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ELECTRICAL MACHINES
LABORATORY I





























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CONTENTS

PREPARATION OF LABORATORY REPORTS.3
WARNINGS4


EXPERIMENT 1...............................................................................................................................5
SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE POWER MEASUREMENT: Measuring Power and the
Power Factor

EXPERIMENT 2.12
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER: Voltage and Current Waveforms, Hysteresis Loop

EXPERIMENT 3.19
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER: Open and Short Circuit Tests, Regulation and
Efficiency

An Introduction to DC Machines...28
Supplementary Notes for DC Machines

EXPERIMENT 4.31
DC MACHINES: Magnetization Curve of a DC Machine

EXPERIMENT 5.36
DC GENERATORS: Load Characteristics of Separately and Shunt Excited Generators

EXPERIMENT 6.42
DC MOTORS: Output Characteristic of Series and Shunt Motors


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IMPORTANT!!!!!

PREPARATION OF LABORATORY REPORTS


Each report contain the sections given below:

1- TITLE

This section should include the following:
a) The number of the experiment.
b) The title of the experiment.
c) The date of the experiment is performed and the lab group (day/hour).

2- EXPERIMENTAL WORK

This section should include all the data recorded during the experiment. The data should be given
in tabular form and clearly labelled. Oscilloscope waveforms should be given in graphical form
and drawn on millimetric graph paper.

3- RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The results of the calculations should be given in tabular and/or graphical forms. While performing
calculations on tabular data, there is no need to show the calculations for each set of data. Just one
sample calculation for the whole table is sufficient. For the remaining set of data, only the results
are required.

In this section, students must answer the questions in Results and Conclusion part of the
experiment. These questions will guide you in deriving various conclusions from the experiment;
so the questions should always be answered regarding the results obtained from the experimental
procedure. In some situation, referring to text/reference book and lecture notes may be necessary.

Note that this section is the most important part of your reports. The grade you receive from your
reports will be based mainly on this part.

EVERY REPORT SHOULD INCLUDE COMMENTS ON
RESULTS EVEN IF NOT MENTIONED. WITHOUT COMMENTS
YOUR REPORTS WILL BE EVALUATED %60 OFF THE
HIGHEST GRADE!!!!!!!
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IMPORTANT!!!!!

WARNINGS


In the machinery laboratory, you will be working with rotating machinery. As the electrical
machines operate at high speed, touching or holding the rotating part is extremely dangerous
during the operation. Ties, scarves, jewellery etc. should not be worn during the experiment.
Students with long hair should especially be careful.

Never forget the fact that you will be working with voltages and currents, which may be
hazardous to human life. Use one hand only while making or checking terminal connections;
even if you know that the supply is switched off.

Make sure that your assistants have checked your setup before switching on the supply and
proceeding with the experiment.

Machinery experiments require teamwork and coordination, both for the successful completion
of an experiment and the safety of the group members. Therefore, be careful at all instants of
the experiments.

Do not start an experiment before you have fully read and understood the Experiment
section. Keep the object of the experiment in your mind, at least until you have finished your
work. It is also a good idea to read Results and Conclusion section before starting the
experiment, so that you know why you will be performing each step of the procedure and what
kind of data will be required from you in preparing the report.

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i(t)
+
-
v(t)
Figure 1.1 Voltage and current at
a pair of terminals


EXPERIMENT 1
SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE POWER MEASUREMENT
MEASURING POWER AND THE POWER FACTOR

1. PURPOSE
This experiment aims to show how to measure the steady-state power in circuits driven by
sinusoidal source. The calculation of the power factor is also discussed.

2. THEORY
In this experiment, we will concentrate on power calculations associated with steady-state
sinusoidal operation. Our primary interest is to determine the average power that is either delivered
to or extracted from a pair of terminals by a sinusoidal voltage and current.
Figure 1.1 shows the problem graphically. Here, v(t) and i(t) are steady-state sinusoidal signals.
The power at any instant of time is
) ( ) ( ) ( t i t v t p = .
The power is measured in watts when the voltage is in
volts and the current is in amperes.
First, we write expressions for v(t) and i(t):
) t cos( V ) t ( v
v m
+ =
and
) t cos( I ) t ( i
i m
+ =
where
v
is the voltage phase angle and
i
is the current phase angle.
We are operating in the sinusoidal steady-state, so we may choose any convenient reference for
zero time. This reference system requires a shift of both the voltage and current by
i
. Thus v(t)
and i(t) become
) t cos( V ) t ( v
i v m
+ = and t cos I ) t ( i
m
= .
When we substitute v(t) and i(t) into equation of p(t),
t cos ) t cos( I V ) t ( p
i v m m
+ = ,
which is the starting point for developing the expression for average power.

2.1. Real and Reactive Power
The average power associated with the sinusoidal signals is the average of the instantaneous power
over one period, or in equation form,
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-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
t
v,i,p
p p p
v v v
i
i
0
V
m
-V
m
I
m
-I
m
Figure 1.2 Instantaneous power, voltage and current for steady-
state sinusoidal operation

+
=
T t
t
dt ) t ( p
T
P
0
0
1

where T is the period of the sinusoidal function. The limit on this equation implies that we can
initiate the integration process at any convenient time
0
t but that we must terminate the integration
exactly one period later.
We could find the average power by substituting of instantaneous power equation into average
power equation and then performing the integration. When we use some trigonometric identities,
instantaneous power can be obtained as
t
I V I V I V
t p
i c
m m
i c
m m
i c
m m
2 sin ) sin(
2
- t 2 cos ) cos(
2
) cos(
2
) ( + = .
A careful study of this equation reveals the following characteristics of the instantaneous power.
1. The average value of P is given by the first term of the equation because the integral of either
t cos 2 or t sin 2 over one period is zero. Thus the average power is
cos( )
2
m m
v i
V I
P =
2. The frequency of the instantaneous power is twice the frequency of the voltage or current,
which follows directly from the second two terms on the right-hand side of the equation. Figure 1.2
shows a representative
relationship between v, i, and p.
Note that the instantaneous power
may be negative for a portion of
each cycle even if the network
between the terminals is passive.
In a completely passive network,
negative power implies that the
energy stored in inductors or
capacitors is now being extracted.
The fact that the instantaneous
power varies with time explains
why some motor-driven
appliances (such as a refrigerator)
vibrates and require resistivity to
prevent excessive vibration of the
appliance itself.
3. If the circuit between the
terminals is purely resistive, the voltage and current are in phase, which means that
i v
= . The
instantaneous power reduces to
t cos P P ) t ( p 2 + = .
This instantaneous power expression is referred to as the instantaneous real power. Average power
P is also referred to real power, a term used to describe power transformed from electrical to non-
electrical form.
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4. If the circuit between the terminals is purely inductive, the current lags the voltage by
o
90 (that
is,
o
90 =
v i
). In contrast, if the circuit between the terminals is purely capacitive, the voltage
lags the current by
o
90 (that is,
o
90 =
i v
). In both cases there is no transformation of energy
from electrical to non-electrical form. The expression for the instantaneous power of a purely
inductive load is
t 2
2
sin
I V
) t ( p
m m

= .
When p(t) is positive, energy is being stored in the magnetic fields associated with the inductive
elements. When p(t) is negative, energy is being extracted from the magnetic fields of the inductive
elements.
The expression for the instantaneous power of a purely capacitive load is
t 2
2
sin
I V
) t ( p
m m
= .
In the purely capacitive load (like as inductive load), the power oscillates between the source
driving the circuit and the electric field associated with the capacitive elements.
The power associated with purely inductive or capacitive is referred to as reactive power. Inductors
and capacitors are referred to as reactive elements in steady-state sinusoidal analysis because their
impedances are characterized as inductive reactance and capacitive reactance, respectively. In
instantaneous power equation, the coefficient of t sin is referred to as the reactive power and is
denoted Q. Hence
) sin(
I V
Q
i v
m m
=
2
.
If we use the notation for average and reactive power, we can express
t Qsin2 - t 2 cos ) ( P P t p + = .
P and Q carry the same dimension. However, in order to distinguish between real and reactive
power, we use the term var (volt-amper reactive) for reactive power. The decision to use the
current as the reference leads to Q being positive for inductors (that is,
o
90 =
i v
) and negative
for capacitors (that is,
o
90 =
i v
).
The angle
i v
is referred to as the power factor angle. The cosine of this angle is called power
factor (pf), and the sine of this angle is called the reactive factor (rf). Thus
) cos( pf
i
=
v

and
) sin( rf
i v
= .
Once, we know the magnitude of the power factor, we know the magnitude of the reactive factor.
However, the magnitude of the power factor does not give the sign of the reactive factor (or power
factor angle). To completely describe the reactive factor through the power factor, we use the
descriptive phrases lagging power factor and leading power factor. Lagging power factor implies
that current lags voltage, hence an inductive load. Leading power factor implies that current leads
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P
|S|
Q
Figure 1.3 The power triangle
voltage, hence a capacitive load. Both the power factor and the reactive factor are convenient
quantities to use in describing electrical loads.

