Transformer Protection

Application Guide
About the Author

George Rockefeller is President of Rockefeller Associates, Inc. He has a BS in EE from Lehigh

University; a MS from New Jersey Institute of Technology and a MBA from Fairleigh Dickinson
University. Mr. Rockefeller is a Fellow of IEEE and Past Chairman of IEEE Power Systems Relaying
Committee. He holds nine U.S. Patents and is co-author of Applied Protective Relaying (1st Edition).

Mr. Rockefeller worked for Westinghouse Electric Corporation for twenty-one years in application and
system design of protective relaying systems. He worked for Consolidated Edison Company for ten
years as a System Engineer. He has also served as a private consultant since 1982.

This Guide contains a summary of information for the protection of various types of electrical
equipment. Neither Basler Electric Company nor anyone acting on its behalf makes any warranty or
representation, express or implied, as to the accuracy or completeness of the information contained
herein, nor assumes any responsibility or liability for the use or consequences of use of any of this
information.
Revised 8/03
Transformer Protection
Application Guide
This guide focuses primarily on electrically
actuated relays for the more prevalent applica-
tions. Principles are emphasized. The refer-
ences provide a source for additional informa-
tion. Reference 1 includes extensive references
and bibliographies. References 2 & 3 contain a
chapter on transformer protection.
This guide was prepared to assist in the selec-
tion of relays to protect power transformers. The
purpose of each relay is described and related
to one or more power system examples.
The engineer must balance the expense of
applying a particular relay against the conse-
quences of relying on other protection or sacri-
ficing the transformer. Allowing a protracted fault
would increase the damage to the transformer
and the possibility of tank rupture with a conse-
quent oil fire. An increase in damage would not
necessarily have significant economic impact,
depending upon whether the initial damage can
be repaired on site. For example, a tap changer
flashover can ordinarily be repaired in the field,
but if this fault is allowed to evolve into a winding
fault, the economic impact can be substantial.
Transformers used in a unit-connected genera-
tor unit are particularly critical, since the unavail-
ability of the transformer can create large
generation-replacement costs. Similar economic
impacts may also exist at industrial sites. This
explains why the MVA rating of the transformer
may not be the pivotal aspect in choosing the
appropriate protection.
1
Setting procedures are not included; refer to
specific instruction manuals. Fuse protection is
only briefly addressed. Grounding transformers
and 3 phase banks of single-phase transformers
are not considered here, but are treated in
Reference 1.
Table I (page 18) provides Basler model,
function, description and style number. It also
references the figures where the relays are
indicated by their ANSI numbers.
1. Failure Statistics
Table II (page 3) lists failures for six categories
of faults (Reference 1). Winding and tap chang-
ers account for 70% of failures. Loose connec-
tions are included as the initiating event, as well
as insulation failures. The miscellaneous
category includes CT failure, external faults,
overloads and damage in shipment. An undis-
closed number of failures start as incipient
problems. These failures can be detected by
sophisticated on-line monitoring devices (e.g.
gas-in-oil analyzer) before a serious event
occurs. Such devices will probably see increas-
ing use on larger transformers, to supplement
more conventional relays (Reference 8).
2. Fuses
Fuses are economical, require little maintenance
and do not need an external power source to
clear a fault. However, they introduce single-
phasing conditions when just one or two
FIGURE 1. (See Legend, next page).
LEGEND FOR FIGURES.
resistance grounded on the 13 kV side. A
Device Description Legend detailed discussion of this application is prema-
49 Thermal CS Circuit Switcher
50/51 Instantaneous & Time Rg Grounding Resistor
ture, but the following is an introductory treat-
Overcurrent ment. The phase differential (87), ground
51 Time Overcurrent Transformer differential (87N) and sudden pressure relay (63)
51N-1 Ground Time Overcurrent Bushing
51N-2 Neutral Time Overcurrent N.C. Normally Closed
provide the primary transformer fault protection.
51N-3 Ground Time Overcurrent OP Operating Coil Note that the 51N-2 relay serves primarily as
63 Sudden Pressure Pol Polarizing Coil back-up rather than as transformer protection.
67 Directional Overcurrent
67N Directional Ground Overcurrent
The 51 and 51N-3 relays function as partial
86 Lockout Auxiliary differential relays to protect the bus and back up
87T Phase Differential, 3 Phase the downstream relays and breakers. The 67N
87N Ground Differential
relay offers an alternative to the 87N function.
The 50/51 phase overcurrent relays provide
Table II (Ref. 1) Failure Statistics for Two Time Periods
transformer backup. Also note the redundant
lockout relays (86), with the trip connections
1955 - 1965 1975-1982
Description Typical Settings & arranged such that complete protection is
Remarks
available even with a failure of one 86 relay or its
1 Number % of Number % of dc feed.
Total Total

1 Winding failures 134 51 615 51 If such an installation involves local generation,

2 Tap changer 49 19 231 19 frequency and voltage relays might also sense
failures
the islanding of the station. The 67 directional
3 Bushing failures 41 15 114 9 overcurrent relays respond to circulating load
4 Terminal board 19 7 71 6
current through the 13 kV busses if the 115 kV
failures breaker A opens. The 67 relays also provide
5 Core failures 7 3 24 2 backup for the 115 kV line relays, as well as
backup for transformer-zone faults. This is in
6 Miscellaneous 12 5 72 13
failures addition to the backup provided by the 50/51
relays.
262 100 1217 100

