho, 2009, p. 302).
In football, it is observed that the culture intrinsic to it has
transformed this modality into a spectacle-sport, self-
assuming worldwide as a professional activity. By its global
reach, the internationalization of its frontiers is rising and
the number of international transfers among players is
even higher. In parallel to this phenomenon, the
appearance of agents who acts in the intermediation
between players and clubs, always aiming the best
contract and the best opportunities for both, is a reality of
gradual increase. These operators have been acquiring an
unquestionable space in the process of constitution and/or
extinction of the labor-juridical relationship between two
sportive characters (Amado, 2002). Recently, the
profession of agent obtained a distinguished importance in
the sportive environment, notable in the high amounts
involved in the negotiations and in the rising number of
professionals.
Regulated by FIFA and supported by its regulations, in
particular in the Regulations on the Status and Transfer of
Players and in the Players Agents Regulations, the
profession of licensed football agent is increasing, and it is
supported also by each one of the local legislations.
Portugal and Brazil own legislative instruments that
contribute to a tight work relationship between football
players and employer clubs. In Brazil, the football agent is
self-employed, and for that, has its career oriented by the
Consolidation of Work Laws (CLT, in Portuguese) in its
labor sphere; however with influence of the Law 9.615/98
(Pele Law) in terms of relations to the formalities of the
negotiations between clubs and players. Meanwhile, in the
Portuguese Law, it was recognized that such occupation
deserved a more specific approach, and therefore, the
sportive agent was supported by the Framework Law of
Physical Activity and Sport (LBAFD, in Portuguese) and
benefits, at the same time, from Law 28/98, that regulates
the sportive work contract.
Within this, it is identified a total of 59 agents in Portugal
and 333 in Brazil, all of them properly licensed respectively
by their national Federation and Confederation. It is an
inexpressive amount facing the huge quantity of transfers
between these two countries. According to data from the
Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF, in Portuguese), in
the last five years (2005-2009) there were 897 Brazilians
exported to Portugal, representing 18% of the total of
transfers in this period (4933 athletes). On the other side,
there were effectuated returns to Brazil of 441 athletes,
which represents 17% of a total of 2657 footballers
between these same years.
This present work aimed the football markets of Brazil and
Portugal in order to analyze the international transfers
using the football agents point of view. It also intends to
analyze the reality of Brazil and Portugal relatively to the
legislations in vigor concerning the professional athletes
transfers and the respective labor-juridical application of
the agents. Additionally, its yet intended to characterize
the typology of the relations between these two countries.
For the collection of data it was used a set of scientific
publications, official documents released by the national
and international football entities and also official juridical
documents from all mentioned entities, as well as applied
semi-structured interviews to the licensed sportive agents
from these two countries.
The data analysis was submitted to a content analysis with
the assistance of NVivo 9 program, and also with a content
review in the documents obtained. The results show that
both countries are concerned with this new profession of
football agent, and that these individuals understand that
the tight relationship regarding Brazil and Portugal are due
to a number of variables such as language, international
experience and career upgrade. The results yet suggest
that Brazil and Portugal have different realities regarding
international transfers of their players, although both look
forward that these transactions comply with each
framework law board.
References:
Amado, J. L. (2002). Vinculao versus Liberdade: O processo de
constituio e extino da relao laboral do praticante desportivo.
Coimbra: Coimbra Editora.
Bourg, J.-F., & Gouguet, J.-J. (2007). conomie Politique du Sport
Professionnel. Paris: Vuibert.
Carvalho, M. J. (2009). Elementos estruturantes do regime jurdico
do desporto profissional em Portugal. Coimbra: Coimbra Editora.
Carvalho, M. J. (2010). Professional sport in Portugal: an overview
of its framework law. International Sports Law Review Pandektis,
8(3-4).
Filho, A. M. (2009). A especificidade desportiva. Desporto & Direito:
Revista Jurdica do Desporto(17), 257-267.
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GOVERNING EUROPEAN FOOTBALL:
MECHANISMS AND IMPLICATIONS
Author:
Bastiaan Smilde
email:
bastiaansmilde@gmail.com
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Sport Business Management
Abstract
Research aim and preliminary research question
Although it is widely recognized that there currently exists
an increasing financial gap between the European top
teams and the others, successful measurements have not
been implemented up to this point. The aim of this
research is to theoretically assess governing mechanisms
in European football, drawing back on institutional theory,
stakeholder theory, and other organizational frameworks.
The preliminary research question that has been posed is:
What are the requirements and mechanisms to
successfully govern football in Europe? This research
provides evidence for the need to govern football clubs in
ways that take into consideration different stakeholder
positions. UEFAs financial fair play will be discussed, as
well as American practices (salary caps, draft rules, roster
limits, revenue sharing and other redistributive measures)
and other governance mechanisms.
(Theoretical) Background
According to Lago et al. (2006) the root cause of the
current crisis is the increased amount of income that has
entered the game in the past decades. Drut and Raballand
(2010) estimate a total revenue growth of 90% in the five
biggest European football competitions over the past
decade, which has triggered an even greater increase in
spending on players (Lago et al., 2006). The result is an
uneven distribution of playing talent and consequently
competitive imbalance. Deloitte found that the twenty
largest European teams have made revenues of more than
4.3 billion over the 2009/2010 season, which accounts for
one-fourth of the total income of all European top-league
clubs together (Deloitte, 2011). More problematic is the fact
that, for this season only, there exists an overall net loss of
more than 1.15 billion divided over the top-divisions in
Europe. Fourteen of the twenty English Premier League
clubs have suffered considerable losses in the 2008/2009
season, which reflects the scale of this problem. The
industry is in need of action, which has also been
addressed by Beech (2010; pp. 120) who describes
football as an industry sector that is in financial disarray
and that is dysfunctional. Governing bodies, and UEFA in
particular, face the challenge of making European football
financially viable. One of the most recent responses to the
growing financial imbalance in football is the
implementation of a new club licensing system, the so-
called financial fair play (FFP) regulation. The core
principle of this concept is the break-even requirement,
which holds that clubs are not allowed to spend more
money than they make. It is hoped for that this regulation
will restore some of the current financial and competitive
imbalance.
This case study uses secondary and primary data to
explore the relevant topics related to governance in
football. Qualitative data is being obtained through semi-
structured interviews and questionnaires, giving depth to
the theoretical knowledge that is explored throughout this
research. Interviews with different stakeholders groups
(governing bodies, ECA, UEFA, and club officials) are to
be conducted in the following months. Results will be
extensively discussed in light of the institutional and
stakeholder frameworks that will be explored in the first
stages of this research .
Preliminary responses to FFP regulation in specific and
governance in general are diverse. Some of the big
European top clubs (of which Arsenal is one of the
exceptions) seem to be resistant to change, whereas most
smaller clubs in more moderate leagues are hoping to
benefit from UEFAs initiatives. Additionally, Olsson (2011)
thinks that financial fair play is unlikely to be successful in
the current set-up, although it is essentially a promising
measure. Other critics argue in favour of regulation that is
easier to understand and to control, which will give less
room to bend regulations. This research shows in great
depth what the alternatives for FFP are, and how this
relates to the institutional environment that clubs operate
in.
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References:
Beech, J. (2010). Finance in the football industry. in Managing
football: An international perspective. ed. by Hamil, S. and
Chadwick, S. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 119-
149.
Deloitte (2011). The Untouchables: Football Money League.
Drut, B. and Raballand, G. (2010). The impact of governance on
European football leagues competitiveness. Paris: Universit de
Paris Ouest Nanterre La Dfense.
Lago, U., Simmons, R. and Szymanski, S. (2006). The financial
crisis in European football. Journal of Sports Economics, 7 (1), pp.
3-12.
Olsson, L.C. (2011). Decisive Moments in UEFA. in Football
across Europe: An institutional perspective. ed. by Gammelster,
H. and Senaux, B. Oxon: Routledge.
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DyNAMICS BETWEEN THE FRENCH
FEDERATION OF RUGBy (FFR) AND
THE NATIONAL RUGBy LEAGUE (NRL):
COMPETITION, COOPERATION OR
COOPETITION?
Author:
Alexandre Vernhet
email:
alexandre@vernhet.com
Co-authors:
Bernard Auge Anne-Sophie Fernandez
University:
University of Montpellier
Faculty:
ISEM
Abstract
Introduction
In 1995, the International Board pushed up the French
Rugby sports in the professional sphere while giving up
officially the amateurism status of rugby players. This
move induced a deep change : formal boundaries between
the sector of elite, professional, commercial rugby and the
sector of amateur players, casual and non-commercial
rugby. Since then, two entities manage jointly the whole
French rugby sector : the French federation of Rugby on
the first hand and the National League of Rugby on the
other hand.
The role of the first association is focused on the
management of the amateur sector whereas the role of the
second one is more about the professional rugby. However
as pointed out by Nier and Chantelat (2007), if the law
envisages the autonomy of the league in the marketing of
the rights of exploitation of the competitions, the league
remains dependant on the federation and, indirectly on the
Ministry of Sport. Thus the professionalisation has
impacted the structure of the network while influencing the
nature of the members and their relationships as well. At
the same time new economical issues has appeared. The
media become more important and more powerful. The
mediatization phenomenon challenged the members of the
network in terms of value creation but also in terms of
value appropriation.
Traditional approaches to strategic management consider
competition and cooperation as mutually exclusive and
opposed. But, the succession of cooperative and
competitive strategies creates many dysfunctions. The
introduction of the neologism coopetition, a contraction of
cooperation and competition, opens a new research field
to analyze relationships simultaneously cooperative and
competitive. Brandenburger and Nalebuff (1996) define the
coopetition as a bringing together of interests between
complementors when cooperation and competition occur
simultaneously.
The purpose of this paper is to highlight the interest of
using a strategic and dialectical framework such as
coopetition to understand the emerging relationships
between the FFR and the NRL.
In a strategic network, co-opetitive strategies are not only
emerging ones. A third actor called broker also can
induce them. The network broker can play different roles:
architect, lead operator and caretaker (Snow et al. 1992).
This framework is particularly interesting to question the
role of the French government within the network and
more precisely in the dyadic relationship between both
associations.
Research questions
First, what are the strategies developed by the LNR and
the FFR? Second, Are they competitors, partners or
simultaneously both?
Since the French Government defines the missions of the
associations, the question of its influence on the
relationships between both associations can be asked.
Does the French government have an architectural
capability in the definition of their strategies? Does it act
like a broker in the network? If so, in which terms i.e.
architect, lead operator, caretaker or all of them?
Methodology
In order to provide relevant insights to our questions, the
research is carried out starting from a qualitative method of
a standard case study (Eisenhardt, 1989). The level of
analysis is the social network of the French rugby sector
focusing on the dyad of FFR and LNR.
The data collection is still processing. Until now, we have
analyzed secondary Data. A second step of our study
consisting in conducting semi-structured interviews with
the directors of both associations is already planned. Such
an approach will allow us to compare the perceptions of
both institutions and to reveal possible asymmetries. Data
gathered from the interviews were analyzed using NVivo
Software.
Main findings and contributions
The first results confirm the emergence of strategies
simultaneously competitive and cooperative within the
sector of french rugby. These strategies appear to respond
to an important environmental change : the
professionalization of the sector.
The coopetitive framework help us to understand the
dimensions of each relationship. The LNR and the FFR
become partners to schedule the games in the season and
they also lend players between each other. At the same
time, they remain direct competitors to organize major
sports events.
They cooperate in order to create value but they compete
to gain more value (financial incentives because of the
mediatization). Both associations try to get advantages
from two dynamics and benefit from its.
This result encourages considering sport associations in
the same way as firms. They define proactive strategies in
order to improve their economical performance.
Further research could investigate the same phenomenon
at a micro level in clubs. We assume that the duality
observed at a macro level between professional and
amateur rugby would also appear in the governance
structure of clubs.
References:
Brandenburger A., Nalebuff, B. (1996), Co-opetition,
Doubleday, 288 p.
Chaix P. (2004), Le rugby professionnel en France : Enjeux
conomiques et sociaux, LHarmattan, Paris.
Eisenhardt Kathleen (1989). Building Theories from Case Study
Research, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14, n4, p. 532-
550.
Nier O. et Chantelat P., (2007), Gense et limites de la
gouvernance du rugby dlite franais, in Bayle E. et Chantelat P.
(dir.), La gouvernance des organisations sportives, LHarmattan,
Paris, p. 195-216.
Snow C., Miles R., Coleman H., (1992), Managing 21st Century
Networks Organizations, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 20, p. 5-
19.
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START WITH A LEG UP: IMPROVING
THE TRANSITION AND INDUCTION OF
NEW CHIEF ExECUTIVE OFFICERS
Author:
Geoff Schoenberg
email:
geoff.schoenberg@deakin.edu.au
Co-authors:
Shilbury, David
University:
Deakin University
Faculty:
School of Management and Marketing
Abstract
Background
Research focused on changes in the Chief Executive
Officer (CEO) position, referred to as CEO succession,
have typically followed a quantitative approach using
publicly available historical data and been focused on
corporate entities (Giambatista, Rowe, & Riaz, 2005;
Kesner & Sebora, 1994). While there are a significant
amount of prescriptive guides offering non-profit
organizations advice on selecting a new CEO, these are
often based on the experience of the writer rather than any
empirical study. A CEO succession takes place in three
phases, getting ready, recruitment and selection, and post-
hire (Adams, 1998) and is a critical event for an
organization and is possibly the most important decision a
board will make (Allison, 2002). An effective succession
will often see the organization grow and prosper whereas a
poorly managed succession will often result in significant
turnover in staff, a decline in organizational effectiveness
and a repeating of the succession process. These failures
often result from over focusing on the middle phase of
succession, recruitment and selection, at the expense of
the pre-search phase and the post-hire phase. These oft-
neglected phases are designed to ensure an organization
is searching for the right candidate and effectively
integrates the new hire to the organization.
The aim of this research was to examine how Victorian
(Australia) state sporting organizations (SSOs) experience
the succession process, and in particular, how boards are
preparing and guiding the organization through this
inevitable event.
Method
A lack of attention in the sport literature dictated that this
research should follow a qualitative approach based
primarily on nonprofit CEO succession literature. Case
studies were conducted with three similarly sized Victorian
SSOs with the aim of examining the processes used and,
particularly, the use of strategy and recommended board
practices in the selection of a new CEO. SSOs were
chosen due to their primary role of providing sport
participation opportunities in Victoria. To ensure a
homogenous environment for study, research was
conducted to identify cases that were similarly sized, had
recently undergone a competitive process to select a new
CEO and had strategic rather than operationally focused
boards. Each organization matching these criteria was
contacted and three out of four organizations agreed to
participate.
Interviews were conducted with the President, the CEO
and one other board member from each organization for a
total of nine in-depth interviews. These interviews were the
primary source of data and were supplemented by
documents such as the organizations strategic plan,
annual reports and interview guides. Using already
developed themes as the basis for data reduction, the
coding process focused on the axial and selective coding
stages utilizing the NVivo software resulting in the
identification of key issues across all cases.
Results
The interviewing of multiple people involved in the same
event often highlighted differing perspectives. With regards
to the new CEOs induction, board members typically
recalled a variety of brief inductions and discussions with
the previous CEO and this was deemed sufficient whereas
the CEOs seemed to recall a minimal or non-existent
induction and transition program. In one case, the recently
hired CEO of one organization stated I turned up and the
staff said gday, how you going, nice to meet you, your
office is in there... heres your computer, heres your seat
and good luck. Additionally, boards rarely took an active
role in introducing their new CEO to external stakeholders,
meaning the CEO was initiating these relationships without
a formal introduction.
Conclusion
The lack of board involvement in the transition or induction
represents a significant departure from accepted and
prescribed best practices (Houle, 1997). Part of the issue
relates to the lack of operational awareness within a part-
time, volunteer, strategically focused board. The board
members, therefore, are not in the position to offer much
more than a cursory induction to the new CEO. While
some successions may build in overlap time for the
outgoing and incoming CEO to work together to induct the
new CEO, many organizations will not have this luxury as
a current CEO may be forced to depart quickly due to
illness, scandal or other circumstances. Recognizing this
deficiency, this study recommends that boards require
current CEOs to develop and consistently update a
transition document that includes information regarding key
projects, staff responsibilities and stakeholder contacts
amongst other information.
References:
Adams, T. (1998). Executive transitions. Nonprofit World, 16(3), 48-
52.
Allison, M. (2002). Into the Fire: Boards and Executive Transitions.
Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 12(4), 341-352.
Giambatista, R. C., Rowe, W. G., & Riaz, S. (2005). Nothing
succeeds like succession: A critical review of leader succession
literature since 1994. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(6), 963-991.
Houle, C. (1997). Governing Boards: Their Nature and Nurture.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kesner, I. F., & Sebora, T. C. (1994). Executive succession: Past,
Present & Future. Journal of Management, 20(2), 327-372.
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ANALySING UEFA FINANCIAL FAIR
PLAy REGULATIONS THROUGH
COMPARISION OF THE PREMIER
LEAGUE AND BUNDESLIGA
Author:
Tom Bason
email:
basont@coventry.ac.uk
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Faculty of Business / Environment and Society
Abstract
For many years, the top European clubs were effectively
self-governed, with UEFA worried about the power they
wielded. However, UEFA have recently announced their
Financial Fair Play Regulations in an attempt to encourage
teams to live within their means. Although not explicitly
stated, it is generally thought that these are aimed at
English clubs who, despite having massive revenue
streams, continue to operate with large levels of debt. In
March 2010, Portsmouth FC was docked nine points after
becoming the first Premier League team to enter
administration. In addition, the two most successful English
clubs of all time, Manchester United and Liverpool, have
recently found themselves with combined debts of eur. 1
billion. These are primarily due to the new American
owners installing the debt used to purchase the club. This
is not against Premier League rules and there is nothing to
stop future business men using the same strategies to buy
other clubs.
In contrast, the German Bundesliga has recently instigated
a strict financial policy called ?Lizenzierungordnung?. This
strict governance has seen the Bundesliga become the
most profitable league in world football, with many
observers noting a rosy financial future for German football
(Frick & Prinz, 2006). However, some have disputed the
success of the policy and its effect on German club football
in European competition; only one German team has
reached the Champions League final since 2002 (Dietl &
Franck, 2007). Many commentators in Germany have
blamed the strict financial control for this apparent lack of
European success.
Jonathan Wilson argues that while the Bundesliga is
Europe?s most competitive league, it is highly unlikely for
any league to maintain this level of internal
competitiveness and also enjoy success in European Cups
and international competitions. (Wilson, 2010). This has
been argued against by Daniel Barthold, who notes that
the financial stringency employed, combined with the
success of the 2006 World Cup (in Germany), could be
used to the Bundesliga?s benefit in the years to come
(Barthold, 2009).
This paper looks at the contrasting regulations in the
Premier League and the Bundesliga, and attempts to judge
the impact that the impending Financial Fair Play
Regulations will have on Premier League football clubs. As
the Financial Fair Play Regulations are currently only being
aimed at clubs competing in European football, I am
primarily focusing my attention on the top clubs. However,
as they may be expanded to cover all top-flight football, the
potential impact on all Premier League clubs is also being
considered.
My research, using both positivist and interpretivist
perspectives, analyses data through a comparative design
(Bryman & Bell, 2007) by contrasting the Bundesliga and
Premier League. Qualitative research is currently being
conducted through a series of semi-structured interviews
and questionnaires in order to find out the need for change
in England, and the immediate impact on Premier League
success. In addition, quantitative financial data is being
analysed to assess the extent of the Premier League?s
difficulties, through a series of financial ratio analyses in
order to determine the financial futures of Premier League
football clubs.
Preliminary results are showing that Premier League clubs
will oppose the changes imposed on them, especially
those larger clubs with sizeable debts. The lack of German
success in European competition is a cause for concern to
those clubs who rely on European football for financial
stability, yet UEFA?s Financial Fair Play Regulations are
attempting to ensure a level playing field across Europe.
The biggest impact so far appears to be that the position of
those clubs currently in European competition, and whose
increased revenues allow them to spend more, is
safeguarded. The likelihood is that it will no longer be
possible for smaller clubs to gamble on reaching European
football through spending more than they can afford on
player transfer fees and wages, as even if they qualify for
Europe, the regulations will prevent them from entering.
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References:
Barthold, D., 2009. The Business of European Football. Munich:
Grin Verlag.
Bryman, A. & Bell, E., 2007. Business Research Methods. OUP
Oxford: Oxford.
Dietl, H.M. & Franck, E., 2007. Governance Failure and Financial
Crisis in German Football. Journal of Sports Economics, 8(662),
pp.662-69.
Frick, B. & Prinz, J., 2006. Crisis? What Crisis? Football in
Germany. Journal of Sports Economics, 7(60), pp.60-75.
Wilson, J., 2010. Stolen thoughts of a football robot. The Football
Supporter, 1(23), pp.12-15.
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SPORT GOVERNANCE IN A GLOBAL
COMMUNITy
Author:
David Shilbury
email:
shilbury@deakin.edu.au
Co-authors:
Ferkins, Lesley
University:
Deakin University
Faculty:
Business & Law/ Management & Marketing
Abstract
Aim and Background
The aim of this research is to explore sport governance
practice from the lived experience of one informant
spanning a 30 year period in the governance of two sport
organisations (basketball and cricket). The breadth of this
experience spans boardroom practice at club, state,
national and international level and in so doing provides a
viewpoint from multiple levels of governance. To date,
there has been no research that has explored the lived
experience of a sport governance practitioner. This
presentation will focus on the international dimension of
this practitioners involvement in the International Cricket
Council (ICC) as a former Chief Executive Officer.
Historically, the governance of professional sport has
received little empirical attention, and has been regarded
in relatively simple terms (Hassan & Hamil, 2010).
Moreover, Hassan and Hamil (2010) contend that
professional sport has mostly operated within systems of
governance that have presented sports as something of a
deviation from normal business practices (p. 343).
Interest in international governance models for
professional sport is attracting growing attention (Hamil,
Walters, & Watson, 2010) recognising the range of critical
issues that many sports confront. The transition of many
international sport organisations from volunteer
administered entities anchored in an amateur ethos, to
professionally managed bodies in an increasingly
commercialised global marketplace accounts for these
deviations from normal business practice.
Method
The methodological framework used for this study is
hermeneutic phenomenology. Hermeneutics is about life
experience and seeks to grasp the everyday, inter-
subjective world of the respondents and how that life-world
is constituted (Schmidt & Little, 2007, p. 227). It
recognises that history determines the background of our
values and cognitions, and may even determine our critical
judgements. In this study the lived experience of one
informant coincides with the transition from an amateur to
commercial culture in the governance of international
sport. The methods used to collect data were a series of
interviews (totalling six hours) with one research
participant, whose experience of sport governance spans
three decades. Document analysis was also used to
support interviews.
In drawing on the philosophy of hermeneutics, which
recognises that one can only understand the experience of
others through the lens of ones own historical being in the
world (Smyth, 2007, p. 20), the researchers engaged an
interpretative lens to present interview findings in relation
to current theory. The exploration of this life experience
was integrated with key theoretical concepts derived from
the literature in relation to sport governance. This
integration and analysis took place through the viewpoint
of the researchers. Gadamer (2004) urged that pre-
understandings are the very conditions by which we
understand. The challenge is not to set them aside but
rather to work with them in the quest towards
understanding (Smythe, 2007, p. 20). The researchers
understanding of sport governance arises from their own
practical and educational journey in sport management,
and as members of sport boards. From this, the
researchers drew on major governance concepts that, for
them, inform the theoretical foundations of international
sport governance practice.
Results
International sport governance is, in the case of the ICC,
complicated by historical structures and the diverse cultural
interpretations of the governance systems and meanings
directors give to the legitimacy of the ICC. The following
extract from the interviews exemplifies this complexity, and
the focus of this presentation on the balance between the
performance and conformance governance functions and
the interplay between old and new structures and cultures.
The president and the chief executive are directors but
dont have a vote. When there is a vice president, hes
also a director but doesnt have a vote, hes appointed now
two years in advance, in those days it was one year in
advance. So there would be 13 sitting around the table
with a vote, three of us sitting around the table who had
the same duties and obligations as directors but didnt
have a vote. There was another strange requirement that
for a resolution to pass at a board meeting, seven of the
full members had to vote in favour of it, so any four could
block any resolution. So there was an immediate filter, a
barrier to straight forward decision making and that it
needed a large majority for relatively simple matters to be
approved by the board (Interviewee, 16 August, 2010).
In addition to the above, major themes and sub-themes to
emerge from the interviews to be discussed include
international governance structures, stakeholder
relationships, board dynamics, shared leadership and
chair/CEO relationships.
References:
Gadamer, H.-G. (2004). Truth and method (2nd revised ed.). New
york: Continuum.
Hassan, D., & Hamil, S. (2010). Models of football governance and
management in international sport, Soccer & Society, 11, 343-353.
Hamil, S., Walters, G., & Watson, L. (2010). The model of
governance at FC Barcelona: balancing member democracy,
commercial strategy, corporate social responsibility and sporting
performance, Soccer & Society, 11, 475-504.
Schmidt, C., & Little, D. (2007). Qualitative insights into leisure as a
spiritual experience. Journal of Leisure Research, 39(2), 222-247.
Smythe, L. (2007). A Hermeneutic analysis of the rise of midwifery
scholarship in New Zealand. New Zealand College of Mid Wives,
37, 20-25.
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VOLATILITy PROBLEMS IN
PROFESSIONAL EUROPEAN SOCCER
CLUBS
Author:
Christopher Huth
email:
c.huth@dshs-koeln.de
Co-authors:
Breuer, Christoph
University:
German Sport University
Faculty:
Sport Economics and Sport Management
Abstract
Aim of abstract
Although European soccer despite the continuing
financial crisis rushes from sales record to sales record
some clubs get into financial distress. In addition to current
examples from German soccer FC Schalke 04, Arminia
Bielefeld, TSV 1860 Munich there are also some
international cases Portsmouth AC in England or AC
Parma in Italy worth mentioning. This is due to the
dependency of revenues from sporting results in soccer
clubs. In English, French and German soccer broadcasting
revenues are allocated according to sporting criteria
whereby successful clubs receive a greater portion of the
proceeds than their comparatively unsuccessful
competitors. The aim of this study is to detect the extent of
financial risks caused by the uncertainty of sporting results
with the help of an adequate ratio.
Theoretical background and literature review
The theory of risk management is based on ideas by
Modgliani and Miller (1958). They argue that on a perfect
market without any imperfections the value of a company
cannot be influenced neither positively nor negatively
by risk management. However, the assumption of the
existence of a perfect market is not maintainable in reality
because of information asymmetries or transaction costs.
Risk management justifies itself because of this.
In the context of the shareholder value theorem the main
arguments for risk management were delivered by
Bessembinder (1991), as well as Smith and Stulz (1985)
for financial distress and Froot, Scharfstein and Stein
(1993) as well as Stulz (1990) for investment policy.
In the risk management process risks are first identified
and then measured by an adequate ratio to take the
appropriate steps. To quantify risks different ratios were
developed. Apart from qualitative quantitative
measurements have to be mentioned. Quantitative risk
measurements refer to different ratios as volatility or the
concept of value at risk. The risk of a financial asset like
a common stock is generally measured by the volatility
of its returns those stocks whose returns tend to fluctuate
significantly across time, rather than remain relatively
stable, provide greater uncertainty to investors, and
increase the probability of the investor suffering capital
losses.
Methodology, research method, and data analysis
Considering the ratio of volatility a quantitative research
method was chosen using data from different European
soccer clubs that come from the so-called Big Five-
leagues England, France, Germany, Italy and Spain. The
clubs were selected according to restrictions like the
availability of revenue data of five consecutive seasons.
The revenues of the three most important sources in term
of volume matchday, broadcasting and commercial
were collected and analyzed. Altogether, fourteen
European Soccer clubs five clubs from England and
Germany, four Italian clubs, two Spanish clubs and
Olympique Lyonnais from France were selected. In a
second step based on the collected data the volatility of
the sources of revenues were calculated first individually
for each football club, followed by the calculation of a
mean volatility for each source of revenue.
Results, discussion, and implications
The results show that the calculated volatility differs across
the fourteen analyzed soccer clubs. On average the
volatility of matchday revenues mount up to 17.48%,
broadcasting revenues to 21.74% and commercial
revenues to 16.04%. It is noteworthy that the spread of
volatility between the clubs is quite high. In the case of
matchday revenues the difference ranges from 0.63% by
Olympique Lyonnais to 44.96% by Juventus Turin. The
broadcasting revenues range from 6.84% by Olympique
Lyonnais to 52.72% by FC Schalke 04 and the commercial
revenues from 2.48% by Hertha BSC Berlin to 31.32% by
Borussia Dortmund. In addition to sporting results new
advertising contracts or development of the stadium are
also relevant factors for the differences.
For this reason soccer clubs should in the context of risk
management try to reduce the volatility of their revenues
in order to secure in particular the necessary resources
and the long-term athletic success. For this it is essential
to identify in a second step adequate measures to achieve
this aim.
References:
Bessembinder, Hendrick, 1991, Forward contracts and firm value:
Incentives and contracting effects, in: Journal of Financial and
Quantitative Analysis, Volume 26, S.491-532.
Froot, Kenneth A., Scharfstein, David S. und Stein, Jeremy C.,
1993, Risk management: coordinating corporate investment and
financing policies, in: The Journal of Finance, Volume 48, S.1629-
1658.
Modigliani, Franco und Miller, Merton, 1958, The cost of capital,
corporate finance and the theory of investment, in: American
Economic Review, Volume 48, S.261-297.
Smith, Clifford W. und Stulz, Ren, 1985, The determinants of
firms` hedging policies, in: Journal of
Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Volume 20, S.391-405.
Stulz, Ren, 1990, Managerial discretion and optimal financing
policies, in: Journal of Financial Economics, Volume 26, S.3-27.
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REGULATION OF THE REALITy
JURIDICAL-SPORTIVE OF THE
FOOTBALL PLAyERS AGENTS IN
BRAZIL AND IN EUROPE
Author:
Emanuel Calada
email:
emanuel12345@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Chacon, Maria Ligia (1) Carvalho, Maria Jos (2) (1) Sport
Management Master Student, Faculty of Sport, University
of Porto (2) PhD and Assistant Professor, Faculty of Sport,
University of Porto
University:
Quest - Solues para o Desporto
Abstract
It is crucial that high-performance sports support its
participants legally, whether its a player, a coach or a
manager (M. J. Carvalho, 2010). Ever since the effects
produced by the Bosman Judgement, which ended with
the reserve clause in Europe, allowing players to be
transferred from one club to another in the end of their
work contracts without the payment of any financial
compensation to the previous club (Amado, 2002; Feess &
Muehlheusser, 2003), it was observed an increase of the
free circulation of players within the continent, and so
these athletes felt the necessity of being assisted by
people able to negotiate the terms and conditions of a
future work contract with a new employee club. This
upcoming need lead the appearance of a huge variety of
individuals to the football scenario, mostly of them without
any specific preparation, but attracted by promising
financial results. For this reason, in 1995, FIFA regulated
this profession and started to license these managers, or
so-called football players agents, and subordinated them
to its established rules on the Players Agents Regulations.
However, in 2001, this activity suffered a major revision, in
which FIFA determined that all licenses would be issued by
each national association. As the agents career is now
supported by each of the national legislations around the
globe, this paper aims an evaluation on a legislative level
in countries which have the major football leagues, but
adding a comparative component as of the Brazilian
legislation, land of great tradition in football. For this, it was
used the following seven countries: Greece, Spain, France,
Italy, Portugal and, of course, Brazil.
Therefore, in Greece and Spain the legislator chose not to
cause any mismatch and these nations adopted FIFAs text
integrally. In France, the profession is regulated by their
own Agents Regulation, of which text is in accordance with
FIFAs, where the agent is any person that get interested
parties closer in order to celebrate a contract related to a
paid sport activity (A. D. Carvalho, 2003). In Italy, agents
have their own regulation, and it is prohibited to celebrate
contracts without the presence of a procuratore sportive,
which must be, mandatorily, a lawyer (A. D. Carvalho,
2003). The Portuguese law has the agent on Law nb.
28/98, calling them sports businessman, and defining
them as those individuals or legal entity properly
authorized by the appropriate entities, representing one
side in the celebration of a sport contract. Finally, in Brazil
the agents do not have a unique regulation and are self-
employed, with the career ruled by the Consolidation of
Work Laws (CLT, in Portuguese) and with influence of the
Law nb. 9.615/98, the Pele Law (Aidar & Leoncini, 2002).