2.2. The RMS Value and Power Calculations
A fourth important characteristic of the sinusoidal voltage (or current) is its rms value. The rms
value of a periodic function is defined as the square root of the mean value of the squared function.
Hence, if ) t cos( V ) t ( v
m
+ = , the rms value of v(t) is

+
+ =
T t
t
m rms
dt t V
T
V
0
0
) ( cos
1
2 2
.
From this equation, we obtain the mean value of the squared voltage by integrating
2
) t ( v over one
period, that is from
0
t to T t +
0
, and then dividing by the range of integration, T. Note that the
starting point for the integration
0
t is arbitrary.
Above equation gives the rms value as

2
m
rms
V
V = .
The rms value of the sinusoidal signal depends only on the peak value. The rms value is not a
function of either the frequency or the phase angle.
Also the rms value is referred to as the effective value of the sinusoidal voltage (or current). The
concept of effective value comes from a desire to compare the ability of a sinusoidal varying
voltage (or current) to deliver energy to a resistor with the ability of a constant (dc) voltage (or
current) to deliver energy to a resistor. Interestingly, a constant (dc) voltage equal to the rms value
of the sinusoidal voltage delivers the same amount of energy every T seconds that the sinusoidal
voltage does, assuming equal resistance.
The average power and the reactive power can be written in terms of effective values as
) ( I V ) cos(
I V
) cos(
I V
P
i v eff eff i v
m m
i v
m m
= = =
2 2
2
,
and
) sin( I V ) sin(
I V
) sin(
I V
Q
i v eff eff i v
m m
i v
m m
= = =
2 2
2
.

2.3. Complex Power
Complex power is the sum of average real power and reactive
power, or
jQ P S + = .
Dimensionally, complex power is the same as real or reactive
power. However, in order to distinguish complex power from
either real or reactive power, we use term volt amps. Thus we
use volt amps for complex power, watts for average real power,
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and vars for reactive power. The magnitude of complex power is referred to as apparent power.
Apparent power also is measured in volt amps. In complex power equation, P, Q and |S| the sides of
a right triangle, as shown in Figure 1.3. The angle in the power triangle is the power factor angle
i v
.
The apparent power requirement of a device designed to convert electric energy to non-electrical
form is more important than the average power requirement. The device must be insulated to
withstand the voltage and must be large enough to carry the current even if the power factor is
small. Because the average power represents the useful output of the energy-converting device,
operating such devices close to the unity power factor is desirable. Many useful appliances (such as
refrigerators, fans, etc.) and most industrial loads operate at a lagging power factor. These loads
sometimes are connected either by adding a capacitor to the device itself or by connecting
capacitors across the line that is feeding the load. The use of capacitors across the line is
representative of power-factor correction for large industrial loads.

3. EXPERIMENT
3.1. Set up the circuit in Figure 1.4. Set the variac voltage to 0.
3.2. After checking the circuit, turn on the power switch.
3.3. Connect the resistive load (lamp group) to the circuit. Apply voltage to the system. For
different values of voltage read the values of current and power. Reduce the voltage to 0. Note
down power rating of the lamp.

3.4. Repeat part 3.3. for inductive load connected.
3.5. Repeat part 3.3. for capacitive load connected.
3.6. Repeat part 3.3. for resistive and inductive load connected.
3.7. Repeat part 3.3. for resistive and capacitive load connected.





VARIAC V
A
W
LAMP
GROUP
L C
Figure 1.4 Experiment 1 setup diagram
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4. RESULT AND CONCLUSION
4.1. From the results obtained through the experiment, plot the power as a function of (v I) for
parts
3.3., 3.4., 3.5., 3.6. and 3.7. Calculate the power factor for each case.
4.2. Can we measure the resistance of a purely resistive load by using an ampermeter and a
wattmeter? Can we also measure it by using a voltmeter and a wattmeter? Calculate the impedance
of the resistive load used in part 3.3.
4.3. Is it possible to have cos(f)=1 when there are resistive, inductive and capacitive elements in
the circuit? Explain how.
4.4. Calculate the current of inductance in part 3.6.
4.5. Calculate the current of capacitance in part 3.7.
4.6. Calculate the impedances of loads in parts 3.4., 3.5., 3.6. and 3.7. Find the value of the
capacitance in Farads and the inductance in Henries.
4.7 Comment on the results

5. EQUIPMENT LIST
Single Phase Variac, Wattmeter, Voltmeter, Ampermeter, Lamp Group, Inductance ,Capacitance
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SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE POWER MEASUREMENT
MEASURING POWER AND THE POWER FACTOR
Results:
3.3 v (V) i (A) P (W)
50
100
150
200
220
3.4. v (V) i (A) P (W)
50
100
150
200
220
3.5. v (V) i (A) P (W)
50
100
150
200
220
3.6. v (V) i (A) P (W)
50
100
150
200
220
3.7. v (V) i (A) P (W)
50
100
150
200
220


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EXPERIMENT 2
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVEFORMS, HYSTERESIS LOOP

1. PURPOSE
This experiment is purposed to investigate the magnetic properties of a single-phase transformer.

2. THEORY
2.1. Magnetic Field
Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted from one form to
another in motors, generators, and transformers. There are four basic principles, which describe
how magnetic fields are used in these devices:
A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that
coil. This is the basis of transformer action.
A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it. This is
the basis of motor action.
A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. This is the
basis of generator action.

2.1.1 Magnetic Circuits:
A magnetic circuit is mainly made up of high-permeability magnetic material. The presence of
high-permeability material causes the magnetic flux to trace the path defined by the material. An
example of a magnetic circuit is shown in Figure 2.1.
The core is composed of magnetic material whose
permeability is much higher than that of the air
around it. The core is excited by a winding of N
turns carrying current i. This winding produces a
magnetic field in the core. The magnetic field can
be thought of flux lines, which form closed loops.
The source of the magnetic field is the ampere-turn
product that is N.i . Ni is the magnetomotive force
F. The relationship between the ampere-turn and
the magnetic field intensity is:

c c
l H NI F = =
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity and the magnetic flux density is:
B= H
Figure 2.1- A magnetic circuit
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where is magnetic permeability of material, H is magnetic field intensity and B is the resulting
magnetic flux density produced.
Because of the high permeability of the core, the magnetic flux exists almost entirely in the core.
The magnetic flux crossing an area is the surface integral of the normal component of B,
dA B
A
=

When the flux outside the core is neglected flux in the core is:

c
c
c c
l
NIA
A B

= =
where
c
means core, A is the cross-sectional area, and B is flux density.

2.1.2. Magnetic Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Materials
To illustrate the behaviour of magnetic permeability in a ferromagnetic material, apply a DC current
to the core shown in Figure 1, starting with 0 A and slowly working up to the maximum permissible
current. When the flux produced in the core is plotted versus the magnetomotive force producing it,
the resulting plot looks like Figure 2.2. This type of plot is called a saturation curve or a
magnetization curve. Notice that, at first, a small increase in the magnetomotive force produces a
huge increase in the resulting flux. After a certain, point though, further increases in the
magnetomotive force produces almost no change at all. The region of this figure in which the curve
flattens out is called the saturation region, and the core is said to be saturated. In contrast, the region
where the flux changes very rapidly is called the unsaturated region of the curve.
The advantage of using a ferromagnetic material
for cores in electric machines and transformers
is that one gets many times more flux for a given
magnetomotive force with iron than with air.
However, if the resulting flux has to be
proportional to the applied magnetomotive
force, then the core must be operated in the
unsaturated region of the magnetization curve.
The nonlinear shape of this curve accounts for
many important properties of electric machines
and transformers.