This example will be revisited after presenting

fuses blow, which can cause overheating of
3 phase motors. Also, fuses have a somewhat
limited interrupting capability and provide less
sensitive protection than that of a differential or
ground relay. Fuses should not be employed on
resistance-grounded systems, since they must
carry the maximum load current and, therefore,
cannot blow for low-current ground faults. Fuses
are probably the predominant choice for trans-
formers below 10 MVA.
some principles and concepts.
4. Differential Relaying
Differential relays sense the unbalance in the
flow of currents in various apparatus or busses.
In the absence of a fault in the protected zone,
this unbalance tends to be small because the

Where a fused transformer uses a low-side

circuit breaker, the breaker should be equipped
with phase and ground overcurrent relays as
backup of downstream devices. However, these
relays will not respond to a transformer fault.

3. Protection Example

Fig. 1 shows extensive use of relays representa-

tive of a large industrial load. There are two 115 FIGURE 2.
kV feeds to 30 MVA transformers that are

3

FIGURE 3.
flows into the zone are cancelled by the flows
leaving. Accordingly, such relays can be more
sensitive than phase overcurrent relays and
need not be delayed to coordinate with other
relays during external faults.
The simplest implementation of differential
protection merely parallels the CTs on all the
connections to the zone, per Fig. 2. However,
more sophisticated means are usually employed
to provide faster, more sensitive and reliable
schemes.
Transformer differential relays utilize a restraint
current in addition to the operating current of
Fig. 2. This produces a percentage differential
characteristic, by separately measuring the input
currents, per Fig. 3. Fig. 4 shows such a
characteristic for the BE1-87T phase-differential
relay, where operating (or “differential”) current
is plotted against the maximum (or larger)
restraint current. The scaling is in “multiples of
tap”. The ratio matching taps will be explained in
the next section. The slope of the character-
FIGURE 4.
istic can be set from 15 to 60%. The relay
becomes desensitized at the higher currents in
order to remain secure in the presence of
dissimilar CT performance. This creates false
operating current. In contrast, the characteristic
of the relay in Fig. 2 is a horizontal line. The
restraint current can be derived in a number of
ways. In the BE1-87T, the maximum of the input
currents provides the restraint, yielding a
consistent method regardless of the number of
inputs. Up to 5 inputs per phase can be sepa-
rately measured, depending upon the relay
style.
Transformers present differential relays with
distinctive problems, which affect their design
and application. These are:
• Unequal secondary currents, because of
the different turns ratios of the power
transformer windings and the cts.
• Phase shift of wye-delta banks.
• Tap changing under load.
• Magnetizing inrush.
• Unmeasured grounded neutral current.
4.1 Current Matching
The matching of unequal currents requires either
auxiliary CTs or a means of scaling within the
relay. Fig. 5 shows the use of taps on the relay
windings to match a 2-to-1 difference in the
levels of the CT secondary currents under non-
fault conditions. For this difference the 10A
current flows through just half the number of
turns in restraint winding R1 as does the 5A
current in restraint winding R2, so that the
ampere-turns of the two windings are equal.
FIGURE 5.
This tap position also connects to the midpoint
of the operating winding, so that the net opera-
ting ampere-turns is zero. Thus, by ratio match-
ing, the input currents are normalized and the
operating signal is reduced to zero. Fig. 5
applies generally to electromechanical relays.

FIGURE 7.

FIGURE 6.

Fig. 6 shows the BE1-87T’s matching taps on

the secondary of the relay’s input CTs. Rather
than use an operating CT, this relay develops
the operating signal electronically. The BE1-87T
has a matching range of 2 to 8.9A in 0.1A steps.
The taps are selected to be in proportion to the
currents to be matched.

Matching of three winding transformer applica-

tions must in effect be done two windings at a
time, rather than assuming some arbitrary
current distribution among the three windings.
The procedure can be streamlined by assuming
identical power in all three windings. While this is
a physical impossibility, it allows proper current
matching for all current distributions.
4.2 Phase Shift Compensation
The phase shift developed in a wye-delta power
transformer can be handled by connecting the
CTs in wye on one side and in delta on the other
side, per Fig. 7. The relay current input from the
delta CTs is the phasor difference of two phase
currents. The BE1-87T can perform this
differencing electronically, preventing the
FIGURE 8.
need to connect the main CTs in delta. With
wye CTs a ground relay also can be connected.
A wye connection also reduces lead burden for
a phase fault. The worst case is for a 3-phase
fault with delta cts, per Fig. 8; the lead burden
voltage is magnified to three times the 3 phase-
fault value with wye cts.
Note in Fig. 7 that the delta CTs are on the wye-
grounded side of the transformer. The phase
shift can be accommodated with the delta CTs
on either side. However, it is essential to put the