Despite all these ruling and regulations, the discussions
regarding this professional activity have not yet reached a
final solution, and have constantly being worldwide
debated, mainly in Europe by the European Football
Agents Association (EFAA), European Club Association
(ECA), FIFPRO, UEFA and FIFA.
This present work intends to make an analysis and
comparison of the sport and juridical policies regarding
football players agents, from the main European countries
relating them to the policies applied for these professionals
in Brazil, in order to verify if in these countries they are
supported by law and if they have common legislation to
the well-known football market of Brazil. Furthermore, it
also intends to demonstrate the current related legislation
in all the countries mentioned, by linking them to the main
football laws established by FIFA.
The collection of data in the academic level was done in
the databases of the Faculty of Sport of the University of
Porto (EBSCO, Scopus and Academic Search), in the
official documents from the mentioned entities and also in
the national and international legislation of these countries.
The data was analyzed by reviewing local legislation,
analyzing scientific articles and interpretating official
documents, and also by using content analysis with the
assistance of NVivo 9 program.
The results indicate that all analyzed countries are
concerned in improving the legal process of their football,
although with slightly changes in regards to the FIFA
legislation. Another relevant part of the study was to point
out the concern of the legislators in supporting their
athletes in order to promote the national sports within the
legality and always allied to the regulations from FIFA. The
results yet show that Brazil and Europe have distinct
realities regarding players agents, but all studied countries
aim that the practical application in football complies with
the framework law board from each nation.
References:
Aidar, A. C., & Leoncini, M. (2002). Evoluo do futebol e do
futebol como negcio. In A. C. Aidar, M. Leoncini & J. Oliveira
(Eds.), A nova gesto do futebol (pp. 79-100). Rio de Janeiro/RJ:
Editora FGV.
Carvalho, A. D. (2003). Acrdo do Supremo Tribunal de Justia,
de 23 de Abril de 2002 (Recurso n 844-A/02) - nota. Desporto &
Direito: Revista Jurdica do Desporto, I(1), 159-176.
Carvalho, M. J. (2010). Professional sport in Portugal: an overview
of its framework law. International Sports Law Review Pandektis,
8(3-4).
Feess, E., & Muehlheusser, G. (2003). The Impact of Transfer Fees
on Professional Sports: an analysis of the new Transfer System for
European Football. Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 105(1),
139-154.
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New Perspectives
on Sport Voluntarism
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Workshops
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472
19
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AN ExAMINATION OF THE
RELATIONSHIPS AMONG COMMITMENT
TO RUNNING AND VOLUNTEER
MOTIVATION WITH INVOLVEMENT WITH
BACK ON My FEET: SyMBIOTIC OR
SUBSTITUTIONARy?
Author:
Kevin Filo
email:
k.filo@griffith.edu.au
Co-authors:
Funk, Daniel: Temple University and Griffith University
Jordan, Jeremy: Temple University Inoue, yuhei: Temple
University
University:
Griffith University
Faculty:
Department of Tourism Leisure Hotel and Sport
Management
Abstract
Research Aims
The trend towards volunteering continues to increase in
different countries around the world (Dekker & van den
Broek, 2005). An understanding of volunteer motivation
and involvement remains critical for organisations reliant
on volunteers. This understanding can be extended to
comprehension of specific factors unique to the volunteer
context.
The current research examines the relationships among
factors distinctive to a volunteer organisation and
involvement with that organisation. Specifically, this
research examines the relationships among commitment to
running and volunteer motivation with involvement with a
running-based non-profit organisation designed to help
homeless individuals. Back on My Feet (BOMF) is a non-
profit organisation that engages the homeless population
through a structured running program in order to build self-
efficacy among participants.
Volunteer motivation has been examined in many contexts
and has been found to vary based upon volunteer
activities. Sport volunteers have been deemed distinct
from traditional volunteers due to the unique nature of the
sport context. The current research defines volunteer
motivation as the needs and wants satisfied through the
goal-directed behaviour of volunteering for BOMF.
Involvement is an important construct in the leisure context
(Havitz & Dimanche, 1990) and can be defined as an
evaluation of participation in an activity as an integral
aspect of a person s life that provides hedonic and
symbolic value (Beaton, Funk, Ridinger, & Jordan, in
press). The current research defines Involvement with
BOMF as: a volunteer s evaluation of engagement with the
organisation as a central aspect of his or her life providing
hedonic and symbolic value.
BOMF represents a unique volunteer opportunity in that
volunteers must run in order to be considered active
volunteers. As a result, a volunteer s attitude towards
running could also be a primary driver of Involvement with
BOMF. Accordingly, the current research defines
commitment to running as a reflection of an individual s
psychological connection to running revealed through
resistance to seek alternative activities, and advances this
construct as an additional primary driver of Involvement
with BOMF. This research examines the relationships
among volunteer motivation and commitment to running
and involvement with BOMF through the collection of data
from BOMF volunteers.
Research Design
An online questionnaire was administered to 700 active
BOMF volunteers, and a total of 214 responses were
deemed usable (response rate = 30.5%). The
questionnaire included 18 items to assess Volunteer
Motivation; three items to assess Running Commitment;
and nine items to assess Involvement with BOMF. A
battery of demographic questions were also included.
Data Analysis
The data were analysed through a multiple regression
analysis. This regression specified motives for volunteering
and commitment to running as the independent variables
and involvement with the BOMF as the dependent
variable. Additionally, to examine the conditional
relationship between the two independent variables, their
interaction term (volunteer motivation running
commitment) was included as an additional predictor of
BOMF involvement.
Results
The regression results indicated that volunteer motivation
positively influenced BOMF involvement (b = .78, p <
.001). Further, running commitment was found to have a
positive effect (b = .23, p < .001). These results support
the study s prediction that volunteers are more actively
involved with the BOMF if they have higher levels of
volunteer motivation and/or running commitment. Also, the
interaction variable had a significant negative effect on
BOMF involvement (b = -.16, p < .02). The interpretation of
this negative interaction effect is that the positive effect of
one of the two independent variables (i.e., volunteer
motivation and running commitment) on BOMF
involvement will gradually decrease as the level of the
other variable increases.
Discussion
The findings show that BOMF involvement is an increasing
function of volunteer motivation and running commitment.
However, the effects of the two variables are conditional
upon each other. When volunteers are low in both
volunteer motivation and running commitment, an increase
in each variable will likely contribute to an increase in
BOMF involvement. Once they achieve sufficiently high
levels in either of the two variables, however, the other
variable will be less influential in enhancing the level of
BOMF involvement. These findings present implications for
BOMF management effectively leveraging the distinct
components of volunteering to optimise the experience of
volunteers.
References:
Beaton, A. A., Funk, D. C., Ridinger, L., & Jordan, J. (In Press).
Sport involvement: A conceptual and empirical analysis. Sport
management review (2010), doi:10.1016/j.smr.2010.07.002
Dekker, P. & van den Broek, A. (2005). Involvement in voluntary
associations in North America and Western Europe: Trends and
correlates 1981-2000. Journal of Civil Society, 1, 45-59.
Havitz, M. E., & Dimanche, F. (1990). Propositions for testing the
involvement construct in recreational and tourism contexts. Leisure
Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12(2), 179 - 195.
19
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474
USING CRITICAL REALISM IN
RESEARCH ON THE MANAGEMENT OF
SPORT: A NEW PERSPECTIVE OF
VOLUNTEERS AND VOLUNTARy SPORT
ORGANISATIONS
Author:
Terri Byers
email:
t.byers@coventry.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Thurston, Alex
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Abstract
Downward (2005) argued that critical realism (CR)
provides a useful framework for research seeking to inform
policy or management advice and can help policy and
management failures be better understood. The Critical
Realist philosophy is a growing movement that has a
unique ontological stance that suggests reality is multi-
dimensional. Extending Downward's discussion of the use
of a critical realist ontology in research on sport tourism,
this paper provides a more comprehensive discussion of
the critical realist perspective and its application to
research on volunteers and the context in which they work,
voluntary sport organisations. We address two main
issues: what are the key elements of the CR research
philosophy and how can these help to advance our
understanding of the volunteer and voluntary sport
organisation? The use of and debates surrounding CR in
mainstream management research is explored and
examples from the empirical analysis of control in voluntary
sport organisations (e.g. Byers, Henry and Slack, 2007)
are used to illustrate the application of CR to voluntary
sport.
According to CR, the social world is comprised of four
levels of reality: material, ideal, artefactual and social. The
levels of reality correspond to the depth of reality being
considered ranging from the superficial material reality to
the deeply embedded social reality. CR also suggests a
unique relationship among structures and agents when
seeking to understand this multi-reality. To clarify, we
examine six major assumptions of CR articulated by Marsh
(1999):
1. There is a reality external to individuals
2. &consisting of superficial and deep structures
3. Objects and structures have causal power
4. Actors discursive knowledge regarding reality has a
construction effect on the outcomes of social
interrelations
5. Structures such as cultures, ideologies, and
institutional practises enable and constrain everyday
social activities rather than determine outcomes
6. Social science involves the study of reflexive agents
who may construct, deconstruct and reconstruct
structures
Criticisms of the CR perspective can be found in post-
structuralist readings on management (see, e.g. Willmott,
2005). Broader debates around theory development have
included CR and suggest that the perspective is useful for
theory verification, a much neglected area of management
and social science research (Tsang and Kwan, 1999).
While research on voluntary sport organisations and
volunteering has grown and continues to attract attention
from academics and policy makers, further research would
benefit from new methodological insights which may be
instrumental in developing new theories through
verification of existing knowledge or generation of new
theory.
We attempt to engage in the above mentioned debates by
applying a Critical Theoretical lens to the study of control in
voluntary sport organisations as has been reported in
Byers, Henry and Slack's (2007) preliminary research
findings. Critical Realism enabled a three dimensional
view of control which took into consideration the social
context of volunteers as well as broader organisational
context. Organisational control has received much
attention in the mainstream management literature yet
there is very little consensus on what control is or how it
can be achieved within organisations. Likewise, Critical
Realism has been the centre of debate in organisation and
management studies for several decades. This paper
argues that it is time for an explicit discussion of the role of
Critical Realism in understanding voluntary sport and we
provide an overview and application of CR to encourage
further debate and questioning of how to use CR in
research on the management of voluntary sport
organisations.
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References:
Byers, T., Henry, I. and Slack, T. (2007). Understanding control in
voluntary sport organisations, in Parent, M.M. and Slack, T. (eds.).
International perspectives on the management of sport. Elsevier,
London.
Downward, P. (2005). Critical (Realist) reflection on policy and
management research in Sport, Tourism and Sports Tourism.
European Sport Management Quarterly, 5(3): 303-20.
Marsh, D. (1999). Post War British politics in perspective. London,
Polity Press.
Tsang, E.W. (1999). Replication and theory development in
organizational science: A Critical Realist perspective. Academy of
Management Review, 24(4): 759-80.
Willmott, H. (2005). Theorizing contemporary control: Some post-
structuralist responses to some Critical Realist questions.
Organization, 12(5): 747-80.
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476
UNDERSTANDING ORGANISATIONAL
CONTROL IN SMALL VOLUNTARy
SPORT ORGANISATIONS: THE CASE
OF COMMUNITy SWIMMING CLUBS
Author:
Alex Thurston
email:
thurstoa@uni.coventry.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Byers, Terri
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Abstract
Research on voluntary sport has a growing body of
literature but to date there has been minimal comparison
between small voluntary sport organisations (VSOs), of
different sizes, contexts or organisational structures e.g.
National Governing Bodies to advance our understanding
(Byers et al, 2007). Broadly, the purpose of this paper is
theory verification rather than theory generation, in order to
contribute to the understanding of control in small voluntary
sport organisations. Specifically we examine the impact of
control mechanisms on VSO members in the context of
swimming clubs, which we show are a group of
organisations that differ from the clubs examined by Byers
et al (2007).
At present, the study of organisational control in VSOs is a
relatively young area of investigation. Volunteers play a
key role in many small sport organisations, taking
responsibility for a wide variety of challenging tasks
(Seippel, 2004). Understanding the control and
coordination of tasks in these organisations is essential
given the wider importance of voluntary sport organisations
to sport and society.
Without volunteers, community sport would cease to exist
and staging a sporting event would simply not be possible
(Balduck et al, 2009). VSO volunteering responsibilities
cover a broad spectrum of activities that play a vital role
and are described as the life blood of sport and clubs
(Sport England, 2007). Voluntary sport clubs in England
represent a significant population; there are over 150,000
affiliated clubs that have over 10 million members, run by
volunteers (SRA, 2011). The voluntary workforce
contribution represents 14 percent of the UK adult
population (SRA, 2011) and does not take into
consideration the thousands of youth volunteers assisting
at sporting events.
Byers et al (2007) provided a snapshot of control in one
type of VSO. Rather than the limited view of control as
simply a management function, a variety of control
mechanisms in small community equestrian clubs were the
subject of investigation. Control was depicted as a social,
relational occurrence as well as a rational process that
may be attempted by managers. Byers et al (2007)
produced data of three in-depth cases that has yet to be
extended to fully test the findings and propositions
developed about the control of small VSOs and the impact
of these organisations on its members and community.
This work can be used as a foundation to examine other
types of VSOs such as swimming clubs. Swimming is a
high participation sport, high on government agendas and
an accessible sport for a diverse spectrum of age, gender,
race, social background and ability, for example.
Comparison of findings from both cases investigating
effects of various control mechanisms on volunteers would
therefore contribute to the preliminary research on control
in VSOs.
Qualitative research is employed for this study. Data is
currently being gathered from two swimming clubs
collecting archival material, engaging direct observations
and using semi-structured interviews with 12 club
members. A diverse sample of committee members (of
age, length of service and committee position) have been
selected to yield a range of perspectives from the
swimming clubs. Case study research design and methods
are employed and Ethnographic content analysis (ECA)
will be applied to validate the multiple forms of data
enabling triangulation of results.
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References:
Balduck, A., Rossem, A. & Buelens, M. (2009) Identifying
Competencies of Volunteer Board Members of Community Sports
Clubs. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 39 (2), 213-235
Byers, T., Henry, I., and Slack, T. (2007) Understanding Control in
Voluntary Sport Organizations. In (Eds.), Parent, M. and Slack, T.
International Perspectives on the Management of Sport. (pp.269-
286), London: Elsevier
Seippel, . (2004) The World According to Voluntary Sport
Organizations: Voluntarism, Economy and Facilities. International
Review for the Sociology of Sport 39 (2), 223-232
Sport and Recreation Alliance (2011) Homepage. Retrieved 28
March 2011, from http://www.sportandrecreation.org.uk/
Sport England (2007) Annual Report and Accounts 2006-2007.
London: Sport England , 23
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19
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AN ExAMINATION OF SPORT
VOLUNTEERISM THROUGH THE LENS
OF ORGANIZATIONAL CAPACITy
Author:
Katie Misener
email:
katie.misener@ryerson.ca
Co-authors:
Doherty, Alison (first author) Cuskelly, Graham
University:
Ryerson University
Faculty:
Ted Rogers School of Management
Abstract
Background
Organizational capacity has received increasing attention
in the nonprofit and voluntary sector where it is recognized
as a valuable concept for understanding the critical assets
and resources that organizations draw on to perform (e.g.,
Chaskin, 2001; Eisinger, 2002; Germann & Wilson, 2004;
Raymond, 2011; Wing, 2004). Hall et al. (2003) proposed a
model of capacity which comprises five broad dimensions
that purportedly influence the ability of nonprofit and
voluntary organizations to achieve their goals: human
resources, finances, infrastructure, planning and
development, and external relationships. Human resources
is considered to be fundamental to overall capacity, and is
expected to influence the nature and extent of the other
dimensions. However, Hall et al.s model is purposely
broad, and the critical elements of each dimension are
expected to be unique to different types of nonprofit
organizations (also Eisinger, 2002; Letts et al., 1999; Wing,
2004). Therefore it is important to understand the specific
nature of these capacity dimensions in a given context.
Hall et al.s model of organizational capacity may be
expected to be useful for examining factors that affect the
ability of nonprofit community sport clubs to perform.
These clubs provide opportunities for competitive and
recreational sport and physical activity in our communities
and rely heavily, if not exclusively, on volunteers to achieve
their goals (Cuskelly, Hoye, & Auld, 2006). Thus, it is
important to understand the specific nature and extent of
human resources (or volunteer) capacity in these
organizations. Hall et al.s model can be used to identify
critical elements pertaining to volunteerism that are
expected to influence the clubs ability to achieve their
goals.
Purpose
This paper draws on the findings of a project examining
organizational capacity in community sport clubs. The
purpose of this paper is to describe the critical elements of
human resources capacity as they are defined by the clubs
themselves, and to identify the relative magnitude of those
elements in the clubs. The findings will enhance our
understanding of sport volunteerism in community clubs by
viewing it through the lens of organizational capacity.
Method
A sequential mixed-methods (qualitative-quantitative)
approach (Creswell, 2005) was used to first uncover the
critical elements of capacity in community sport clubs, and
then measure the extent of capacity with a broader
sample. In the first phase, 13 focus groups were
conducted with 51 presidents of community sport clubs in
five different Canadian communities. The sample was
generated from clubs representing a broad range of
individual and team sports whose contact information was
publicly available. A total of 23 different sports were
represented in the final sample. Participants were asked to
describe their clubs greatest human resource strengths
and challenges with regard to achieving their goals. These
strengths and challenges represent critical elements of
capacity. Inductive analysis of the transcripts from the
audio-recorded focus group interviews uncovered several
critical elements. In the second phase, an online survey
was developed to measure the capacity elements. Again,
the sample was generated from clubs across a broad
range of sports whose contact information was publicly
available. Data were collected from 365 club presidents
from 20 different sports across different communities, for a
response rate of 22%. Psychometric analyses indicated
support for the human resources capacity elements and A
MANOVA statistic was used to examine their relative
magnitude in the community sport clubs.
Results
The focus group findings uncovered six critical elements of
capacity, including (1) Positive attitude of volunteers, (2)
Human capital in the form of valued skills and experience,
(3) Common focus among volunteers on the values and
priorities of the club, (4) Sufficient volunteers to do the
work, (5) Continuity of volunteers, and (6) Volunteer
development and support. Analysis of the survey data
revealed that club presidents perceived volunteer attitude
and capital to be corresponding elements as they loaded
onto a single factor. Results of the MANOVA indicated that
volunteer attitude and capital were the greatest strengths
of the club, followed by volunteers having a common
focus, and the clubs volunteer development practices. The
weakest elements were volunteer continuity and having
sufficient volunteers.
The findings provide insight into what community sport
clubs have self-identified as critical elements of human
resources capacity in their organization, and the relative
strength of those elements. The implications of these
findings for building community sport club capital are
discussed, and directions for further research are
presented..
References:
Hall, M.H., Andrukow, A., Barr, C., Brock, K., de Wit, M.,
Embuldeniya, D., Jolin, L., Lasby,
D., Levesque, B., Malinsky, E., Stowe, S., & Vallaincourt, y. (2003).
The capacity to serve: A qualitative study of the challenges facing
Canadas nonprofit and voluntary organizations. Toronto: Canadian
Centre for Philanthropy.
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480
19
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EVENT VOLUNTEERS AND THEIR
LEADERS
Author:
Dag Vidar Hanstad
email:
dag.vidar.hanstad@nih.no
University:
Faculty:
Department of Cultural and Social Studies
Abstract
Volunteers are fundamental for any successful event.
Ensuring that the sport event volunteers are managed and
appropriated trained and motivated has a direct bearing on
their level of satisfaction (Farrell et al., 1998). Human
resource management (HRM) is an integral part of the
event management process and vital to the success of the
event. However, the relationship between event volunteers
and leaders has been less empirical explored.
The objective of this paper is to look closer at the
relationships between operational volunteers (those
working on the floor) and the supervisory level volunteers
(e.g section leaders) at the 2011 FIS Nordic World Ski
Championships (WSC) in Oslo (Holmenkollen), Norway.
During 12 competition days there were 21events, covering
cross country, ski jumping and Nordic combined. 2200
volunteers were organized in 36 different sections. In this
study attention is focused on one particular section,
categorized as support (hereafter Section Support), with 77
volunteers (52 women and 25 men).
The leader-follower theory, also known as the leader-
member exchange theory (LMx) focuses on the
interactions between leaders and followers . The dyadic
relationship between leaders and followers is the focal
point. LMx challenges the assumption that leadership is
something leaders do towards all their followers. Instead,
there is two general types of linkages; followers belonging
to the in-group and the out-group. Effective leadership is
found when communication between leaders and
subordinates (such as volunteers) fosters respect, mutual
trust, and commitment of both parties (Northouse, 2010).
LMx
Methods
The data were gathered from (i) a survey sent out to all
volunteers by e-mail after the event (n=1337, response
rate 62%) which included 58 (response rate 75%) in the
Section Support, and (ii) qualitative interviews with
volunteers in Section Support (n=12, including 9
operational volunteers and, 3 leaders/coordinators) carried
out in the last five days of the event.
In analyzing the data from the survey, two statements were
put under scrutiny: one about the leaders opinion about
the volunteers, and one about the volunteers opinion
about the leaders. One sample t-tests were conducted
(using the mean of one statement as test value for the
other statement), testing the difference between a)
statement one and two in the sample as a whole, b)
statement one and two in the Section Support, and c) the
statement about the leader in the sample versus the
statement about the leaders in Section support.
Transcribed interviews were categorized. Segments that
had similar themes and represented the same stressor
were grouped together.
In the sample as a whole, the mean value for the leaders
satisfaction with the volunteers (mean = 4.53) was
significantly higher the mean value for the volunteers
satisfaction with the leaders (mean = 4.00); t-value = 16.80
(p < .001). In the Section Support, the same tendency was
found, higher satisfaction with volunteers among leaders
(mean= 4.55) than with the leaders among the volunteers
(mean = 3.64); t-value = 5.28 (p < .001). Although the t-
value was lower in the latter test (probably due to higher
standard deviation), the descriptive statistics show an
interesting point: the mean value among the volunteers in
Section Support reporting their satisfaction with their
leaders, was much lower than the mean value for the
whole sample of volunteers when reporting satisfaction
with their leaders (4.00 versus 3.64), while the leaders
satisfaction with volunteers was approximately the same in
the whole sample and in the Section Support (4.53 and
4.55 respectively). Therefore, a t-test between the whole
sample and the Section Support was conducted, on the
same statement (about volunteers satisfaction with
leaders). It revealed a significant difference (t-value =
11.21, p < .001).
The interviews showed differences between the in-group
and out-group. A group of volunteers had been working
together in several events. One of the section leaders
stated that she had developed close friendships with other
volunteers. Volunteers who were not part of the in-group
felt they were not at the same level. One of them said:
New volunteers were pushed slightly into the background
of those who have previously been volunteers in
Holmenkollen, or during the trial event. Some volunteers
felt significantly more important than others and released
no new volunteers for the "fun" tasks, but referred them to
cleaning, waffle baking, etc., while they took the tasks at
press conferences, etc. Interviews indicated that
volunteers in the out-group were less satisfied with their
leaders than volunteers in the in-group.
References:
Farrell, J. M., Johnston, M. E., & Twynam, D. (1998). Volunteer
Motivation, Satisfaction, and Management at an Elite Sporting
Competition. Journal of sport management, 12, 288-300.
Northouse, P. G (2010). Leadership. Theory and Practice (5. Ed.).
Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
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482
SPORT EVENT VOLUNTEERS OR PAID
CREW: THEIR IMPACTS ON SOCIAL
CAPITAL PRODUCTION
Author:
Ann Brown
email:
anbrown@aut.ac.nz
Co-authors:
Tidey, Ann Ferkins, Lesley
University:
Auckland University of Technology
Faculty:
School of Sport & Recreation
Abstract
National governments promote event volunteerism and
sport participation as a means to improve the social capital
stock of communities (Coalter, 2007). Many studies have
focused on the motivations of volunteers and on how
sports clubs can promote unity within a community.
However, there has been little exploration of the
perceptions of sport event volunteers on the presence of
social capital in their social interactions and its impact on
the production of social capital in their locality.
Volunteers are key stakeholders in events and are known
to contribute to social capital of the community (Putnam,
Feldstein & Cohen, 2004). Without volunteers, events
might not be staged. The challenge for event managers is
to understand social capital generation so that
organisational needs might be better balanced with the
needs of volunteers (Costa, Chalip, Green, & Simes,
2006). Increasingly, major events organisations have
leveraged their volunteer resource through the use of
financial reward for community clubs and sports teams.
Research on the social capital concept relies on qualitative
analysis techniques, reflecting that social capital is borne
out of relationships which constantly change. It is the
location, quality and quantity of interactions which
determine whether social capital is produced and used,
and can impact the success of sport event strategies
(Doherty & Misener, 2008; Reimer, Lyons, Ferguson &
Polanco, 2008).). Understanding the driver in the process
of production of social capital (Doherty & Misener, 2008)
was key to assessing which level of social relations
dominates the normative structures of a community
(Reimer et al., 2008).
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
perceptions of sport event volunteers about the presence
of social capital in their social interactions and its impact
on the production of social capital in Taupo (the location of
the study). Taupo claims to be the events capital of New
Zealand, and with a full calendar of events and large pool
of long-term volunteers, it was considered the ideal place
within which to conduct this study. Access to volunteers
who support two long-established events, specifically
Ironman New Zealand and the Mizuno Half Marathon was
facilitated by Destination Lake Taupo.
Using a case study approach, data collection was
undertaken in two stages. Document analysis and semi-
structured interviews with event managers provided the
organisational context of the Taupo events industry. The
second stage generated volunteers perceptions of social
capital through semi-structured interviews and a focus
group. Subsequent thematic analysis examined the
process and location of social capital production, using the
model created by Doherty and Misener (2008), within the
framework of normative structural relations promoted by
Reimer et al. (2008). The presence of social capital was
confirmed by the studys participants.
Of particular note is that the influence of the vertical links
of market relations on the production of durable social
capital appeared stronger than do the horizontal bridging
ties of associative relations. While community groups
share a common incentive for supporting events with the
payment of crew, the incentive is not a catalyst for forging
bridging ties. Individual club members considered
themselves volunteers benefiting their club, rather than as
paid crew benefiting events. Additionally, the bridging ties
of volunteer event directors to community groups are
fragile. As intermediaries they put in the most effort for
least social and economic reward. This fragility, combined
with the expectations placed upon these intermediaries by
event organisations could place the event industry in
Taupo in jeopardy and warrants further investigation.
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References:
Coalter, F. (2007). Sports clubs, social capital and social
regeneration: Ill defined interventions with hard to follow
outcomes'? Sport in Society, 10(4), 537-559.
Costa, C. A., Chalip, L., Green, C., & Simes, C. (2006).
Reconsidering the role of training in event volunteers' satisfaction.
Sport Management Review, 9, 165-182.
Doherty, A., & Misener, K. (2008). Community sports organisations.
In M. Nicholson & R. Hoye (Eds.), Sport and social capital (1st.
ed.). Oxford, England: Elsevier.
Putnam, R. D., Feldstein, L. M., & Cohen, D. (2004). Better
together: Restoring the American community. New york: Simon &
Schuster Paperbacks.
Reimer, B., Lyons, T., Ferguson, N., & Polanco, G. (2008). Social
capital as social relations: the contribution of normative structures.
The Sociological Review, 56(2), 256-274.
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MOTIVES AND ExPERIENCE OF
VOLUNTEERS AT THE EUROPEAN
HANDBALL CHAMPIONSHIP FOR
WOMEN 2010
Author:
Eivind Skille
email:
eivind.skille@hihm.no
Co-authors:
Dag Vidar Hanstad
University:
Hedmark University College
Faculty:
Faculty of Health and Sports
Abstract
Aim
The aim of this paper is to add a contribution to the study
of volunteerism in sport, more particularly to the knowledge
base of volunteerism at sport events. This overall objective
will be treated by investigating volunteers at the European
handball championship for women 2010 (Euro 2010, in
Norway and Denmark 2010). Skille and Hanstad (under
review) have elsewhere scrutinized socio-demographic
characteristics and motivation among volunteers at the
Euro 2010. They found clear indications of a relationship
between the background and the motives of sport event
volunteers. They lack, however, the volunteers own words
on the motives for and experiences of being event
volunteers. That gap will be filled in this paper.
Bourdieus notion of habitus, as structured and structuring
structures, or systems of durable and transposable
dispositions (Bourdieu, 1977) will be applied to analyze
sport event volunteerism. Habitus is conceived as a set of
dispositions for volunteerism in general or sport event
volunteerism in particular, as a system of dispositions and
the homology between the spaces of social positions and
volunteerism. In sum, it is believed that different social
attributes structure our place in social space, and as part
of this, they also structure our place within the field of
volunteerism.
In Norway, two venues were used for Euro 2010, Larvik
and Lillehammer. 20 interviews with volunteers, 10 in
Larvik and 10 in Lillehammer, were conducted. The
interviewees were selected in order to get diversity across
age, gender, and function (as volunteer). All interviews
were conducted at venue, and lasted between 10 and 30
minutes. The interviews were thematically coded, broadly
into four topics: volunteers general background, voluntary
involvement and voluntary experience, recruitment to Euro
2010, voluntary motivation, organization and leadership. It
is citations coded as motivation that will be presented
here.
Regarding motivation for event volunteering, three
subthemes stand out. First, people volunteer because they
see a societal value of it. Second, people volunteer
because they see a value for their local community.
For most of the event volunteers, this is related to their
local handball club.
It has two sides. It has of course an economic part; we get
some kroner [Norwegian currency] for it. We can earn
money [to the handball club]. At the same time, it gives
inspiration to people in the club- players, parents,
everybody it is very integrating. We build a team In
addition, we get refill of competence when it comes o the
organization of an event (Lillehammer interview 10).
Third, volunteering at events see a personal benefit of
being event volunteers. It gives pleasure in the immediate
experience, it strengthens established and creates new
social relationships, and it builds educational competence.
The latter includes skills related to events, and also the
symbolic value of having sport event volunteerism at the
CV.
The quantitative part of the study (Skille & Hanstad, in
review) revealed, first, that sport event volunteers are
middle class people with higher education, second, that
event volunteers are quite experienced as such, and third
these three factors of motivation: (i) competence
development, (ii) the event experience itself, and (iii)
continuation of a social tradition. The qualitative data
analyzed here, to some degree reinforces the quantitative
results, but also add a nuance.
While the analysis of the quantitative date came out with a
habitus related to a general interest in competence
building related to sport event volunteers middle class
background, this analysis will suggest that the habitus is
more closely related to the sport of handball and the
handball club. While preferences in relation to social
practices are to a high degree socially constructed, and
involve a blending of conscious and unconscious aspects
(Bourdieu, 1977); this seems to be valid both on a general
class level and on a specific sport level of analysis.
References:
Bourdieu, P. (1977), Outline of a theory of practice. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Skille, E. . & Hanstad, D. V. (under review). Who are they and
why do they do it? Paper submitted to Sport in Society.
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486
FRONT LINE INSIGHT: AN
AUTOETHNOGRAPHy OF THE
VANCOUVER 2010 VOLUNTEER
ExPERIENCE
Author:
Alison Doherty
email:
adoherty@uwo.ca
Co-authors:
Kodama, Erin (1st author)
Popovich, Megan (3rd author)
University:
University of Western Ontario
Faculty:
Sport Management Program, School of Kinesiology,
Faculty of Health Sciences
Abstract
BACKGROUND
A growing body of research provides insight into the
expectations, motivation, experience, satisfaction, and
future intentions of sport event volunteers (e.g., Allen &
Shaw, 2009; Costa, Chalip, Green, & Simes, 2006;
Doherty, 2009; Elstad, 1996; Fairley, Kellet, & Green,
2007; Farrell, Johnston, & Twynam, 1998; Maclean &
Hamm, 2007; Ralston, Downward, & Lumsdon, 2004;
Shaw, 2009). A solid foundation of knowledge regarding
who volunteers for special sport events, why they volunteer
(and why not), their satisfaction (and dissatisfaction) with
various aspects of the event, and their likelihood of
volunteering again has developed largely from broad field
research (e.g., surveys). Autoethnography (or narrative of
self) is a qualitative method that provides richer insight into
a phenomenon by exploring an individuals personal
experience in depth (Ellis & Bochner, 2000). One of the
main tenets of autoethnography is that it puts the
researcher back into the study, rather than keeping him or
her quietly on the sidelines (Parry & Johnson, 2007;
Sparkes, 2000). It also allows for extraordinary and real life
aspects of personal experiences to be expressed. It has
been used recently to examine individuals sport and
leisure practices in a variety of context (e.g., Douglas,
2009; Jones, 2009; Lashua & Fox, 2006; Purdy, Potrac, &
Jones, 2008), extending our understanding of the personal
and social forces that shape ones experience.