2.1.3. Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
Instead of applying a DC current to the windings on the core, let us now apply an AC current and
observe what happens. Assume that the flux in the core is initially zero. As the current increases for
the first time, the flux in the core traces out the path ab in the Figure 2.3. However, when the
current falls again, the flux traces out a different path the one if followed when the current
increased. As the current decreases, the flux in the core traces out path bcd, and later when the
current increases again, the flux traces out path deb. This dependence on the preceding flux history
and the resulting failure to retrace flux paths is called hysteresis. The path bcdeb traced out in
Figure 3 as the applied current changes is called hysteresis loop.
Figure 2.2- Sketch of a DC magnetization curve for
a ferromagnetic
F, Aturn
, Wb
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Notice that, if a large magnetomotive force is first applied to the core and then removed, the flux
path in the core will be abc. When the
magnetomotive force is removed, the
flux in the core does not go to zero.
Instead, there is a magnetic field left in
the core. This magnetic field is called
the residual flux in the core. It is in
precisely this manner that permanent
magnets are produced. In order to
force this flux to zero an amount of
magnetomotive force known as the
coercive magneto- motive force must
be applied to the core in the opposite
direction.
Why does hysteresis occur? In order to
understand the behaviour of ferro-
magnetic materials, it is necessary to
know something about their structure.
The atoms of iron and similar metals
tend to have their magnetic fields closely aligned with each other. Within the metal, there are many
small regions called domains. In each domain, all the atoms are aligned with their magnetic fields
pointing in the same direction, so each domain within the material acts like a small permanent
magnet.
When an external magnetic field is applied to iron, it causes domains, which happen to point in the
direction of the field to grow at the expense of domains pointed in other directions. As the strength
of the external magnetic field continues to increase, whole domains which are aligned in the wrong
direction eventually reorient themselves as a unit to line up with the field. Finally, when nearly all
atoms and domains in the iron are lined up, any further increase in the magnetomotive force can
only cause the same flux increase that it would in free space. At this point, the iron is saturated
with flux. This is the situation in the saturated region of the magnetization curve.
The key to hysteresis is that, when the external magnetic field is removed, the domains do not
completely randomise again. When the field is removed, there is no source of energy to cause all
the domains to rotate back. The piece of iron is now a permanent magnet. The fact that turning
domains in the iron requires energy leads to a common type of energy loss in all machines and
transformers. The so-called hysteresis loss in an iron core is the energy required to accomplish the
reorientation of domains during each cycle of the AC current applied to the core.
Varying magnetic fields in an iron core also causes another type of loss, eddy current loss. In any
conducting plane within a time-varying magnetic field arises closed current paths around each flux
line. These are called eddy currents. These currents will then cause ohmic power dissipations along
their paths while circulating. This kind of losses is called eddy current loss.
Both hysteresis and eddy current losses cause heating in the core material, and both losses must be
considered in the design of any machine or transformer. Since both losses occur within the metal of
the core, they are usually lumped together and called core losses.


H) (or F
B) (or
a
b
c
d
e
Residual
Flux
Coercive
mmf
Figure 2.3- The hysteresis loop traced out by the flux in a core when the
current is applied to it.

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2.2. Transformers

A transformer is a device that changes AC electric energy at one voltage level into AC electric
energy at another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field. It consists of two or more
coils of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core. These coils are not directly connected.
The only connection between the coils is the common magnetic flux present within the core.
One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of AC electric power, and the second
transformer winding supplies electric power to loads. The transformer winding connected to the
power source is called the primary winding or input winding, and the winding connected to the
loads is called the secondary winding or output winding. If there is a third winding on the
transformer, it is called the tertiary winding.
Early power distribution systems generated and transmitted power at low voltages that very large
currents were necessary to supply significant amounts of power. These high currents caused huge
voltage drops and power losses in the transmission lines, severely restricting the service area of a
generating station. The invention of the transformer and the concurrent development of AC power
sources eliminated these restrictions on the range and power level of power systems. If a
transformer steps up the voltage level of a circuit, it must decreases its current to keep the power
into the device equal to the power out of it. Therefore, AC electric power can be generated at one
central location, its voltage stepped up for transmission over long distances at very low losses, and
its voltage stepped down again for final use. Since the transmission losses in the lines of a power
system are proportional to the square of the current in the lines, raising the transmission voltage
and reducing the resulting transmission currents by a factor of 10 with transformers reduces power
transmission losses by a factor of 100.

2.2.1. Hysteresis Loss in a Transformer
Assuming an iron ring with cross sectional area A and circumferential length l is magnetized by a
coil carrying i amperes through N turns, the e.m.f. induced can be expressed by
e N
d
dt
N
dB A
dt
=

From the m.m.f. equation i is found as
N i H i
H
N
= =

l
l

The work done against the e.m.f. is then
dt
H
A
dt
dB
N dt i e dt P dW

= = =
N
l

Carrying out the necessary cancellations

= dB H V W
where V is the volume of the magnetic core and

dB H is the total work done per unit volume.

Consider Figure 2.4a, the magnetic field intensity is brought from 0 to a positive value of H. The
energy required for this operation is the area of the shaded region in the figure. But when the field
intensity is reduced to 0 again as in Figure 2.4b, only the energy in the shaded region is transferred
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back. The rest of the energy is fed into the magnetic core. Till this point the magnitude of the
energy stored in the core is the area of the half hysteresis loop. As H is reduced to the negative
region and again increased to positive, completing the hysteresis loop, the total amount of the
energy captured by the core will be the area of the whole hysteresis loop.
+B
B
+H H

+B
B
+H H

Energy
retrieved
Energy
transformed
into heat
Figure 2.4- Stored energy and coenergy in a transformer core
a) When current increases b) When current decreases

This energy loss is known as the hysteresis loss of a transformer. The power loss due to the
hysteresis loss can be expressed as
P V
hyst
= (loop area) f
where f is the frequency of the input signal.

2.2.2 Observation Of The Hysteresis Loop:
Using convenient signals, the hysteresis loop can be observed on a CRO. For a transformer,
e N d dt = .Thus, integrating the transformer voltage by a suitable RC integrator, the wave shape
of the flux (hence the flux density) can be obtained. H is directly proportional to the current as in
H N i = l so that it can be observed by simply observing the current. The hysteresis loop figure
can be obtained on a CRO by taking the lissajous pattern with the X probe connected on a resistor
at primary windings and Y probe connected on the capacitor of the RC integrator at the secondary.


3. EXPERIMENT
3.1. Switch off all the power supplies. Set the variac voltage to 0. Connect the transformer as
shown in Figure.2.5. Connect the X probe across the resistor at the primary and the Y probe across
the capacitor at the secondary. Switch on and calibrate the CRO.
3.2. Switch on the power supply and raise the variac voltage until 60 % of the rated voltage of the
transformer is read on the voltmeter. Sketch the waveforms of current and voltage. Take the
lissajous pattern and sketch the hysteresis loop.
3.3. Raise the voltage to 80% of the rated voltage and repeat your measurements for part 3.2.
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3.4. Raise the voltage to rated voltage and repeat your measurements for part 3.2.
VARIAC
X probe
Y
probe
R
R
1
2
C
A
V
Figure 2.5- Experiment 2 setup diagram

4. RESULT AND CONCLUSION
4.1. Scale the records taken through the experiment using the following approximations:
B= 0.510
-3
V (Tesla)
H= 250 I (AmpereTurns)
Assuming that the transformer core volume is 0.4810
-3
m
3
for the 220 V transformer try to
calculate the values of hysteresis losses for the values obtained during the experiment with the
frequency of 50 Hz.
4.2. Comment on the results obtained.
5. EQUIPMENT LIST
Single Phase Variac, Single Phase Transformer, Voltmeter, Ampermeter, CRO
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SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVEFORMS, HYSTERESIS LOOP
Results:
3.2. 60 % of the rated voltage, V=.

i
r
v
c
Hysteresis Loop
3.3. 80 % of the rated voltage, V=.

i
r
v
c
Hysteresis Loop
3.4. Rated voltage, V=..

i
r
v
c
Hysteresis Loop
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19
EXPERIMENT 3
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT TESTS, REGULATION AND EFFICIENCY

1. PURPOSE
This experiment deals with mainly two objectives. First objective is the calculation of the
equivalent transformer impedance parameters by means of open circuit and short circuit tests. The
second objective is the observation of transformer behaviour under different types of loads.

2. THEORY
2.1. The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any accurate model of
transformer behaviour. The major items to be considered in the construction of such a model are
Copper ( R I
2
) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the primary and
secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the current in
the windings.
Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the
transformer.
Hysteresis losses. These losses are associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic
domains in the core during each half-cycle, as explained in Experiment 2.
Leakage flux. The fluxes
LP
and
LS
which escape the core and pass through only one of
the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes produce a self-
inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the effects of this inductance must be
accounted for.
It is possible to construct an equivalent circuit that takes into account all the major imperfections in
real transformers. Each major imperfection will be considered in turn, and its effect will be
included in the transformer model. The exact equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to the
primary side is shown in Figure 3.1.
R
2
'
X
'
2
i
2
i'
2
i
1
X
1
R
1
B
m
G
c
N
1
N
2
i
m
Figure 3.1 The exact transformer model referred to its primary voltage level.