5

FIGURE 9.
FIGURE 10.
delta CTs on the wye side in order to prevent
incorrect tripping for an external ground fault,
shown in Fig. 9. Here, the delta CTs are on the
wrong side. The three units of current flow
entering from the grounded wye are not mea-
sured, so they produce an unbalance. (The
delta-CT ratio is assumed to be 3/1 to provide
balancing for phase faults.) In contrast, in Fig.
10 delta CTs on the wye side produce a bal-
ance. Since the unbalance on the primary of the
wye-side CTs is caused by zero-sequence
current, the delta CTs filter out this unbalance in
Fig. 10.
There are two ways to form the CT delta. The
connections must mirror those of the power
transformer to provide the proper balance.
4.3 Tap Changing Under Load
FIGURE 11.
Current matching should occur for the condition
where the load tap changer is in its neutral
position. Then, the relay must accomodate the
unbalance with the taps at the full boost or buck
position. The percentage differential characteristic
provides this accomodation, per Fig. 11. The
“total mismatch” line represents the sum of the
imperfect relay-tap match plus the power trans-
former tap contribution. The slope of this line is
approximately the total % mismatch. The mis-
match line is offset by the transformer exciting
current, which produces its own unbalance. In the
BE1-87T, available taps limit the maximum
mismatch to 2.5%. Fig. 11 also shows the BE1-
87T characteristics at the two
extremes of slope setting (15 and 60%), as well
as the related safety margins at the critical points.
The relay characteristic contains the flat section
in order to maintain good sensitivity for
low-current faults where the load current is non-
negligible. The total current flowing is the pre-fault
current plus the current produced by the fault.
Accordingly, for small fault currents the load
current introduces a significant restraint bias.
4.4 Magnetizing Inrush
Inrush is the transient exciting current resulting
from a sudden change in the exciting voltage.
This occurs at the instant of energization, the
clearing of an external fault (recovery inrush) or
during the inrush period of another transformer
(sympathetic inrush). (Reference 4)
Since inrush current appears as operating
current to a differential relay, the relay must
have sufficient delay and insensitivity to the
distorted wave or take advantage of the inrush’s
distinctive waveform by using harmonic restraint
or some other form of pattern recognition. The
second harmonic predominates in inrush cur-
rents (Reference 4) and is used in most trans-
former differential relays, either alone or in
combination with other non-fundamental compo-
nents. The relays restrain if the harmonic(s)
exceed(s) a percentage of the fundamental
component. Historically, this percentage has
been fixed by design. Some newer designs
provide for a user setting.
Current transformer saturation also generates
harmonics. Under symmetrical conditions, CT
distortion produces only odd harmonics.
Under assymetrical conditions CT distortion
produces both even and odd harmonics. CT
saturation under assymetrical conditions can
delay a harmonically restrained element. Ac-
cordingly, an unrestrained element, set above
the maximum inrush level complements
the restrained unit. It is important to provide CTs
with sufficient quality to provide good waveform
long enough to allow either the restrained or
unrestrained element operation.
Reference 5 provides means to evaluate CT
adequacy. Appendix I (page 19) of this guide
provides an example of such an evaluation.
FIGURE 12.
7
The unrestrained element responds to the
operating or differential current and must be set
to override the largest expected inrush pulses. It
must also override similar pulses caused by
dissimilar dc saturation of the CTs during high
current external faults. For these reasons this
element is set two orders of magnitude higher
than the restrained element pickup.
4.4.1 Energizing Inrush
This transient results from remanence (residual
flux) in the core. If the instantaneous voltage at
energization calls for flux of the same polarity
FIGURE 13.
as the remanence, the core is driven into
saturation, creating peak exciting currents that
can exceed ten times rated peak. This compares
with a normal steady-state exciting current of
0.01 to 0.02 times rated. Inrush current appears
as relay operating current.
In Fig. 12 the steady-state flux at the instant of
energization matches the residual flux, so no
transient current flows. In contrast, in Fig. 13 the
steady-state flux at energization is at its negative
peak. Combined with a positive remanence, this
condition produces the maxi-
mum level of transient current. The inrush
current is actually much larger in relation to
steady-state current ie than indicated by Fig. 13.
Fig. 14 shows a typical inrush waveform. Note
the “dead spot”, where almost no current is
flowing as the core exits the saturated region.