PURPOSE AND METHOD
The current study used autoethnography to examine the
first authors personal experience as an Olympic and
Paralympic volunteer for the Vancouver 2010 Games. The
purpose was to describe her lived experience in order to
gain further insight into the personal and cultural context of
volunteering. Consistent with the autoethnographic
approach, she kept a personal journal throughout the
seven-week experience, recording both objective (i.e.,
sight, sound, and action) and subjective (i.e., memories,
thoughts, and feelings) observations and experiences
(Fleming & Fullagar, 2007; Giles & Williams, 2007). All
Games-related photographs, emails, newsletters, forms,
schedules, training, and clothing were included as data. A
reflective analytic process was used to identify the nature
and personal meaning of her critical experiences (Ellis &
Bochner, 2000; Fleming & Fullagar, 2007).
FINDINGS
Themes that represent those critical experiences were
labelled: Making the Cut, Uncertainty: Going with the
Flow, The Basics, Blue Team: Volunteer Culture,
Leisure, A Little Goes a Long Way, and My Return:
Prestige. These themes relate the first author's experience
with getting selected as a volunteer, role ambiguity,
orientation and training, group and organizational culture,
leisure time during a major event, volunteer appreciation,
and Olympic volunteer status. The findings are compared
and contrasted with the existing research on sport event
volunteerism in order to understand their alignment with
that literature, and to consider the further insights they
provide. The paper concludes with recommendations for
future research.
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References:
Ellis, C., & Bochner, A. P. (2000). Autoethnography, personal
narrative, reflexivity. In N.K. Denzin, & y.S. Lincoln (Eds.).
Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.), pp. 733-779. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fleming, C., & Fullagar, S. (2007). Reflexive methodologies: An
autoethnography of the gendered performance of
sport/management. Annals of Leisure Research, 10, 238-256.
Giles, A.R., & Williams, D.J. (2007). Are we afraid of our selves?
Self narrative research in leisure studies. World Leisure Journal,
49, 189-198.
Parry, D.C., & Johnson, C.W. (2007). Contextualizing leisure
research to encompass complexity in lived leisure experience: The
need for creative analytic practice. Leisure Sciences, 29, 119-131.
Sparkes, A.C. (2000). Autoethnography and narratives of self:
Reflections on criteria in action. Sociology of Sport Journal, 17, 21-
43.
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488
VOLUNTEERS IN NORWEGIAN
Author:
Oskar Solenes
email:
oskar.solenes@himolde.no
University:
Molde University College
Abstract
International research on volunteerism and sport has been
investigating, among others, motivational factors among
volunteers (Fairly, Kellet and Green 2007; Farell et.al
1998). Professional sports, and in this case professional
soccer in Norway, are dependent on people working as
volunteers at the sport events. This becomes evident as
volunteers outnumber the professional staff on the weekly
Premier League soccer matches in Norway.
Sport is by far where most voluntary work is conducted in
the Norwegian context, all though most of it takes part in
children sports or in activity affiliated with Sport for all. In
general voluntary work in Norway is decreasing, and a shift
is described during the period 1997-2009 as voluntary
work seems to have a stronger individualistic motivation
than earlier (Wollebk and Sivesind 2010).
In this paper we will investigate motivational factors among
volunteers at soccer matches in the Norwegian Premier
League. Data have been collected among volunteers from
all the 16 Premier League clubs in Norwegian football.
Using Quest-back, an on-line survey has been conducted
during spring and summer 2011, The questionnaire
contained open questions and questions with closed
options, some of them employing five point Likert scales.
Data were imported electronically into SPSS for statistical
analysis.
Volunteers motivation and the influence of gender, age
and experience will be discussed, as international research
suggests these to be relevant and significant variables
(Fairly, Kellet and Green 2007), as will be social class and
ethnicity. Preliminary analysis indicates in general an inner
motivation for the most part, and that gender and
experience seems to be significant variables influencing
motivation.
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References:
Fairly, Sheranne, Pam Kellet and B. Christine Green (2007):
Volunteering Abroad: Motives for Travel to Volunteer at the Athens
Olympic Games. In Journal of Sport Management, p 41-57.
Farell, Jocelyn M, et.al (1998): Volunteer Motivation, Satisfaction
and Management at an Elite Sporting Competition. In Journal of
Sport Management, p. 288-300.
Wollebk, Dag and Karl Henrik Sivesind (2010): Fra
folkebevegelse til filantropi? Frivillig innsats i Norge 1997-2009.
Oslo: Senter for forskning p sivilsamfunn og frivillige sektor.
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490
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UNDERSTANDING GENDER
DIFFERENCES IN SPORT EVENT
VOLUNTEERING
Author:
Berit Skirstad
email:
berit.skirstad@nih.no
Co-authors:
Hanstad, Dag Vidar
University:
Faculty:
Department of Cultural and Social Studies
Abstract
Event studies are an emerging academic field, and each
sport event is unique and requires a substantial volunteer
labour force. The volunteers are fundamental to the
success of the event. The focus here is the FIS World
Cup 2010, which was the trial event for the FIS Nordic
World Ski Championship in 2011. Volunteering is changing
concurrently with individualization processes in society
(Hustinx & Lammertyn, 2003). The different roles of the
volunteers vary in complexity. The sport event can be
viewed as a meeting place between a traditional volunteer
culture mainly dominated by males and a modern and
new type of volunteer dominated by younger females.
The traditional volunteers are represented by members of
sport organizations, and they reinforce the social
composition of sport in general. They tend to be
associated with older age cohorts. A majority of the studies
of sport event volunteers are atheoretical and include little
analysis of the implications for volunteer management
(Cuskelly, Hoye & Auld, 2006). Downward, Lumsdon and
Ralston (2005) looked into the gender differences and
found that the expectations of the female volunteers were
different from those of males and that they used the
opportunity to increase their social and personal capital.
The objective of this paper is to understand the gender
difference among sport event volunteers and generate
knowledge that can be used directly in relation to female
volunteers in the future. A key question is: Are female sport
volunteers modern reflexive/pragmatic volunteers with
weak ties to organized sport and instrumental motives?
The data were generated from a survey sent out to all
volunteers by e-mail prior to the event in March 2010 with
a response rate of 77 % and a post-event questionnaire
with response rate of 71%. Only the answers from those
659 persons who have responded both on the pre- and
post event questionnaire on-line were included. The
response rate was then 66%. This sample was found by
merging the two samples in SPSS. Statistically significant
results were acquired that show the differences between
the female and male volunteers.
The gender distribution among the volunteers is 54.6 %
male (N= 359) and 45.4 % female (N=299). Most
international findings show a balanced or more female
centered core of volunteers. One reason may be that many
of these investigations have looked at womens sport
activities. The ratio among volunteers in Norwegian sport
in general is 58 % male (Wollebk & Sivesind, 2010).
The average age of female volunteers is 40.06 years
(SD=13.764) and men 49.91 (SD=13.774). Independent
sample t-test shows that the average age of men is
significantly older than that of women. There are more
females in the age groups below 34 and more males from
55 years and above. Between those two ages there are no
significant differences between the genders. Among those
without a membership in a sports club, the average age is
considerably lower than among those who are members of
a sport club. The percentage of people with a high income
is lower among those who have no experience as sport
event volunteers both among the members and non-
members of a sport club. Non-members of sports clubs
have a higher percentage with higher education. Women
are in majority (58 %) in the group which is new to sport
events.
Womens motivation for volunteer work was more
instrumental than that of men. Men more often volunteered
because of their own interest in sport (intrinsic motivation),
while women sought to redefine their identities and
challenge obstacles faced in the labour market and within
the sports activity. Our results confirmed this: the male
volunteers had more often an attachment to sporting
organizations and were more strongly motivated by their
interest in the sport or the happening represented by a
large ski competition. Similar to what Downward et al.
(2005) found, women searched specifically for events in
order to strengthen their human and social capital which
can be used in the labour market. young women, who
often carried out support functions for the event, had an
emphasis on outer (extrinsic) motives. Four factors
emerged from the explanatory factor analyses of the 20
items of motives by using Varimax-rotation, and they
explained 53,1% of the variance. For the non-members
and those without sport event experience the motives of
competence and experience increased as well as the
social motive for the latter group after the trial event. The
females were overrepresented in these two groups.
References:
Cuskelly, G., Hoye, R. & Auld, C. (2006). Working with volunteers in
sport. Theory and practice. New york: Routledge
Downward, P., Lumsdon, L., & Ralston, R. (2005). Gender
differences in sports event volunteering: insights from Crew 2002 at
the xVII Commonwealth Games. Managing Leisure, 10, 219-236.
Hustinx, L. & Lammertyn, F. (2003). Collective and Reflexive Styles
of Volunteering: A Sociological Modernization Perspective.
Voluntas, 14(167-187).
Wollebk, D. & Sivesind, K.H. (2010). Fra folkebevegelse til
filanropi?Frivillig innsats i Norge 1997-2009. Oslo: Senter for
forskning p sivilsamfunn & frivillig sektor
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492
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COMMITMENT AND VOLUNTEER JOB
SATISFACTION AS DETERMINANTS
FOR THE INTENTION TO REMAIN A
VOLUNTEER IN SPORTS CLUBS
Author:
Benjamin Egli
email:
benegli@students.unibe.ch
Co-authors:
Torsten Schlesinger, Hasan Candan, Siegfried Nagel
University:
University of Berne
Faculty:
Abstract
Introduction
Stable volunteering is no longer a matter of course for
many sports clubs, although a lot of people still volunteer.
There is a discrepancy between a continued high
willingness to get involved on the one hand and a declining
quota of central volunteers on the other. It has been
suggested that members are more likely to sporadically
participate in the sports club than to hold on to a voluntary
position. This suggestion has been confirmed in previous
research of various countries (Wicker & Breuer, 2011). A
growing instability in the ongoing willingness to volunteer
causes a problem for an increasing number of sports
clubs. No sporting club can do without the engagement of
voluntary personnel and yet there are few alternatives to
voluntarism for these clubs. The central importance of
volunteering for the work of associations raises the
question as to what are the organisational factors that
motivate engagement in voluntary work. In this context
commitment to the sports club, common interest, as well
as the volunteer job satisfaction, are most likely play
critical roles in an enduring voluntary engagement. The
purpose of this paper is to analyse the influence of these
factors on the intention to continue with volunteering.
Many reports into the field of job satisfaction suggest that
the degree of job satisfaction has a negative correlation to
the level of fluctuation of employees, and a positive
correlation to productivity (Finkelstein, 2008, Six & Eckes,
1991). These findings could also be relevant to
volunteering in sports clubs. It is assumed, that the general
satisfaction with specific working contexts is composed of
partial satisfactions weighted by their relative significance
(Galindo-Kuhn & Guzley, 2001). However, the
measurement concepts of job satisfaction that have been
developed for professional work in companies cannot be
easily transferred to voluntary work satisfaction in sports
clubs. A commitment to volunteering at a sports club is
presumed to be connected to changing expectations and
evaluation of the work for the sports club. Based on the
fact that work for a sports club is of a particularly distinctive
nature, other dimensions of job satisfaction have at first
been worked at on a conceptual level.
Sports clubs do not persue profit; their focus as non-profit
organizations rely on the interests of their members.
Consequently rational choice considerations in the
willingness to collaborate seem to be less important to
sports clubs, rather emotional commitment and
identification with the sports club and common interests
may play an important role (Nagel, 2006). The members
commitment manifests itself through certain moral
concepts and symbolic actions, such as any voluntary
support of the work in the sports club is seen to be a
matter of course, and the understanding that supporting
the work of the sports club and recognizing the right to
represent other members is a part of being a member of
an organization of interest.
The stability of voluntary work (the intention to remain a
volunteer) is modelled on the basis of individual
expectations and evaluations of the volunteer of the
voluntary work conditions and specific organizational
commitment to the sports club. It is assumed, however,
that the degree of work satisfaction and commitment are
positively correlated to the intention to remain as a
volunteer.
Method
The evaluation of the developed concept of satisfaction
with voluntary work conditions and the hypothesised
causal relationships was part of an empirical study of 20
selected Swiss sports clubs. Within this, a sample of n =
189 volunteers was generated. Firstly, the proposed
measurement model of job satisfaction was validated with
an explorative and confirmative factor analysis. To record
the commitment with the sports club, validated
measurement instruments used in earlier sports club
studies were used (Nagel, 2006). The postulated relations
between job satisfaction, commitment and intention to
remain of voluntary work were estimated by regression
analysis.
Results
Six dimensions of volunteer job satisfaction could be
identified: Leadership style, job design, self-development
opportunities, recognition, material incentives, learning and
training opportunities. Through regression analysis, a
positive relation between the factors satisfaction with
voluntary work conditions, organizational commitment and
stability of voluntary work could be confirmed. Along with
this, it can be shown that the effect of the employee
satisfaction factor is greater than the effect of the
attachment factor.
These findings suggest that in the future, sports clubs
should give more attention to volunteer retention by
creating voluntary work conditions according to the
volunteers needs while working towards identification
management on the other hand, thus stabilizing the
intention to remain in voluntary work.
References:
Finkelstein, M. A. (2008). Volunteer satisfaction and volunteer
action: A functional approach. Social behaviour and personality, 36,
9-18.
Galindo-Kuhn, R. & Guzley, R.M (2001). The Volunteer Satisfaction
Index: Construct Definition, Measurement, Development, and
Validation. Journal of Social Service Research, 28, 45-68.
Nagel, S. (2006). Sportvereine im Wandel. Akteurtheoretische
Analysen zur Entwicklung von Sportvereinen. Schorndorf:
Hofmann.
Six, B. & Eckes, A. (1991). Der Zusammenhang von
Arbeitszufriedenheit und Arbeitsleistung Resultate einer
metaanalytischen Studie. In L. Fischer (Ed.), Arbeitszufriedenheit
(pp. 21-45). Stuttgart: VAP.
Wicker, P. & Breuer, C. (2011, in press). Scarcity of resources in
German non-profit sports clubs. Sport Management Review, 14.
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494
VOLUNTEERS COMMITMENT TO THEIR
SPORT: USING SERIOUS LEISURE AS
AN ExPLANATORy FRAMEWORK
Author:
Georgina Brooke-Holmes
email:
bsx278@coventry.ac.uk
University:
Coventry University
Faculty:
Sport and Event Management, Coventry Business School
Abstract
The importance of the volunteer within sport is undisputed
(Nichols et al 2005), and many sporting activities are
reliant to a greater or lesser degree on the support or
leadership of volunteers. Whilst sports volunteers have
been the subject of many studies, especially over the last
20 years, there is still a shortage of theoretical bases for
the understanding of their commitment to their sport, and
more pertinently there exists a lack of established
practice for effectively managing the behaviour of such
volunteers.
This paper discusses primary research conducted in the
summer of 2009 on a subsection of volunteers who work
with physically and mentally handicapped horse riders.
The purpose of the work was to assess the levels of
volunteers commitment to their organisation and their role.
It was conducted as an email questionnaire to a group of
volunteer officials, with a high response rate. The
organisation in question, Riding for the Disabled
Association (incorporating Carriage Driving) (RDA), is
unusual in its structure: approximately 18000 volunteers
are regularly active in service delivery across 500
autonomous, federated, groups in the UK. National Office
(the centre of the organisation, but not its head) is run by
fewer than 12 full time equivalent employees. Whilst a
very few of the groups are professionally run, the majority
remain entirely organised, staffed and funded by voluntary
activity.
The activity of the organisation covers the whole range of
sport: beginning from hippotherapy the use of horses as
therapy it runs right up to elite level six of the World
Equestrian Games gold medal winning para-equestrian
dressage team began their riding in RDA and many of
them continue to be supported by RDA facilities and
trainers even now. This range offers an unusual breadth of
voluntary experience to the researcher, aided by excellent
access afforded by personal knowledge of the
organisation.
Understanding the commitment of RDA volunteers requires
a complex framework of analysis which allows for the
multi-faceted experiences delivered by work with RDA. As
a first stage, the concept of Serious Leisure (Stebbins
1996) is being explored. Serious Leisure is defined as
the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist or
volunteer activity sufficiently substantial and interesting in
nature for the participant to find a career there in the
acquisition and expression of a combination of its special
skills, knowledge and experience. (Stebbins 1996:215)
Stebbins offers six characteristics of Serious Leisure:
The need to persevere with the activity
Leisure activity seen as a career
The need for significant personal effort
An activity which generates durable benefits
The creation of shared attitudes and
A tendency to identify with the activity.
Findings of this work suggest that RDA volunteers do
indeed exhibit the six characteristics of serious leisure.
Furthermore, in line with suggestions by Coleman (2002),
they suggest that once a volunteer goes beyond a certain
degree of involvement, their identity becomes bound up
with the organisations identity (Cuskelly et al 2002) -
therefore they are far less likely to leave the role or to
question the level of work required and may become
willing to shoulder significant responsibility for the
organisation.
The paper explores the concept of serious leisure with
regard to the management of RDA volunteers and
examines whether the understanding generated might be
applied to sport volunteers more generally.
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References:
Coleman, R. (2002) Characteristics of volunteering in UK sport:
lessons from cricket. Managing Leisure 7:4, 220-238
Cuskelly, G.; Harrington, M.; Stebbins, R. A. (2002) Changing levels
of organizational commitment amongst sport volunteers: a serious
leisure approach. Leisure/Loisir 2002/2003 Vol. 27 No. 3/4 pp. 191-
212
Nichols G., Taylor P., James M., Holmes K., King L. and Garrett R.
(2005), Pressures on the UK Voluntary Sport Sector, Voluntas
International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, vol.
16, no. 1, pp. 33-50
Stebbins, R.A. (1996) Volunteering: A serious leisure perspective.
Nonprofit and Voluntary Action Quarterly 25, 211-224
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496
TOWARDS A GREATER CONCEPTUAL
CLARITy OF SPORT VOLUNTEERISM
Author:
Juan Zhuang
email:
c.zhuang@uel.ac.uk
Co-authors:
Dr Girginov, Vassil
University:
University of East London
Faculty:
Royal Docks Business School
Abstract
Introduction
The role of volunteerism in modern society has been
gaining increasing recognition both in academic literature
and political debates. Sport volunteerism in its various
forms accounts for over a quarter of all voluntary work in a
number of countries. The term volunteerism, however,
remains vague and its conceptualisation is under-
investigated. As a result, uncertainties about what
constitutes good practices and how these should be
promoted persist. This paper seeks to fill this void by
establishing a greater conceptual clarity of volunteerism
through a systematic review of current Western-dominated
literature. The synthesis includes a definition of
volunteerism and its six-dimensional conceptual
framework. The implications of this conceptualisation for
sport managers are also discussed.
Defining Volunteerism
Conceptual definitions are important because they shape
our understanding of various phenomena. In the case of
volunteerism, there is no unified understanding, and
difficulties in defining volunteerism are believed to be a
result of its cultural and religious foundations, and its
political influences (Rankopo, Osei-Hwedie and Modie-
Moroka, 2006: 9). Broadly speaking, the various
definitions in current literature revolve around two main
categories. The first category interprets volunteerism as
volunteering or volunteer activity/ work and is process
oriented. This is evident from major policy documents such
as The legal position of volunteers in the United Kingdom
(Association of Voluntary Service Organisations and
European Volunteer Centre, 2003). The second regards
volunteerism as a kind of pro-social behaviour, as found in
the works of Penner (2002) and Lichter, Shannahan and
Gardner (2002). It places the focus on the normative
aspects of volunteering. Drawing from an extensive
analysis of literature this paper arrives at a synthesised
understanding of volunteerism as:
A set of pro-social behaviours that involve all kinds of
productive volunteering, whether informal or formal, carried
out for the benefits of people locally, nationally or
internationally, on the basis of free will of volunteers, who
may be motivated by their culture and/ or religion and
driven by non-monetary individual goals.
Conceptualising volunteerism: a six-dimensional
conceptual framework
The review of literature allowed identifying six key
properties of volunteerism including its essence (free will
and being unpaid), components (volunteers and
volunteering), forms (formal and informal), sources
(altruism, individualism and patriotism), scopes
(local/regional, national and international), and functions
(service-oriented, self-fulfilment, enhancing employability
and social development, see Figure 1). Various
interpretations of individual properties, in different cultures
and countries, as well as their relationships, are taken into
account, and altogether contribute to forming a
comprehensive conceptualisation of volunteerism.
Implications for sport management
The current conceptualisation of volunteerism allows sport
managers to see the key properties of this concept and the
linkages between them. Moreover, this improved
conceptual clarity aids managers understanding of the key
processes and functions involved in the recruitment,
selection, training and rewarding of volunteers.
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References:
Association of Voluntary Service Organisations and European
Volunteer Centre (2003). The legal position of volunteers in the
United Kingdom, produced by Hurley, G., Foster, A. & Lopez-
Lotson, A.(2003). Available at URL:
http://www.ukvf.org.uk/Legal%20Status%20UK.doc, [Retrieved on 3
October, 2007].
Lichter, D., Shanahan, M. and Gardner, E. (2002). Helping others?
The effects of childhood poverty and family instability on prosocial
behavior, in youth Society, vol. 34, No. 1, September 2002, pp. 89-
119.
Penner, L. (2002). Dispositional and organizational influences on
sustained volunteerism: an interactionist perspective, in Journal of
Social Issues, vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 447-467.
Rankopo, M. Osei-Hwedie, K. and Modie-Moroka, T. (2006). Five-
country study on service and volunteering in southern Africa:
Botswana country report, in Volunteer and Service Enquiry:
Southern Africa, July 2006, pp. 1- 37.
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498
New Researchers Award
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500
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IDENTITy AND INTERACTION
CONFLICT: A POSITIVELy DEVIANT
CASE STUDy
Author:
Shannon Kerwin
email:
skerwin@hhp.ufl.edu
University:
University of Florida
Faculty:
Tourism, Recreation, and Sport Management
Abstract
According to social identity theory, individuals continuously
compare themselves to similar others for the purpose of
maintaining status and self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner, 1987).
As such, individuals within an organisation may classify
themselves based on a variety of social categories;
including organisational or departmental attributes. The
desire to obtain status within these categories creates
social hierarchies within groups (Anderson, John, Keltner,
& Kring, 2001). Furthermore, conflict or tension amongst
individuals can result from the negotiation of status in a
group or organisation (Bendersky & Hays, 2011). This may
be particularly relevant in regional sport organisations
where in-and out-groups exist based on sub-group
formation (Hoye & Cuskelly, 2007). Thus, understanding
how paid staff and non-paid volunteer board members
identify themselves within their organisation may enhance
theory regarding the presence of conflict in workgroups.
The purpose of this paper was to examine how social
identity influences status and compatibility conflict in
regional sport commissions within one state in the United
States. To serve this purpose, two research questions were
posited:
R1: Do sub-group identities exist within regional sport
commissions?
R2: Does sub-group identity influence the development of
status and compatibility conflict?
Recent research has focused on examining group
dynamics within the non-profit sport context by
investigating conflict between volunteer board members in
particular (Hamm-Kerwin & Doherty, 2010; Kerwin &
Doherty, in press). However, the acknowledgment of the
complexity associated with interaction conflict (Bendersky
& Hays, 2011; Bendersky et al., 2010) and the potential of
sub-group formation within regional sport organisations
(Hoye & Cuskelly, 2007) may suggest that continued
investigation into factors influencing the development of
conflict is warranted.
A multi-method (Creswell & Clark, 2007) approach was
taken to conduct this research. Phase one included a
preliminary analysis of the entire population of 22 regional
sport commissions in one south-east state in the United
States. Twelve executive directors of the 22 sport
commissions and 18 additional support staff and board
members within those 22 sport commissions consented to
participate in the study. In total, 30 out of 154 individuals
responded to an online questionnaire for a response rate
of 19.48%. The questionnaire contained items relating to
the presence of a sport commission identity and
interpersonal conflict (i.e., status and compatibility), where
each item was rated on a Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A sequential explanatory
strategy (Creswell & Clark, 2007) was used where the
quantitative results provided the benchmark for further
analysis in the qualitative portion of phase two. As such,
descriptive statistics were run to gain an understanding of
the level of sport commission identity and interpersonal
conflict in the sample of sport commissions. The results
indicate that collective/sport commission identification was
relatively high (M = 6.06, SD = .77) and status (M = 2.84,
SD = 1.32) and compatibility (M = 2.33, SD = 1.24) were
relatively low to moderate.
In phase two, a positively deviant (see Cameron, Dutton, &
Quinn, 2003) sport commission was chosen for further
qualitative examination. The selection of this commission
was based on a relatively high collective/commission
identity score (M = 6.78) in phase one. The selected
regional sport commission operates with 25 board and
executive committee members and four (4) paid staff. All
29 individuals were invited to participate in the interview
portion of this study. In total, 11 individuals agreed to be
interviewed (four staff and eight board members).
The interview guide was semi-structured in nature (Patton,
2002). This process allowed for consistency among
participants, but also gave the individuals freedom to tell
stories that elaborated on and justified their opinions; an
opportunity that a number of participants took advantage
of. Further, four onsite observations at board meetings and
events hosted by the sport commission were conducted by
the researcher. The observations were completed post-
interview collection and were used to identify sub-group
formation as well as any disagreement that may have
existed within the sport commission. Analysis of the data
was consistent with the constant comparative method
described by Lincoln and Guba (1985).
The findings of the quantitative and qualitative data were
categorised into three main themes associated with: a) the
presence of collective identity, b) the formation of sub-
groups and the influence of sub-groups on conflict, and c)
the importance of leaders in shaping collective identity in a
sport commission. The contribution of these findings to
current literature and practice will be discussed in detail.
Additionally, specific implications for both sport researchers
and sport managers will be posited.
References:
Bendersky, C., & Hays, N. A. (2010). Status conflict in group.
Organizational Science, articles in advance, 1-18. doi: 10.1287
Cameron, K. S., Dutton, J. E., & Quinn, R. E. (Eds.). (2003).
Positive organizational scholarship: Foundation of a new discipline.
San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Hamm-Kerwin, S., & Doherty, A. (2010). Intragroup conflict in non-
profit sport boards. Journal of Sport Management, 24(3), 245-271.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup
conflict. In W.G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology
of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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CO-CREATION OF VALUE By OTHER
CUSTOMERS EVIDENCE IN SPORTS
Author:
Christian Durchholz
email:
christian.durchholz@uni-bayreuth.de
Co-authors:
Woratschek, Herbert
University:
Faculty:
Abstract
Aim of abstract research question
Value of sporting events has traditionally been measured
on characteristics like quality of the game, catering,
sanitations, infrastructure etc. Based on Service-Dominant
Logic (SD-logic) the value of a sporting event does not
exist per se and is not determined by event characteristics.
In SD-logic only value propositions are offered by the
sporting event. As value is fundamentally derived and
determined in use, the context influences value experience
which is uniquely and phenomenologically determined by
the beneficiary (customers in this case). Therefore co-
creation of value is always value in context (Vargo &
Lusch, 2004).
Sport services like sporting events are often delivered in
settings where many costumers are present at the same
time. Thus, other customers can have an essential impact
on the event experience (Woratschek et al., 2007). Against
this background, our research objectives are threefold:
1. Which customer groups have an effect on the event
experience?
2. Which behaviours have an effect on the event
experience?
3. Is there any difference in influence direction respectively
influence strength of similar behaviours depending on the
acting customer group?
Based on grounded SD-logic our literature review focused
on three research streams.
Firstly, we analyzed studies dealing with consumer-to-
consumer relationships taking place in different service
settings (Thakor et al., 2008). Findings show that other
consumers in a specific service setting (restaurant vs.
bowling centre) affect the attitudes towards the service
satisfaction and patronage intention of those who shared
the same environment. Additional insights were gained by
the research fields joint consumption (Ramanathan &
McGill, 2007) and social-servicescape (Tombs & McColl-
Kennedy, 2003).
Secondly, we reviewed the characteristics and influences
of reference groups on consumer behaviour. The effects of
presence of other customers in consumption settings are
widely discussed in the reference group literature. Typically
reference group literature distinguishes between three
types of reference groups: membership groups,
aspirational groups, and dissociative groups (White & Dahl,
2007).
Thirdly, we analyzed attribution theory to explain how
customers allocate the reason for being influenced by
other customers (Weiner, 1986).
These theoretical findings support our approach to go one
step further in structuring the effects on co-creation of
value by other customers.
We applied qualitative repertory grid methodology (Kelly,
1991) with the objective to detect facilitators and barriers in
co-creation of value by other customers referring to the
above mentioned scientific findings.
The repertory grid was conducted in five stages.
At the beginning the test person should shortly describe
itself as a spectator.
Second, the test person was asked to mention six to
twelve relevant customer groups which affect the personal
event experience (determination of the elements in the
repertory grid).
In the third stage, the interviewer elicited relevant
behaviours from the test person by taking triads of
elements (customer groups mentioned in stage one) and
asking the test person in which two of the triads customer
groups are similar and thereby different from the third
(determination of the constructs in the repertory grid).
In the fourth stage, the test person was asked to rate all
the elements according to all constructs (full grid) on a
modified 1-5 scale (1 = I like the behaviour very much to 5
= I dont like the behaviour at all; x = cannot rate the
behaviour of this element) without using the established
contrasting poles to simplify the challenging task of rating
the full grid.
In the final stage content analysis was applied by two
independent researchers to bundle customer groups and
behaviours of the customer groups. Thus reliability tests
were used to underline the quality of the content analysis
(Mayring, 2003).
Via the repertory grid 27 customer groups and 38
behaviours were identified which co-create value in
sporting events. Several similar behaviours were rated
differently by the test persons depending on which
customer group acts. Additionally similar behaviours of
similar customer groups were rated differently depending
on the perspective of the test person. This strengthens SD-
Logic in Sport Management.
By combining existing logics and approaches our study
gained new insights on the influence of other customers on
the event experience. Based on these findings further
analyses which refer to individual perspectives are needed
to verify the results.
References:
Ramanathan, S. & McGill, A. L. (2007). Consuming with Others:
Social Influences on Moment-to-Moment and Retrospective
Evaluations of an Experience. Journal of Consumer Research, 34
(December), 506-524.
Thakor, M. V., Suri, R. & Saleh, K. (2008). Effects of service setting
and other consumer's age on the service perceptions of young
consumers. Journal of Retailing, 84 (2), 137-149.
Vargo, S. L. & Lusch, R. F. (2004). Evolving to a New Dominant
Logic for Marketing. Journal of Marketing, 68 (January), 1-17.
White, K. & Dahl, D. W. (2007). Are All Out-Groups Created Equal?
Consumer Identity and Dissociative Influence. Journal of Consumer
Research, 34(4), 525-536.
Woratschek, H., Horbel, C., Popp, B. & Roth, S. (2007). A
Videographic Analysis of Weird Guys: What Do Relationships
Mean to Football Fans? Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche
Diskussionspapiere der Universitt Bayreuth, Rechts- und
Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultt.
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504
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PASSION FOR SPORT AND
COMMITMENT
Author:
Lieke Schiphof-Godart
email:
l.schiphof-godart@hhs.nl
Co-authors:
R. M. Helden
University:
Haagse Hogeschool, The Hague
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
The aim of this study was to explore the relationship
between passion for sport as defined by Vallerand (2010)
and commitment to sport for young (age: 14 to 18 years)
athletes. A better understanding of the mechanisms related
to commitment to sport and other physical activities may
enhance sport practice in general and perhaps help to find
a way to counteract the quitting of sport activities by
teenagers and young adults.
Vallerand (2010) recently has proposed a Dualistic Model
of Passion (DMP). They explain that an activity which is
important to an individual may develop into a passion. The
DMP is furthermore based on the fact that two different
forms of passion can be distinguished: Harmonious
passion (HP) and obsessive passion (OP). HP describes a
passion which is well integrated in a person s life, so that it
is in harmony with other important things or activities. OP
on the other hand, may cause a person to become
obsessed by his or her activity and thus lead to neglecting
other things in life.
Previous studies have shown negative effects of OP and
positive effects of HP. Nevertheless, both forms of passion
should lead to an important degree of commitment towards
the passionate activity.
The present study aims to investigate whether both forms
of passion are related to commitment to sport. In order to
study different aspects of commitment to sport, the latter
will be considered consisting of three different types of
behavior. First of all, Deliberate Practice (DP) will be
defined as a way of deliberately trying to practice in the
most efficient way in order to enhance one s skills
(Ericsson, Krampe &Tesch-Rmer, 1993). Secondly,
Overengagement (OE) will be defined as the readiness of
athletes to continue their sport practice while injured or ill
or when important conflicts with work, family or school
occur. Finally, Intention to Quit (IQ) measures whether or
not an athlete plans to quit this particular activity in the
near future. All three measurements combined will provide
information about the commitment to sport of the young
athletes participating in this study.