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20
where
2
2
2
1
2
R
N
N
R
*

= and
2
2
2
1
2
X
N
N
X
*

= . The transformer model shown above is often more

complex than necessary in order to get good results in practical engineering applications. One of
the principal complaints about them is that the excitation branch of the model adds another node to
the circuit being analysed, making the circuit solution more complex than is actually necessary.
The excitation branch has a very small current compared to the load current of the transformer.
Because this is true, a simplified equivalent circuit can be produced that works almost as well as
the original model. The excitation branch is simply moved to the front of the transformer, and the
primary and secondary impedances are left in series with each other. These impedances are added
together, creating the approximate equivalent circuit in Figure 3.2.


i
1
X
T
R
T
B
m
G
c
i
2
N
1
N
2
i
m
i
2
'
Figure 3.2 Approximate transformer model referred to the primary side.

It is possible to experimentally determine the values of the inductances and resistances in the
transformer model. An adequate approximation of these values can be obtained with only two tests,
open-circuit test and short-circuit test.

2.1.1 Open Circuit Test
By means of the open circuit test we can determine the shunt admittance and the iron losses of a
transformer. Assume that the secondary terminals of the circuit of Figure 3.2. are open circuited;
and the rated voltage is applied to the primary side. There will only flow the magnetizing current
i
m
, which is small in magnitude so that the
voltage drop on the series impedance is nearly
zero.
Reflecting the open circuit to the primary side,
our circuit is reduced to Figure 3.3. Measuring
the primary current and power for the applied
value of voltage, we can calculate the shunt
admittances as

G
P
V
Y
i
V
B Y G
c
o
o
o
o
m
c
=
= =
1
1
2
1
1
2 2

On performing the open circuit test, it is customary to open circuit the high voltage side and apply
the rated voltage to the low voltage side.
V
1o
B
m
G
c
~
i
1o
Figure 3.3 Open-circuit test approximation
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21
2.1.2 Short Circuit Test
Now assume that the secondary terminals of the circuit of Figure 3.2 is short circuited. Nearly no
current passes through the shunt branch when compared to the series branch this time; allowing us
to examine the series impedances and the copper losses. Reflecting the short circuit of the
secondary side to the primary, we obtain the circuit of Figure 3.4.
Measuring the voltage and power values when the
rated primary current is applied, we can calculate the
series impedances as follows:

2 2
1
1
2
1
1
T T
s
s
s
s
T
R Z X
i
V
Z
i
P
R
= =
=

It is possible to determine the total series impedance
referred to the primary side using this technique, but
there is no easy way to split the series impedance
into primary and secondary components. Fortunately,
such operation is not necessary to solve normal problem.
Also, these same tests may be performed on the secondary side of the transformer if it is more
convenient to do so because of voltage levels or other reasons. If the tests are performed on the
secondary side, the results will be naturally yield the equivalent circuit impedances referred to the
secondary side of the transformer instead of the primary side.

2.2. Transformers on Load
Because a real transformer has series impedances within it, the output voltage of a transformer varies
with the load even if the input voltage remains constant. In order to conveniently compare
transformers in this respect, it is customary to define a quantity called voltage regulation. To
determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is necessary to understand the voltage drops
within it. Full-load voltage regulation is a quantity that compares the output voltage of the
transformer at no load with the output voltage at full load. It is defined by the equation
100 x
V
V V
R
fl , S
fl , S nl , S
%

=

2.2.1 Transformer Phasor Diagram
Consider the simplified transformer equivalent circuit in Figure 3.5. The effects of the excitation
branch on transformer voltage regulation can be ignored, so only the series impedances are needed
to be considered. The voltage regulation of a transformer depends both on the magnitude of these
series impedances and on the phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer. The
easiest way to determine the effect of the impedances and the current phase angles on the
transformer voltage regulation is to examine a phasor diagram, a sketch of the phasor voltages and
currents in the transformer.

i
1s
X
T
R
T
V
1s
~
Figure 3.4 Short-circuit test approximation
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22
R
2
~
E
2
V
2
'
X
'
2
V
1
LOAD
i
2
N
1
N
2
Figure 3.5 Transformer on load (excitation branch is ignored).

Figure 3.6.a shows a phasor diagram of a transformer operating at a lagging power factor. It is easy to
see that
2 1
V a / V > for lagging loads, so the voltage regulation of a transformer with lagging loads
must be greater than zero. A phasor diagram at unity power factor is shown in Figure 3.6.b. Here
again, the voltage at the secondary is lower than the voltage at the primary, so the VR>0. However,
this time the voltage regulation is a smaller number than it was with a lagging current. If the
secondary current is leading, the secondary voltage can actually be higher than the referred primary
voltage. If this happens, the transformer has a negative voltage regulation. This can be seen in Figure
3.6.c.

I
2
V
2
R'
2
I
2
V
1
/a
jX'
2
I
2
V
1
/a
jX'
2
I
2
I
2
V
2
R'
2
I
2
{
I
2
V
2
R'
2
I
2
jX'
2
I
2
V
1
/a
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3.6 Phasor diagram of a transformer operation at (a) lagging power factor, (b) unity and (c) leading power factor.


2.2.2. Voltage Regulation Calculation
Voltage regulation (R) is the criteria to describe the ability of a transformer, to maintain its output
voltage on the load. It is defined as the percent change in secondary voltage from a certain load to
no-load while the primary current is kept constant.
R
V V
V
no rated
rated
%
( (
(
=

2 2
2
100
-load) load)
-load)

In Figure 3.5 the transformer on load is shown as an ideal transformer with zero winding
impedance plus components representing leakage reactance and winding resistance referred to the
secondary side. The load used is assumed to be inductive. The voltage V
2
applied to the load at the
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23
secondary terminals will be the voltage E
2
produced across the secondary of the ideal transformer
but reduced by the voltage drop across the impedance formed by R'
2
and X'
2
. From the equivalent
circuit, we can derive a phasor diagram as that of Figure 3.7 showing these voltage components
and their phase relationship.

i i R'
i X'
2 2
2
2
2
V
2
i X' cos( )
2 2

i R' cos( )
2 2

E = V
2 2o
Figure 3.7 Derivation of the approximate equation for V
p
/a
(=V
p
/a)

As the load is inductive the secondary current I
2
will lag the terminal voltage V
2
by angle . We
can see that if the load is disconnected there will be no voltage drop across R'
2
or X'
2
and the no-
load or open-circuit voltage V
2o
across the secondary terminals will be the voltage E
2
.
On the load the internal voltage E
2
is equal to the phasor sum of the terminal voltage V
2
, the
voltage drop across the winding resistance which is in phase with the load current, and that due to
the leakage reactance which is in quadrature with it.
As the inherent regulation is the difference between the terminal voltage at no-load V
2o
and the
terminal voltage on load V
2
we can use the percentage regulation in terms of load current I
2
, phase
angle , and the impedance formed by R'
2
and X'
2
. However this will produce a fairly complex
expression and for most purposes we can derive a simplified equation. From Figure3.7, we can see
that the expression ( ' cos( ) ' sin( )) V I R I X
2 2 2 2 2
+ + is nearly equal in magnitude to V
2o
.
Hence
) sin( X I ) cos( R I V V
* *
o
2
2
2
2 2 2
+
and
100 100
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2

=

V
) sin( X I ) cos( R I
V
V V
R
* *
o
%
+
.
Usually it is a good practice to have as small a voltage regulation as possible. For an ideal
transformer, VR=0 percent. It is not always a good idea to have a low-voltage regulation, though
sometimes high-impedance and high-voltage regulation transformers are deliberately used to
reduce the fault currents in a circuit.

2.2.3 Transformer Efficiency
Transformers are also compared and judged on their efficiencies. The efficiency of a device is
defined by the equation
power input
power output
= .
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From this equation we can see that efficiency could be measured directly by taking wattmeter
readings of input and output power with the transformer on full load. However, this method can
lead to inaccuracies, as the wattmeter error on full load will be significant, particularly for
transformers whose efficiency is over 90%. As (output power)=(input power)-(losses) an
alternative method for determining efficiency can be
input
losses
input
losses input
P
P
1
P
P - P
= =
and
100
P + P
P
1
losses output
losses

=
%

Practically, to calculate the efficiency of a transformer at a given load, just add up the losses from
each resistor and apply efficiency equation. Since the output power is given by
cos I V P
out 2 2
=
The efficiency of the transformer can be expressed by
x100
cos I V P P
cos I V
2 2 Core CU
2 2
+ +
=
where
CU
P is copper losses and
Core
P is transformer core losses.