FIGURE 14.
However, this “dead spot” disappears on subse-
quent cycles because of CT saturation (Refer-
ence 5). In extreme cases the CT can saturate
during the first cycle, eliminating the “dead spot”.
The decay rate of successive primary-current
peaks depends upon the amount of resistance in
the source and the non-linear inductance of the
transformer. In Fig. 14, the negative peaks are
reduced further by CT saturation. The primary
current peaks will not decay as fast as indicated
by the CT output of Fig. 14.
4.4.2 Recovery Inrush
A recovery inrush occurs at the clearing of an
external fault as a result of the sudden increase
in voltage from the depressed level during the
fault. This voltage transient causes a flux
transient, with accompanying abnormally high
exciting current. The current level will be less
than that of an energizing case.
4.4.3 Sympathetic Inrush
Current Ip in Fig. 15 shows sympathetic inrush
current in transformer T1, resulting from the
energization of an adjacent transformer T2. The
decaying dc component of current Ie flowing in
T2 develops a drop in the source resistance Rs,
producing pulses of inrush current Ip on the
alternate half cycles. Note the delayed buildup of
Ip. The severity of the sympathetic inrush is a
function of the level of dc voltage drop across
the source resistance. A common set of differen-
tial relays should not be used to protect both T1
and T2 transformers in Fig. 15 if they can be
switched separately. The sum of the two trans-
former currents, Is, may not contain sufficient
harmonics to restrain the relays once trans-
former T1 saturates severely.
4.5 Overexcitation
FIGURE 15.
Overexcitation results from excessive voltage or
below-normal frequency or a combination of the
two such that the volts/Hz exceed rated. Fig. 16
shows three situations where overexcitation can
occur: a unit-connected generator isolated from
the system or a transformer connected on the
open end of a long line. In addition, an intercon-
nected system can experience a dynamic
overvoltage following a protracted fault as a
result of generator fields at ceiling or following
load shedding. All of these scenarios involve
essentially balanced conditions. Substantial
phase-to-ground overvoltages can also occur on
sound phases during a ground fault on imped-
ance-grounded systems. In these cases delta
windings or wye-ungrounded windings will not
be overexcited, since the line-line voltages will
not increase.
The dashed curve in Fig. 17 illustrates the
increase in transformer exciting current with
increased excitation, resulting in thermal stress.
This exciting current produces operating current
in the differential relay, but an operation of this
relay is not desirable, since immediate response
is not necessary. For a dynamic overvoltage
condition, the power system should be allowed
time to correct itself. Also, a differential
operation indicates a transformer failure, requir-
ing unnecessary investigation and delayed
restoration of the transformer. Accordingly,
where sustained overexcitation is a concern, a
separate volts/Hz relay should be applied (24).

FIGURE 16.
The solid curves of Fig. 17 illustrate the variation
in harmonic content with voltage changes as a
percentage of the fundamental value for a
balanced excitation. The presence of a third
harmonic component indicates that the wye-
grounded winding was energized. When a delta
winding is energized all triplen frequency
currents (i.e. third, ninth, etc.) are blocked,
because they are in phase on a fundamental
basis. With a wye-delta bank, the CTs are
connected in delta on the wye side (or the wye
currents are electronically differenced). Thus,
third harmonic component in the relay currents
is cancelled. Accordingly, the lowest harmonic
available to the relay for restraint is the fifth. The
BE1-87T restrains if the fifth harmonic exceeds
35% of the fundamental. In Fig. 17, this relay will
restrain over the voltage range of
FIGURE 17.
9
104 to 138% of rated excitation.
If the transformer is unloaded, as per Fig. 16(a)
and (b), the relay operating current will be the
exciting current less its third harmonic compo-
nent; then, based on Fig. 17, the fifth harmonic
content exceeds 35% over the range of about
104 to 138% of rated excitation. Should the
transformer become faulted, the relay will
operate if the fault current is sufficient to reduce
the fifth harmonic component below the relay’s
restraint level. Such a reduction occurs both
because of the reduced excitation level and due
to the fundamental-frequency fault current.
If the transformer is loaded (e.g. Fig. 16(c)), any
mismatch current will reduce the fifth harmonic
level of the operating current; the relay may not
be restrained by the fifth harmonic. However, the
transformer loading will reduce the
overexcitation to a level where the operating
current will be below pickup. For example, if the
transformer is at 115% excitation, Fig. 17
indicates a magnetizing current of 3% (including
3rd harmonic); this plus mismatch current should
be insufficient to operate a relay.
With normal system connections the power
system could be operated at 105% continuously
and dynamically as high as about 115% during a
severe disturbance. Under these conditions the
third harmonic may be sufficient to restrain the
relay; should the transformer become faulted,
the fault current will swamp out the exciting
current to allow the relay to trip.
Voltages in excess of 138% can follow full-load
rejection of hydro units. However, generator
speed will be correspondingly high, so the volts/
Hz value will not significantly exceed normal.
4.6 Connection Examples
Fig. 18 provides application examples for two-,
three- and five-restraint cases. The relay
derives restraint signals separately from each
set of CT inputs. In Fig. 18(a) the relay protects
a delta-wye transformer, with the CTs connected
in delta on the wye-winding side. These CTs
could be connected in wye when using a 3
phase style BE1-87T by selecting the electronic
differencing option. This differencing option

FIGURE 18.
duplicates the effect of a delta-CT connection.
The operating signal is obtained by connecting
the operating coil to measure the sum of the
relay input currents or electronically as is the
case in the BE1-87T. A three-input relay
protects the autotransformer in Fig. 18(b). All
10
CTs must be connected in delta (or equivalent
electronic differencing with a 3 phase relay),
since the autotransformer is a zero-sequence
current source. Otherwise, any current flowing in
the transformer ground connection will unbal-
ance the differential relay. This current is
not measured and inputted to the relay. The
relay Fig. 18(c) protects the combination of a
bus and transformer.
A transformer differential relay can be applied
for bus or combination bus/transformer protec-
tion. CTs can be paralleled and connected to a
common restraint input. Radial feeder CTs can
be paralleled as long as the continuous rating of
the relay winding is not exceeded. Source
circuit CTs can also be paralleled, but it must be
done judiciously. Fig. 19 shows the use of a two-
restraint relay for the bus/transformer combina-
tion. Here four sets of source CTs are paralleled
and connected to a common restraint winding
R1. Such paralleling might produce a current in
excess of the continuous rating of the restraint
winding. Also, incorrect operation may occur
during an external fault as illustrated in Fig.
19(a) and (b), where the faulted-circuit CT
saturates severely. The secondary current on
circuit 2 should be 70A, but is only 50A due to
CT saturation. The CT deficiency of 20A causes
the flow in restraint winding R1 and in the
operating circuit. Since no current flows in R2,
the relay is operating along the “single-feed line”
in Fig. 19(b). This is an operating condition,
even though the fault is external to the relay
zone of protection.
Paralleling of CTs on non-source circuits can be
safe, within the thermal limitations of the relay. In
this case there is no loss of restraint for external
faults, since these circuits contribute no fault
current. Again, source CTs can also be paral-
leled, but it must be done judiciously. For
example, in Fig. 19(a), if CTs 1 and 2 were
paralleled on R1 and CTs 3 and 4 on a third
input R3, the 40A flow in R3 would be sufficient
to prevent incorrect tripping if the relay is set
with a 60% slope.
4.7 Phasing Example
Fig. 20 shows a procedure for phasing the CT
connections for a wye-delta transformer. There