During an inter-school sports competition, we have asked
302 young athletes, engaged in different activities such as:
soccer, volleyball, squash and wall-climbing, to fill in a
questionnaire designed to measure their passion for sport
and their commitment to their activity.
Our results have shown that a moderate correlation
between both forms of passion for sport and DP exists (r =
0,15; p 0,05 for PH and r = 0,19; p 0,05 for PO). Both
forms of passion are also related to OE (r = 0,??; p 0,05
for PH and r = 0,??; p 0,05 for PO), but only obsessive
passion has been found correlated negatively to IQ (r = -
0,21; p 0,05).
First of all, our results have shown that both forms of
passion are related to DP. Whether a person has an
obsessive or a harmonious form of passion towards his or
her activity does therefore not seem to influence the
willingness to train in a very efficient, deliberate way.
Secondly, both forms of passion show a significant
correlation with OE, which may indicate that even people
with a harmonious passion towards their activity may
sometimes cross the line of a responsible and healthy way
of training and may engage in dangerous or risky behavior.
Whether or not this behavior eventually leads to more
injuries and risks taken during training has indeed to be
determined in further studies. The negative relationship
between OP and IQ may lead to the conclusion that
continuing the practice of the particular activity the
individual is currently engaged in, seems to be of much
greater importance in the case of an obsessive passion
than in the case of a harmonious passion.
The conclusion of this study is that both forms of passion
(HP and OP) lead to an important commitment towards
sport. This commitment shows in positive (DP) and more
risk full (OE) ways. OP, nevertheless, may lead people to
become dependent of a particular activity, whereas people
with a harmonious form of passion may be able to regard
their activity as something pleasant but not absolutely
necessary to their well-being. The latter may therefore be
able to disengage in their practice when this seems wise.
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References:
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R.T. & Tesch-Rmer, C. (1993). The role
of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance.
Psychological Review, Vol. 100 (3), pp. 363-406.
Vallerand, R. J. (2010). On passion for life activities: The Dualistic
Model of Passion. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental
social psychology (Vol. 42, pp. 97-193). New york: Academic
Press.
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506
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EVALUATION OF SPORT BRANDS AN
EMPIRICAL ANALySIS OF THE
INTERPLAy BETWEEN BRAND
STRENGTH AND BRAND EQUITy
Author:
Tim Strbel
email:
tim.stroebel@uni-bayreuth.de
Co-authors:
Woratschek, Herbert
University:
Faculty:
Abstract
Aim of abstract Research questions
The evaluation of sport brands played a major role in sport
management research during the last two decades and will
be one of the hottest topics in future, too (Keller, 1993;
Gladden et al., 1998; Bauer et al., 2005). This piece of
research focuses on marketing in sport and especially on
the evolutions of sport brands. The latest empirical
publications in the context of sport brand evaluation mainly
deal with the brand equity of European football clubs. Like
all the studies conducted in marketing research before,
those studies in sport management show striking
differences in their results. Just to mention one example,
the brand equity of Real Madrid CF differs from one study
to another between 278 million Euro and more than 1
billion Euro. This example underlines that there are no
consistent results in the current brand evaluation
discussion. In this context the following research questions
are crucial for developing a better understanding of brand
evaluation: Which indicators are relevant for building up a
strong brand? Which indicators determine brand equity?
Finally, is there any correlation between brand strength
and brand equity?
In the first step we reviewed the latest literature in
marketing and sport management dealing with brand
valuation in general. As a consequence the literature can
be divided into three main perspectives: finance-oriented
(e.g. Simon & Sullivan, 1993), customer-oriented (e.g.
Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993) and integrative brand
evaluation. Finance-oriented models are based on
quantitative data like market value or costs, whereas
customer-oriented models rather consider qualitative data
like loyalty or image. Furthermore, integrative models
combine these views by using both quantitative and
qualitative data. In sport management more and more
studies, like those analyzing the Real Madrid brand
mentioned above, cope with combined models for
calculating brand equity. The tremendous difference
between the calculated brand equities derives from the use
of integrative models that mix the strength and the equity
of the Real Madrid brand instead of clearly distinguishing
between those two perspectives. In summary, our
theoretical analysis shows that the trend to the
development of integrative models is a step into the wrong
direction. We recommend developing financial-oriented
models for controlling purposes and customer-oriented
models for brand management.
As a consequence, we reconsidered the theoretical
foundations to make brand equity models more applicable
to sport brand management. Based on these
considerations we propose an innovative theoretical
framework that clearly divides between psychological
indicators of brand strength and financial indicators of
brand equity. We hypothesize that brand strength has a
positive influence on its psychological indicators
awareness, loyalty, image and quality, whereas quality also
includes perceived sporting success. Furthermore, we
assume that the higher the brand strength is, the higher
the brand equity will be and consequently the higher are
revenues and the better is real sporting success. This
theoretical framework and the proposed hypotheses are
analyzed by using structural equation modeling. The data
collection was realized with online surveys focusing on
spectators and fans of all first-league clubs in basketball,
ice hockey, football and handball in Germany during
season 2009/2010. Altogether, a data set of n = 1.585
could be generated. Before the analysis of the complete
structural equation model (SEM), exploratory factor
analysis and confirmatory factor analysis was applied. The
so confirmed structures were finally measured in a
comprehensive SEM measuring brand strength and brand
equity as well as the correlation between them. In this
regard, brand strength and brand equity are specified as
second-order latent variables being measured by the
corresponding first-order latent variables that represent
psychological respectively financial indicators.
In contrast to the existing literature we argue that brand
strength and brand equity cannot be combined by mixing
qualitative and quantitative data. Therefore, we could prove
in our SEM that brand strength and brand equity should be
treated as separate latent variables, because brand
strength should be solely measured by psychological
indicators and consequently, brand equity by financial
indicators. In addition, our SEM shows how brand values
are created and how the different brand evaluation
perspectives are related to each other. Consequently, the
derived theoretical framework and the empirically proved
SEM lay the foundation for a new paradigm concerning the
evaluation of sport brands, which opens the way for a
better understanding of the relationship between brand
strength and brand equity.
References:
Aaker, D. (1991). Managing Brand Equity: Capitalizing on the Value
of a Brand Name. New york: The Free Press.
Bauer, H., Sauer, N., & Schmitt, P. (2005). Customer-based brand
equity in the team sport industry: Operation-alization and impact on
the economic success of sport teams. European Journal of
Marketing, 39, 5/6, 496-513.
Gladden, J., Milne, G., & Sutton, W. (1998). A Conceptual
Framework for Assessing Brand Equity in Division I College
Athletics. Journal of Sport Management, 12, 1-19.
Keller, K. (1993). Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing
Customer-Based Brand Equity. Journal of Mar-keting, 57, 1-22.
Simon, C./Sullivan, M. (1993), The Measurement and Determinants
of Brand Equity: A Financial Approach, in: Marketing Science, 12,
1, p. 28-52.
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Posters
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510
COLLEGE STUDENTS MOTIVATION
SCALE FOR ONLINE PURCHASE OF
SPORT PRODUCTS (MSOPSP)
Author:
Carina King
email:
carking@indiana.edu
Co-authors:
Lee, Soonhwan King, Carina Bae, Sungwon Hwang,
youngseong Kwon, Oh-Ryun Park, Jung-Jun
University:
Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis
Faculty:
Tourism, Conventions and Event Management
Abstract
The Internet came into existence in the 1970's and by
every account, the numbers of internet users have grown
exponentially. Forrester Research reported that e-
commerce in the U.S. grew 11% in 2009 and online retail
sales reached $155.2 billion. Sport organizations
increasingly use web sites to sell tickets, licensed
products, and other services (Seo & Green, 2008). On the
other hand, sport consumers visit sport related sites not
only for information and entertainment, but to purchase
sport products (Hur, Ko, & Valacich, 2007). The purpose of
the study was to better understand college students
motivation for online purchase of sports products.
Undergraduate and graduate students at a mid-sized state
university located in the Midwest participated in the spring
of 2010 via convenience sampling. A total of N=427
surveys were computed. A 30-item instrument was adapted
from previous studies (Bhattacherjee, 2000; Davis, 1989;
Lin, 2007; Taylor & Todd, 1995). The items were based on
a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 - strongly
disagree through 7 - strongly agree . Descriptive statistics
were computed using SPSS 18, data was checked for
normality characteristics, and a Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA) test was conducted using LISREL 8.8.
Respondents were predominantly male (n=251, 59%),
aged between 21-25 years (n=213, 50%) and single
(n=405, 95%). The typical respondent lived in suburbia
(n=274, 64%), owned a computer (n=402, 94%), self-rated
their computer skills as good (n=226, 53%), had at least 6
years of internet experience (n=301, 70%), and spent 1-3
hours a day on the internet (n=246, 58%). A 30-item
instrument was used to identify motivations for online
purchase sport related products.
The Bollen and Long (1993) five-step procedure (model
specification, identification, estimation, testing goodness-
of-fit statistics, and re-specification) was used. The results
of the CFA determined how well the items captured their
specified constructs and demonstrated how the constructs
were distinct from each other (Bollen, 1989; Hair,
Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). The battery of model fit
criteria used were Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA < .08), Standardized Root Mean
Square Residual (Standardized RMR < .08), Comparative
Fit Indiex (CFI > .95) and Chi-square ratio (2/df < 5). The
overall fit of the initial structural model appeared to be poor
and was rejected. The model was refined by systematically
dropping non unique items until the final model-fit indices
were acceptable. Based on the results of the modification
index, eight items were iteratively eliminated and an
alternative 22-item model was formed. In the case of the
alternate model, the RMSEA=.077, Standardized RMR
=.076 and CFI=.97. The Chi-square value was 656.72 (df =
188, p < .00) and 2/df =3.49. Hence the alternative 22
item three factor model is a fair fit. The first factor, called
Attitude-intent , comprises of eight items (e.g. I prefer
online shopping for sports products and I feel using online
shopping for sports products is a good idea ). The second
factor is Social-influence and comprises of 5 items (e.g.
My friends think that I should shop online for sports
products and Mass media reports have influenced me to
try online shopping to buy sports products ). The third
factor, Control-facilitation (e.g. I feel comfortable using
online shopping for sports products on my own and I have
the time to use online shopping for sports products ).
The CFA test determines how well the items capture their
specified constructs and how distinct the constructs are
from each other (Bollen, 1989; Hair et al, 1998). The
findings of the study show that the MSOPSP is a valid and
reliable instrument. Attitude-intent , Social-influence, and
Control-facilitation provide a framework to examine college
students motivation for online purchase of sports products.
In general, the three factors are consistent with past
motivation literature for online purchase. It should be noted
that respondents were delimited to a mid-western
university so different samples should be used in the
future. Future research could focus on hierarchical
motivations and specific forms of internet usage.
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References:
Bollen, K.A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New
york: John Wiley & Sons.
Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (1993). Testing structural equation
models. London: Sage.
Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. & Black, W.C. (1998).
Multivariate data analysis (5th edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Hur, y., Ko, y., & Valacich, J. (2007). Motivation and concerns for
online sport consumption, Journal of Sport Management 21(4),
521-539.
Seo, W., & Green, B. (2008). Development of the motivation scale
for sport online consumption, Journal of Sport Management 22(1),
82-109.
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SERVICE
QUALITy FACTORS AND SPECTATORS
REVISIT IN IRANIAN SOCCER PREMIER
LEAGUE
Author:
Farzad Ghafouri
email:
farzadghafouri@yahoo.com
Co-authors:
Ezatollah Shahmansoori, Habib Honari, Arash Roshan
University:
Allameh Tabataba'i University
Faculty:
Physical Education
Abstract
The purpose of this paper was to study effective factors on
spectators tendency to revisit the games with an emphasis
on service quality. For this purpose, 450spectators were
randomly selected among spectators of home premier
soccer league stadiums and questionnaires distributed
among them. After applying some modifications by experts
and specialists, reliability (p=89/0) determined by
Cronbachs alpha. Collected data from four stadiums were
analyzed by regression test. Results indicated that among
of studied factors, unpredictability of match (mean=3/73)
and diversity of stadium entertainment and facility
(mean=1/94) showed the most and least mean,
respectively. Results also indicated that almost 66/7 of
spectator satisfaction were explained by service quality
(access quality, contest quality, facility quality, venue
quality and sport quality). Regression coefficient indicated
that sport quality had more effect (B=0/78, P=0/001) than
other factors and access quality (B=0/16, P=0/001) have
more effects on spectator satisfaction. Other factors
(contest quality and stadium quality) had no significant
effects. Furthermore, about % 55/1 of repeated attendance
of spectator variance in future competitions explained by
satisfaction. Eventually we can conclude that service
quality is good anticipator for spectator satisfaction in sport
event and their revisit in the future.
References:
1. Abel, Correia, and Sandra, Esteves (2007). An exploratory study
of spectators motivation in football. Sport Management and
Marketing, Vol. 2, 5/6
2. Aminuddin yusof, Lee Hooi See (2008). Spectator Perceptions
of Physical Facility and Team Quality: A Study of a Malaysian Super
League Soccer Match. Research Journal of Internatonal Studes,
Issue 8, 132-140
3. Bitner, M.J. (1992). Servicescapes: The impact of physical
surroundings on customers and employees. Journal of Marketing,
56(2), 5771.
4. Brady, M. K., & Cronin, J. J. (2001). Some new thoughts on
conceptualizing perceived service quality: A hierarchical approach.
Journal of Marketing, 65(July 2001), 34-49.
5. Forrest, D., & Simmons, R. (2006). New issues in attendance
demand: The case of the English Football League. Journal of
Sports Economics, 7(3), 247-266
6. Gall, M.D., Borg, W.R., & Gall, J.P. (1996). Educational
Research: An introduction (6th ed.). White Plains, Ny: Longman
Publishers USA.
7. Greenwell, T. C., Fink, J. S., & Pastore, D. (2002). Assessing the
influence of the physical sports facility on customer satisfaction
within the context of the service experience. Sport Management
Review, 5, 129-148.
8. J. Shonk, D (2006) Service Quality, Satisfaction, and Intent
to Return in Event Sport Tourism. Journal of Sport Management,
2008, 22, 587-602
9. Hill, B., & Green, B.C. (2000). Repeat attendance as a function
of involvement, loyalty, and the sportscape across three football
contexts. Sport Management Review, 3, 145162.
10. Kitn. H, LaVetter. David, & Lee.J. (2006). The Influence of
Service Quality Factors on Customer Satisfaction and Repurchase
Intention in the Korean Professional Basketball League.
International Jotunal of Applied Sports Sciences, Vol. 18, No. 1, 39-
58.
11. Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of
Retailing, 49, 4864.
12. Mullin B.J, Hardy S & Sutton W.A. (2007). Sport marketing.
Third edition, Human kinetics Publishers: USA.
13. Noll, R. (2003), The organization of sports leagues, Oxford
Review of Economic Policy, 19, 530-551.
14. Puccinelli, Nancy M., Ronald C. Goodstein, Dhruv Grewal,
Robert Price, Priya Raghubir and David Stewart (2009). "Customer
Experience Management in Retailing: Understanding the Buying
Process," Journal of Retailing, 85 (March): 15-30.
15. Taylor, S. A., & baker, J. J. (1994). Modelling Patient
Satisfaction and Service Quality. Journal of Health Care Marketing,
14(1), 3444.
16. Terial, Janet S. Fink, Dean, F. Anderson, (2003), Sport
spectator Consumption Behavior, Sport marketing Quarterly, Vol 12,
7-17
17. Wakefield. K.L., Blodgett, J.G., & Sloane, H.J. (1996).
Measurement and management or the sportscape. Journal of Sport
Management, 10, 15-31.
18. Westerbeek, H.M. (2000). The influence of frequency of
attendance and age on place- specific dimensions of service
quality at Australian rules football matches. Sport Marketing
Quarterly, 9(4), 194 202
19. Woratschek. H , Horbel.C, & Popp .B(2010). Extending the
Service-Profit Chain: The Role of Identification and Co-Creation.
Diskussionspapier, 06-10
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COHORT STUDy: A LONGITUDINAL
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF
PHySICAL FITNESS PROMOTION
PROGRAMS
Author:
Chih-Pin Shih
email:
chihpin@ntnu.edu.tw
University:
National Taiwan Normal University
Abstract
Based on the researches, if teenagers acquire good sport
cognition, it is likely they will develop better sport behaviors
and excellent sport habits at the later time. As a result,
cultivating accurate fitness cognition and attitudes so as to
build regular exercise habits can not only change their
sport participation behaviors but also enhance physical
fitness. In addition, previous studies on physical fitness
promotion had mostly focused on single physical fitness
policy program or execution results of single fitness
program implementation. Therefore, carrying out long-term
performance evaluation of physical fitness promotion
becomes an important research topic.
Ministry of Education (MOE) of Taiwan has promoted
school fitness program for more than ten years. After
shifting lots of resources in implementing these programs,
how were the results? Were there any improvements in
student fitness? Did students foster regular exercise
habits? How about the fitness concepts of students? These
were important issues concerned by the government, as
well as those promoters. As a result, middle school
students who were in growth phase were the subjects,
using text analysis in order to construct key indicators in
evaluating effectiveness of promotion fitness programs.
Purpose: The purposes of this study were to get the status
of MOE in promoting fitness program, analyzing student
fitness test results, probing into the differential analysis
from student fitness tests, as well as using Latent Growth
Curve Modeling (LGC) analysis in order to evaluate
beneficial results of the implementation of MOE fitness
programs.
Method: Middle school students who were in first, second
and third grades in year 2010 were the subjects. Based on
the proportion of student in each county, stratified cluster
sampling was used to collect data. 3,797 validation
samples were collected, and validation rate was 95.88%.
Result: The results were as below: 1. Promotion of school
fitness programs was in good condition, but sports
participation and physical activity of students still needed to
be improved. 70 percent of students felt that school sports
culture was good; 86 percent of students affirmed that
fitness promotion was a good policy; 70 percent of
students felt that the performance of fitness programs was
good, but there were only 50 percent of students started to
foster regular exercise habits due to the promotion of
fitness programs. 2. There had been a marked decline in
the fitness test performances. Male?s performance in
flexibility, explosive power, and cardio respiratory fitness
was shown decline, so was female?s performance in
muscular strength/muscular endurance, explosive power,
and cardio respiratory. 3. Middle school students in
different demographic were different in fitness attitude,
cognition test and regular self-confidence. Fitness attitude
and regular exercise self-confidence of male were better
than female; Students in lower grades had better fitness
attitude and regular exercise self-confidence than students
in higher grades, whereas fitness cognition test of higher
grades was better than lower grade students. Those who
participated in sports club had higher fitness attitude and
regular exercise self-confidence than those who did not.
For those who regularly exercise had better fitness attitude
and regular exercise self-confidence than those who had
no regular exercise habit. 4. According to the analysis of
fitness LGC Modeling, the model was fit, but there was
only a positive slope of 3.00 in fitness cognition test, while
slopes for the fitness attitude and regular exercise self-
confidence were negative, -.05 and -.08 respectively.
Conclusion: Consequently, government should reexamine
the fitness promotion activities and strategies, strengthen
the effectiveness in fitness assessment tracking, in order to
improve the beneficial results of school fitness.
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PERSUASIVE MEDIA EFFECTS OF
SPONSORSHIPS AT THE 2010 FIFA WORLD
CUP: A TEST OF THEORy OF PLANNED
BEHAVIOR AND INVOLVEMENT
Author:
Soonhwan Lee
email:
lee291@iupui.edu
Co-authors:
Kang, Seok (University of Texas at San Antonio; U.S.A) Kwon, Oh-
Ryun (Pusan National University; South Korea) Eagleman, Andrea
(Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis; U.S.A) Hwang,
youngseong (Pusan National University; South Korea) Park, Jung-
Jun (Pusan National University; South Korea)
University:
Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Faculty:
School of Physical Education and Tourism Management
Mega-sporting events such as the FIFA World Cup or Olympics
have been used as essential channels for marketers and sponsors
to promote product brands (Horne, 2010; Mullman, 2010). The
current study takes an empirical approach to answering the
simultaneous processing of persuasive messages of sponsorships
in media with the role of involvement during the 2010 FIFA World
Cup. This approach attempts to understand how and why
consumers process persuasive sponsor messages in the
multimedia consumption setting. This study employs the Theory of
Planned Behavior (TPB), which sets the psychosocial states
including attitude toward behavior, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioral control as factors affecting behavioral intention. The
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) was also employed to explain
the role of involvement added to the TPB.
Data were collected from two universities in the Midwestern (N =
6,200) and Southern (N = 2,452) regions in the U.S. After sorting
out and eliminating incomplete questionnaires, a total of 650
responses: 539 and 111 from each university were used for main
analysis. The model testing confirmed that involvement was an
important component in persuasion process generally and in sports
sponsorship information particularly with two psychosocial states
(attitude and subjective norm). This study results provide a new
approach in sports sponsorship research that human process of
information in persuasion demonstrates components contributing to
purchase intention of sponsored sports products. The model testing
results provide an empirical support for the TPB, as well as outlining
a mobilizing vehicle-involvement-for facilitating the purchase of
sponsored products as a result of exposure to the FIFA World Cup
through a variety of media. In addition to attitude and subjective
norm, heightened involvement with the sponsor information fuels
purchase intention. This study offers the role of involvement in
terms of how and why FIFA World Cup audiences develop their
intention of sponsored product purchase.
This model tested in the current study could be used in future
research. For example, the role of involvement was significantly
marked indicating that a linear model from media exposure through
involvement, attitude, and subjective norm to intention would have
potential to be built as a testing model in other sport communication
and management research. A further study of cultural or gender
differences in the FIFA World Cup would be worthy to provide both
a theoretical and practical contribution as the role of moderator can
be discovered in media audiences processing of sponsor
messages.
References (limited to 5).
Horne, J. D. (2010). Cricket in consumer culture: Notes on the
2007 Cricket World Cup, American Behavioral Scientist 53(10),
1549-1568. DOI: 10.1177/0002764210368084.
Mullman, J. (May 17, 2010) World Cup kicks off international
marketing games on epic Scale, Advertising Age 81(20), 4.
Olson, E. L., & Thjomoe, H. M. (2009) Sponsorship effect metric:
assessing the financial value of sponsoring by comparisons to
television advertising, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science
37(4), 504-515. DOI: 10.1007/s11747-009-0147-z.
O'Reilly, N., Lyberger, M. McCarthy, L. Sguin, B., & Nadeau, J.
(2008) Mega-special event promotions and intent to purchase: A
longitudinal analysis of the Super Bowl, Journal of Sport
Management 22(4), 392-409.
Patwardhan, P. (2004) Exposure, involvement, and satisfaction with
online activities: A cross-national comparison of American and
Indian Internet users, Gazette: International Journal for
Communication Studies 66(5), 411-436. DOI:
10.1177/0016549204045920.
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518
DIFFERENT ExPERIENCE AFFECTING
PRCEPTIONS OF ESSENTIAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATHLETIC
DIRECTORS
Author:
Li Chen
email:
lchen@desu.edu
University:
Dalaware State University, USA
Faculty:
Department of Sport Sciences
Abstract
As importance of administrators of educational programs
have grown so has the importance of the duties for athletic
directors (ADs). This importance has led to more studies
about experience and characteristics with respect to
interscholastic athletic administrators (Stier, 1985).
Previous studies (e.g., Stier & Schneider, 2000) have
defined essential characteristics (e.g., honesty, leadership)
for interscholastic athletic directors, however, research
voids remain in what are the perception of ADs regarding
the important characteristics compared to the view of their
superiors.
Given the defined characteristics, which are more essential
than others? Does the number of years served as ADs
affect their perceptions of essential characteristics? The
purpose of this study was to explore perceptual differences
of essential characteristics among different experience
groups of high school ADs.
A survey by electronic mail was conducted among high
school ADs in the northwest region of the United States. A
21-item essential characteristics questionnaire (Stier &
Schneider, 2000) with 5-point likert scale (1 = essential, 5
= irrelevant) was utilized to test differences. The randomly
drawn participants (N = 300) were all current ADs in the
high school athletic programs and voluntarily participated in
the survey. Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and post hoc
Scheffe were applied to examine mean differences of
rating importance among three experience groups (junior
[1-5 years], intermediate [6-10 years], and senior [more
than 10 years]) of ADs.
ANOVAs revealed significant (p < .05) mean differences on
the characteristics of Dedication, Helpfulness, and
Professional Image among three groups. Post hoc
Scheffe further explored significant mean differences of
rating these characteristics between junior (Ms = 1.12;
1.40; and 1.28) and intermediate experience group (Ms =
1.46; 1.82; and 1.71). The junior ADs considered these
characteristics as more important than the intermediate
experienced ADs did. ANOVA also revealed a significant (p
< .05) mean difference on Consistency. A follow-up
Scheffe test revealed that the senior ADs (M = 1.07) rated
Consistency more essential than their intermediate
colleagues (M = 1.54).
The study not only provided quantitative support to the
initiative conceptual framework, but also explored level of
experience served as a meaningful variable to differentiate
perceptions of essential characteristics for interscholastic
ADs. Considering discrepant perceptions of ADs would
benefit the school administrators to better evaluate
program heads and select future high quality job
candidates.
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SEGMENTING SPORT VIDEO GAME
USERS By NEED GRATIFICATIONS: A
CLUSTER ANALySIS
Author:
yongjae Kim
email:
ykim@kutztown.edu
Co-authors:
Kim, Soojin
University:
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania
Faculty:
Sport Management
Abstract
Sport video games (SVG) have been one of the most
popular entertainment genres all over the world. Sport
marketers and advertising practitioners have paid attention
to the potential of the games as a marketing tool for real
life sports. Despite the growing interest in the effect of
SVG as a medium, little empirical research has been
conducted to explore gratifications sought by SVG users
and to identify subgroups of SVG users with similarities in
patterns of SVG use. The practice of identifying distinctive
subgroups of SVG users by need gratification is necessary
for sport organizations to develop appropriate marketing
strategies to best meet unfulfilled needs of sport fans.
Accordingly, the purpose of this study is two-fold: first to
segment and profile gratification sought by SVG users with
a cluster analysis; second to explore any differences
between segments in terms of sport consumptive
behaviors.
Based on theories of motivation, the Uses and
Gratifications theory (U&G) was established in an attempt
to understand what people do with the media, rather than
how the media impacts people (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch,
1974). With the emphasis on the role of audience initiative
and activity, the U&G posits that audiences play an active
role in media selection and usage to gratify their needs
and wants (Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000). In fact, such
information regarding what people do with SVG provides
valuable insight in understanding the sport fan base with
similar needs and their sport media consumption
behaviors. More recently, in an attempt to identify a set of
perceived gratifications of using SVG, Kim and Ross
(2006) developed a scale of SVG play motivations that
consists of seven primary gratifications sought by SVG
users: love of sport, entertainment, fantasy, knowledge
application, social interaction, competition, and diversion.
The study found that sport video gamers play SVG to
satisfy their needs and wants which are not fulfilled in a
real life sport context.
For the purpose of this study, SVG users were recruited by
posting a survey questionnaire on four major online game
sites. A total of 202 SVG users participated in the study.
The online survey includes three major parts: (a) SVG
motivation, (b) media consumptive behaviors, and (c)
demographics. The questions in the survey were adopted
from previous studies (Kim & Ross, 2006; Milne &
McDonald, 1999). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was
conducted using AMOS 18 to verify the appropriateness of
the measurement. To identify distinct segments using the
seven motivational dimensions, a combination of two
different clustering methods was performed: Hierarchical
and nonhierarchical methods. Finally, the ANOVA were
conducted to examine differences between clusters based
upon demographic and behavioral variables respectively.
SPSS 18.0 for Windows was utilized to perform the
aforementioned data analyses.
The findings indicate that the majority of the participants
were male (89.6%), single (70.3%), well educated (at least
66.4% had some post-secondary education), and between
18-30 years of age (74.3%). The CFA results revealed that
the seven-motivation factor model fit well with the sample
data: 2 = 514.17, df = 274, p < .001; CFI = .93; NNFI =
.91; IFI = .93; RMSEA=.07; and SRMR=.05. The result of
cluster analysis revealed the two-cluster solution as the
most appropriate number of SVG user segments. When
comparing the mean scores across seven motivational
dimensions, the most prominent motives for each segment
lead us to label the segments as Fantasy seekers and Fun
seekers respectively. Following the classification of the
participants in the study, the ANOVA results indicated that
Fantasy seekers are more likely to consume and engage
in sport via new media (e.g., Internet and SVG) than Fun
seekers. Gender was the only characteristic found to be
significantly different (2(1) = 5.73, p = .017): higher
percentage of females is found in the Fun Seeker
segment.
The current study shows gratifications sought by the
specific groups of SVG users. Fun seekers appear to be
strongly motivated by Entertainment and Diversion. This
segment prefers traditional media (e.g., Newspaper, Radio,
& TV) to consume sports. This segment seeks
psychological benefits such as fun and escaping from
routine life. On the contrary, Fantasy seekers perceives
SVG as a unique and valuable outlet for personal needs
that might not be fulfilled in a real life sporting context.
From a marketing standpoint, the cluster market
segmentation approach to need gratifications provides
valuable insight in understanding the sport fan base with
similar needs and developing effective marketing strategies
to best meet their needs.
References:
Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Uses and
Gratifications Research. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509-
523.
Kim, y., & Ross, S. D. (2006). An exploration of motives in sport
video gaming. International Journal of Sport Marketing &
Sponsorship,8(1), 34-46.
Milne, G. R., & McDonal, M.A. (1999). Sport marketing:Managing
the exchange process. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers
Int.
Papacharissi, Z., & Rubin, A. M. (2000). Predictors of Internet
usage. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44(2), 175-196.
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522
MANAGEMENT SPORT SERVICES OF
LARGE STADIUM
Author:
Elena Kuzmicheva
email:
helenk@nm.ru
Co-authors:
Krivosheev Cergei, Zolotov Mixail
University:
Russian State University of Physical Education, Sport and
Tourism
Faculty:
Department of Sport Management, Economy and Low
Abstract
Introduction
At the same time the bad providing with sports facilities
(only 22,7% from the normal social requirements), and the
non-effective use of the present sport material and
technical basis play a significant part in now low sports
activity of the population (less than 16% of the population
take sports). The transition to the market system was
accompanied with the appearance of new legal patterns of
ownership including those of sport constructions which up
to the moment has not managed to gain the enough
experience and managing skills in effective and stable
work under the conditions of the market system. In
addition, the quality of the services provided is considered
as the main fund of the success achievement, including
services directly connected with sports classes provision at
sport constructions (1, 4, 5).
The aim is the improving the effectiveness of the stadium
operation by developing the promoting and raising the
quality of the gymnastics and sports services. The tasks of
the research are: to develop and test the criteria system of
the evaluation the athletics and sports services of a sports
complex quality; to define the main means of promoting
gymnastics and sports services; to develop and show by
experiments the system of measures improving the quality
and optimizing the promoting of the gymnastics and sports
services of a sports complex.
Methods
The list of research methods included the analysis of the
corresponding literature, legal acts, organization and
pedagogical experiment and pedagogical supervision,
sociology poll (n=320), real inspection of sport complexes
(Luzniki and Olympic stadiums in Moscow), modeling
and methods of statistical theory. For the fitness services
the correlation number of members with square of sport-
halls (swimming pools) are estimated according
economical theory of mass service (2).
Results
The criteria system of sports complex services quality
evaluation is developed on the basis of the legal
documents defining the organization of gymnastics and
sports services analysis, the system consists of 10 main
criteria: productivity and useful effect of the service
rendered; manufacturability; reliability and responsiveness;
security; sanitary and hygiene conditions; comfort;
economy and etc. The analysis of the poll results where
246 participants going in for sports in tennis, swimming,
ping pong, aerobic and soccer has shown the following.
The integral coefficient of the services quality is 0.74
(belongs to the middle quality level). The experiment
involved organizational-administrative, advertising-
information and logistical support measures system
implementation. After the above mentioned means
implementation the exponent of the summary index of
services quality has increased up to 0.77, the quantity of
people going in for sports in sport sections has increased
at 26,6% and its income has increased at 60.4%, the
quality of the gymnastics and sports services has improved
also. To check up the data statistic value gathered during
two polls among going in for sports Fisher criterion was
used (3).
Conclusion
The recommended model of means of gymnastics and
sports services promotion of a large stadium is suggest.
The part of the income from the optional and
complementary services many of which do not belong to
the main stadium activity goes down during the last years
but still makes up more than 65%. On the whole the
system of monitoring and raising the rendered services
quality of a large sport complex allowed to increase the
quantity of people regularly going in for sports what in turn
has influenced the economical rates. Basing on the above
said it is considered to be advisable to recommend the
system in question for implementation at sports facilities.