3. EXPERIMENT
3.1. Switch off the voltage source and set the variac to 0 volt. Connect the circuit of Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8 Experiment 3 set-up diagram I.
V
V
A W


3.2. Switch on the variac and apply the rated voltage to the transformer. Record the values of
primary current and power and secondary voltage.
3.3. Switch off the voltage source and set the variac to 0 volt. Connect the circuit of Figure 3.9.
3.4. Switch on and raise the variac voltage until 2 A passes through the secondary. Record the
values of primary voltage, current and power.
3.5. Switch off the voltage source and set the variac to 0 volt. Connect the circuit of Figure 3.10.
ELE 365

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Figure 3.9 Experiment 3 set-up diagram II.
A
V
A W


3.6. Switch on the variac and apply rated voltage to the transformer. Measure the values with only
resistive load on.

3.7. Repeat 3.6. for capacitive load connected.
3.8. Repeat 3.6. for inductive load connected.
3.9. Repeat 3.6. for resistive and capacitive load connected in parallel.
3.10. Repeat 3.6. for resistive and inductive load connected in parallel.
3.11. Switch off the supply. Set the variac voltage to 0. Set up the circuit of Figure 3.11. Turn off
all the lamps. Switch on the power supply. Apply rated voltage to the primary from the variac.
Record the powers, currents and voltages of both the primary and the secondary.
3.12. Repeat the experiment with 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 lamps on (always adjust the primary voltage to
the rated voltage).
Figure 3.11 Experiment 3 set-up diagram IV.
V
A
W
LAMP
GROUP
~
V
A W


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26

4. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
4.1. Calculate the shunt admittance values of the transformer referred to the primary side from the
values obtained in 3.2.
4.2. Calculate the series impedance values of the transformer referred to the primary side from the
values obtained in 3.4.
4.3. From the values of 4.1 and 4.2. draw the actual circuit of the transformer showing the
impedance values on the circuit.
4.4. Draw the phasor diagrams for 3.6.-3.10. Comment on the results and phasor diagrams. Explain
the differences between the phasor diagrams for inductive and capacitive loads.
4.5. Calculate the efficiency and regulation for each of the load conditions of 3.11 and 3.12.
4.6. Plot the graphs V
2
as a function of I
2
, regulation as a function of I
2
and h as a function of P
2
.
Comment on the graphs you obtain.
4.7. Comment on the results

5. EQUIPMENT LIST
Single Phase Variac, Single Phase Transformer, Voltmeter, Ampermeter, Wattmeter, Lamp Group,
RLC Load.
ELE 365

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SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT TESTS, REGULATION AND EFFICIENCY
Results:

3.2.
V
1
i
1
P
1
V
2



3.4.
V
1
i
1
P
1
V
2




V
1
i
1
V
2
i
2
P
2

3.6.
3.7.
3.8.
3.9.
3.10.


# Lamps i
1
P
1
V
2
i
2
P
2

3.11. -
3.12. 1
2
3
4
5





ELE 365

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AN INTRODUCTION TO DC MACHINES

1. General

An electrical machine converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, or vice versa
depending upon its mode of operation. When a machine is converting electrical energy into
mechanical form, it is said to be operating in the MOTORING mode. On the other hand,
when a machine converts mechanical energy into electrical form, it is said to be operating
in the GENERATING mode.

Mechanically, all machines consist of two main parts: STATOR and ROTOR. The stator is
the stationary (non-rotating) part of a machine. The rotor is the rotating part of the machine.
Usually, the rotor is located within the stator, although the reverse configuration is also
possible. The rotor does not touch the stator, although it is very close to it. The small
distance between the rotor and stator (within the machine) is called the AIR-GAP. The
stator and rotor cores are made of iron, steel or another ferromagnetic metals; in order to
reduce the magnetic reluctance. Altogether, the stator, rotor and air-gap form a magnetic
circuit where the magnetic flux can easily flow.

From an electrical point of view, DC and AC machine consists of two main sections:
ARMATURE and FIELD. In order for a machine to operate (either as a motor or a
generator), a magnetic field should exist within its air-gap. This field is usually produced
electromagnetically, by exciting (energizing) the FIELD windings of the machine (although
permanent magnet fields are also possible). Once the magnetic field exists in the air-gap,
the machine can convert electrical and mechanical energies into one another using the
ARMATURE winding. In other words, the armature winding is where the energy
conversion takes place. Due to this reason, the power rating of a machine is actually the
power rating of the armature section.

2. DC Machines

In DC machines, the field winding is wound onto the stator, while the armature winding is
located on the rotor. Current is supplied to the rotating armature winding through
COMMUTATOR SEGMENTS. Each commutator segment (also located on the rotor) is
connected to an armature winding coil. Mounted on the stator are carbon BRUSHES, which
actually touch two or more of the commutator segments at a time.

To operate a DC machine as a motor:
A DC current should pass through the FIELD winding. This current can be supplied either
from the armature windings DC source or from the another source as a battery.
Electrical power should be supplied to the armature winding from a DC source.
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The mechanical power produced by the motor can be used to drive a mechanical load
coupled to the motor shaft. The speed of the shaft will be directly proportional to the
armature voltage and inversely proportional to the field current. The torque produced will
be directly proportional to the armature current and the field current

To operate a DC machine as a generator:
A DC current should pass through the field winding. This current can be supplied either
from an external battery (separately excited), or by the generated voltage from the armature
winding itself (self excited)
Mechanically power should be supplied to the shaft of the generator (i.e. the generator
should be rotated by an external mechanical power source such as a steam turbine, or a
second motor connected to the same shaft).
The generated electrical power will be available from the armature terminals of the
generator. The generated voltage will be directly proportional to the speed of the shaft and
the field current.

An electric motor cannot be considered as a passive electrical load. In a passive load (such
as a resistor or an inductor), the current flowing into the load will be proportional to the
voltage applied across its terminals. This is not the case for an electrical machine. The
armature current and armature voltage of an electric motor are completely independent. The
armature current is determined by the mechanical load (i.e. torque) the motor is driving,
which is not related to the voltage applied to the armature. The same reasoning also applies
to DC generators. For the generating mode, the current drawn from the armature terminals
is independent of the armature voltage. An increase in the output current (i.e. output power)
should be compensated by increasing the mechanical torque (i.e. input power) on the shaft.

When a DC motor is rotating at constant speed (i.e. steady state), the torque produced by
the motor is balanced by the torque required from the load. Hence, the net torque on the
shaft is zero, which means that there is no acceleration (i.e. speed remains constant).
Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
dt
d
J
load motor net

= =

where J is the total inertia of the rotating parts (rotor, shaft and the load),

is the angular speed

of the motor and
dt
d
gives the acceleration of the motor. When
load motor
< , the motor
decreases its speed (i.e. decelerates).

Electrical power flowing into a DC motor, or the electrical power flowing out of a DC
generator can be calculated by simply multiplying the armature voltage (usually the
terminal voltage) by the armature current, or
arm arm elec
I V P =

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Mechanical power flowing out of a DC motor, or the mechanical power flowing into a DC
generator can be calculated by simply multiplying angular shaft speed (in radians per
second) by the shaft torque (in Newton-meters), with the power value resulting in Watts, or
shaft shaft mech
P =

The speed of a machine is usually expressed in rotations per minute, or rpm and labelled as
n in the equations. However, the angular speed,

, which is used in the mechanical

power equation should be given in radians. This unit conversion is simply made by using
the following relation:
60
2 n
=



Efficiency of a DC machine can be calculated by dividing the output power by the input
power.

For a DC motor, the efficiency is the mechanical output power divided by the electrical
input power, or
elec
mech
P
P
=


For a DC generator, the efficiency is the electrical output power divided by the mechanical
input power, or
mech
elec
P
P
=


Note that the efficiency of a DC machine will vary with the operating conditions (i.e. speed,
voltage etc.). The value of efficiency calculated for a particular speed, torque, voltage or
current will not be the same at another operating point.

ELE 365

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EXPERIMENT 4
DC MACHINES
THE MAGNETIZATION CURVE OF SEPARATELY EXCITED DC
GENERATORS

1. PURPOSE
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the magnetic saturation characteristics hence the
magnetization curve of a dc machine, obtained at constant speed under separate excitation.