FIGURE 19.
are two ways to make the delta connection of
the power transformer for either a 30 degree
lead or lag. The delta CTs (or relay differencing)
must compensate for this power transformer
phase shift. The circled numbers in Fig. 20(a)
represent the steps in the phasing process. The
first step completes the relay connections to the
11
A)
B)
FIGURE 20.
wye CTs (on the delta side) and to one side of
the delta-connected CTs, as shown in Fig. 20(a).
Step 2 is to show the currents flowing to
the wye power transformer winding: Ia, Ib, Ic.
Step 3 develops the currents flowing out of the
delta power transformer winding—these depend
upon the actual transformer delta connections.
Step 4 shows the relay currents resulting from
the wye CT primary currents which are deter-
mined from the polarities of the CTs. Step 5
duplicates the currents from step 4 and dictates
how the CT delta windings must be completed
as shown in step 6 of Fig. 20(b). For example,
in order to produce IA-IC in the direction shown,
the non-polarity side of the phase “C” CT must
connect to the phase “A” polarity side. With the
delta CT connection, the relay currents on each
phase are in phase. Any difference in magnitude
is handled by selecting current taps approxi-
mately in proportion to the current input
proportion. The delta CT connection also serves
to filter any zero-sequence component from the
relay. This component circulates in the CT delta,
but does not appear in the relay.
4.8 Ground Differential
FIGURE 21.
Where impedance grounding limits the ground
fault current to levels below the sensitivity of the
phase differential, this relay can be comple-
mented with a separate ground differential relay.
This can be a differentially-connected
overcurrent relay, shown as 87N-1 in Fig. 21.
However, such protection must use a delay (e.g.
25 cycles) to ride through the false residual
current resulting from the dissimilar performance
of the phase CTs during a phase fault. The
phase fault current can be 100 times the maxi-
mum level of current during a ground fault. Thus,
it does not take much difference in the perfor-
mance of the phase CTs to create a large false
residual current. For the same reason, a per-
centage differential relay for the ground differen-
tial function can be insecure during external
phase faults, since the neutral current contrib-
utes negligible restraint during phase faults.
With the 13.8kV bus tie normally closed in Fig.
1, either a ground differential or directional
ground relay is needed. Otherwise, the neutral
overcurrent relays on both transformers will
operate for a 13.8kV winding or lead fault,
resulting in an unnecessary interruption of the
station.
The amount of current for a ground fault in the
wye winding tends to be a function of the fault
location in relation to the winding neutral. A
good objective is to provide sufficient sensitivity
to detect a fault 10% from the neutral end,
where the current will be about 10% of the
maximum current. In Fig. 21, the 20 ohm resistor
limits the transformer ground current to about
(13,800/1.73)/20= 400A for a lead or transformer
terminal fault. A 10% fault, then, yields 40A
primary and 0.67A in the secondary of the 300/5
neutral CT. This current is matched by the
residual current from the 2000/5 CTs by the
auxiliary CTs (ACT) with a step-up current ratio
of 1 to 6.7A. The secondary burden on the ACT
will be magnified by the square of the current
ratio or 44 times. However, while the ohmic
burden can be very high, the ground current
level is limited by the grounding impedance. For
example, a 0.5 ohm secondary burden reflects
to a 22 ohm primary burden, but the maximum
current is just 400/400= 1A for an external line-
ground fault, yielding a burden voltage on the
2000/5 CTs of 1*22= 22V.
The 87N-1 relay pickup in Fig. 21 is set for 0.5A
based on a neutral current contribution of 0.67A
relay current for a ground fault 10% from the
neutral end of the wye winding. By comparison,
the 87T phase differential relay sees the trans-
former contribution for a phase fault as 0.05A
compared to a pickup of 0.7A. The 87T pick-up
current is based on a high side tap setting of 2
and a relay pickup of 35% of tap. Other 13.8 kV
ground sources, where available, will increase
the level of relay current for an internal fault.
However, the protection must cover the case
with no added current contribution.
FIGURE 22.
FIGURE 23.
In Fig. 21 the transformation of the 40A low-side
current to the high-side requires multiplication by
the transformer turns ratio, rather than by the
line-line voltage ratio. The per unit current on the
delta side is 57.7% of the per unit current on the
wye side for a line-ground fault on the wye side.
13
A wye connection for the 2000/5 CTs on the low
side facilitates the auxiliary ct (ACT) connection.
With the conventional delta connection of these
CTs for a 3-phase 87T relay, 3 ACTs must be
placed inside the delta, requiring the running of
all six CT leads to the relay location.
In Fig. 21, the BE1-87T relay (3 phase model)
allows a wye connection with electronic
differencing duplicating the phase shift otherwise
provided by the delta CT connection. The 4.3A
tap of the 87T on the low-side is selected as if
the CTs were connected in delta. This tap
matches the currents within 1%.
Fig. 22 shows the development of false residual
current by the phase CTs during an external
“AB” fault due to dissimilar CT performance. The
phase A CT performs well, but the phase B CT
current of 28A is deficient by 2A. This deficiency
appears as residual current and develops 13.3A
in the 87N relay, producing 27 times pickup.
Fig. 23 shows the application of a current
polarized directional ground-overcurrent relay for
the 87N-2 ground differential relay function. The
polarizing winding of the directional element
measures the neutral current, while the differen-