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References:
lyeshin V.V., Akimov A.S., Kuzmicheva E.V. Marketing fitness
services of large Stadium / Theory and Practic of Physical Culture,
!9, 2010. P. 55-58.
Kosorukov O.A., Mishenko A.V. Investigation of operation. M.:
Ekzamen, 2003. 448p.
Popov G.I. athematics Statistic. .: Physical Cultural, 2007. 368 A.
Stepanova O.N. Marketing in Physical Culture and Sport.:
Prometei, 2003. 280 p.
Veal A.J. Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Politics, Policy and Planning.
Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing, 2010.
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524
HOW TO MANAGE ETHICS IN THE
SPORTS SECTOR: A FLEMISH STUDy
ON ETHICAL SPORT POLICy
Author:
Leen Magherman
email:
leen.magherman@ugent.be
Co-authors:
Willem Annick Lucidarme Steffie Balduck Anne-Line
University:
Ghent University
Faculty:
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences - Department of
Movement and Sport Sciences
Abstract
The sports sector becomes more and more
commercialized. We study whether this evolution
represents a threat or rather a protection for the singularity
of the sports sector and its specific values.
Empirical literature on how to protect ethical values in a
professionalized and commercialized sports sector is very
limited but the recent introduction of the concept of CSR in
sports management allows to address this question
(Babiak&Wolfe, 2009). Our research will focus on this
concept with as main research question: can CSR protect
the ethical values in a professionalized sports world? A
second important research question on which this study is
focused, is whether ethical policy represents a good
alternative to additionally promote ethics in sports where
needed? We thus want to find out whether the
professionalization of the sports sector with its ethical
principles incorporated in management models (CSR)
provides enough protection on its own to protect the
singularity of sports or whether governance policy and
measures are needed to ethically correct the
commercialized sports sector.
The empirical study that would be used for the EASM
paper is the first part of the above research and
approaches the concept of CSR in the sports sector from
policy perspective as sport is a highly institutionalised
sector, with organizations embedded in regulating and
(semi-public) bodies, such as the sport federations. We
shed light on the effectiveness of such ethics policy by
analyzing the Flemish decree of Ethical Responsible
Sporting (Vlaamse_Overheid, 2010) which forces
subsidized sports federations and their sports clubs to
autonomously develop activities around ethics in sport (a
CSR program), bringing them into practice from the
beginning of the year 2011. Following the new principles of
public governance, this is implemented as a co-
governance process (Groeneveld, 2009). The question is
now to what extent this co-governance is an effective way
to achieve more ethics in sport? Can the attention for
values in governance be externally enforced and is this
aligned with the other values of the sports organizations?
In a longitudinal research design, this study analyzes the
specific co-governance process the Flemish government
uses to implement ethics policy and its effectiveness,
measured on the sports club level. Data are collected by
means of a survey mapping the CSR activities of the clubs
(corresponding the CSR activities and criteria included in
the decree). Next to measuring the decree specific effect,
the research questionnaire is extended with a scientific
measure to gain insight in the ethical climate of the sports
clubs (the Ethical Climate Index (ECI) (Arnaud, 2010)).
A random sample (300) will be taken from the sample
frame consisting of all clubs connected to the authorized
and subsidized federations. This sample will be questioned
at two periods in time, once in April/May 2011 and once in
2013 to map the results of the ethics policy. Although no
longitudinal results will be available yet for EASM 2011, we
will already have an idea of the existing ethical activities
and be able to shed light on the extent in which ethics is
important for sports clubs in Flanders. We will also be able
to contribute to the academic discussion regarding the
existing instruments to measure the concept of ethical
work climate (EWC). For years the ECQ (Martin & Cullen,
2006) has been the dominant foundation for ethical climate
research, providing the basis for nearly 75% of all studies
of ethical climate. However, this framework has also been
the target of a number of serious critiques and a call arose
for a new theory and measurement of the construct.
Arnaud (2010) addressed this call and developed the ECI
based on the Psychological Process Model (PPM). The
first findings are promising but more research is needed to
validate and refine the ECI. We want to contribute to this
by expanding the ECI research geographically (America to
Europe) and between sectors (specific application on the
sports sector).
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References:
Arnaud, A. (2010). Conceptualizing and Measuring Ethical Work
Climate : Development and validation of the Ethical Climate Index.
Business & Society, 49(2), 345-358.
Babiak, K., & Wolfe, R (2009). Determinants of Corporate Social
Responsibility in Professional Sport: Internal and External Factors.
Martin, K. D., & Cullen, J. B. (2006). Continuities and extensions of
ethical climate theory: A meta-analytic review. [Review]. Journal of
Business Ethics, 69(2), 175-194.
Besluit van de Vlaamse Regering tot uitvaardiging van de thema's
en richtsnoeren betreffende ethisch verantwoord sporten (2010).
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526
ELECTRONIC WORD-OF-MOUTH
(EWOM) MESSAGES AND SPORTING
GOODS: INVESTIGATING THE EFFECTS
OF EWOM MESSAGES ON PURCHASE
INTENTIONS AND CREDIBILITy
Author:
Jinwook Chung
email:
jinchung@indiana.edu
Co-authors:
Lim, Choonghoon (Ph.D.) Pedersen, Paul M. (Ph.D.)
Walsh, Patrick (Ph.D.)
University:
Indiana University - Bloomington
Abstract
Introduction
With the development of Internet technology, the popularity
of e-commerce is growing and it is important for marketers
to understand the consumption behavior of online
shoppers. For example, online customers often search for
product information before making purchase decisions,
and use other customers reviews as primary sources that
influence their buying decision. Arndt (1967) noted that
Word-of-Mouth was one of the most effective marketing
sources for consumers. With the introduction and growth of
internet, Electronic Word-of-Mouth (eWOM) communication
has become one of the most important and powerful
marketing sources (Bickart & Schindler, 2001). It is
recognized that eWOM is an effective and economical
marketing source in which consumers can gather product
information from a large community (Dellarocas, 2003).
Literature Review
Park et al. (2007) examined the effects of both the quality
and the quantity of eWOM messages. According to these
scholars, customers purchase intentions increase when
they are exposed to high quality messages which include
information that is specific, objective, and logical. However,
when they are exposed to the low quality messages which
include information that is vague, subjective, and
emotional, purchase intentions decrease. In addition,
customers purchase intentions increase when they are
exposed to more messages. Meanwhile, Dellarocas (2003)
suggested that information posted by the consumer was
more credible and trustworthy than information given by
the marketer (e.g., seller, advertiser).
Aim of Abstract/Paper
While there have been efforts to pinpoint the role of eWOM
message factors on consumers purchase intentions, little is
known as to what impact the combination of the quality of
eWOM messages and the provider of eWOM messages
has on purchase intention and credibility. In addition,
among the consumer factors, consumer expertise with the
type of sport product being considered for purchase should
be vital to evaluating messages as researchers (e.g., Petty
et al., 2009) have argued that the level of expertise is
determined by the level of knowledge which leads to the
different message interpretation skills. Due to this reason,
the effects from the eWOM message will not directly
influence the individual interpretation but may be mediated
by different expertise levels. The purpose of the present
study is to add to the body of literature in sport marketing
and management by examining how the combination of
the quality of eWOM messages and the provider of eWOM
messages affects both purchase intention and credibility
depending on the expertise level of consumer.
Methodology
The current study utilized repeated measures of ANOVA,
with tripartite groups of expertise (i.e., high, medium, vs.
low) and experimental eWOM conditions (i.e., quality of
message and source of message) as independent
variables, with credibility and purchase intention as the
dependent variables. Experiment 1 was examined by
showing the first sample (n=34) the first set of eWOM
messages (high quality/marketer generated and low
quality/marketer generated) while showing the second
sample (n=35) the second set of eWOM messages (high
quality/consumer generated and low quality/consumer
generated). Similar to the first experiment, Experiment 2
was examined with the third sample (n=33) by showing the
third set of eWOM messages (high quality/marketer
generated and high quality/consumer generated) while the
last set of eWOM messages (low quality/marketer
generated and low quality/marketer generated) was shown
to the last sample (n=32).
Results
The current study collected a sample (n=134) of students
enrolled in undergraduate courses at a large Midwestern
university in the United States. The sample consisted of
67.9% males and 32.1% females. Data analyses revealed
that all the measured scales reached satisfactory reliability
levels with Cronbach alpha ranging from .74 (credibility) to
.96 (expertise). There was a significant finding indicating
that the provider of the message moderates the effect of
message quality on purchase intention (F(1,63) = 4.27, p <
.05, ^2 = .06). In addition, it was found that the provider
of the message and expertise moderates the effect of
message quality on purchase intention (F(2,63) = 4.30, p <
.05, ^2 = 0.12). However, the current study did not find
any significance between credibility and the types of the
eWOM message. The findings indicate that the provider of
the message and the expertise of customers are important
factors influencing purchase intentions for customers using
eWOM messages.
Discussion
This study is the first known attempt to investigate the role
of eWOM on decision making regarding a sport product.
The significant interaction effect between message quality
and message source suggests that sport marketers should
play an important role in managing the eWOM messages.
Further, the significant influence of consumers expertise
suggests that marketing efforts should be based on
consumers knowledge levels concerning the sport product.
19
th
References:
Arndt, J. (1967). Role of product-related conversations in the
diffusion of a new product. Journal of Marketing Research, 4, 291-
295.
Bickart, B., & Schindler, R. M. (2001). Internet forums as influential
sources of consumer information. Journal of Interactive Marketing,
15(3), 31-40.
Dellarocas, C. (2003). The digitization of word of mouth: Promise
and challenges of online feedback mechanisms. Management
Science, 49, 1407-1424.
Park, D. H., Lee, J., & Han, I. (2007). The effect of on-line
consumer reviews on consumer purchasing intention: The
moderating role of involvement. International Journal of Electronic
Commerce, 11(4), 125-148.
Petty, R. E., Brinol, P., & Priester, J. R. (2009). Mass media attitude
change: Implications of the elaboration likelihood model of
persuasion. In J. Bryant & M.B. Oliver (Eds.) Media effects:
Advances in theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 125-164). New york:
Routledge.
19
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528
TESTING THE INVOLVEMENT
CONSTRUCT IN OUTDOOR
RECREATION ACTIVITIES IN A GREEK
SAMPLE
Author:
Efi Tsitskari
email:
etsitska@phyed.duth.gr
Co-authors:
Dalakis Antonis Costa George Alexandris Kostas Tzetzis
George
University:
Faculty:
Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences
Abstract
Literature review
The involvement construct has received a thorough
theoretical and empirical attention over the past 30 years
in the fields of leisure and recreation sport in an effort to
understand the decision-making process for leisure activity
(Kyle, Graefe, Manning & Bacon, 2004; Alexandris,
Kouthouris, Funk & Chatzigianni, 2008). Activity
involvement has been defined as an internal state of
motivation arousal or interest towards this activity or an
associated product. It is evoked by a particular stimuli or
situation that mediates consumer behavior (Havitz &
Dimanche, 1997) and positively contributes to the
likelihood that the users will continue their consumption in
the future (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Iwasaki & Havitz,
2004). Involvement is argued to be a multidimensional
construct and as such is also treated in this research.
There has been a disagreement among researchers on the
nature and number of facets measuring involvement. A
thorough literature review lead to the Kyle et al.s (2004)
involvement scale which has been successfully tested in a
variety of leisure contexts for its effectiveness but also for
its validity and reliability. In Greece, the scale has been
mostly used in order to examine the relationship between
the recreational skiers involvement with other important
marketing psychological and behavioral constructs.
Aim
The aim of this research was to study the stability of the
factor structure of the Kyle et al.s (2004) involvement
scale among participants of outdoor recreation activities,
occurring in Eastern Macedonia and Thrace in Greece.
Methodology
1205 questionnaires were handed out during outdoor
recreation activities conducted in the above mentioned
areas during the months of July till September of 2010.
732 were returned completed and 637 of them were
considered to be suitable for use in the survey (52.9%
response rate). Prior to the data collection both permission
and the activities program by the managements of the
Outdoor Recreation providers was granted. The majority of
the sample was men (53.2%), educated (62.5%), aged
from 20-49 years old (71%) and married (48.4%).
Involvement was measured by Kyle et al.s (2004) tri-
dimensional scale, including: a) attraction, measured with
five items, b) centrality, measured with three items and,
c) self-expression, measured with three items.
Responses were measured using a seven-point Likert-type
scale.
Results
Confirmatory Factor analysis was performed to examine
the factor structure and discriminant validity of the
translated Kyle et al.s (2004) scale. The factor variances
were fixed to unity, the factor covariances were free to be
estimated, and item error covariances were fixed to zero.
The goodness-of-fit indices revealed a poor fit of the model
to the data (x2=1133.985, df=.52, NNFI=.823, CFI=.860,
SRMR=.112, RMSEA=.183, 90% CI=.174 - .192) revealing
that the scale, in its current configuration, was potentially
an inadequate measure of involvement among this sample
of recreationists. Exploratory factor analysis was then
utilized in order to examine the underlying dimensions.
Varimax rotation was used which concluded to a two-factor
solution that accounted for 63.7% of the total variance. The
attraction items and one centrality item defined Factor 1
which was labeled Attraction. The self-expression items
along with the two centrality items formed Factor 2 which
was labeled Self-expression. Cronbachs alpha
coefficients for the above factors were 0.88 for the first,
0.82 for the second and 0.90 for the whole scale.
Conclusions
Conclusively, the responses from the translated scale did
not really support the dimensionality of the original scale of
Kyle et al. (2004) but resulted in two factors that actually
reproduced the ones characterizing the initial scale. This
conclusion is not uncommon in involvement scales.
Involvement studies (Dimanche et al., 1991; Havitz et al.,
1993, and more) conducted in other physical activity
contexts also resulted in that the emergent factors are
often comprised of items from one or two a priori
hypothesized factors. The results of this research do not
really explain the reasons of the factors variation, i.e.
whether it is attributed to the respondents characteristics,
the translation or the item construction. The failure of
Centrality to appear as a distinct factor may be the result
of the items inappropriateness to explain the Greek
participants characteristics. Not unlikely, further refinement
of the items or better translation would give other results.
Surely, more testing of the scale both in the same and in
other cultural and activity contexts is needed.
19
th
References:
Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., Funk, D. & Chatzigianni, E. (2008).
Examining the Relationships Between Leisure Constraints,
Involvement and Attitudinal Loyalty among Greek Recreational
Skiers. European Sport Management Quarteerly, 8(3), 247-264.
Dimanche, F., Havitz, M.E, & Howard, D.R. (1991). Testing the
involvement profile (IP) scale in the context of selected recreational
and touristic activities. Journal of Leisure Research, 23, 51_66.
Havitz, M.E., Dimanche, F., & Howard, D.R. (1993). A two-sample
comparison of the personal involvement inventory (PII) and
involvement profile (IP) scales using selected recreation activities.
Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 17(4), 331-364.
Havitz, M. & Dimanche, F. (1997). Leisure involvement revisited:
Conceptual conundrums and measurement advances. Journal of
Leisure Research, 29, 245-278.
Iwasaki y. & Havitz, M. E., (2004). Examining relationships between
leisure involvement, psychological commitment and loyalty to a
recreation agency. Journal of LeisureResearch, 36, 45-72.
Kyle, G., Graefe, A., Manning, R. & Bacon, J. (2004). Predictors of
behavioural loyalty among hikers along the Appalachian Trail.
Leisure Sciences, 26, 99-118.
19
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530
INDIVIDUAL AND INFRASTRUCTURAL
DETERMINANTS OF PARTICIPATION IN
DIFFERENT SPORTS
Author:
Kirstin Hallmann
email:
k.hallmann@dshs-koeln.de
Co-authors:
Wicker, Pamela Breuer, Christoph
University:
Faculty:
Insitute of Sport Economics and Sport Management
Abstract
Aim of paper
Sport participation does not only contribute to satisfying
individual needs such as individual fitness, fun, and well-
being. It has also external effects like societal integration,
socialization, democracy, and public health (Heinemann,
2005). For this reason, it is the interest of municipalities to
foster sport participation which is determined by individual
factors as well as the supply of sport infrastructure (Wicker,
Breuer, & Pawlowski, 2009). Individual factors are
important; however, they cannot be changed by the
municipality. In fact, the municipality can increase the
attractiveness of sport participation by providing adequate
sport infrastructure. However, the required sport
infrastructure differs among sports as for example a pool or
lake is needed to go swimming. Moreover, the existence of
sport-specific infrastructure is likely to prevent people from
participation in other sports. Therefore, the aim of this
paper is to analyse the influence of individual and
infrastructural determinants on participation in different
sports. The four sports under investigation are swimming,
running, soccer, and tennis.
Literature review
Previous research has focused on analysing the influence
of individual factors such as income, education, age, and
gender on sport participation in general (for an overview
see Downward, Dawson & Dejonghe, 2009). Only a few
studies provided evidence on the determinants of
participation in different sports (e.g., Humphreys &
Ruseski, 2007). In these studies, gender and age were
found to be the main drivers of participation in individual
sports such as running or team sports. Moreover, the
supply of sport infrastructure had a significant influence on
sport participation in general (e.g., Wicker et al., 2009).
However, there is a lack of research regarding the
importance of sport infrastructure to participation in
different sports.
This study is based on a Becker model which has already
been applied in previous research on sport participation in
general (for an overview see Downward et al., 2009). In
this model it is assumed that participation in different
sports is subject to individual and infrastructural
restrictions. Individual restrictions are income, time
(working time and time for children/relatives), and
education as well as age, gender, and foreign nationality.
Restrictions on the infrastructure level relate to the supply
of sport-specific facilities such as sport halls, sport fields,
pools, tennis courts, and park area.
Methodology
For this purpose quantitative data from sport participation
surveys in Germany is used. In 2008 and 2009, telephone
interviews (n=7,043) in German cities have been
conducted to get information about individual sport
participation in different sports and further socio-economic
characteristics (micro-level data). In addition, secondary
data on the supply of sport infrastructure in n=53 urban
districts was made available by the municipalities (macro-
level data). As multi-level analyses are the appropriate
method for analysing multi-level data (Osborne, 2000), four
multi-level models (Raudenbush et al., 2004) were run with
participation in running, swimming, soccer, and tennis as
dependent variables and the factors of the theoretical
model as independent variables.
Results
The results show that a high educational level has a
positive influence on running and tennis participation.
People with a high weekly workload who spend lots of time
for children/relatives are more likely to participate in
running. The gender effects show that women are more
likely to participate in swimming and running, whereas men
prefer tennis and soccer. Income and a foreign nationality
have no influence on the four sports under investigation.
With regard to the effects of sport infrastructure, the
presence of park area and the lack of pools have an
influence on running participation. Moreover, the
participation in soccer is significantly determined by the
availability of sport fields and tennis courts as well as by a
lack of sport halls. A lack of park area has a significant
impact on tennis participation, combined with the presence
of sport fields.
Discussion, implications, and conclusion
With regard to the individual factors, the models indicate
that income and foreign nationality are no drivers for
participation in running, swimming, soccer, and tennis.
These factors are only important to the decision whether
an individual takes part in sport in general. In fact, there
are other drivers such as sport infrastructure for the
decision which sport to participate in. The negative effects
of infrastructural variables also provide evidence of
possible substitution effects, for example a high supply of
pools negatively influences running participation. The
results imply that municipalities can increase sport
participation by providing adequate sport infrastructure.
However, municipalities should not only provide enough
sport facilities. In fact, policy makers must decide which
sports they want to support.
19
th
References:
Downward, P., Dawson, A., & Dejonghe, T. (2009). Sport
Economics. Theory, Evidence and Policy. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Heinemann, K. (2005). Sport and the welfare state in Europe.
European Journal of Sport Science, 5(4), 181-188.
Humphreys, B. R., & Ruseski, J. E. (2007). Participation in Physical
Activity and Government Spending on Parks and Recreation.
Contemporary Economic Policy, 25(4), 538-552.
Osborne, J. W. (2000). Advantages of hierarchical linear modeling.
Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(1), Retrieved
August 25, 2010 from
http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=2017&n=2011
Wicker, P., Breuer, C., & Pawlowski, T. (2009). Promoting Sport for
All to Age-specific Target Groups: the Impact of Sport Infrastructure.
19
th
532
MANAGING POTENTIAL NEGATIVE
EFFECTS FROM SPORT
CONSUMPTION: A CROSS-CULTURAL
ExAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF NON-
VIOLENT MEDIATED SPORTS ON
yOUTH AGGRESSION REDUCTION
Author:
Sang Keon yoo
email:
sangkeon@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Lim, Choonghoon Pedersen, Paul M. Kang, Joon-Ho
University:
Indiana University
Faculty:
Kinesiology
Abstract
Background
In an effort to maximize product consumption, some
industries (e.g., pharmaceutical) devote significant
economic investments to studying and minimizing any
negative effects of their products. However, while other
industries see the value of such investments, in the sport
industry little is known about the potential negative effects
of mediated sporting events. In this respect, it is important
for sport managers to have a better understanding of any
negative effects related to their content. Moreover, sports
companies often use violence as a promotional tool and
thus sport media violence may raise controversial
questions. There is a body of literature that has examined
the contributing effects of media violence on aggression
(e.g., Anderson et al., 2003). Thus, it is imperative to
extend such research into the sport industry and in
particular investigate the relationship between viewing
sport media violence and youth aggression. Further, given
the easy access to sport media violence through new
media platforms, it is vital to examine the factors that may
minimize the negative effects from the consumption of
sport media violence. In addition, considering the extensive
and global accessibility of Internet, a cross-cultural study is
of value as cultural factors may be able to moderate the
potential negative influences.
Objectives
Based on the findings of previous studies and the literature
in sport marketing and mass communication, the main
purpose of this study was to examine the role of non-
violent mediated sports on aggression reduction. In
particular, this study is rooted in excitation transfer theory
which originally proposed by Zillmann (1971 explains
the intensified emotional responses from viewing media
violence affect the following experiences. The secondary
purpose of the study was to examine if there are cultural
differences between Korean youth and American youth
who view violent and non-violent sport media content.
Methods
The current study employed a repeated experimental
design where subjects were exposed to both
violent/violent/violent sport media stimulation and
violent/non-violent/violent sport media stimulation. The
data came from a total 100 subjects and all subjects were
recruited in the U.S. and Korea between the ages of 8 and
17. The experiment consisted of two stages: A survey
containing scaled measures taken from the personality
traits (e.g., trait aggressiveness) and an experiment
composed of exposures to violent and non-violent sport
media content and aggression level tests. Video clips were
composed of mixed martial arts (MMA) matches and ice
hockey fights for the violent sport media content, while
figure skating footage was used for the non-violent sport
media content. Aggression levels were tested with the
Web-based aggression measurement program (WAMP).
The subjects levels of aggression were tested after their
exposure to each treatment.
Results
The findings of this study revealed that there is a
significant difference regarding the effects of non-violent
sport media content on aggression reduction between
youth from Korea and youth from the United States (F (1,
65) = 8.1, p< .05, ^2 =. 110). The mean of aggression
level of Korean participants significantly decreased after
viewing non-violent sport media content, while U.S.
participants showed not significant changes. In addition,
trait aggression levels had a significant influence on the
subjects from the United States as they showed an
inherent relationship with personal traits, while the findings
revealed that Korean participants did not have such a
significant relationship (r =.52, p< .01).
Conclusions
In the sport industry, violent sport media content has often
been used to promote sporting events and athletic contests
(Lim et al., 2009). This has only increased in the past few
years with the increase (and diversity) of new media
platforms and more accessible sport media content.
Consequently, concerns have risen and assumptions have
been made regarding the relationship between consuming
sport media violence and subsequently participating in
aggressive or violent behavior. Therefore, this study
investigated the effect of non-violent sport media content
on youth aggression levels and if there are cultural
differences in the consumption of sport media content. The
data analyses revealed that aggression levels can be
reduced by viewing non-violent sport media content. Also,
there are cultural differences in the aggression levels
associated with personal traits for youth from different
countries.
19
th
References:
Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, R. L.,
Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., Malamuch, N. M., & Wartella, E. (2003).
The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in
the Public Interest, 4(3), 81-110.
Lim, C., Suh, y, Kang, J. & Pedersen, P. M. (2009). Social
responsibility and sport management practices: Examining the
impact of viewing televised sporting events of a violent nature. A
paper presented at European Association for Sport Management,
Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Zillmann, D. (1971). Excitation transfer in communication-mediated
aggressive behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7,
419-434.
19
th
534
INVESTIGATION OF THE PROFILE,
NEEDS, MOTIVES AND BEHAVIOR OF
SPORT TOURISTS THAT PARTICIPATED
AT THE 3RD INTERNATIONAL
MARATHON IN LIMASSOL
Author:
Eleni Tymviou
email:
etymviou@phyed.duth.gr
Co-authors:
yfantidou Georgia Costa George
University:
Faculty:
Physical Education and Sport Science
Abstract
The geographic position of Cyprus, with its high
temperatures and extensive coastlines, contributes to the
growth of sporting activities, which facilitate to the
development of sport tourism in the country. In general,
tourism is an important source of income, and enterprises
follow several strategies for the development of this
particular sector (Cyprus Tourism Organization, 2004). The
predominantly long term good weather conditions in
Cyprus compel the responsible agencies to develop sport
tourism as a good source of income. This is evident from
the fact that the British Olympic Commission chose Cyprus
for the preparation of its athletes for the Athens Olympic
Games (Kartakoullis and Karlis, 2002).
Cohen (1972), describes four categories of Tourists
Typology: (a) the individual mass, (b) the organized mass,
(c) the drifter, (d) the explorer. (Cohen,1972).Later Gibson
and yiannakis (2002) expanded these categories and
resulted in 15 tourists roles: 1) Sun Lover, 2) Action
Seeker, 3) Anthropologist 4) Archaeologist, 5) Organized
Mass Tourist, 6) Thrill Seeker, 7) Explorer, 8) Jetsetter, 9)
Seeker, 10) Independent Mass Tourist I &II, 11) High Class
Tourist, 12) Drifter, 13) Escapist I & II 14) Active Sport
Tourist 15) Educational Tourist (Gibson, yiannakis,2002).
Also Maslow (1970) analyzed the major human needs and
concluded in five categories. (a) Need for self esteem and
recognition from others (b) Physiological Needs (c) Need
for love (Social need) (d) Need for self- fulfillment, self-
motivation and self-development (e) Security needs
(Maslow,1970).
The aim of this study was to investigate the profile of Sport
Tourists that participated at the 3rd international Marathon
that took place in Limassol in 2010, as well as their
motives, needs and their behavior. It is assumed that the
responders of the survey traveled to Cyprus with the main
purpose to participate in the marathon. There were 530
participants in the marathon and the survey sample
consisted of 106 responses, who were all experienced
marathoners. It is not known if the responders visited
Cyprus before or participated previously in the same
marathon. For the completion of the study, the equivalent
questionnaire by Gibson and yiannakis (2002) was used,
which has been proven to be valid and reliable according
to the literature. The questionnaire was in English and was
translated in Greek by yfantidou, Costa and Michalopoulou
(2007). It consisted of 11 demographic questions, 26
questions on sports activities, 34 questions concerning
activities responders liked to participate in during their
holidays, and 21 questions concerning their basic human
needs. A 5 tiered Likert scale was implimented.
Descriptive statistics, frequency analysis and reliability
tests were used for the analysis of the results, which
showed a high percentage or reliability in the needs of the
tourists (a = 0.922) as well as their behavior / motives.
(a=0.852).
The descriptive statistics showed that the greatest
percentage of the tourists were men (69.9%), graduates of
higher institutions, (35.9%), with full time employment
(89.2%). Their age was between 17-39 years, with an
annual income between 20.000 - 60.000. Their country
of origin was primarily England and Greece. After the
completion of the frequency analysis it was discovered
that: a) sports tourists often relax and sunbathe, b) mingle
with the locals to try the food and to familiarize themselves
with the language and c) remain physically active and
practice their favorite sports (marathon running and hiking).
Their more important needs were their need for health and
wellness, their need to feel good about themselves, as well
as their need for love and affection.
19
th
References:
Cohen E. (1972). Towards a Sociology of International Tourism.
Social Research, 39: 164182.
Gibson H. and yiannakis A. (2002). Tourist roles: needs and the
lifecourse. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2): 358-383
Kartakoullis, N. and Karlis, G. (2002). Developing Cyprus as a sport
tourism destination: the results of a SWOT analysis. Journal of
Sport & Tourism, 7(4): 3-17.
Maslow A. H. (1970) MoTivation and Personality, p.p.15- 31 Third
Edition.
yfantidou, G., Costa, G. and Michalopoulos M. (2008). Tourists
roles, gender and age in Greece: a study of tourists in Greece.
International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation & Tourist, 1:
15-31 Cyprus Tourism Organisation (2010) www.visitcyprus.com
19
th
536
MARKETING STUDy OF DEMAND FOR
SPORTS SERVICES By ELDER PEOPLE
Author:
Jos Antonio Santacruz Lozano
email:
jose.santacruz@uah.es
Co-authors:
Jimnez-Beatty, Jos Emilio Martnez, Jess Espada,
Mara Martn, Mara
University:
Universidad de Alcal, Universidad Politcnica
Faculty:
Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Psicologa y
Educacin Fsica
Abstract
The aim of this study is to carry out a marketing research
about the main characteristics of sports services desirables
by elder sedentary people who are interested in
incorporating physical activities into their lifestyles.
Demographic studies emphasise the high increase of older
adults in the European countries. It has also been
considered this segment of the population as a source of
opportunities for the leisure market (Sniadek, 2006).
Different studies have highlighted the importance of
knowing what older adults expect from the physical
activities programmes. However, research about marketing
studies regarding physical activities and services for older
adults is still limited. Among these studies it is possible to
find the ones carried out in the Municipality of Madrid as
well as in Guadalajara Province (Spain) by Jimnez-Beatty
(2002), and Jimnez-Beatty, Martnez del Castillo,
Graupera (2006). Due to the differences obtained in the
results of both studies it was suggested to carry out a
study of older adults in the whole country.
The present study has used a quantitive methology. A
cross-sectional study was carried out during 2006 by
means of face-to-face interviews to a random sample of
119 sedentary people over 65 years old, living in Spain and
who were interested in participating in any physical activity.
The participants completed a brief questionnaire which
included questions about age, gender and variables about
sports services (p.e. Jimnez-Beatty et al., 2006).
Contingency tables related to the goals of the study were
obtained with the analysis of the data.
The results obtained from the study showed the physical
activities preferred by this segment of the population.
Firstly, half of the people would prefer indoors physical
activities such as taichi, yoga, dancing, etc. Secondly, one
in three persons would practice aquatic activities. Thirdly,
one in ten would practice other sports (p.e. the use of
racket). Finally, 6.7% would practice outdoor physical
activities such as cycling, petanque, bowling, etc. The
distributions and the preferences of the activities obtained
are, in general, the same as the one obtained in the
studies carried out in Madrid and Guadalajara (Jimnez-
Beatty, 2002; Jimnez-Beatty et al., 2006). Regarding how
many times a week they would practice physical activities,
it was found a high interest in a regular practice, as 84% of
the people would exercise two or more hours per week.
Similar results were found in the studies of Madrid and
Guadalajara. As for when they would prefer to practice any
physical activity, half of the older adults in Guadalajara
would prefer to exercise in the mornings and half in the
afternoons while in Madrid it was found a clear preference
for practicing in the mornings. The study that covers the
territory of Spain showed a slight preference for practicing
in the mornings, but there is also a high percentage of
people who would like to exercise in the afternoons. These
different results could be due to the differences showed in
each geographic market or social changes that have been
occurred during the time when the studies were being
carried out in Madrid (2002), in Guadalajara (2005) and at
the present in Spain (2006). Considering the way in which
the physical activities could be organized, the majority of
the people would prefer a particular entity to be in charge
of the organization. At least 60% would choose any kind of
sport entity, particularly the ones in which the Town Hall
would be involved, followed by associations, private
businesses and in the last position old peoples homes.
Only 17% would organize their own activities with
themselves or with family and friends. These results are
very similar to those obtained in Madrid, in Guadalajara up
to 30% of the people would prefer to organize their own
activities.
Further research is necessary in order to know more about
geographic markets especially in reference to cultural as
well as economical differences in other European countries
and have a broader knowledge to design appropriate
programmes for older adults.
19
th
References:
Jimenez-Beatty, J.E. (2002). Study of demand for sports facilities
by elder people. Doctoral thesis: Universidad de Leon (Spain).