2. THEORY
2.1. Introduction
DC machines are characterized by their versatility. By means of various combinations of shunt,
series and separately excited field windings they can be designed to display a wide variety of volt-
ampere or speed-torque characteristics for both dynamic and steady state operation. Because of the
ease with which they can be controlled, systems of DC machines are often used in applications
requiring a wide range of motor speeds or precise control of motor output. In recent years, solid-
state AC drive system technology has developed sufficiently that these systems are beginning to be
found in applications previously associated almost exclusively with DC machines. However, DC
machines will continue to find application because of their flexibility and the relative simplicity of
their drive systems as compared with AC machines.
DC machines are built for ratings from megawatts to miliwatts. For convenient reference they may
be roughly classified as follows:
Industrial: Large generators and motors for mills, cranes, machine tools and general
industrial drives of ratings above a few kilowatts, and usually supplied from AC mains
through rectifiers.
Small: Motors for hand-tools, domestic equipments and similar mains-fed applications, and
automobile starter motors. Their construction is a simplification of that for conventional
industrial machines.
Traction: Motors for railways and battery-fed road vehicles.
Miniature: Motors of a few watts output for intermittent loads not requiring precision
control.
Control: Machines associated with open and closed loop control systems; they are
commonly provided with permanent-magnet fields.
Special: Linear machines, actuators, eddy-current devices, motors with superconducting
field windings, and unconventional design.

2.2 DC Generators
DC generators are DC machines used as generators. There is no real difference between a generator
and a motor except for the direction of power flow. There are five major types of DC generators,
classified according to the manner in which their field flux is produced:
ELE 365

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Separately excited generator, the field flux is derived from a separate power source
independent of the generator itself.
Shunt generator, the field flux is derived by connecting the field circuit directly across the
terminals of the generator.
Series generator, the field flux is produced by connecting the field circuit in series with the
terminals of the generator.
Cumulatively compounded generator, both a shunt and a series field are present, and their
effects are additive.
Differentially compounded generator, both a shunt and a series field are present, and their
effects are subtractive.
All generators are driven by a source of mechanical power, which is usually called the prime mover
of the generator. A prime mover for a DC generator may be steam turbine, a diesel engine, or even
an electric motor. Since the speed of the prime mover affects the output voltage of a generator, and
since prime movers can vary widely in their speed characteristics, it is customary to compare the
voltage regulation and output characteristics of different generators assuming constant-speed prime
movers. Also, DC generators can be compared by their voltages, power ratings, and efficiencies.

2.3 The Equivalent Circuit Of A DC Generator
The equivalent circuit of a DC generator is shown in Figure 4.1. In this figure, the armature circuit
is represented by an ideal voltage source
A
E and a resistor
A
R . This representation is really the
Thevenin equivalent of the entire rotor structure, including rotor coils, interpoles, and
compensating windings. The brush voltage drop is represented by a small battery
brush
V opposing
the direction of current flow in the machine. The field coils, which produce the magnetic flux in the
generator, are represented by inductor
f
L and resistor
f
R . The separate resistor
adj
R represents an
external variable resistor used to control the amount of current in the field circuit.
The brush drop voltage is often only a very tiny fraction of the generated voltage in a machine.
Therefore, in most cases it is not too critical. Also, the internal resistance of the field coils is
sometimes lumped together with the variable resistor. A simplified equivalent circuit of a DC
generator can be seen in Figure 4.2.
+
-
E
A
F
1
F
2
R
adj
R
F
L
F
V
brush
R
A
A
1
A
2
I
A
Figure 4.1 The equivalent circuit of a DC generator.
+
-
E
A
F
2
R
F
L
F
R
A
A
1
A
2
Figure 4.2 A simplified equivalent circuit
of a DC generator.
V
F
I
A
+
-
V
T
+
-



ELE 365

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2.4 The Magnetization Curve of a DC Generator
All dc machines are built up of some ferromagnetic material. Field and armature coils, which are
generally made up of copper are wound on that ferromagnetic material; forming a similar structure
of a transformer. Thus having a similar structure, dc machines also show some magnetic properties
similar to that of a transformer.
The magnetization curve of a dc machine is the same concept of hysteresis loop of a transformer.
But in this case, the current flowing in the coils are dc instead of a sinusoidal current. So, it is not
possible to view a loop figure on a CRO. In order to obtain such a curve, the magnitude of the field
current is to be varied manually. Thus, a rough shape of the magnetization curve can be obtained.
The magnetization curve shows the relation between the flux formed in the air gap and the mmf
formed by the field coils. Remembering the emf equation of a dc machine as
E K
a a d m
=
we can say that is directly proportional to E
a
,at a constant speed. Also we can say that the mmf
formed by the field coils equals
mmf N I
f f
=

where N
f
is the total number of coil turns of the field coils. It can be easily seen that the mmf is
directly proportional to the field current, I
f
. Thus measuring the armature emf and the field current
at constant speed will be sufficient enough to obtain the magnetization curve of a dc machine.
In practical applications, the magnetization curve of a dc machine is shown as a relation between
the armature emf and the field current. It is generally implemented in form of a single curve, taken
upwards from a residual value of E. Such a curve is shown in Figure 4.3.
As the armature emf is also dependent of the
angular velocity
m
, the magnetization curve
of a dc machine will be different for different
values of
m
.
Thinking in terms of the emf equation, it is
very simple to obtain the magnetization curve
of a dc machine for any speed,
m1
, if the
magnetization curve for a specific speed,

m0
is known. For the known values of I
f
,
one can calculate E
a1
from the initial emf,
E
a0
with the following approach:

E K E K
K
E E
E E
a a d m a a d m
a d
a
m
a
m
a
m
m
a
0 0 1 1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
= =
= =
=

,




E
E
I

m0
m1
r
a
f
Figure 4.3 The magnetization curve of a DC generator
ELE 365

34
3. EXPERIMENT
3.1. Turn off all the power supplies and set the variac voltages 0. Set up the circuit shown in Figure
4.4. Note that the driver motor may be DC series motor. Ask your supervisor about connection.

3.2. Note the nameplate data of the DC generator.
3.3. Turn on the supplies and raise the voltage of the driver motor gradually, until the motor speed
comes up to 1100 rpm.
3.4. As 0 =
f
I , if the voltmeter across the armature winding shows the residual voltage then reset
the residual flux value to 0. (This will be shown by the instructor)
3.5. Start as 0 =
f
I , 0 =
a
E and increase field current gradually. Record the value of the field
current and induced voltage at each step. Once you increase the field current to a value, do not
reduce it by any means, so that the magnetization curve can be obtained correctly.
3.6. Decrease the field current from this value gradually to zero, r---ecording the values of
f
I and
a
E at each step. Once you decrease the field current to a value, do not increase it by any means, so
that the magnetization curve can be obtained correctly.
3.7. Reduce the voltage of the driver motor so that, the new speed is set to 1300 rpm. Reset the
residual flux formed on the DC generator.
3.8. Repeat parts 3.5 and 3.6.

4. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
4.1. Plot the magnetization curve of the machine at 1100 rpm (For increasing and decreasing If
values on the same graph).
4.2. From the magnetization curve obtained for 1100 rpm., calculate theoretically, and plot the
magnetization curve for 1250 rpm. On the same graph, plot 1250 rpm experimental curve.
Comment on the results obtained
5. EQUIPMENT LIST
DC Machine Set, DC Motor, Single Phase Variac2, Bridge Rectifier2, Voltmeter, Ampermeter

ELE 365

35

MAGNETIZATION CURVE OF A DC MACHINE
Results:
3.2. Series Generator kW r/min.
Series Motor kW r/min.
Armature Rating V A
Field Rating V A



3.5. 3.6 Increasing Decreasing
n = 1100 rpm I
f
E
a
I
f
E
a

0 0 0
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8

0.8

3.8. Increasing Decreasing
n = 1250 rpm I
f
E
a
I
f
E
a

0 0 0
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8

0.8












ELE 365

36

EXPERIMENT 5

DC GENERATORS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF SEPARATELY AND
SHUNT EXCITED GENERATORS

1. PURPOSE
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the load characteristics of DC generators, under
separate and shunt excitation.