tial current supplies the directional element
operating signal and the overcurrent signals.
Fig. 23 shows that the auxiliary CT in the
residual circuit over-mismatches the neutral
current. For a 400A line-ground fault the differ-
ential current is 1.3A of the polarity to provide a
bias in the non-trip direction, providing added
security.
The directional element provides security during
multi-phase external faults, where dissimilar
phase CT performance develops false residual
current, as shown in Figure 22. Because the
residual current is highly distorted and the wave
form varies from cycle to cycle, directional
operation is intermittent. Each time the direc-
tional element resets, it resets the time-
overcurrent element. Accordingly, the
overcurrent element delay can be set for a
fraction of the fault duration.
5. Turn-to-Turn Faults
Phase differential relays may not detect a turn-
to-turn fault and ground differential relays do not
respond to such faults. A neutral overcurrent
relay will see fault current if an external ground
source exists. However, for an impedance
grounded system most of the fault current
probably will be contributed by the delta-side
source. A single turn fault may produce a total
less than rated current (Reference 6). Accord-
ingly, a sudden pressure relay (SPR) should be
applied to complement the differential protection.
The SPR will detect any abnormality that gener-
ates a sudden increase in pressure due to gas
generation (e.g. arcing due to a loose connec-
tion).
6. Sudden-Pressure Relays (63)
A) 1. sudden gas pressure
relay
2. transformer tank
3. insulating oil level
4. main port
5. bellows
6. gas cushion
7. snap switch
8. equalizer port
B)
FIGURE 24.
Fig. 24(a) shows a SPR that detects an increase
in gas pressure, applied on gas-cushioned
transformers of about 5 MVA and up. The gas
pressure is generated by an arc under the oil,
producing decomposition of the oil into gas
products. The change in pressure actuates
bellows 5 closing microswitch contact 7. Equal-
izer port 8, much smaller than the main port 4,
prevents bellows movement for slow changes in
gas pressure due to ambient temperature
changes and load cycling.
Fig. 24(b) shows use of the break contact of the
microswitch (63) in conjunction with auxiliary
relay 63X. This circuit prevents tripping for a
flashover of the make contact of 63.
A design similar to that of Fig. 24(a) is mounted
within the oil either in gas-cushioned or in
conservator-type transformers.
The SPR will respond only to arcs within the oil.
While more sensitive than a differential relay, the
SPR is not as fast as the electrical relay, so both
relays should be applied.
Because these relays have experienced a
substantial number of undesired operations,
many users connect them only to alarm. Their
reliabililty has improved by installing them on
stiffer sections of the tank and by blocking
tripping for high current faults. During high-
current external faults, winding movement
generates an oil pressure wave which has a
tendency to cause relay operation. In fact, there
have been cases where a relay operation has
been a precursor to transformer failure due to
excessive winding movement.
Conservator-type power transformers do not
have a gas cushion within the main tank. In-
stead, the cushion resides in a separate auxil-
iary tank. A gas accumulator relay (“Bucholz”)
can be installed in the pipe connecting the main
and auxiliary tank to detect the generation of
gas. This relay has two elements, an accumula-
tor alarm and a trip function. The accumulator,
which stores a portion of the gas, provides an
alarm for slowly developing conditions. A baffle
in the pipe actuates the trip element for relatively
fast gas flow to the auxiliary tank.
7. Monitoring for Incipient Problems
A number of on-line devices have been devel-
oped in recent years to detect incipient condi-
tions which threaten serious consequences.
These include: gas-in-oil analysis, acoustic
partial-discharge detection, moisture sensor,
tap-changer-operation supervision and pump/fan
supervision (Reference 8).
8. Overcurrent Relays
Fig. 1 shows a number of overcurrent relays:
50/51, 51, 51N-1, 51N-2, 51N-3, 67 and 67N.
With the possible exception of the 51 and 51N-3
relays, the overcurrent relays serve as back-up
functions.
8.1 50/51 Relay
The 50/51 phase relay time element in Fig. 1
(Page 2) must be set to carry the maximum
expected load current. Since a transformer is
capable of carrying considerable overload for a
short period, a high pickup is normally called for
(e.g. twice the forced-cooled rating). The time
unit should coordinate with the 51 partial-
differential relay; otherwise, both transformers
would be tripped for a fault downstream from the
51 relay. In the absence of a low-side trans-
former or bus-tie overcurrent relay the high-side
relay should be coordinated with the feeder or
line protection. The use of partial-differential
relays introduces an added coordination step.
An alternative is to utilize bus-differential protec-
tion, although a failure of this type of protection
will result in the loss of all feeders to the station.
This is a low-probability scenario, particularly
with metalclad switchgear.
The 50/51 operating time needs to be faster than
the through-fault (external fault) withstand
capability of the transformer (Reference 1,
Appendix). Limits have been established for 4
MVA ranges, based on thermal and mechanical
stresses. Fig. 25 illustrates both “frequent” and
“infrequent” limits and recognizes the cumulative
effect of these stresses. Feeder or line relay
times should fall under the frequent curves,
while the 50/51 times should fall under the
infrequent curve. This is based upon the relative
probability of these two classes of faults.
The 50/51 instantaneous element should be set
for about 160% of the current for a low-side 3