Jimenez-Beatty, J.E., Martinez del Castillo, J. y Graupera, J.L.
(2006).Public administration in Guadalajara Province and the
integration of elder people into the society through the programme
of physical activities of social services. Alcal de Henares:
Universidad de Alcal-Ibercaja.
Zniadek, J. (2006). Age of seniors: a challenge for tourism and
leisure industry. Studies in Physical Culture & Tourism, 13, 103-
105.
young, D.y., King, A. y Oka, R. (1995). Determinants of exercise
level in the sedentary versus underactive older adult: implications
for physical activity program development. Journal of Aging and
Physical Activity, 3, 4-25.
19
th
538
THE NARRATIVES OF THE FINNISH
SPORT MANAGERS: HOW TO DEVELOP
SPORT MANAGEMENT IN FINLAND?
Author:
Nina Laakso
email:
nina.laakso@likes.fi
University:
University of Jyvskyl/LIKES - research center
Faculty:
Economics
Abstract
Aim of the abstract
The aim of the present study is to examine through their
narratives how Finnish sport managers experience being a
sport manager: What are their conceptions of being a sport
manager in the context of Finnish sport? What kind of
contents and meanings do sport managers give to Finnish
sport management? This poster focuses on only one part
of the study: How should Finnish sport management be
developed according to Finnish sport managers?
This research will give new insight into the developmental
needs in sport management. The study will provide new
information to strategic decision-making, give answers to
the equality questions and strengthen knowledge
management in Finnish sport management. Through the
sport managers narratives we also have an opportunity to
tap into tacit knowledge.
This study will open a new perspective into the field of
Finnish sport management both thematically and
methodologically. In all, Finnish sport management has
been studied very little: In the 1960s and 70s Heinil (e.g.
1977, 1982) studied some aspects, for instance womens
role, in Finnish sport management. Later on, Koski and
Heikkala (1998, 1999) studied decision-making in Finnish
sports. Aalto-Nevalainen has focused on womens role in
Finnish sport management (Aalto 2003; Aalto-Nevalainen
2009). None of these studies have used narratives in their
methodology. Internationally, although narrative studies are
quite widespread in psychology and business
management, for instance, there are only a few narrative
studies concerning sport management (Edwards, Skinner
& Gilbert 2004; Rinehart 2005).
In the narrative analysis, the analysis is based on the
interpretation of the story and telling (Czarniawska 1998;
Reissman 2001). The narrative is the central means by
which people endow their lives with meaning across time:
the narrative story is bound on time - it has the beginning,
middle and end. This method examines how lives are lived
into existence and it provides models for practitioners and
scholars of sport management to both experience and
discover, model and use.
This study is based on the analysis of narratives
(Polkinghorne 1995; Czarniawska 1998), i.e. on the
analysis of the narrative story as a whole and its contents,
themes and storyline (holistic content) (Lieblich, Rivka &
Tamar 1998).
Methodology
The study includes the narrative interviews of 15 Finnish
sport managers (11 male and 4 female) from the top of the
Finnish sport management. Interviewees represent three
different organisational levels: the governmental/public,
private and the third sector (i.e. voluntary work). They are
operational and governmental managers. The interviews
were held in the spring and summer of 2010.
The interviews were first recorded and then transcribed
(over 450 pages of text). Data will be read very thoroughly
to categorise, thematise and classify the data. Further
analysis will be done by using the core sentence method.
In addition, there will a network analysis, described as a
sociogram.
Results
According to the interviewed sport managers, the actual
management and leadership skills of the Finnish sport
managers are not very high. Many of them are unskilled as
managers, rather amateur than professional managers.
Several of them had previously been professional athletes,
but without any background in professional management.
Furthermore, many chairpersons of the board, who work
on a voluntary, unpaid basis, may have had their own,
personal interests when running for the position.
It seems that sport management does not attract the best
possible professional managers. Perhaps this is because
sport does not seem to be very highly appreciated at the
moment. Old political structures, traditions and
connotations may also still burden the field. In addition,
Finnish sport seems to live in a secluded world of its own.
Also, sport management is neither recognized nor
considered as a field of its own in Finland.
Discussion
Finnish elite sport is undergoing a major change. The field
of sport management is a particularly challenging
environment for a manager because of its special nature
which differs from other fields of management quite
significantly.
On the basis of the narratives, the manager must have
good management skills to be a successful sport manager.
However, that alone is not enough. One has to understand
and internalize the substance, i.e. the field of Finnish
sports and athletics and its meanings, principles and
implications. Social skills and skills of modern
management are also important: one has to have both the
ability and the willingness to listen to ones environment.
Sport management should thus be more versatile,
horizontal and far-sighted. Further research and discussion
about the state and development of Finnish sport
management is vital in this period of transition.
19
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References:
Aalto, P. 2003. Naiset liikuntajohtajina. Teoksessa Anna-Maija
Lms (toim.) Nkaloja naisjohtajuuteen.
Jyvskyln yliopisto. Taloustieteiden tiedekunta. Julkaisuja N:o
137/2003, 151-178.
Aalto-Nevalainen, P. 2009. Liikuntajohtajien uramenestys muutakin
kuin mitaleja ja mainetta. Liikunnan ja urheilun maailma 1/2009.
Czarniawska, B. 1998. A Narrative Approach to Orcanization
Studies. Qualitative Research Methods. Series 43. London. Sage.
Edwards, A., Skinner, J. & Gilbert, K. 2004. Sport Management:
varying Directions Towards The narrative. Kinesiology 36 (2004)
2:220-232.
Heinil, K. 1977. (toim.) Nainen suomalaisessa urheilukulttuurissa.
Jyvskyln yliopisto.Liikuntasuunnittelunlaitoksen tutkimuksia 15.
Heinil, K. 1982. The totalization process in international sport.
Sportwissenschaft, 3, 235-245
Koski, P. & Heikkala, J. 1998. Suomalaisten urheiluorganisaatioiden
muutos. Jyvskyln yliopisto. Liikunnan sosiaalitieteiden laitoksen
tutkimuksia 63/1998.
Koski, P. & Heikkala, J. 1999. Reaching Out for New Frontiers. The
Finnish Physical Culture in Transition in the 1990s. University of
Jyvskyl: Department of Sosial Sciences of Sport.
Lieblich, A., Rivka, T-M. & Tamar, Z. 1998. Narrative research:
Reading, analysis and interpretation. Applied Social Research
Methods 47. London: Sage.
Polkinghorne, D. E. 1995. Narrative configuration in qualitative
analysis. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 8
(1), 5-23.
Riessman, C. K. 2001. Analysis of Personal Narratives. In
handbook of Interviewing (JF Gubrium & JA Holstein, eds.)
Newbury Park.
Rinehart, R. E. 2005. Experiencing Sport Management: The Use
of Personal Narrative in Sport Management Studies. Journal of
Sport Management, 2005, 19, 497-522. Human Kinetics.
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540
19
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THE LEADER PERCEPTIONS ABOUT
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HIS
ORGANIZATION: A CASE STUDy WITH
THE PORTUGUESE FEDERATION OF
CANOEING
Author:
Daiane Freitas
email:
daianedefreitas@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Carvalho, Maria Jos
Araujo, Carla Rocha
Fonseca, Antnio Manuel
University:
University of Porto
Faculty:
CIFI2D, Faculty of Sport
Abstract
The organizational effectiveness is a topic that has
deserved attention for many years in the field of
organizational behavior. However, consulting the related
literature its possible to see there are different models
explaining the effectiveness, resulting in a lack of
consensus regarding the concept and criteria to evaluate
it. That can be a dilemma if we consider the main problem
of organizational effectiveness is the selection criteria used
by the investigators which often are too narrow or too
broadly defined, or do not relate to organizational
effectiveness, as alerts Cameron (1986).
One appealing model proposed in the specialized literature
by Quinn & Rohrbaugh (1983) is the Competing Values
Approach (CVA), which admits that the criteria for
assessing organizational effectiveness depend on who
evaluates it and the interests it represents for the
evaluator, i.e, the effectiveness of an organization is
directly related to the various preferences of its key
constituents. Furthermore, the authors of this approach
interpret the results and their spatial configuration obtained
from the overlap of two dimensions, structure and focus of
the organization, such as allowing evidence of the
existence of four alternative models, namely, the Human
Relations Model, Open System Model, Rational Goal
Model and the Internal Process Model (Quinn &
Rohrbaugh, 1983). Thus, organizational effectiveness is
obtained when it satisfies the respective values of each
model by the main constituents.
The sports sector has also incorporated the organizational
effectiveness as one of its concerns of analysis and
evaluation with regard to the multiple organizations that
integrate it, but at this moment theres not enough
available information, reason why its important to carry
more research in this domain.
Therefore, this case study aimed to understand how the
President of the Portuguese Federation of Canoeing (PFC)
configure the effectiveness of his organization and to
identify the factors he privileged when evaluating it, based
in the previously referred CVA. A semi-structured interview
with the President and a documental analysis of the 2010
plan of activities of the PFC were used as tools for data
collection. The semi-structured interview was developed
from a review of the literature currently available in this
area, especially with regard to the conceptual framework
adopted, and according to the study objectives. The
interview was scheduled as availability of the interviewee
and performed in his office. The procedures of the
interview was done in three phases. In the first phase we
referred to the interviewee the study objectives, and the
little research done on the determinants of organizational
effectiveness under sports organizations. In the second
phase, there was a collection of personal data about the
interviewee. It was also requested permission to record the
interview and to use the information in this work. Finally,
there followed the interview guide pre-established. Further,
all the collected data was content analyzed by a panel of
experts and organized according the structure of selected
conceptual model.
The data analysis showed that achievement goals of the
PFC acknowledge the importance of winning medals, but
goes beyond that also emphasizing to provide itself with a
reliable activity plan fitting the needs of the sport, having
the best and most competent set of human resources to
work, having the appropriate infrastructures and promoting
international events and getting considerable financial
support from public and private. These results are
consistent with studies conducted in other sports
organizations of different countries like Canada, United
States, Greece, Italy and Spain (Madella, Bayle, & Tome,
2005; Morrow & Chelladurai, 1992; Papadimitriou & Taylor,
2000).
About the most important factors to assess the
effectiveness of PFC, it was found that the president
perception embrace the four quadrants covered in the
spatial model of Quinn and Rohrbaugh with less emphasis
on the Internal Process Model (means: Information
management and ends: Stability). However, it also was
possible to see that his evaluation of PFC effectiveness
favoritism factors that appear in the quadrants
corresponding to the Open System Model (means:
Flexibility and ends: Resource Acquisition) and the
Rational Goal Model (means: Planning and ends:
Productivity).
References:
Cameron, K. S. (1986). Effectiveness as Paradox: Consensus and
Conflict in Conceptions or Organizational Effectiveness.
Management Science, 32(5), 539-553.
Madella, A., Bayle, E., & Tome, J. (2005). The organisational
performance of national swimming federations in Mediterranean
countries: A comparative approach. European Journal of Sport
Science, 5(4), 207 - 220.
Morrow, W. W., & Chelladurai, P. (1992). The structure and
processes of Synchro Canada. Journal of Sport Management, 6(2),
133-152.
Papadimitriou, D., & Taylor, P. (2000). Organisational Effectiveness
of Hellenic National Sports Organisations: A Multiple Constituency
Approach. Sport Management Review, 3, 23-46.
Quinn, R. E., & Rohrbaugh, J. (1983). A Spatial Model of
Effectivenenss Criteria: Towards a Competing Values Approach to
Organizational Analysis. Management Science, 29(3), 363-377.
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542
PROMOTING RECREATIONAL SPORT
PARTICIPATION IN GREECE: ISSUES
AND CHALLENGES
Author:
Panagiota Balaskai
email:
pmpalask@phed.auth.gr
Co-authors:
Alexandris, K., Douka, S., Kaimakamis, D.
University:
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Faculty:
Department of PE and Sports Science
Abstract
Declining levels of sport participation has been a worrying
issue internationally in recent years, due to the links
between physical inactivity and health-related issues, such
as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease (Vail, 2007).
Providing opportunities for sport and recreation
participation is considered today as an important strategy
for governments to promote quality of life (Kemperman &
Timmermans, 2008). Research has shown that sport and
active recreation is associated with multiple physical,
psychological and sociological benefits, which are
important dimensions of quality of life (Garret, Brasure,
Schmitz, Schultz & Huber, 2004). Sport participation,
should, therefore be promoted in local, national and
international levels. Greece is today among the top
European countries in terms of obesity and associated
diseases, as a result of high physical inactivity levels and
unhealthy diet (International Association for the Study of
Obesity, 2008, http://www.iaso.org). Considering that
obesity is associated with high medical, rehabilitation and
health care costs, it could be realized that the promotion of
recreational sport participation in the community should be
an issue of high priority in Greece. Due to the absence of
national recreational sport participation data in Greece,
research and information is still limited. The present paper
aimed to report on annual sport participation rates and
frequency of sport participation, demographic differences,
and constraints on sport participation, among young and
middle-aged parents in Greece. We selected this specific
group of the population because previous studies have
shown that parents with young children have low sport
participation rates in Greece (Alexandris & Carroll 1997;
1998). Furthermore, this group should be targeted to
participate in family sport programs, which have been
proposed as a good strategy for promoting recreational
sport participation (Shaw & Dawson, 2001). Self-reported
measures of sport participation were used, following the
methodology and the research instrument developed by
Alexandris & Carroll, 1998). Three hundred parents aged
between 31 and 55 years old (mean age 38.8 years old)
participated in the study. The data were collected by two
local authority sport centres, in which parents have
registered their children to participate in sport programs.
The results indicated that 65.3 % of the responders never
participated in any sport activities during the previous year
that the research was conducted. In terms of the frequency
of sport participation, 9.4 percent participated at least once
a year, 58.3 percent participated at least once a month,
and 32.3 percent participated on a weekly basis.
Furthermore, statistical significant differences in sport
participation were found among the age groups (?2 =15.9
p<.001) and educational groups (?2 =8.26 p<.05). Sport
participation decreased with advancing age and among the
less educated individuals. Non-statistical significant
differences were found between males and females and
among for the different occupation groups. Finally, lack of
time, facilities / services and lack of partner related
constraints had the highest mean scores. In conclusion,
the present study provided evidence that recreational sport
participation rates among young and middle aged parents
in Greece is low. Education, gender and age were shown
to be amongst the factors that relate with sport
participation rates. Both external and internal constraints
were shown to influence sport participation rates,
supporting previous studies in Greece (e.g., Alexandris and
Carroll, 1997). These results support our argument that the
emphasis of sport policy in Greece has been towards the
promotion of elite sports against the promotion of
recreational sports. Promoting recreational sports should
be amongst the main priorities of social and health policies
in Greece today.
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References:
Alexandris, K., & Carroll, B. (1997b). Demographic differences in
the perception of constraints on recreational sport participation:
results from a study in Greece. Leisure Studies, 16, 107-125.
Alexandris, K., & Carroll, B. (1998). The relationship between
selected demographic variables and recreational sport participation
in Greece. International Review for Sociology of Sport, 33(3), 291-
297.
Colditz, G. A. (1999). Economic costs of obesity and inactivity.
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 31(11), 663-667.
Dobbinson, J. S., Hayman, J. A., & Livingston, P. M. (2006).
Prevalence of health promotion policies in sports clubs in Victoria.
Australia Health Promotion, 21 (2), 121-129
Garrett, A. N., Brasure, M., Schmitz, H. K., Schultz, M. M., & Huber,
R. M. (2004). Physical inactivity: Direct cost to a health plan.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(4), 304-309.
Gratton, C., & Taylor, P. (2000). The economics of sport and
recreation. E & FN Spon, London.
Kemperman, M., & Timmermans, H.J.P. (2008). Influence of socio-
demographics and residential environment on leisure activity
participation. Leisure Sciences, 30(4), 306-324.
Kimiecik, J. C., Horn, T. S. & Shurin, C. S. (1996). Relationships
among children's beliefs, perceptions of their parents beliefs and
their moderate to vigorous physical activity. Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, 67, 324-336.
Shaw, S., & Dawson, D. (2001). Purposive leisure: Examining
parental discourses on family activities. Leisure Sciences, 23(4),
217-231.
Vail, K. (2007). Community Development and Sport Participation
Warburton, E. D., Nicol, W. C., & Bredin, S.S. (2006). Health
benefits of physical activity: the evidence. Canadian Medical
Association Journal, 14, 174-176.
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544
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THE SERVICE QUALITy IN OUTDOOR
ACTIVITIES AND RECREATION
PROGRAMS BETWEEN DIFERENT
AGES
Author:
Ioannis Trigonis
email:
itrigon@phyed.duth.gr
Co-authors:
Astrapellos Konstantinos, Costa George, Trigonis Ioannis,
yfantidou Georgia, Tsitskari Efstratia, Zorzou Amalia
University:
Faculty:
Department of Physical Education & Sport Science
Abstract
Introduction
The quality has been used as a vehicle to describe the
meaning of various leisure and recreation activities events,
also called definitional research. Such research refers to
the phenomenology, dimensionally and characteristics of
leisure pursuits (Kleiber, Larson, & Csikszentmihalyi,
1986), the risk represented by various activities, and the
symbolic or cognitive representation of travel (Nash &
Smith, 1991). The quality of leisure and recreation can be
described as the subjective mental state felt by
participants. The facet of consumption has received some
attention from researchers in the field, mainly those
concerned with its sociological, anthropological and
psychological signature (Otto, & Ritchie, 1996). Once
recognizing the critical, yet delicate, interplay between the
experience of, and satisfaction with, leisure and recreation
activities, industry personnel are well advised to pay
attention to former dimension. Perhaps the most
straightforward manner by which to apply a service is to
borrow general marketing measurement instruments
directly from the field and apply them to outdoor activities.
So, given the importance of experimental benefits to
satisfaction with all facets of the outdoor and recreation
industry general and also in Greece, further understanding
of this construct is necessary, and this is the aim of this
study.
Methodology
Subjects
One hundred and fifty three (153) men and women who
participated in outdoor activities and recreation programs
at the river Nesto in the region of xanthi were asked to
complete a questionnaire, after they participated at
recreation and outdoor activities. The sample consisted of
80 men students (52,2%) and 73 women students (47,7%).
Procedure
The questionnaires were collected during 3 weekends of
March 2010. A total of 242 men and women participated in
the recreation programs and 153 of them agreed to fill in
the questionnaires.
Questionnaire
To measure the quality of the service experience, the
Service Experience Questionnaire was used on 5-point
scale (Otto, & Ritchie, 1996). The questionnaire was
translated into using back-to-back translation process. The
validity of the questionnaire was taken through a pilot
study to 60 sport recreation participants. The questionnaire
consisted of 15 questions that created four factors
hedonics , peace of mind , involvement , and recognition
and four independent questions.
Results
Using the Cronbach coefficient internal consistency for
the Service Experience subscales in the current study was
estimated as .84 for the hedonics factor, .67 for the peace
of mind factor, .68 for the involvement factor, and .71 for
the recognition factor. To examine differences in factors
because of the age of the participants used the variable
variance analysis (One-way Anova). From this analysis,
obtained statistically significant differences according to
age of the participants only for the recognition factor F
(3,147) = 7,01, p<.001, and did not reveal significant
differences for other factors and independent questions.
The factors related as most important were hedonics (M=
4.23, SD= 0.55), involvement (M= 4.22, SD= 0.55), and
recognition (M= 4.00, SD= 0.75). The outdoor activities
can be the reason to choose this recreation agency again ,
(M= 3,95, SD= 0.89), peace of mind (M= 3,80, SD=
0.76), and if I would choose the same recreation agency
again, I will do the same activities I did this time , (M=
3,78, SD= 1,03) were a little less important.
Discussion and Conclusions
According these results, the participant s experience after
their participation on recreation and outdoor activities was
high positive for all the above factors. So we can conclude
that all the participants through the four factors have
replied that were satisfied. Participants in programs of
outdoor activities, having the quality of service as a central
reference point for assessment and evaluation, providing
important information to companies that wish to have
satisfied customers (Gerson, 1999). Moreover, the different
levels of service and satisfaction of each participant in
different activities give important information on
companies. These results are important because visitor
satisfaction has long been a major goal of recreation
resource management, and as such has been one of the
most studied indicators of quality in outdoor recreation
opportunities (Williams, 1989). The results of this study
have several theoretical and practical implications for the
outdoor and recreation programs. It seems more than
important for recreation service providers to understand
the individuals who engage in certain tourist roles in order
to determine the needs they are trying to satisfy. By
understanding their needs and wants, outdoor destinations
could successfully target potential tourist populations by
maximizing the destination s competitive advantage and so
satisfy them.
References:
Gerson, R. (1999). Members for life: Proven service and retention
Strategies for Health-Fitness and Sports Club. Champaign, IL.
Human Kinetics Publisher.
Kleiber, D, Larson, R and Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1986). The
experience of leisure in adolescence. Journal Leisure Research,
18, (3), 169-176.
Nash, D. and Smith, V. (1991). Anthropology and tourism. Annals of
Tourism Research,18, 12-25.
Otto, J.E. and Brent Ritchie, J.R (1996). The service experience in
tourism. Tourism Management, 17, (3), 165-174.
Williams, D.R. (1989). Great expectations and the limits to
satisfaction: A review of recreation and consumer satisfaction
research. Pages 422-438 in A. Watson Outdoor recreation
benchmark, 1988: Proceedings from the national outdoor recreation
forum assembly. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report
SE-52. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, North
Carolina.
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546
MATCH-UP EFFECT OF BRAND
PERSONALITy IN SPONSORSHIP: THE
CASE OF THE 2010 WORLDCUP
Author:
Soojin Kim
email:
kim@kutztown.edu
Co-authors:
Kim, yongjae (PI)
University:
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania
Faculty:
Assistant Professor/ Sport Management
Abstract
Given the fact that today consumers perspectives toward
the value of products has been changed from utilitarian
notion to relationship between a consumer and brands, the
importance of brand personality has been more highlighted
in the marketing literature. The notion of brand personality
was established in an attempt to understand a set of
human characteristics that are associated with a brand.
Research on brand personality has shown that consumers
choose brands matching their own personality for symbolic
use of brands. This provides important insights into
matching effect of sport and its sponsor personality on
sponsorship outcome.
According to matching theories, the personality
congruence between sport and sponsors affects
consumers evaluation of the sponsoring brands. It
suggests that individuals would show more favorable
attitude toward the brand associated with a sporting event
on either functional or image bases. Despite the growing
interest in image-based communication through
sponsorship and its marketing implications, there has been
limited empirical evidence for how personality congruence
between a sporting event and its sponsors works in the
minds of consumers (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). In
addition, little efforts have been made to develop a
psychometrically sound measurement scale when
evaluating sponsorship effectiveness using image-based
matching technique. For example, Aaker (1997) developed
the brand personality scale (BPS) using the five-factor
model. However, results of previous studies (e.g., Ross,
2007) were not consistent in regard with generalizability
and robustness of the scale across different cultures and
symbolic functions of brands. Furthermore, researchers in
the sport literature (e.g., Ross, 2007) have suggested that
the original BPS should be respecified to measure the
personality of sport properties (e.g., sport events).
Accordingly, the purpose of this study is threefold: first to
propose the refined BPS of Aaker (1997) particularly
applicable to both commercial brands and sport properties;
second, to investigate personality dimensions on which
sport and brands are matched; and to examine how the
perceived fit between brands and sport affects the
personality of sponsoring brand(s).
For the purpose of this study, a set of five brands,
including the World Cup and its sponsor brands, were
selected based on brand availability in Korea. With the
selected brand, we first employed a scale validation
procedure adopted by Churchill (1979) to reexamine and
refine the factor structure of the original brand personality
scale of Aaker (1997). With the refined BPS, One Group
Pre-Post test was conducted with a convenience sample of
soccer fans from seven large cities in South Korea. The
survey was administered at ten fitness clubs before and
after the 2010 FIFA World Cup. 620 usable cases for a
total response rate of 52.8% were obtained (51.6% male
and 48.4% female). The age of respondents ranged from
18 to 65 years old.
As a result of the scale validation, the refined five-factor
model with 15 items was developed. Confirmatory Factor
Analysis for the refined BPS revealed a good fit to data.
The construct validity and reliability of the structure of BPS
in the current study was verified and supported (see Table
1). The result of multiple sets of Congenerity Tests
indicated that the World Cup and its sponsor brands are
psychometrically comparable with respect to all five
dimensions of the refined BPS. The results of Multi-group
invariance test clearly showed that only limited personality
dimensions for the World cup are congruent with the
corresponding dimensions of its sponsor personality (see
Table 2). Last, to examine whether a sponsors brand
personality can be enhanced through sponsorship,
Congenerity test was conducted by implementing a series
of stepwise constraint modeling procedures of SEM. The
result indicated the there are significant differences
between pre- and post-personality of the sponsoring
brands on congruent dimensions of sport and brands
personality. This shows that congruence between
personality dimensions of sport and its sponsors directly
affect the brand personality dimensions of sponsors. In
contrast, non-congruent dimensions of sport and brand
personality were changed or not changed. The findings
show that sponsorship activity reinforces brand images on
the personality dimensions. The perceived fit between
sport and brands is a necessary condition for brand
personality reinforcement/creation through sponsorship.
The findings of this study provide scholars and
practitioners with several meaningful implications. From a
theoretical standpoint, the study further expands
understanding of congruence effects of sport and its
sponsor personality on the development of brand identity.
For marketers, this information can be utilized when
developing marketing communication strategies through
sponsorship.
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References:
Cornwell, T.B., & Maignan, I. (1998). An international review of
sponsorship research. Journal of Advertising, 27(1), 1-21.
Aaker, J.L. (1997). Dimension of brand personality. Journla of
Marketing Research, 34(3), 347-356.
Ross, S. (2008). Assessing the use of the Brand Personality Scale
in team sport. International Journal of Sport Management and
Marketing. 3(1/2), 23-38.
Chuchill, G.A. (1996). Marketing research: methodological
foundations. 3rd. ed. Chicago: The Dryden Press.
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548
JUDO AND SWIMMING TALENT
DEVELOPMENT IN BRAZIL
Author:
Florio Filho
email:
spflorio11@yahoo.com.br
Co-authors:
Meira, Tatiana Mazzei, Leandro Bastos, Flvia Bhme,
Maria
University:
University of So Paulo
Faculty:
Sport Department
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
In many countries, national programs create their
organizational structure focusing on the development and
control of sports. In this regard, recent comparative studies
were made seeking to understand sport programs in
different countries, especially the policies related to elite
sport (OAKLEy and GREEN, 2001; DIGEL, 2002; DE
BOSSCHER et al., 2008). The organizational structure of
sports at a national level allows the country to manage the
athletes training process from the lowest to the highest
competitive level, through a long-term training, where the
identification and promotion of sport talents are considered
crucial for the development of high level athletes for the
nation (DIGEL, 2002; BHME 2007). Judo and swimming
in Brazil have significant results in international
competitions. Therefore, it is important to understand how
sport talents are developed in these sport modalities.
AIMS: To describe the development of judo and swimming
talent in Brazil.
METHODS
A total of 18 high-performance coaches (7 of judo and 11
of swimming) answered the following question: "Is there a
system for the sports talent development in the country
from the lowest until the highest sport performance level?
How is it? This paper is part of a complete research,
which is being conducted in Brazil. Data was obtained
through personal interviews. Results were analyzed
through Group Character Speech Method (GCS), as
proposed by LEFVRE and LEFEVRE (2003). Central
Ideas (CI) were obtained from each answer, which at a
later stage.
RESULTS
The categories of Central Ideas and their frequencies are
presented in Table 1. According to 77.7% of the coaches,
there is no national sports talent development system in
place for both sports, which corresponds to 38.8% of the
total central ideas obtained. DISCUSSION: According to
the coaches, there are other ways of developing sport
talents in the Brazilian reality, namely, through clubs,
through competitive results improvement, through
individual projects (judo) and sporadically by the governing
body of the sport (swimming). Strategies to promote talent
vary between the following modalities: swimming uses
more the clubs (33%), on the other hand judo develops
more isolated projects (30%).De Bosscher et al. (2008)
claim that the first step in the systematization of national
sport talent development program is the existence of basic
sport programs that allow the identification / detection of
talents for the sport training process. In this way, many
countries have national programs aiming at identifying and
developing elite athletes, such as Australia and China
(OAKLEy and GREEN, 2001; DIGEL, 2002). The lack of a
national sports talent development system for high
performance in the Brazilian context results in the adoption
of other strategies, as demonstrated through the coaches
responses, such as Competitive Results" and "Through
the clubs." In Brazil, as in the North American system,
competitive results are important in the process of
identifying and selecting talent. The competitive system at
different ages stimulates the young athletes to compete
among themselves and those who win or are successful
are promoted, while the losers are not promoted (DIGEL,
2002). After the conclusion of the whole research, it will
possible to better describe the organizational structure of
sports in Brazil.
CONCLUSION
There is no national sport talents development system in
Brazil. Alternative ways are used by each sport discipline
to reach this aim. If Brazil had a national sport talent
development system, it could improve the results of
swimming, judo and other modalities and, additionally,
make these results more consistent.
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References:
DE BOSSCHER, V., BINGHAM, J., SHIBLI, S., VAN
BOTTENBURG, M., DE KNOP, P. The global sporting arms race.
An international comparative study on sports Policy factors leading
to international sporting success. Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport
(UK), 2008. DIGEL, H.
The context of talent identification and promotion: A comparison of
nations. New Studies in Athletics. v.17, 3/4, p. 13-26, 2002.
GREEN, M.; OAKLEy, B. Elite sport development systems and
playing to win: uniformity and diversity in international approaches.
Leisure Studies v. 20, p. 247267, 2001.
LEFVRE, F.; LEFVRE, A.M.C. O discurso do sujeito coletivo: um
novo enfoque em pesquisa qualitativa (Desdobramentos). Caxias
do Sul: EDUCS, 2003.
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550
INFLUENCE OF SERVICESCAPE OF
PROFESSIONAL BASEBALL ON
AFFECT, CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
AND LOyALTy
Author:
Jin Hur
email:
hjin@korea.com
Co-authors:
yoo-Chan, Lee(Dankook university)
Se-Hyuk, Park(Seoul National University of Science and
Technology)
Bit-Na, Kim(Dankook university)
University:
Dankook university
Faculty:
sport management
Abstract
Success or failure of professional sports depends on
whether they are equipped with attractive elements enough
to draw sports consumers into a stadium, so a sport event
or game that fails to arouse their interest will be ignored by
spectators. In other words, how to lure sports consumers is
the key to the success of professional sports. However, in
recent times, with the personal and social consciousness
of professional sports getting higher, sports consumers'
consumption behavior is becoming complicated and
diverse. Moreover, under the circumstance where
competition is becoming ever fiercer day by day and the
sports market is in proximity to saturation, the weight of the
existing consumers is becoming greater.
Therefore, in order to make the professional baseball grow
and continue to exist, it's necessary to increase the loyalty
toward professional baseball by grasping the characteristic
of sports consumers and their sports consumption
behavior and developing the sports marketing equivalent to
consumers' needs, desires and values for professional
baseball. Thus, professional baseball teams and its
federation are supposed to do their best for setting up the
strategy to attract a lot more spectators into the stadium. In
short, it's an urgent problem for professional baseball
circles not only to set up continuous relations with
spectators for professional baseball by raising their positive
sentiment and level of satisfaction through the analysis of
servicescape but also to induce their re-spectating.
Servicescape, defined as the physical service environment
in which service is created and a business-to-consumer
interaction takes place, can be called artificially
constructed service facilities as a tangible material that
facilitates service performance and consumption(Bitner,
1992). Bitner(1992) argued in his definition of servicescape
that the less interaction between a customer and employee
there exists, the bigger the influence of servicescape could
be, which is because a clue of employees is excluded from
several clues that make it possible for a customer to
evaluate service. Professional baseball is also the
environment where a direct interaction between a
customer and employee doesn't occur frequently, and, for
this reason, servicescape is also considerably important in
watching professional baseball games; therefore, a
customer's attitude, satisfaction, and behavior may vary
depending on how to suggest the servicescape(Wakefield
& Blodgett, 1996).
Accordingly, this research is aimed at empirically inquiring
into the relations between the servicescape of professional
baseball and affect, customer satisfaction, and loyalty.
This research did sampling of 380 copies of questionnaires
through convenient sampling method targeting the home
spectators for 4 clubs in the 2010 Season Professional
Baseball as its research subjects. Then, this research
selected final valid samples among the collected samples
except for those which were considered to be
inappropriate for research.