2. THEORY
As generators are machines giving an electrical output to a mechanical input, their voltage and
current characteristics become more important rather than speed and torque. The output power of a
dc generator is the terminal voltage and the terminal current (which is the same of armature
current). DC generators are generally operated under shunt, separate or compound excitation. Series
generators are seldom used in special applications. As E
a
(also V
t
) varies linearly with I
f
which is
the same of I
a
in series excitation, it is not possible to maintain a constant value of voltage when the
load is increased or decreased. This is not a desired property, so using series generators has not too
much sense.
Separately excited generators have an advantage that the field current is fed from an external
source. This makes the field flux independent of the load voltage, thus the loading effect is too
small in separately excited generators. However, the need of an external power supply often makes
the separate excitation a less preferred way of generating dc power.
Shunt excitation is a commonly used generating technique for DC voltage supply. The field
winding is connected across the armature ends. As the field is fed from the armature, the field
current is a function of V
t
. So any change in terminal voltage will be reflected to the field current.
This will yield a change in E
a
, which will also cause a change in V
t
. Thus this process will continue
until equilibrium is obtained. It is obvious that the field current will be affected by the changes in
the load; which is a major disadvantage for shunt generator. But this effect is considerably small,
when compared to a series excitation.

2.1. Separately Excited DC Generator
The equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC
generator is shown in Figure 5.1. In this circuit,
the voltage
T
V represents the actual voltage
measured at the terminals of the generator, and
the current
L
I represents the current flowing in
the lines connected to the terminals. The internal
generated voltage is
A
E and the armature current
is
A
I . It is clear that the armature current is equal
+
-
E
A
R
F
L
F
R
A
Figure 5.1 A separately excited DC generator.
V
F
I
L
+
-
V
T
+
-
I
F I
A
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37
to the line current in a separately excited generator (
L A
I I = ).
The terminal characteristic of a device is a plot of the output quantities of the device versus each
other. For a DC generator, the output quantities are its terminal voltage and line current. The
terminal characteristic of a separately excited generator is a plot of
T
V versus
L
I for a constant
speed . The terminal voltage is

A A A T
R I E V = .
Since the internal generated voltage is
independent of
A
I , the terminal
characteristic of the separately excited
generator is a straight line, as shown in
Figure 5.2. Note that, when the load
supplied by the generator is increased,
L
I (and therefore
A
I ) increases. As the
armature current increases, the
A A
R I drop
increases, so the terminal voltage of the
generator falls.
The terminal voltage of a separately
excited DC generator can be controlled by
changing the internal generated voltage
A
E of the machine. From the terminal voltage formula, if
A
E increases,
T
V will increase. Since
the internal generated voltage
A
E is given by the equation = K E
A
, there are two possible ways
to control the voltage of this generator:
Change the speed of rotation. If increases, then = K E
A
increases, so terminal voltage
increases too.
Change the field current. If
F
R is decreased, then the field current increases ( =
F F F
R / V I ).
Therefore, the flux in the machine increases. As the flux rises, = K E
A
must raise too, so
terminal voltage increases.
In many applications, the speed of the prime mover is limited, so the terminal voltage is most
commonly controlled by changing the field current.

2.2. Shunt Excited DC Generator
A shunt DC generator supplies its own field
current by having its field connected directly
across the terminals of the machine. The
equivalent circuit of a shunt DC generator is
shown in Figure 5.3. In this circuit,

L F A
I I I + = .
Terminal voltage of this machine is

A A A T
R I E V = .
This type of generator has an advantage over the
V
T
I
L
E
A
(no-load)
}
}
I
A
R
A
drop
AR drop
Figure 5.2 Terminal characteristic of a separately
excited DC generator.
+
-
E
A
R
F
L
F
R
A
Figure 5.3 Equivalent circuit of a shunt DC generator.
I
L
+
V
T
-
I
F
I
A
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separately excited DC generator in that no external power supply is required for the field circuit.
But, the initial field flux to start must be found.
The voltage build-up in a DC generator depends on the presence of a residual flux in the poles of
the generator. When a generator first starts to turn, an internal voltage will be generated which is
given by

res A
K E =
This voltage appears at the terminals of
the generator. But when that voltage
appears at the terminals, it causes a
current to flow in the generators field
coil (
F T F
R / V I = ). This field current
produces a magnetomotive force in the
poles, which increases the flux in them.
The increase in flux causes an increase
in = K E
A
, which increases the
terminal voltage
T
V . When
T
V rises,
F
I increases further, increasing the
flux more, which increases
A
E , etc.
This voltage build-up behaviour is
shown in Figure 5.4. Notice that it is
the effect of magnetic saturation in the
pole faces which eventually limits the terminal voltage of the generator.
There are several possible causes for the voltage to fail to build-up during starting. Among them
are
There may be no residual flux in the generator to start the process going.
The direction of rotation of the generator may have been reversed, or the connections of the
field may have been reversed.
The field resistance may be adjusted to a value greater than the critical resistance.
The terminal characteristic of a shunt DC generator differs from that of a separately excited DC
generator, because the amount of the field
current in the machine depends on its
terminal voltage.
As the load on the generator is increased,
L
I increases and so
F L A
I I I + = also
increases. As increase in
A
I increases the
armature resistance voltage drop
A A
R I ,
causing
A A A T
R I E V = to decrease.
This is precisely the same behaviour
observed in a separately excited generator.
However, when terminal voltage
decreases, the field current in the machine
decreases with it. This causes the flux in
V
T
I
F
V
T
(no-load)
Figure 5.4 Voltage buildup in a shunt DC generator.
E
A
(res)
I
F
(no-load)
F
T
F
I
V
R =
Magnetization
Curve
V
T
I
L
}
}
I
A
R
A
Field
weakening
effect
Figure 5.5 The terminal characteristic of a shunt DC generator.
ELE 365

39
the machine to decrease. Decreasing
A
E causes a further decrease in the terminal voltage
A A A T
R I E V = to decrease. The resulting terminal characteristic is shown in Figure 5.5. Note
that the voltage regulation of this generator is worse than the voltage regulation of the same piece
of equipment connected separately excited.
Like the separately excited generator, there are two ways to control the voltage of a shunt
generator:
1. Change the shaft speed of the generator
2. Change the field resistor of the generator, thus changing the field current.
Changing the field resistor is the principal method used to control terminal voltage in shunt
generators. If the field resistor is decreased, then the field current increases. When field current
increases, the machine flux increases, causing the internal generated voltage
A
E to increase. The
increase in
A
E causes the terminal voltage of the generator to increase as well.

4. EXPERIMENT
3.1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 5.6.



3.2. With all the lamps off, start the driver motor, so that a speed of 1300 rpm is obtained. At this
speed, adjust the field current so that the rated field voltage of the generator is reached. Record the
value of field current and hold the value of the field current constant throughout the next two steps.
3.3. Turn on a lamp. Record the values load voltage and current.
3.4. Repeat 3.3. for 2,3,4 and 5 lamps on.
3.5. Stop the driver motor and disconnect the circuit. Turn off all the lamps.
3.6. Setup the circuit of Figure 5.7.
3.7. With all the lamps off, start the driver motor, so that a speed of 1300 rpm is obtained. Record
the value of field current under no-load conditions.

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3.8. Repeat 3.3. and 3.4. with also recording the value of I
f
at each step (make sure that speed is
1300 rpm).
3.9. Stop the driver motor and disconnect the circuit. Turn off all the lamps.

4. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
4.1. Plot the output characteristics of separately excited dc generator with V
t
as a function of I
a
.
4.2. Plot the output characteristics of shunt excited dc generator with V
t
as a function of I
a
.
4.3. Compare the output characteristics of separate excited and shunt excited dc generator.
4.4. For the shunt generator plot I
f
as a function of I
a
. Also plot I
f
as a function of V
t
. Find the
resistance of the field winding.

5. EQUIPMENT LIST
DC Motor, Single Phase Variacx2, Voltmeter, Ammeterx2, DC Machine Set, Bridge Rectifierx2,
Lamp Group.
















ELE 365

41
DC GENERATORS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF SEPARATELY AND SHUNT EXCITED
GENERATORS

Results

# Lamps V
t
(V) I
a
(A) I
f
(A)
3.2. 0 0
3.3. 1
3.4. 2
3
4
5

# Lamps V
t
(V) I
a
(A) I
f
(A)
3.7. 0 0
3.8. 1
2
3
4
5

ELE 365

42
EXPERIMENT 6

DC MOTORS
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES AND SHUNT MOTORS

1. PURPOSE
The object of this experiment is to investigate and compare the output characteristics of series and
shunt excited DC motors.