phase fault. This setting not only prevents
incorrect operation for a low-side bus fault, but
15
also should prevent operation during transformer
energization. This element provides important
fast backup of 87T for high-side faults.
Because of its high pickup and slow operation,
the time element provides poor protection for
transformer winding and tap changer faults.
Accordingly, this relay (and the ground
overcurrent protection) is not a substitute for
differential and gas relays except for transform-
ers smaller than about 3 MVA. The conse-
quences of a slow cleared fault include the
threat of an oil fire due to a ruptured tank or
bushing explosion and the necessity of having to
remove the transformer for repair. Removal is
generally necessary for even a fast cleared
winding fault. This is not the case for a tap-
changer flashover that is cleared before winding
damage.
8.2 51 Relay
The partial differential relay 51 in Fig. 1 mea-
sures the sum of the transformer and bus-tie
breaker currents. Such a connection is appropri-
ate with a normally-closed bus-tie breaker, to
avoid unwanted transformer breaker tripping for
an adjacent bus fault. This relay serves as
primary bus protection or backs up the bus
differential protection. It also backs up for line or
feeder faults. This relay must be set to coordi-
nate with the feeder or line protection. It trips the
transformer and bus-tie breakers.
If the transformer and bus-tie breakers are
interlocked to prevent both from being closed, a
single set of overcurrent relays on the bus-tie
breaker will suffice, rather than a set of partial
differential relays on both busses.
8.3 51N-1 Relay
The 51N-1 relay in Fig. 1 provides sensitive
back-up of 63 and 87T for high-side ground
faults, but no response to turn-turn faults. The
high-side ground overcurrent unit in the Fig. 1
application has no coordination requirement
because the delta winding blocks ground current
flow for a low-side fault. However, it must be
delayed to ride through false residual current
that can be developed during low-side phase
faults (see Fig. 22).
8.4 51N-2 Relay
The neutral overcurrent relay in Fig. 1 primarily
backs up the 51N-3 partial differential protection
for bus faults and it backs up 87N as well. In the
absence of the 87N application, 51N-1 provides
the primary ground fault protection for the
transformer low-side zone. It also backs up 87T,
depending upon the sensitivity of the 87T. The
51N-2 relay must coordinate with 51N-3 to allow
the latter to clear a bus fault without tripping both
transformers.
If the 13.8kV bus tie can be closed with both
transformers in service, as shown in Fig. 1, the
51N-2 relays on both transformers will operate
for a 13.8kV winding or lead fault, unless a 67N
or 87N relay is provided for faster clearing.
8.5 51N-3 Relay
Section 8.2 also applies to the 51N-3 relay
except that this relay provides the ground fault
coverage.
8.6 67 Relay
The 67 relay operates for power flow from the
transformer low side toward the high side. Such
flow could occur with the 115 kV tie breaker
open, either for a 115 kV fault or under load
conditions. Reversed flow can also occur with
the 115 kV tie breaker closed, with local genera-
tion. This relay will respond to high-side ground
faults, because of the phase current flow (posi-
tive- and negative-sequence). This is valid only
as long as a remote high-side ground source
remains connected. 50/51 is the only other relay
in Fig. 1 responsive to a high-side ground fault
beyond the transformer high-side bushings.
Because normal load flow is toward the low side,
67 can be set more sensitively than 50/51 and
may also be faster. Relays associated with the
115kV breaker "A" will trip the high side circuit
switcher. However, if the circuit switcher fails to
open, the 67 relay tripping the circuit switches
and the 13.8kV breaker "B" functions as backup
to de-energize the circuit.
8.7 67N Relay
The 67N relay serves as fast back-up protection
for the 87N relay. Unless 87N is not applied,
67N provides just marginal value, since 51N-2
backs up 87N. Because ground fault current is
limited, the need for fast backup is less impel-
ling. Relays 67N and 51N-2 offer an alternative
to 87N. However, the advantage of the 87N
application is that it provides fast response with
the low-side breaker open or with no external
ground source.
9.0 49 Thermal Protection
Conventional thermal relays measure the oil
temperature and transformer current to estimate
the hot-spot temperature. They provide an
indication and means for controlling pumps and
fans. Typically these devices provide two
temperature sensing levels for control, and a
third, higher temperature sensing for alarm or
tripping.
Recently developed fiber-optic sensors, incorpo-
rated in the transformer winding, provide a direct
method of measuring the hot-spot temperature.
About four of these sensors would provide good
coverage.
References
1. ANSI/IEEE C37.91-1985, IEEE Guide for
Protective Relay Applications to Power
Transformers
2. Lewis Blackburn, “Protective Relaying:
Principles and Applications”, Marcel Dekker,
Inc. 1987
3. S. Horowitz and A. Phadke, “Power System
Relaying”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992
4. W. K. Sonnemann, C.L. Wagner and G.D.
Rockefeller, “Magnetizing Inrush Phenom-
ena in Transformer Banks”, AIEE Transac-
tions, Vol. 77, pt. III, pp 884-892, Oct. 1958
5. IEEE Committee Report, “Transient Re-
sponse of Current Transformers”, IEEE
Special Publication, 76CH1130-4PWR
6. Klingshorn, H.R. Moore, E.C. Wentz,
“Detection of Faults in Power Transfor-
mers”, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 76, pt. III,
Apr. 1957, pp 87-98
7. ANSI/IEEE C37.95-1989 “IEEE Guide for
Protective Relaying of Utility-Consumer
Interconnections”
8. “On-Line Transformer Monitoring,” Electrical
World, Oct. 1995, pp. 19-26.
FIGURE 25.