This research conducted frequency analysis of these data
using SPSSWIN Ver. 15.0, and also conducted
confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS 7.0, confirming
suitability on the whole with the analysis results:
AGFI=.922; RMR=.045; NFI=.934 and NNFI= .923. This
research verified the fitness of research model through
structural equation model analysis after doing confirmatory
factor analysis. The verification result of model fitness were
as follows:
2=456.175; GFI=.906; AGFI= .930; NFI=.922 ,and
NNFI=.920. Based on these findings and procedure, the
following findings were obtained.
This research drew the results as follow through such a
research method and process.
First, servicescape had significant influence on affect.
Second, servicescape had significant influence on
customer satisfaction. Third, affect had significant influence
on customer satisfaction and loyalty. Fourth, customer
satisfaction had significant influence loyalty.
Consequently, the service in professional baseball
environment is characterized by intangibility, but in order to
arouse a customer's positive behavior, it's really important
to strategize on tangible clues like a physical environment
(Wall & Berry, 2007; Zemke & Shoemaker, 2008),
Accordingly, it is necessary for a marketing manager to
have to use a physical environment as a differentiation
strategy to materialize the intangible elements in service..
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References:
Bitner, M. J. (1992). Servicescape: The impact of physical
surroundings on customer and employees. Journal of Marketing,
56(2), 57-71.
Wall, E. A., & Berry, L. L. (2007). The combined effects of the
physical environment and employee behavior on customer
perception of restaurant service quality. Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Aministration Quarterly, 48(1), 59-69.
Wakefield K. L., & Blodgett, J. G. (1996). The effect of the
servicescape on customer' behavioral intentions in leisure service
setting. Journal of Service Marketing, 10(6), 45-61.
Zemake, D. M., & Shoemaker, S. (2008). A sociable atosphere:
Ambient scent's effect on social interaction. Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Aministration Quarterly, 49(3), 17-32.
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552
AN ANALySIS OF BRAZILIAN SPORTS
MANAGEMENT CONGRESSES
ABSTRACTS FROM 2005 TO 2009
Author:
Flvia Bastos
email:
flaviacb@usp.br
Co-authors:
MAZZEI, LEANDRO
SARMENTO, PEDRO
University:
UNIVERSIDADE DE SO PAULO
Faculty:
IESCOLA DE EDUCAO FSICA E ESPORTE
Abstract
A professional area is composed of a body of knowledge
of literature on theory and practice, training professionals
by professionals, researchers and those working in
practice, professional organizations dedicated to advancing
the field, looking for credibility in society (Pitts, 2001).
There has been increasing discussion about professional
preparation in degrees in sport management. The linkage
between classroom, practioner and academic knowledge
has been used in different ways by the degree programs.
The scientific production may suggest the level of the
development of an area. The Group Study and Research
in Sport Management at University of So Paulo (GEPAE-
EEFEUSP), the Brazilian Association for Sport
Management (ABRAGESP) and the Intercontinental
Alliance Sports Management (AIGD) in their efforts for
academic and scientific development of Sports
Management in Brazil have stimulated the production and
dissemination of knowledge since 2003. Analysis of the
scholarly research activities in the field of Sport
Management has been done by different researchers
around the world in order to reflect on their development
and production (Sarmento et al., 2009; Han & Kane, 2007).
The study of issues relating to Sports Management is
recent in Brazil, especially when compared to other fields
(Gaya, 1994; Santos Neto et al., 2010). Analysis of
research production in the field of sports management is
even more rares. Bastos & Bartoletti (2010) presented the
trends in the topic areas concerning sport management
carried out by students undergraduate at University of So
Paulo, Brazil. However, there were no studies that
describe and evaluate trends in the type of work produced,
the methodologies employed and the types of research. It
is important to note that examining recent conference
abstracts can provide a general tendency among various
proposed or newly completed research, and that it can
also be compared with the trend of other countries,
allowing elements to the strategic actions of the national
association in terms of encouraging research in the area.
Thus, the purpose of this investigation is to identify the
notable trends in accepted abstracts in Brazilian Congress
Sports Management in recent years. For this, a exploratory
study was carried out in order to present a descriptive
analysis of the distribution of abstracts according different
criteria, observing the frequency and distribution of
abstracts considering the total abstracts published during
the period. The data for this study consisted of 105
abstracts appearing in the Brazilian Congresses (2005,
2008, 2009). The abstracts were categorized by different
characteristics in order to indentify the major themes,
theoretical lines, objects of study and research design.
These results indicate a great diversification in the themes
presented. A classification by themes was not possible due
to different criteria related to the themes adopted by
scientific committee at each congress. There was a
predominance of abstracts of completed research
(58.10%) and reports of work experiences (20.95%). These
data indicate a relative consistence in the research
development as well as valorization of field experiences by
managers, and a growth trend of research development.
However, considering the methodological approach used,
most of research related (n=83) used the descriptive and
analysis approach and did not find any study concerning
the theoretical aspects. That indicate a fairly focus on
theoretical approach by Brazilian researchers that denote a
lack of scientific development in the country. Finally, the
main types of research were Field Research. These results
reflect important general aspects: an increased production
of researchers in Brazil, but with a high number of
descriptive studies, despite the true importance of
descriptive studies for a best knowledge of the Brazilian
scenario. Other important issue is the evidence of no
coherence about the themes presented on the three
brazilian congresses. In order to sustain professional
preparation of the sport managers in Brazil the follow
suggestions are made: that more efforts are required to
develop scientific formation in under and pos graduated
courses, to continue the analysis of the state of the art of
sport management research and his trends and stimulate
studies and criteria for research topic areas of Brazilian
production.
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References:
BASTOS, F.C. & BARTOLETTI, C.T. (2010) Monografias em
gesto do esporte nos cursos de graduao da EEFEUSP (1995-
2008). Revista Digital EF Deportes, 14(142). Retrieved March,
2010, from http://www.efdeportes.com/efd142/monografias-em-
gestao-do-esporte.htm
GAyA, A. (1994) As Cincias do Desporto nos Pases de Lngua
Portuguesa: uma abordagem epistemolgica. Tese
(Doutoramento). Porto: FCDEF, Universidade do Porto.
HAN, J.y., & KANE, G.M. (2007) NASSM Presentations: An
Analysis of Conference Abstracts by Diverse Research Topics
2002-2006. In: Anais ... 2007 North American Society for Sport
Management Conference (NASSM 2007), p. 306.
SANTOS NETO, S. C., FERREIRA, M. A. F., SOUZA, M. A., &
SOUZA, I. (2010) O esporte do ponto de vista da administrao:
levantamento dos estudos publicados no Semead, no perodo de
2005 a 2009. In: Anais ... xIII Semead Seminrios em
Administrao. Setembro 2010.
SARMENTO, J. P., CARVALHO, M. J., & COELHO, R. B. (2009)
Gesto Desportiva: anlise das dissertaes de Mestrado e teses
de Doutoramento na Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do
Porto. Rev. Port. Cien. Desp., 9(2), 7-16.
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554
THE SAVING GRACE OF BRANDED
ATHLETES: REDEMPTION IN THE
PRESENCE OF DEVIANT ATHLETE
BEHAVIOR
Author:
Ryan Cruz
email:
craigpaiement@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Paiement, Craig
University:
Ithaca College
Faculty:
Sport Management and Media
Abstract
Constructing and cultivating mutually beneficial
relationships is a fundamental aspect of brand
management. Understanding the formation and
maintenance relationship between fans and athletes is of
critical importance to professional sport delegates.
Professional athletes each have distinct personalities and
values that are visible through competitive engagements
and manipulated by advertisers through imagery. It is
paramount for athletic principals and agents to functionally
link core values to personality during athlete branding.
Branding athletes increases fan and consumer
identification--often athletes who possess greater
commercial success and relevance maintain higher rates
of fan identification, loyalty, and commitment (manifesting
itself as a protective mechanism in the face of deviant
behavior) providing the athlete and the supporting sponsor
increased commercial protection. The aim of this paper is
to describe the conceptual process of commercial athletic
redemption and provide examples of successful and
unsuccessful athletic brand redemption through case
analysis.
Identification and value creation are intrinsic aspects of
sport marketing. Sport, product extensions, and athletes
seek to maintain their iconic brand maturity by preventing
oversaturation and avoiding commercial decline. In the
event of personal or career threats through deviant
behavior, athletes and their respective entourage seek to
avoid decline and brand death through social
regeneration in the form of public forgiveness and
redemption (Hearit, 2009).
The theoretical underpinnings of brand redemption focuses
on the utilization of Social Exchange Theory within an
athletic context focusing on the re-affirmation of violated
social values. Lance Armstrong has sustained and
garnered commercial success and protection through his
various product endorsements, Livestrong brand, fan
identification, and sponsorship becoming synonymous with
hope and survival- to the degree that his athletic abilities
remain largely irrelevant to the culture at large. The
Armstrong brand has withstood numerous doping
allegations and personal struggles, while his peers
(Pantani, Landis, etc) have unsuccessfully redeemed their
personal brand following sport convictions for deviant
behavior.
Deviant athlete behavior may include, but is not limited to:
performance enhancing substances, recreational drugs,
domestic violence, infidelity, sexual proclivities, evading
taxation, gambling, sportsmanship, non-injury related
comebacks, or retirement. The increasing scrutiny facing
athletes and their brands parallel crisiss facing
corporations (such as Toyota, ConAgra, BP, Martha
Stewart & Omnimedia, etc.). The end goal for these
corporations remains extending product life cycle.
Similarly, athletes focus upon the extension of commercial
brand life. Anna Kournikova and Michael Jordan have
both in their own rights redeemed themselves for their
deviant behavior (not winning and retirement) and
remained relevant, where Marion Jones, Tiger Woods,
Tonya Harding, Mike Tyson, and Martina Hingis incorrectly
navigated the apology cycle following deviant behavior and
slid into brand decline.
Similar to corporations, athlete brands must be able to
navigate both alleged and proven deviant behavior through
a redemption process. Redemption requires: (1) the
athlete admit and express guilt; (2) apologize for (found or
alleged) misconduct; (3) absolve themselves and their
brand from the threatening deviance; and (4) reestablish
and reconfirm the social value(s) that were threatened by
their behavior (Hearit, 2009). Public forgiveness is critical
for redemption, which is essential in regaining identifiable
group membership. This group protection allows athletes
who have allegedly engaged in or confirmed of misconduct
the opportunity to seek forgivenessleading to
(commercial) group redemption and re-acceptance. The
case study of Jennifer Capriati provides an example of
navigating the redemption cycle. Redemption and
forgiveness require members to identify and reaffirm group
and individual value (Molm, Schaefer, & Collett, 2007). It
is critical for any member of an athletes team (sponsor,
employer, spouse, or even fan) to understand the structure
of social exchange to promote athlete identification
resulting in athlete brand awareness and perceived value.
Unlike economic exchange where rewards can be
quantifiable, social exchange is based on an intangible
promise from the specific athlete to maintain the iconic
representation of the underlying fans social values. This
form of reciprocation validates a consumers existence
through group identification and trust; establishing social
membership (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Once group
membership is established by an athlete, exchange occurs
in the form of fan and sponsor loyalty. There is little
physical accessibility to athletes thus it is through social
exchange and branding that athletes are able to establish
consumer value.
The proposed conceptual research implies that athletes
who have been successfully branded to represent
identifiable and acceptable social values maintain higher
commercial value to sponsors. Thus, if the athlete should
engage in deviant behavior and successfully follows the
redemption cycle, commercial reacceptance may be
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attained. References:
Ashford, B.E. and Mael,F. (1989) Social identity theory and the
organization. Academy of Management Review 14 (1), 2039.
Hearit, K.M. (2006). Crisis management by apology: Corporate
responses to allegations of wrongdoing. Lawrence Erlbaum:
Mahwah, NJ.
Molm,L. D., Schaefer,D.R., and Collett, J.L. (2007). Fragile and
Resilient Trust: Risk and Uncertainty in Negotiated and Reciprocal
Exchange. Sociological Theory, 27, 1-32.
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556
FROM THE ASHES TO THE RIGHT
TRACK: HOW COMMITMENT AND
LEADERSHIP TRANSFORMED
CORITIBA FOOT BALL CLUB IN A RARE
CASE OF SUCCESS IN THE BRAZILIAN
SPORTS MANAGEMENT INDUSTRy
Author:
Beatriz De Andrade E Silva
email:
beandes@yahoo.com.br
University:
International Academy of Sports Science and Technology
(AISTS)
Faculty:
Master of Advanced Studies in Sports Administration and
Technology
Abstract
In 2009, while celebrating its 100th anniversary, Coritiba
Foot Ball Club, one of the most traditional Brazilian football
clubs with an estimated fan base of 1 million supporters
and 3 national championships, lived its saddest moment in
history with a relegation to the second division of the
Brazilian football. The relegation was followed by scenes of
violence and destruction of its stadium carried out by some
members of its organized group of supporters - that for
many years had a strong influence in the clubs managerial
decisions - and were unhappy with the failure of the club in
such an important year. The scenes watched at Couto
Pereira stadium in December 6th 2009 resulted in the
worst punishment a Brazilian football club has ever
received in tribunals and overshadowed the championship
of the most popular Brazilian football club, Flamengo,
which in that afternoon the last day of the football season
in Brazil won the National League after 17 years. The
aim of this case study is to demonstrate how years of
mismanagement, a deep-rooted characteristic of the
Brazilian football industry led Coritiba FC to rock bottom
and how the leadership and decisions made by the new
chairman, Vilson Ribeiro de Andrade a former CEO for
HSBC in Latin America alongside the commitment of all
departments towards the new objectives and values of the
organization were paramount in order to reconstruct the
club. Coritiba FC started the year of 2010 financially broke,
unable to use its own stadium and with a drop of 80% in
the membership scheme, among other issues.
Nevertheless, the organization managed to finish the
season with the best sponsorship deals in the clubs
history, achieving a record number of memberships (from
2,500 in the beginning of the year to 16,000 by the end of
the season) and winning the regional and the second
division of the national league which brought the club back
to the elite level of Brazilian football. The case presents
results of a non-structured observant participation,
providing an overview of the work done by the main areas
of the club, but focuses mainly on the strategies and
activities realized by the Marketing and Commercial
department, an area in which the author was directly
involved during a two year period. It was this department
that performed the crucial roles needed to rebuild the
clubs image and to bring back investors, as well as the
fans. The case study concludes that despite the amateur
structure and managerial practices that still remain in the
Brazilian Football Industry, the successful come back of
Coritiba FC demonstrates the possibilities to change this
environment through professional management and
commitment of all those involved within a football
organization.
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19
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558
AN ANALySIS OF THE FINANCIAL
SUPPORT TO ELITE SPORT IN SPAIN
Author:
Maria Romeo-Velilla
email:
mromeovelilla@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Shibli, Simon
University:
Faculty:
Abstract
Background:
The publication Sports Policy factors Leading to
International Sporting Success also known as 'SPLISS', by
De Bosscher et al. (2008), was a pilot study completed
between 2004 and 2008, which entails a comparative
study on the success of six nations elite sport policies. The
SPLISS research group is currently collecting further data
to produce a second version of the SPLISS project by
2012. This project is once again based on a nine pillar
model (De Bosscher et al., 2006), which corresponds to
nine policy areas. The current SPLISS project involves
additional countries, of which Spain is one. This study
presents the initial results from the policy questionnaire
constructed to address Pillar 1 -the financial support policy
area- within the context of the Spanish sport system.
Research questions
How are the funding streams for elite sport in Spain
allocated?
What have the trends in national expenditure on elite
sport been in Spain over the last three Olympiad cycles?
How does Spain's expenditure on elite sport compare
with other countries which were analysed in the first
version of the SPLISS project?
Methodology
An extensive semi-structured questionnaire called overall
sport policy inventory 2010-11 was designed by the
SPLISS research group. This policy questionnaire covers
all 9 pillars and includes open and closed questions. The
present study focuses exclusively on Pillar 1 -financial
support-, which involves 29 pages, 32 questions and 13
critical success factors (De Bosscher et al., 2011).
The 32 questions were first addressed through an
exhaustive examination of the relevant online resources
within the areas of sport and finance. As a result, 11
questions were fully completed, 15 were partly answered,
4 were impossible to answer, and 2 were not applicable.
Various financial figures were compared to the
corresponding statistics for the six nations reported in The
Global Sporting Arms Race .
Results:
Distribution of funding
The structure of sport in Spain is based on a collaborative
system between the private and public sector (CSD, 2011).
Figure 1 illustrates how the funding streams flow within the
Spanish sport system (solid arrows) and also how the
funding to support elite sport flows (dotted arrows). The
Consejo Superior de Deportes is the main funding body for
sport. However, in the case of elite sport, private
companies also provide extra support to Olympic athletes.
Spanish expenditure on (elite) sport
In 2011 the central government allocated eur167m to sport
of which eur86m will be utilised for elite sport. This implies
eur3.54 per head in the case of sport and eur1.83 for elite
sport. National expenditure on sport involves 0.05% of the
total government expenditure, of which 52% is allocated to
elite sport (table 1).
Total Spanish expenditure on sport varied. In 2011 it
increased 12% relative to 2003, by contrast in 2011 it
decreased 7% compared with 2007. This finding was not
replicated within elite sport as financial figures stayed
relatively constant (+2% when comparing 2011 to 2003
and +1% when comparing 2011 to 2007).
Comparison of Spanish financial support with other nations
Although an exact comparison is not possible due to
different collection periods (2011 vs. 2003), when
comparing Spain (2011) to the nations reported at the
SPLISS project (2003), Spanish expenditure on sport per
head (3.54 ) in 2011 was only higher than Canada in 2003
(2.1 ). However, the percentage of total Spanish
expenditure on elite sport was the second highest
(51.52%). In addition, the Spanish expenditure on elite
sport per head (1.83 ) was also one of the highest (Table
2).
In the case of the percentage of the total government
expenditure, Spain's proportion (0.05%) equalled two
countries, was above Italy, and was below Norway and the
Netherlands.
Conclusions:
Financial support to Spanish sport is primarily provided by
the public sector through a decentralised structure.
Spanish elite sport is also supported by private firms
(economic figures from private sector have not been
included). Although Spain's expenditure on sport has
fluctuated, the national expenditure on elite sport has
largely stayed the same. While Spanish expenditure on
sport (per head of population) is one of the lowest in this
study, the Spanish sport system makes an important effort
through a significant proportion of resources being
allocated to elite sport. This research provides further
evidence to test the argument that success in elite sport is
a function to absolute, rather than relative, expenditure on
elite sport.
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References:
Consejo Superior de Deportes (CSD). (2011). Estructura del
deporte espaol. Evolucin y sntesis. Retrieved February 21,
2011, from http://www.csd.gob.es/csd/legislacion/estructura-del-
deporte-espanol/3-estructura-del-deporte-espanol/
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., Van Bottenburg, M. & Shibli, S.
(2006) A conceptual framework for analysing sports policy factors
leading to international sporting success. European Sport
Management Quarterly, 6 (2), 185-216.
De Bosscher, V., Bingham, J., Shibli, S., van Bottenborg, M., & De
Knop, P. (2008) The Global Sporting Arms Race. An international
sporting success. Oxford: Meyer & Meyer sport.
De Bosscher, V., van Bottenburg, M., & Shibli, S. (2011) Manual
and Research protocol for the Overall sports policy comparison
(2011-2012), SPLISS Consortium, unpublished guidance document
for participating nations.
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560
ATTITUDINAL CONSTRUCTS TOWARD
SPORT SPONSORSHIP OUTCOMES
Author:
George Tzetzis
email:
tzetzis@phed.auth.gr
Co-authors:
TOLKA VASILIKI TSITSKARI EFI
University:
ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITy OF THESSALONIKI
Faculty:
PHySICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT SCIENCES
Abstract
Sport sponsorship has increased rapidly over the last
years due to its effectiveness as a marketing
communication tool. Sponsors may seek a variety of
outcomes including but not limited to increased
sales/market share, image enhancement, brand
recognition, community involvement, sampling
opportunities, brand loyalty, and increased awareness
(Tomasini, Frye, & Stotlar, 2004). An important issue in
sponsorship research is investigating whether sponsorship
activity produces the desired outcomes. Just as critical is
investigating factors that influence sponsorship outcomes
(Gwinner & Swanson, 2003). There have been some
attempts to theoretically develop and empirically test
models to investigate the influence of attitudinal constructs
on sponsorship outcomes. However, as Christensen
(2006) noted, sponsorship evaluation research is still at
early stages, due to lack of established theoretical
frameworks that can explain a consumers decision making
process, since the interactions among the constructs that
have been proposed as antecedents and consequences of
sponsorship programs are complex and dynamic.
Aim of abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate if the
psychological connection of a consumer to a sport team,
such as attitudinal loyalty, attachment and involvement
predict attitudinal construct such as sponsor image, or
behavioral constructs such as purchase intention and word
of mouth communication.
Method
Questionnaires were collected from fans of a professional
football team in Greece (N=420). The questionnaires were
distributed outside of the stadium before the start of the
football games. All constructs were measured by a 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) Likert scale. Four
items measured attitudinal loyalty towards their favorite
team (Gladden & Funk, 2001). Eight items measured team
attachment, as the psychological connection to the team
(Funk et al. 2000). Involvement was measured as a two
dimensional construct (attraction and centrality), (Kyle et
al. 2004). Three items were used to measure the
Sponsors image favourable purchase intentions and
favourable word of mouth was measured by three items
accordingly by the scale developed by Madrigal (2001).
Results
A regression analysis was performed to predict sponsors
image, purchase intention and word of mouth
communication from fans loyalty, team involvement and
attachment. From the analysis it was found team
attachment (t = 2.26, p <.05) and involvement-centrality (t
= 2.21, p < .05) accounted for 66% of sponsors image (F
= 6.66, p < .05). For the favourable purchase intention, the
results revealed that attachment (t = 2.84, p <.05)
accounted for 80% (F = 8.21, p <.05). Finally, for the
favourable word of mouth the results revealed that
attachment (t = 2.84, p <.05) accounted for 78% (F = 8.03,
p <.05).
Discussion and implications/conclusions
The findings supported the premise that highly attached
fans are more likely to develop positive image for their
team sponsor, exhibit higher intentions for purchasing and
recommending the sponsors products. The findings from
this research have practical implications for both sport
team marketers and sponsors. Both parties need to have a
good understanding of how and when sponsorship works
to maximize its value.
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References:
Christensen, S. (2006). Measuring consumer reactions to
sponsoring partnerships based upon emotional and attitudinal
responses. International Journal of Market Research, 4, 61-80.
Funk, D.C., Haugtvedt, C.P. & Howard, D.R. (2000). Contemporary
attitude theory in sport: theoretical considerations and implications,
Sport Management Review, Vol. 3, pp. 124-44.
Funk, D.C. & Pastore, D.L. (2000), Equating attitudes to
allegiance: the usefulness of elected attitudinal information in
segmenting loyalty to professional sports teams, Sport Marketing
Quarterly, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 175-84.
Gladden, J. M., Funk, D. C. 2001. Understanding brand loyalty in
professional sport: Examining the link between brand association
and brand loyalty. International Journal of Sports Marketing and
Sponsorship 3 (2), 67-94.
Gwinner, K., & Swanson, S. (2003). A model of fan identification:
Antecedents and sponsorship outcomes. Journal of Services
Marketing, 17, 275-294.
Tomasini, N., Frye, C., & Stotlar, D. (2004). National Collegiate
Athletic Association corporate sponsor objectives: Are there
differences between Divisions I-A, I-AA, and I-AAA? Sport
Marketing Quarterly, 13, 216-226.
Wann, D.L., Melnick, M., Russell, G. and Pease, D. (2001), Sport
Fans: The Psychology and Social Impact of Spectators, Routledge,
New york, Ny.
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562
QUALITy DIMENSIONS OF WEBSITE
DEVELOPMENT IN KINESIOLOGy
FACULTIES
Author:
Mahdi Bigdely
email:
mahdibigdely@gmail.com
Co-authors:
co-authors: Mahdi Bigdely (Allameh Tabatabaie University)
Batul ArabNarmi (Tehran University).
Author: Habib Honari (Allameh Tabatabaie University)
University:
Allameh Tabatabaie University
Abstract
Introduction
The Internet is growing rapidly and its speed is faster than
ever. The number of Internet users has grown significantly
over the last few years. The significance of such a huge
number is the dramatic increase in the speed and
frequency with which Internet data are exchanged.
As the number of internet users has grown, e-commerce
has become one of the major profit generating avenues for
sports organizations; understanding more about consumer
characteristics might be the first critical step in developing
an effective marketing strategy to capitalize on internet
traffic in order to maximize the profit generation potential
for sports organizations (Zhang et al, 2010).
The quality of the website in kinesiology faculties will help
sport marketers to provide rich services and information for
stakeholders, including students, professional teams,
people in the vicinity of the faculty and other potential
customers and consumer to sell services to them.
Literature Review
The websites are being used by organizations to achieve
their goals and may have different roles such as a
marketing or public relation (promotion) tool (Seo et al,
2008) Universities and faculties, as the leading scientific
organizations have been at the forefront of online service
provision. On-line access to transactions such as
enrolment, course delivery, course support, and library
lending are rapidly becoming standards within the sector.
Many universities now offer web portals, which provide an
integrated front end to information and applications for
various stakeholder groups. Ensuring that these services
meet quality requirements is essential to ensuring business
operations and stakeholder satisfaction (Mary Tate et al,
2007).
It is an issue of survival, providing new channels of income
and communication, branding their faculty and helping the
faculty to achieve his goals. The researchers in this paper
have tried to develop an evaluation tool of kinesiology
faculties websites quality to identify its quality dimensions;
based on general and proprietary website evaluation items.
Theoretical Framework
TAM (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989), adapted from the
theory of reasoned action, appears to be the most widely
accepted theory among information systems researchers.
TAM originally suggested that two beliefs " perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use " are instrumental in
explaining the variance in users intentions.
Methodology
Researchers of this survey developed a valid and reliable
questionnaire by studying literature review; it took 6
menthes to develop the questionnaire. Twelve IT
professors of Tehran University examined, commented and
finally confirmed the content validity of the questionnaire.
The questionnaire consisted of 30 questions, and it had
two dimensions of perception and expectation which were
scored by scale. Perceived and expected status of
websites were chosen by Tehran s P.E students using a
five-point Likert scale, where 1 = Totally Disagree and 5 =
Totally Agree .
Cronbach's alpha coefficient was examined to provide
evidence of the internal consistency of the instrument. The
alpha score computed using Split two was =.87.
Out of 250 distributed questionnaires, 203 were returned.
Collected data were analyzed using SPSS 17. Kolmogorov
Smirnov test (K S test), was employed to test the normality
of the distribution and to select whether to use parametric
or nonparametric tests for data analysis. Analyzing outputs
showed that the factors significance is less than 0.05, so
the nonparametric tests were selected for further analysis.
Four dimensions of web site quality in kinesiology faculties
were identified using exploratory factor analysis as:
Objectively, correctness, Privacy, Accuracy of information
and Authority.
The findings of this research will result in a tool for sport
marketers and managers in kinesiology faculties to
evaluate the quality of their website and guide them
through improving its quality in all services the website
provides, so that future students and stakeholders would
benefit from a rich source of information and also a full
information and communication tool to retrieve requested
services immediately.
Identified dimensions in this survey will lead not only the
directors of kinesiology faculties, but also the sport
marketers and other sport managers to identifying any
shortfalls (the what) in their website, and guide them to
root causes (the why) to implement appropriate corrective
actions (the how). So they can have a better service for
the students and customers and also better return of
investment on their web sites, at the end resulting satisfied
users..
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References:
Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R. (1989). User
acceptance of computer technology: A comparison of two
theoretical models. Management Science, 35, 982-1002.
Mary Tate1, Joerg Evermann1, Beverley Hope2, Stuart
Barnes3,Perceived Service Quality in a University Web Portal:
Revising the E-Qual Instrument, Proceedings of the 40th Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences 2007
Seo, W.J., Green, B.C., (2008): Development of the Motivation
Scale for Sport Online Consumption, Journal of Sport Management,
2008, 22, 82-109
Zhu Zhang, Doyeon Won, (2010). Buyer or browser? An analysis
of sports fan behavior online, International Journal of Sports
Marketing & Sponsorship l JANUARy 2010
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564
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INFLUENCE OF THE PRESENCE OF
PROFESSIONALS WHO HOLD A
BACHELORS DEGREE IN THE SCIENCE
OF PHySICAL ACTIVITy AND SPORT
ON THE SUPPLy OF SERVICES
AVAILABLE AT FITNESS CENTERS IN
MADRID
Author:
Carlos Boned
email:
cj.boned@gmail.com
Co-authors:
[Garca-Merino], [Sonia];
[Felipe], [Jos Luis];
[Moral], [Susana];
[Martn], [Mara];
University:
Universidad Europea de Madrid
Faculty:
Theory, Recreation and Organization of Sport
Abstract
Aim of paper
To analyze whether the presence of professionals with
bachelor degrees in the Science of Physical Activity and
Sport at the fitness centers in Madrid have any relationship
with health-oriented services available, particularly services
to special populations, personal training, conducting
functional assessments, and the administration of pre-
exercise questionnaires in the fitness centers. Therefore
the main aim was: Effects of professionals holding a BA
degree on Madrid fitness centers' activities.
Fitness activities have become one of the alternatives to
physical activity for much of the population, evolving in
parallel with the developed societies (Boned, 2010; Garca
2011). Thus, people who practice this type of exercise,
seek to enjoy a complete set of services where there is a
balance between intellectual components, and social and
physical development beyond the physical fitness
components in isolation (Corrales, 2010). In this new field,
the professionals who design, implement, monitor and
evaluate exercise programs in fitness centers are
becoming vital for their success (Viallon, Camy & Collins,
2003), and their professional qualifications are one of the
variables that have been identified as key to their
professional success (Gavin, 2007; Jimnez, 2005).
However, there is a deficiency in the Spanish environment
of rigorous studies that address this issue. A study carried
out in 2003 on a sample of 145 professionals in the fitness
sectors of Madrid and Barcelona, it was discovered that
22.2% of them held a bachelor degree in the Science
Physical Activity and Sport (Boned, Rodrguez & Lpez,
2003). On the other hand, Eroski (2006) discovered that
one of each seven Spanish Fitness Centers developed a
pre-exercise test with their clients and only the 18% had a
medical service. In relation to the presence of the personal
training, Boned, Garca & Martn (2009) detected that one
of each two fitness centers in the Madrid area, had that
service.
The sample unit was a private fitness center located in the
community of Madrid. To determine the sample size, a
census was performed on this type of facility, since there
was not to date any reference that would provide this
information (N=409). The sample was selected and
stratified geographically through a random selection of that
census calling by phone to set the interviews. The result
was 49.3% (n = 202) of the sampling, allowing extract
results extrapolated to the entire population with a
confidence level of 95% and a margin of sampling error of
5.
For the data collection, an Ad Hoc questionnaire was
developed and administered through a personal interview
with the manager of each of the centers with an average
interview duration of 40 minutes.
The variables used for statistical analysis were: 1.
Presence of a bachelors degree in Physical Activity and
Sport in the fitness center, 2. Presence of exercise
programs designed exclusively for people with special
needs, 3. Presence of personal training services in the
fitness center 4. Application of functional assessments in
the fitness center 5. The use of pre-exericse physical
fitness questionnaires in the centers.
To test the possible relationships between variables, Chi-
square tests were performed to determine the exact
calculation of probability. The cutoff points were the Z
values for significance levels 0.05 ( 1.96) and 0.01 (
2.57). For all of these tests, significance was set at p
<0.05.
Of the 202 fitness centers analyzed, 63.9% had
professionals with a bachelor degree in Science of
Physical Activity, 34.6% included exercise programs
targeted for populations with special needs, 45.5% offered
personal training, 50.0% possessed the ability to perform
functional assessments for their clients and only 37.6%
administered pre-exercise physical fitness questionnaires
to new customers.
The statistical analysis revealed a positive relationship
between the presence of bachelor degree program
graduates in Science of Physical Activity and Sport and all
the variables studied: offering exercise programs aimed at
special populations (x2= 18.040; p <0.000), personal
training service (x2 = 22.832; p <0.000), functional
assessments (x2= 14.324; p <0.000) and fitness
questionnaires (x2= 10.011; p <0.001).
Therefore, we could conclude that in the centers surveyed,
the presence of bachelor degree holding professionals
seems to have a positive impact on the services available,
identifying bachelor degree recruitment as an added value
for these types of organizations. References:
Boned, C.J. (2010). Actitudes y comportamientos relacionados con
la actividad fsica de los habitantes del rea metropolitana de
Madrid. PhD Dissertation. Madrid: Universidad Europea de Madrid.