2. THEORY
DC motors are DC machines used as motors. The earliest power systems were DC systems, but by
as early as the 1890s, AC power systems were clearly winning out over DC systems. Despite this
fact, DC motors still make up a large fraction of the machinery purchased each year. DC motors are
so common, while DC power systems are fairly rare.
There are several reasons for the popularity of DC motors today. One of them is that DC power
systems are still common in cars, trucks, and aircrafts. When a vehicle has a DC power system, it
will obviously use DC motors. Another application for DC motors is in a situation where wide
variations in speed are needed. DC motors are unexcelled in speed control applications, and if no
DC power source is available, solid-state rectifier and chopper circuits can be used to create the
necessary power.
DC motors can be grouped in four categories as; separately excited, shunt excited, series excited,
and compound excited. Our analysis will be based on operations of them from constant voltage
power sources. Therefore, separately excited and shunt motor output characteristics are same.

2.1. Equivalent Circuit of a DC Motor
The equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC motor is shown in Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2.
Note that, the current flows into the armature circuit of the machine.
The internal generated voltage in this machine is given by the equation
K E
A
=
+
-
E
A
F
1
F
2
R
adj
R
F
L
F
V
brush
R
A
A
1
A
2
I
A
Figure 6.1 The equivalent circuit of a DC motor.
+
-
E
A
F
2
R
F
L
F
R
A
A
1
A
2
Figure 6.2 A simplified equivalent circuit
of a DC motor.
V
F
I
A
+
-
V
T
+
-
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43
+
-
E
A
R
F
L
F
R
A
Figure 6.3 The equivalent circuit of a shunt DC motor.
I
L
V
T
+
-
I
A
I
F
and the induced torque of the machine is given by

A ind
I K =
These two equations are all the tools necessary to analyze the behaviour and performance of a DC
motor.

2.1. Shunt DC Motors
The equivalent circuit of a shunt DC motor is shown in Figure 6.3. The voltage law and current law
equations for the armature circuit of this motor is

F A L
I I I + =
and

A A A T
R I E V + = .
A terminal characteristic of a device is a plot of a
machine's output quantities versus each other.
For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque
and speed, so the terminal characteristic of a
motor is a plot of its output torque and speed.
The output characteristic of a shunt DC motor
can be derived from the induced voltage and torque equations plus voltage law. The induced
voltage = K E
A
, so

A A T
R I K V + =
Since
A ind
I K = , the current
A
I can be expressed as

=
K
I
ind
A

and

A
ind
T
R
K
K V

+ =
Finally, solving for the motors speed yields

ind
A T
) K (
R
K
V

=
2

This equation is a straight line with a
negative slope. The resulting torque-speed
characteristic of a shunt DC motor is shown
in Figure 6.4.
In some applications, it may be desirable to
keep the shaft speed constant, regardless of the torque required. For these applications, shunt motor
is preferred. As the field winding is directly connected to the terminal voltage, the field current will
be the same as far as the terminal voltage is held constant. Thus the variations on E
a
(hence
m
)
Figure 6.4 Torque-speed characteristic of a shunt DC motor.
m

ind

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44
will only be caused by the increase in the voltage drop I
a
R
a
. This change in speed is considerably
small and shunt motors are respected as constant speed sources under constant terminal voltage.
How can the speed of a shunt DC motor be controlled? There are two common methods and one
less common method in use. The two common methods in which the speed of a shunt DC machine
can be controlled are
1. Change the field resistance
F
R (and thus the field flux).
2. Change the terminal voltage applied to the armature.
The less common method of speed control is
3. Insert a resistor in series with the armature circuit.

2.1. Series DC Motors
A series motor is a DC motor whose field
windings consist of a relatively few turns
connected in series with the armature circuit.
The equivalent circuit of a series DC motor is
shown in Figure 6.5. In a series motor, the
armature current, field current, and line current
are all the same. Terminal voltage of this type
of motor is
) R R ( I E V
F A A A T
+ + =
The terminal characteristic of a series DC motor is very different from of the shunt DC motor. The
basic behaviour of a series DC motor is due to the fact that the flux is directly proportional to the
armature current, at least saturation is reached. At the load on the motor increases, its flux increases
too. An increase in flux in the motor causes a decrease in its speed. The result is that a series motor
has a sharply drooping torque-speed characteristic.
The induced torque in this machine is

A ind
I K =
The flux in this machine is directly proportional to its armature current (at least until saturation).
Therefore, the flux in the machine can be given by

A
cI =
where c is a constant of proportionality. The induced torque in this machine is thus given by

2
A A ind
KcI I K = =
As a result of this relationship, it is easy to see that a series motor gives more torque per ampere
than any other DC motor. It is therefore used in applications requiring very high torques. Examples
of such applications are the starter motors in cars, elevator motors, and tractor motors in
locomotives.
To determine the terminal characteristic of a series DC motor, an analysis will be done based on
the assumption of a linear magnetization curve. This assumption implies that the flux in the motor
+
-
E
A
R
F
L
F R
A
Figure 6.5 The equivalent circuit of a series DC motor.
I
L
V
T
+
-
I
A
I
F
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45
will be given by
A
cI = . This equation will be used to derive the torque-speed characteristic curve
for the series motor.
Terminal voltage of a series motor is ) R R ( I E V
F A A A T
+ + = and the armature current can be
expressed as

Kc
I
ind
A

=
Also, = K E
A
. Substituting these equations into terminal voltage equation yields
) R R (
Kc
K V
F A
ind
T
+

+ = .
To eliminate the flux from the expression, notice that c / I
A
= and the induced torque equation
can be rewritten as

2
=
c
K
ind

Therefore, the flux in the motor can be written as

ind
K
c
=
We can write the terminal voltage as

) R R (
Kc K
c
K V
F A
ind
ind T
+

+ =
Finally, the resulting torque-speed
relation is

Kc
R R
Kc
V
F A
ind
T
+

=
1

Notice that, for an unsaturated series
motor, the speed of the motor varies as
the reciprocal of the square root of the
torque. This ideal torque-speed
characteristic is plotted in Figure 6.6.
One disadvantage of series motor can be seen immediately from this equation. When the torque on
this motor goes to zero, its speed goes to infinity. In practice, the torque can never go entirely to
zero. However, if no load is connected to the motor, it can turn fast enough to seriously damage
itself. Never completely unload a series motor, and never connect one to a load by a belt or other
mechanism that could break. If that were to happen and the motor were to become unloaded while
running, the results could be serious.
Unlike the shunt DC motor, there is only one efficient way to change the speed of a series DC
motor. That method is to change the terminal voltage of the motor. If the terminal voltage is
increased, the first term in torque-speed equation is increased, resulting in a higher speed for any
Figure 6.6 Torque-speed characteristic of a series DC motor.
m

ind

start

load full

load full

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46
given torque. The speed of series DC motors can also be controlled by the insertion of a series
resistor into the motor circuit, but this technique is very wasteful of power. Today, terminal voltage
can be controlled by using SCR-based control circuits.

3. EXPERIMENT
3.1. Connect the dc machine as a series motor, as shown in Figure 6.7.
3.2. Turn on five lamps and apply rated field current to the field of the generator so that the rated
field current passes. Start the series motor and increase the input voltage to 220 V.
3.3. Record the values of I
a
, E
a
, n and of the series motor.
3.4. Repeat 3.3. for 4, 3, 2 and 1 lamps respectively. Do not run the series motor under no-load.


3.5. Stop the motor.
3.6. Connect the dc machine as a shunt motor as shown in Figure 6.8.


Figure 6.7 Experiment 6 setup diagram I
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47
3.7. Repeat 3.2.,3.3.,3.4. and 3.5 for shunt motor. Record the no-load values of the motor as well.
3.8. Stop the motor.

4. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
4.1. Plot the speed-torque characteristics of series and shunt motors on different graphs.
4.2. Plot the E
a
- I
a
characteristics of series and shunt motors on different graphs.
4.3. For each motor connection calculate the input and output power at each step. Plot efficiency as
a function of output power characteristics for series and shunt excitation.
4.4. Plot the torque - speed characteristics of the two motors on the same graph. Write a brief
summary for DC motor output characteristics, explaining the shapes of the curves obtained. Also
plot the rough torque - speed characteristics of the two motors and show the region where the
motors are operated during the experiment.

5. EQUIPMENT LIST
DC Machine Set, DC Motor, Single Phase Variac2, Bridge Rectifier2, Voltmeter, Ampermeter,
Lamp Group.



















ELE 365

48
DC MOTORS

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF SERIES AND SHUNT MOTORS

Results:

# Lamps V
t
(V) I
a
(A) n (rpm)

(Nm)

3.3. 5
3.4. 4
3
2
1

# Lamps V
t
(V) I
a
(A) n (rpm)

(N m)

3.7. 5
4
3
2
1
0