Boned, C.J., Garca, S. & Martn, M. (2009). Situacin actual de
los servicios de entrenamiento personal en los centros de fitness.
In G. Hernando (Coord.). Nuevas tendencias del entrenamiento
personal, pp. 49-57. Barcelona: Paidotribo.
Boned, C.J., Rodrguez, G. & Lpez, P. (2003). Aproximacin a la
situacin de los profesionales en el sector del fitness. In Actas de I
Congreso Internacional de Gestin deportiva de Canarias (pp.239-
240). Las Palmas de Gran Canaria: ACAGEDE.
Eroski (2006). La atencin y el asesoramiento al cliente de los
gimnasios siguen en baja forma. Consumer Eroski, 117, 35-41.
Corrales, A.R. (2010). El fitness entendido como ocio actual
saludable. Revista de Transmisin del Conocimiento Educativo y
de la Salud. 2(1), 14-29.
Garca, S. (2011). Caractersticas de los centros de fitness de
titularidad privada de la Comunidad de Madrid. PhD Dissertation.
Madrid: Universidad Europea de Madrid.
Gavin, J. (2007). IDEA Fitness Industry Compensation Survey
2006. IDEA Fitness Journal. Recovered of: www.ideafit.com, April
27th 2010.
Jimnez, A. (2005). El entrenamiento personal hoy en da. In A.
Jimnez (Ed.), Entrenamiento Personal. Bases Fundamentales y
Aplicacin, (pp. 1-12). Barcelona: INDE.
Viallon, R., Camy, J. & Collins, M.F. (2003). The European
integration of a new occupation, the training and education
strategies of national professional organizations: the case of the
fitness sector in France and the United Kingdom. Managing
Leisure, 8, 85-96.
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566
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FANS
INTEREST AND MEDIA COVERAGE:
THROUGH CLASSIFICATION OF THE
MLB RIVALRy TyPES
Author:
Hyung-Min Kim
email:
hk28@indiana.edu
Co-authors:
Antonio Williams, PhD Choonghoon Lim, PhD Dae yeon
Kim Wanyong Choi
University:
Indiana University
Faculty:
Kinesiology
Abstract
Introduction
Competition is evident throughout all levels of sport.
Particularly, the level of competiveness is often regarded
as the perceived value in consumers mind. It is through
competition that rivalries are formed. These rivalries may
have originated from factors such as the geographic
location of the teams, league conferences and divisions,
and competitive history. Moreover, sport rivalries are
unique to the teams, players, fans, and cities involved. The
competitive relationship amongst sport rivals creates a
bond between fans. Rivalry fans not only consume sports
in various manners and various levels, but they are
becoming a prime target for sport marketers and sponsors.
Rivalries exist in other industries as well. Rivalries relative
to sport, however, have the ability to bring in direct
monetary profits for both teams due to the ability to charge
price premiums for tickets and the increased media
coverage given to rivalries.
Literature Review
Sports rivalries are built by skilled athletes and coaches
who compete, season after season, in high-pressure
games, creating vivid traditions that flourish with the
passing years. Koo and Hardin(2008) stated that there is
an emotional attachment to team rivalries, thus marketers
should take advantage of this and promote the idea of
rivalry in every sport. Additionally, Luellen and Wann(2010)
stated that rival salience is particularly valuable for sport
marketers to use in an effort to increase levels of fan
identification. Moreover, print media has been highly
appreciative of the unique value of sports. Many sports
fans purchase and read newspapers for the variety and in-
depth coverage given to sport(Pedersen, Miloch, &
Laucella, 2007). According to Coakley(2009), 25% of the
content in major newspapers are devoted to sport. As
such, it is important to understand the types of sport
rivalries prevalent in the media as well as those among
sport fans.
Aim of Paper
Although sport rivalries are an important part of the sport
product, to date there has been no prior research
investigating the relationship between sport rivalries and
media coverage. The purpose of this study was to
1)categorize a rivalry typology, 2)investigate which rivalry
types are more attractive to fans, 3)determine whether
sport consumer s rivalry tastes are reflected in print media.
Methodology
An online survey was conducted by students who were
enrolled in sport management courses at a large
Midwestern University in the United States, and Facebook
users(i.e., social media website users) registered on the
fan pages of all 30 Major League Baseball(MLB) teams. It
was the most effective way for data recruiting and survey
administrations. The sample (n=102) consists of 70.6%
males and 29.4% females. Based on the survey data, the
rivalry types were classified (see Table 1). The current
study also investigated how the rivalry types influence the
sports consumption behaviors. Additionally, a content
analysis was performed to investigate print media
preferences given to MLB rivalry types. Newspaper(33.9%)
was the third most used media for fans to get news about
their favorite team. The scope of the content analysis
utilized MLB articles found in the USA Today, a nationwide
daily newspaper with significant amount of sport coverage,
from April to July 2010 (i.e., the first half of the regular
season). . Since an inter-coder reliability coefficient of 95%
was found, results were considered acceptable for this
study.
Results/Discussion
MLB rivalry types were classified by common categorical
criteria. Respondents considered same
division/league(35.6%) as the most important criteria,
followed by geographic adjacency(26.7%), and history
between teams(15.3%). Interestingly, the data analysis
revealed fans were significantly willing to spend more
money for the rivalry ticket based on their preference
ordering (F (1,86)=65.31, p<.05, =.43). For instance,
mean score of the spending for the division/league rival
game was $70, while subjects were willing to pay only $58
for the games with two geographically adjacent teams, and
$27 for the game of the historic rivalry.
The content analysis results showed a total of 250 MLB
articles were found among 1,569 articles in the sports
section. Among the total MLB articles, only nine(3.6%)
were related to rivalries, of which five(55.5%) were
division/league rivalries, two(22.2%) were historic rivalries,
and two(22.2%) were geographical rivalries.
The results of this study provide a better understanding of
the type of rivalries considered prevalent among MLB fans
and the amount of media coverage devoted to each.
Certain types of preferred fan rivalries could be applied to
the strategic marketing initiatives of sport organizations.
Since the scope of this study is limited to MLB rivalries,
future studies should attempt to investigate other
professional leagues in order to classify rivalry types
inclusive of all sports.
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References:
Coakley, J. J., & Donnelly, P. (2009). Sport in society: Issues and
controversies (10 ed.). McGraw-Hill: New york.
Davies, R. (2010). Rivals! The Ten Greatest American Sports
Rivalries of the 20th Century. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Koo, G., & Hardin, R. (2008). Difference in interrelationship
between spectators' motives and behavioral intentions based on
emotional attachment. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 17(1), 30.
Luellen, T. B., & Wann, D. L. (2010). Rival Salience and Sport
Team Identification. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 19, 97-106.
Pedersen, P. M., Miloch, K. S., & Laucella, P. C. (2007). Strategic
sport communication. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL.
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568
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THE TIGHT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
BRAZIL AND PORTUGAL: ANALySIS OF
THE INTERNATIONAL TRANSFERS OF
FOOTBALL PLAyERS
Author:
Maria Jos Carvalho
email:
mjc@fade.up.pt
Co-authors:
Ribeiro, Diana Atade (1) Cruz, Joana (2) Batista, Paula (3)
Chacon, Maria Ligia (4) (1) Undergraduate Student,
Faculty of Sport, University of Porto (2) Undergraduate
Student, Faculty of Letters, University of Porto (3) PhD and
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto
(4) Master Student, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto
University:
University of Porto
Faculty:
Faculty of Sport
Abstract
Currently, football is self-assumed as the most popular
sport in the continents of Europe, America and Africa, as
well as it is also growing in Asia (Frick, 2007; Matheson,
2006). This worldwide relevance grants to it an intervention
ability beyond the four lines of the field, transforming its
outcomes into breeding ground for studies within the social
sciences (Murad, 2007). In parallel to this attribution of
meaning by the investigation, football detains a special
position in the business world and in the new global
industry of entertainment (Carravetta, 2006)
.
Alongside to this phenomenon, it is more and more verified
the emergence of sportive brokers, the so-called football
agents, whose main function is to intermediate
negotiations between players and clubs interested in hiring
them.
This present work aimed to analyze the transfers market
between Brazil and Portugal, two countries with increased
numbers of negotiations all throughout the last years, as
well as to analyze their current legislation regarding the
new profession of football agent. In the current scenario,
according to FIFA, there are around 5.842 football agents
licensed by their national entities, in which we find Brazil
with 333 licensed professionals and Portugal with 59.
Relatively to the transfers of athletes, in accordance with
data from the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF, in
Portuguese) in the last five years (2005-2009) there were
897 Brazilians exported to Portugal, representing 18% of
the total of transfers in this period (4.933 athletes). On the
other side, there were effectuated returns to Brazil of 441
athletes, which represents 17% of a total of 2.657
footballers between these same years. Portugal is by far
the favorite destination for Brazilian footballers, and
consequently Brazil is the country that most receives
players coming back from Portugal.
Historically, with the end of the reserve clause assured in
law in Brazil (Pele Law) and with the rule of free circulation
within Member Countries of the European Union, aligned
with the decision of the Bosman Ruling, it has been
assured the proceedings of freedom of work and choice for
each footballer (Amado, 2002). In parallel, the profession
of football agent was regulated by FIFA in 1995 and later,
in 2001, by each one of the national
federations/confederations around the globe. Specifically
for the target countries of this study, in Brazil there is the
Consolidation of Work Laws (CLT, in Portuguese) for the
agents labor protection, and its applications also count
with influence of Law 9.615/98 (Pele Law) in relations to
the formalities of the negotiations between clubs and
players. Apart from that, in Portugal there are more specific
legislations, such as the Framework Law of Physical
Activity and Sport (LBAFD, in Portuguese) and the Law
28/98, which regulates the sportive work contract.
The proposal of this study was to analyze the quantities of
transactions between Brazil and Portugal, evaluate all
national and international legislations in vigor about the
transfers of professional players, understand the concept
and implication of the football agent, and also the effective
labor-juridical applications of them in the football market.
The study corpus was a bibliographical research in
scientific articles and other academic productions, all
quantitative data available by the football entities in this
study (CBF, FIFA, FPF) and a set of official/legal
documents from them.
The collection of data was done in the databases of the
Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (EBSCO,
Academic Search and Scopus), in the national and
international football entities websites, in law books and in
regulations and laws related to this activity. The data was
analyzed using the Excel program for the quantity analysis,
the assistance of NVivo 9 program for the content analysis
and crossing of information from the various sources of
documents available.
The results indicate that the international transfers are
more and more present in the football realities of Brazil
and Portugal, but both countries show a great concern in
the improvement of their football management, making
usage of a set of legislations and regulations for the legal
framework of the sport. It is also point out that these
countries are in accordance with FIFAs regulations and
that despite the enormous number of international
transfers between them, both are supported legally to face
this market..
References:
Carravetta, E. S. (2006). Modernizao da Gesto no Futebol
Brasileiro: Perspectivas para a qualificao do rendimento
competitivo. Porto Alegre/RS: Editora AGE Ltda.
Frick, B. (2007). The football players' labor market: empirical
evidence from the major European Leagues. Scottish Journal of
Political Economy, 54(3), 422 a 446.
Matheson, V. (2006). European Football (Soccer). In J. Fizel (Ed.),
Handbook of sports economics research. New york: M.E. Sharpe,
Inc.
Murad, M. (2007). A violncia e o futebol: dos estudos clssicos
aos dias de hoje. Rio de Janeiro: Editora FGV.
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TOWARDS ORGANIZACIONAL
LEARNING IN SPANISH SPORT
ORGANIZATIONS: A PILOT STUDy FOR
INSTRUMENT ADAPTATION
Author:
Marta Garca-Tascn
email:
margata@upo.es
Co-authors:
Garca-Tascn, Marta
Venerandi, Marcelo
Gallardo Guerrero, Leonor
University:
University of Pablo de Olavide (Sevilla)
Faculty:
Faculty of Sport (Department Sport and IT)
Abstract
The aim of this research is to assess the validity and
reliability of the measurement scores of the learning
organization culture, the Dimensions of Learning
Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ), at Spanish Sport
Organizations. A pilot test was conducted. A total of 136
participants from 11 Public Sport Municipalities were
analyzed.
Precise translation procedures (including both forward and
backward processes) have been applied to ensure the
relevance of this instrument used. As the results of
confirmatory factor analysis, simple item-internal
consistency estimates, and item intercorrelation analysis
show an adequate instrument to measure the learning
organization culture in the Public Sport Organizations.
LITERATURE REVIEW
An organization must always be ready to adapt, to create
and transferring knowledge and modifying its behaviour to
reflect new knowledge and insights. Interest in the learning
organization as the source of organizational success and
competitive advantage has been a strong focus in these
fields in past decades.
In recent years, Spanish Sport Organizations has been
rising and generating 1.6% of the Gross Domestic Product.
In addition, there has been an increase of: (1) sport
facilities (more than 79.000), (2) the practice of physical
activity (38%) and (3) the importance of individual
knowledge (human capital). This concept is contingent on
learning organization culture and organizational learning
process and has received increasing attention in the fields
of human resource development (HRD) and organization
development (OD).
The concept of the learning organization could be
explained as one that learns continuously and transforms
itself. . . Learning is a continuous, strategically used
process integrated with and running parallel to work . . . to
enhance organizational capacity for innovation and growth.
(Watkins and Marsick, 1993: 8).
It needs to be assessed an instrument in various cultural
settings and types of organizations. There have been
studies of the validation of the DLOQ in the Colombia,
China, United States, and Taiwan (Hernndez & Watkins,
2004; Lien, Hung, yang, & Li, 2006; yang, Watkins &
Marsick, 2004; Zhang, Zhang, & yang, 2004) to verify its
applicability.
This study can contribute to the organizational learning on
sport organizations by examining the validity and reliability
of the DLOQ. It will be beneficial instrument for many sport
organizations for helping them to apply strategies with
standardized measures.
METHODOLOGy
A total of the 136 participants from 16 Towns halls were the
respondents of this study. Almost 63% were male and 36%
female. In terms of function of work, 65% were sport
instructors, 27% were maintenance and cleaning
department, 26% were administrative and 18% were sport
managers.
The original version of the DLOQ consisted of 43 items
were used to measure the seven dimensions of learning
Continuous learning, Inquiry and dialogue, Team learning,
Embedded system, Empowerment, System connection and
Strategic leadership on a 7-point Likert scale (1-strongly
disagree, 7-strongly agree), (adapted from Watkins and
Marsick, 1993).
Firstly explorative factor analysis (EFA) is used to explore
underlying factors and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
to confirm the structure of study. Data analyses were made
using SPSS software for Windows 17.0 packages.
RESULTS, DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
To confirm the original version of DLOQ, first CFA was
studied. The chi square (x2 (136) = 4328,30) was
statistically significant (p < .001).
This study has verified the applicability of the DLOQ
providing internal consistency (reliability) = .958 which is
comparable to the original version. In addition, the results
of the analysis of variance hold that seven dimensions of
the DLOQ are a one-factor structure measuring (67,357%).
The results of this research has verified the applicability of
the DLOQ in different context, in this case for sport
organizations, providing internal consistency of each item s
reliability (from = .838 y = .907) and it is an adequate
tool for a quick snapshot of learning organizational culture.
It is important an empirical study with a large number of
sample and a comparative-longitudinal research between
with profit and nonprofits organizations.
Acceptable reliability estimates were obtained for the
seven proposed dimensions. Consequently, the instrument,
Dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire,
was recommended for use in Sport Organizations.
References:
Lien, B. y., yang, B. y Li, M. (2002). An examination of
psychometric properties of Chinese version of dimensions of
learning questionnaire (DLOQ) in Taiwanese context. Ohio:
Academy of Human Resource.
Watkins, K. & Marsick, V. (1993). Dimensions of Learning
Organization Questionnaire. Warwick: Parteners for the Learning
Organization.
yang, B., Watkins, K. E. & Marsick, V. J. (2004). The construct of
the learning organization: Dimensions, measurement, and
validation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 15, 3155.
Zhang, D., Zhang, Z. & yang, B. (2004). Learning organization in
mainland China: Empirical research on its application to Chinese
state-owned enterprises. International Journal of Training &
Development, 8, 258-273.
19
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572
INFLUENCE OF IDENTIFICATION OF
PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL ON
SPONSOR-EVENT FIT, SPONSOR
IMAGE AND ATTITUDE TOWARD BRAND
Author:
yong-Man Kim
email:
ymkim@dku.edu
Co-authors:
Jung-Hee, Jung(Dankook university)
Seung-Chul, Lee( Korea National Sport University)
Chong-Hwan, Sung(Dankook university)
University:
Dankook university
Faculty:
sport management
Abstract
It is reported that the harmony and consistency between
sponsors supporting each event with spectators spread to
spectators' positive attitude(Gwinner, 1997). On the basis
of this, this research aims at empirically inquiring into the
professional basketball spectators' identification of
professional basketball with themselves, relationship
between a sponsor and event fitness, and the relationship
between sponsor image and brand attitude through
structural equation model analysis.
This research selected a title sponsor of professional
basketball- Hyundai Mobis- as its survey target. As for
sampling and respondents, this research finalized a total of
300 female and male home spectators, aged over 20, with
100 spectators per the Busan KT, Incheon etland
Elephants and Jeonju KCC which rank first, second, and
third respectively in "the 2010-2011 Hyundai Mobis
Professional Baseketball."
This research used convenience sampling and had the
300 respondents draw up the questionnaire through a self-
administered method.
In addition, this research composed all questionnaire items
based on the precedent research and theory that
correspond with the research objective. In detail, this
research composed the questionnaire items through the
revision of Fisher(1998)'s 7 items for Identification of
Professional Basketball, of Speed & Thompson[2000]'s 5
items for sponsor-to-event fit of the 5 items used by
Javalgi, Traylor, Gross & Lampman(1994)and Pope &
Voges(2000]for sponsor image, and the revision of Speed
& Thompson(2000)'s 4 items for brand attitude respectively
to fit in with this research.
For data processing, this research used SPSSWIN Ver.
15.0 and AMOS 7.0.
In addition this research conducted confirmatory factor
analysis in order to examine the discriminant validity of
criteria of components used in this study. As for the
goodness of fit index of measuring model, it produced
generally satisfactory goodness of fit by showing
x2=284.629, df=162, p=.000, GFI=.907, CFI=.974,
NFI=.941, TLI=.969, RMR=.045. In addition, the
discriminant validity between composing concepts was
confirmed as 1.0 wasn't included in the reliability section of
correlation matrix. As a result of examining average
variance extract [AVE]in order to verify the convergent
validity, the square value(.423: .6502) of correlation
coefficient between the two composing concepts was
measured high, and this research was able to confirm the
convergent validity of each item by drawing more than .5 in
AVE.
In order to verify research hypotheses, this research
verified model fit composed of identification of professional
basketball, overall causal relationship between sponsor-to-
event fit and brand attitude; as a result, it was found to
comparatively meet the goodness of fit of model by
showing x2(df=163)=284.744, p=.000, GFI=.907,
CFI=.974, NFI=.941, TLI=.969, RMR=.045.
As a result of hypotheses verification, first, identification of
professional basketball was found to have a positive effect
on sponsor image. Second, sponsor-event fit was found to
have a positive effect on sponsor image. Third, sponsor
image was found to have a positive effect on brand
attitude. Fourth, sponsor-event fit was found to have a
significant effect on brand attitude.
Such results suggest that a title sponsor business is
advised to make efforts for marketing promotion strategy
so that consumers can perceive the professional
basketball-sponsor fit, and can operate positively in
sponsor image and brand attitude by doing events or
campaign related to professional basketball.
19
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References:
Fisher, R. J. (1998). Group-derived consumption: The role of
similarity and attractiveness in identification with a favorite sports
team. Advances in Consumer Research, 25(1), 83-88.
Gwinner, K. P., & Bennett, G. (2008). The impact of brand
cohesiveness and sport identification brand fit in a sponsorship
context. Journal of Sport Management, 22(4), 410-426.
McDaniel, S. R. (1997). An investigation of match-up effects in
sponsorship advertising: The implications of consumer advertising
schemas. Psychology & Marketing, 16(2), 163-184.
Speed, P., & Thompson, P. (2000). Determinants of sports
sponsorship response. Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 28(2), 226-238.
Javalgi, R. G., Trayor, M. B., Gross, A. C., & Lampman, E. (1994).
Awareness of sponsorship and corporate image: An empirical
investigation. Journal of Advertising, 25(1), 47-58.
19
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574
19
th
TOWN HALLS AND SPORT IN
CATALONIA
Author:
Adrian Martn
email:
adria.martin@gencat.cat
Co-authors:
Puig, Nuria
Junyent, Rosa
Vicens, Cosme
University:
Observatori Catal de l'Esport
Faculty:
Instituto Nacional de Educacin Fsica de Catalunya
Abstract
OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH
The Catalan Sports Observatory, conceived as a tool
generating knowledge for all the people and institutions
involved in the world of sport, has promoted the research
project Town halls and sport in Catalonia. The objective
of this study is to obtain statistical data which reflect the
real situation in the local management of sport. The
information obtained is of great value for the planning of
public sports policies, since the study supplies information
on current advantages and failures in the municipal sports
systems.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The study is based on theoretical foundations which were
developed by means of two questions. The first was: How
are town halls organised and what relationships do they
establish with other organisations in developing their sports
offer? There are earlier studies in relation to this theme,
regarding both the public offer (Burriel, 1991; Garca
Ferrando, 2000 and 2001) and the associative offer
(General Secretariat of Sport, 2010; Gambau, 2002;
Heinemann et al., 1997). Today, management cannot be
analysed simply in terms of what happens within the
organisation; we also need to see how that organisation is
positioned with respect to others which, although not
having proprietorial rights over it, can substantially
influence its way of doing things. To reflect this change of
perspective, we no longer speak of government of the
organisation but of governance (Camy & Robinson, 2008;
Heinemann, 2003). Stakeholder theory has been used in
studying these relationships (Mitchell et al., 1997), and has
been applied to the sports case, among others, by
Chappelet and Bayle (2005), Heinemann (2003) and Slack
(2000).
With regard to the second question: Which structural
characteristics do they have and what are their advantages
and failures? Institutional Choice Theory has been used,
applied in the sports ambit by Heinemann (1998:67-90).
According to this theory, the three main types of
organisations (public, commercial and associative) have
intrinsic structural characteristics from which, according to
cases, advantages and failures can be deduced.
METHODOLOGy
The method used for the research was based on verbal
interviews (face to face) with a questionnaire. From the
objective of the study the ten dimensions of the project
were defined.
I. Background in relation to creating the service
II. Relations of the service with other organisations
III. Management of the service
IV. Financial resources
V. Human resources
VI. Sports facilities
VII. Offer of municipal activities
VIII. Management of information and communication
Ix. Sport and sustainability
x. The organisational culture of the Sports Service
The sample was taken from 102 municipalities (universe
221) in the province of Girona and 120 (universe 311) in
that of Barcelona. In dealing with a universe of less than
100,000 cases the relevant statistical formula was applied,
to guarantee a 95% level of confidence and a margin of
error below 7%. The procedure used was stratified multi-
stage random sampling, where the strata were bands of
numbers of inhabitants in each municipality.
RESULTS
The legal figures most adopted in the organisation of the
Sports Service are the department and the independent
body, the latter being better valued because it speeds up
the management of the service. However, more than 55%
of the town halls have no legal figure, only a post on the
local council. Also, in half (52.8%) the municipalities the
post dealing with Sport also has other functions, among
which are, in order of importance: youth and/or Children,
Festivals, Culture and Education.
The profile of the person occupying the post for Sports is
usually that of a man aged around 43 years. Nearly half
have university studies, a feature which has considerably
increased with respect to the last study (Burriel, 1991: 45).
The number of women holding the Sports post is lower, at
around 20% in Girona and 30% in Barcelona. With regard
to the presence of women in decision-making posts there
is considerable imbalance: only 27% of the managers of
Sports Services are women.
Most of the municipal sports facilities are managed directly.
In the case of facilities which can generate income, there
is a tendency to adopt indirect forms of management by
means of an administrative concession. The services
which tend to be outsourced more are, in order of
importance, first-aid, monitoring, sports fields and cleaning.
The sports budget represents 6.8% on the total municipal
budget, which means an increase of 2% with respect to
1989 (Burriel, 1991). In relation to the offer of activities in
municipalities, this is centred mainly on the differentiation
of groups according to age, without segmenting them into
specific groups according to their needs, for example, the
disabled or people with a risk of social exclusion. References:
BURRIEL, J.C. (1990). Poltiques esportives municipals a la
provncia de Barcelona. Barcelona: Diputaci de Barcelona.
GARCIA FERRANDO, M. (2000). La gestin deportiva municipal:
adaptabilidad y cambio. In La gestin de las instalaciones
deportivas: el reto del siglo xxI. Barcelona, SEAE, 91-106.
GARCIA FERRANDO, M. (2001). La gestin del deporte en el
mbito municipal: de la promocin a la fidelizacin del cliente. In
LATIESA, M.; MARTOS, P.; PANIZA, J.L., ed. Deporte y cambio
social en el umbral del siglo xxI, Madrid: Libreras Deportivas
Esteban Sanz, S.L. (Asociacin Espaola de Investigacin Social
aplicada al deporte, Investigacin social y deporte, 5), vol. I, 294-
317.
GAMBAU, V. (2002). Estudio de la organizacin de los clubes
deportivos en Galicia: un anlisis emprico. Universidade Da
Corua, Instituto Nacional de Educacin Fsica de Galicia. Tesi
doctoral no publicada.
HEINEMANN, K.; PUIG, N. LOPEZ, C.; MORENO, A., (1997) Clubs
deportivos en Espaa y Alemania: una comparacin terica y
emprica. In Apunts. Educacin Fsica y Deportes, (49), 40-62.
SECRETARIA GENERAL DE LESPORT (2010). Els clubs
esportius a Catalunya. Esplugues de Llobregat: Consell Catal de
lEsport.
19
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576
CREATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
SPORTS OBSERVATORIES
Author:
Anna Vilanova
email:
anvilanova@gmail.com
Co-authors:
Jimnez Martn,Pedro Jess
Dorado,Alberto
University:
INEFC Barcelona
Abstract
The spread and scope of new information technologies
and increasing Internet access in society calls for new
skills in this knowledge society (Castells, 2000). This
papers looks at knowledge management by means of new
information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the
world of sport, particularly through Observatories of Sport.
Specifically, the paper made an analysis of four sports
observatories two from Spain and two from France: The
Catalan Sports Observatory, Sevilla Observatory of Sport,
the Aquitane Regional Observatory of Sport, and the
Lorient Observatory of Sport in Lorient.
The main objective of this study was to look at the process
of creation and the working dynamics of the sport
observatories.
The methods used for the data collection were semi-
structured interviews (conducted to the policy makers,
managers and technicians of each observatory).
The main results show that the observatories are created
as tool whose main objective is informational (knowledge
management, data collection and monitoring of the
evolution of sports phenomenon) and pragmatic (support in
making decisions in the spheres of competence and
evaluating sports policies.).
The Catalan Spots Observatory and the Aquitane Regional
Observatory of Sport are addressed to individuals and
organisations involved in the field of sport and the other
observatories they are mainly addressed to managers and
policy makers.
The tasks developed within the observatories are divided
in two main areas: administrative (web maintenance,
invoices, requests for permissions, etc..), and investigation
(preparation and compilation of reports, development of
studies and research). The common denominator that we
can observe is that the final institutions that they are
involved with the preparation of the studies, reports and
research are the Universities.
One of the applications of this study is that having more
idea about how and why the observatories are created and
how are they developed that will help on the knowledge
management of the sports system.
References
19
th
Castells, M. (2000). The Rise of the Network Society, Second
Edition. U.S.: Blackwell Publishing.
19
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578
Call for Workshops, 20th EASM Conference,
Aalborg 2012
EASM invites members to organise workshops on sub-
themes of sport management at the 20th EASM
Conference held in Aalborg, Denmark, 2012. Members
interested in organising a workshop should submit the
following information by email to both the Chair of the
Scientific Committee (Hallgeir.Gammelsater@himolde.no)
and the Vice-chair Veerle De Bosscher
(vdebossc@vub.ac.be) quoting Workshop Proposal in the
subject line:
1. The title of the Workshop
2. The argument and expected demand for the
Workshop
3. The expected format of the Workshop (such as
panels, presentation of small or full papers etc.)
4. The names, institutions, email addresses, phone
numbers and research fields of the conveners (should
be minimum 2 maximum 4, and representing more
than one country)
5. A brief biography of each convener, and in the case
of scientific workshops the conveners most relevant
international publications should be cited.
6. A short description of the proposed Workshop
(maximum 500 words), to include four key words that
capture its essence
7. A list of sub-themes / topics that the conveners
expect to attract papers or presentations. Please refer
to the history of the Workshop if it was already staged
in previous EASM conferences
8. The name of the lead convener. This person will be
responsible for the review and final acceptance of the
papers in the Workshop, the coordination of conveners,
and for communication with the scientific committee of
the Conference as well as with colleagues at EASM
involved in organizing the Conference
9. A short description of the lead conveners previous
experiences of organizing conference Workshops or
other relevant information on the lead conveners
organization capabilities
The deadline for submission of a Workshop proposal is
October 15, 2011.
19
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AUTHORS LIST
Adriaanse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Alfs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Alhakami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Aliabadi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Anagnostopoulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Andersen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Apostolopoulou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Aquilina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Araujo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Arcioni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Atghia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Auge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Avgerinou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Avourdiadou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Baines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Balaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Bason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Bastos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Bigdely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103, 563
Bodet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Boned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Bontikoulis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Borges Albernaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Bradish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Breuer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Broadbent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Brockett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Brooke-Holmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Brouwers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Brown, A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Brown, M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Byers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Byon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Calabuig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Calada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Carey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Carvalho, M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Carvalho, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Chacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Charalambous-Papamiltiades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Chatrath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Chatziefstathiou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Chen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Chung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Clements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443
Coppes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Crabtree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Cruz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
19
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580
De Andrade e Silva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
De Bosscher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
De Carvalho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
De Croock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
De Haan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Devine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Doherty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Donnelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Donohoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Drayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Durchholz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Egli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Ellert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Ellis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Emery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Engelberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fahlstrm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Felipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Filho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Filo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Freitas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Fujiwara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Gallardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Garca, B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
Garcia, J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Garcia-Merino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Garcia-Tascon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Gargalianos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Ghafouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Gibson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Giddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Goldman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Grady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Gratton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Hallmann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
Hansen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Hanstad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Hashem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Heshka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Hillnhagen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Ho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Hoeber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Horbel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Hur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Huth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Junod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Kao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Kaplanidou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Kappelides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Karg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Knecke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Kelly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
19
th
Kent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Kenyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Kerwin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Kim, HM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Kim, NS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Kim, S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Kim, Sy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Kim, y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Kim, yM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Kloek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Knott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Koenigstorfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Kokolakis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Kourtesopoulou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Kunkel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Kurscheidt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Kuzmicheva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Kwak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Kyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Laakso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Larson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Lpez de D'Amico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Lee, JS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Lee, S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Legg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Lelore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Leopkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Lorgnier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Lovett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Lucassen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Lucidarme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Luz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
MacIntosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Magherman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Mahan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Martn, A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Martin, D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Martnez del Castillo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Mason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Masterman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Matsui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Matsuoka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Mazzei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
McConnell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
McDonald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
McKelvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Mehus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Meng, M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Meng, y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Michelini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Misener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Moesch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
19
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582
Morales Parra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Moriarty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Morrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Mrkonjic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Mull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Mutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Nadeau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
O'Gorman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Ogasawara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Orejan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Paiement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Papaioannou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Paramio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Pataco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Pawlowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Perck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Pereira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Piekarz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Qualizza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Radicchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Ramos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Robinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Rodrigues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Rodriguez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Rodrguez-Pomedar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Romeo-Velilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Rumpf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Salome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Sanchez-Fernandez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Santacruz Lozano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Santomier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Schafmeister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Schiphof-Godart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Schlesinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Schnitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Schoenberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Senaux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Shamansouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Shibata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Shibli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Shih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Shilbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Siffredi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Skille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Skirstad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Smilde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Soares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Solberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Solenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Sousa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Strbel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
19
th
Tanaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Teague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Terzoudis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Thibaut, E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Thibault, L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Thurston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
To . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Tolka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Trendafilova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Trigonis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Truyens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Tsitskari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Tsukahara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Turco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Turner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Tymviou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Tzetzis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Upright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Urrutia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Van Dalfsen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Van Hoecke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Van Lindert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Vernhet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Vilanova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Vrondou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Wagner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Walraven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Walsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Weed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Werner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Winand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Witkemper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
yfantidou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
yoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Zhuang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Zysko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
19
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