17
 Table I Relays and Typical Settings for 60 Hz Models
ANSI Qty. Basler Model/ Typical Settings & Figure
No. Description Basler Style No.
Function Remarks No.
24 1 BE1-24 1-3.99 V/Hz ACXF1XX0SXX Inverse:2.05 V/Hz --
Overexcitation (107%), TD=2, Reset:
2s/% FS; Alarm: 2.26
V/Hz(118%)
49 1 Thermal 1
50/5 3 BE1-50/51B 0.5-15.9A., 1 ph. 50/51B-1XX P.U.: 9A; TD:2 (VI); 1
1 phase 1-99A inst. Instantaneous reset;
overcurrent 60A instantaneous
51 3 BE1-50/51B 0.5-15.9A, 1 ph. 50/51B-1XX P.U.: 9A; TD: 1 (VI); 1
partial Instantaneous reset;
differential Disconnect instantaneous
51N-1 1 BE1-50/51B 0.1-3.18A, 1 ph. 50/51B-1XX P.U.: 0.25A; TD: 4 (VI); 1
ground Instantaneous reset;
overcurrent Disconnect instantaneous
51N-2 1 BE1-50/51B 0.1-3.18A, 1 ph. 50/51B-1XX P.U.: 0.5A; TD: 5 (VI); 1
Neutral Instantaneous reset;
overcurrent Disconnect instantaneous
51N-3 1 BE1-50/51B 0.1-3.18A, 1 ph. 50/51B-1XX P.U.: 0.1A; TD: 2 (VI) 1
Ground partial Instantaneous reset;
differential Disconnect instantaneous
63 Sudden pressure or 1,23
Bucholz Gas Accum.
67 1 BE1-67 Phase 0.5-12A; inst. B1XZ2XX3C6X TOC: 1A, 02 TD, B6 (VI) 1
Directional 1-40 times; 3 ph. Inst.: 15A
overcurrent
67N 1 BE1-67N 0.25-6A; directional A1XZ2XX3CXX Inst.: Not connected TOC:1
Directional instant, 2-100A 0.25A, 01 TD, B3 (Def.)
overcurrent
86-1/ 2 Lockout Aux. 1
86-2
87N-1 1 BE1-50/51M 0.1-3.18A TOC BE1-50/51M-2 Inst.: not connected 20
0.2-19.8A inst. TOC: 0.5A, 2 TD, D (Def.)
87N-2 1 BE-67N 0.25-6A TOC; A1XZ2XX3CXX Inst: 2A, polar. p.u.: 2A; 1,22
Ground 2-100A dir. inst. TOC: 0.25A, 07 TD,
differential B1(Short)
87T 3 BE-87T 2-8.9A, 3 phase E1EA1XX1XXX See Setting section of IM 1,17,2
Transformer
differential
Appendix I:
Time to Ct Saturation
For the application in Fig. 1, assume a high-side,
wye-connected, multiratio 600/5 CT on the 300/5
tap and an ANSI accuracy class of C200. The
unrestrained element pickup is 22A on the
secondary of the 300/5 CTs. The maximum time
constant of the fault current is 0.02s. Two way
lead burden (for ground fault) and CT winding
resistance is 0.4 ohms. Assume an internal fault
producing 33A, which is 150% of pickup.

Ks = (ct knee pt. voltage)/(burden voltage) =

(0.6*Effective Accuracy Class)/(22*1.5*0.4) =
(0.6*200*300/600)/13.2 = 60/13.2 = 4.5 FIGURE I-1.

[The effective accuracy class voltage is

100V, since only half the total CT turns
are in use. The knee point is at about
0.6 times the effective accuracy class.
Checking at 1.5 times the unrestrained
unit pickup.]

From Fig. I-1 (Reference 5), the time to satura- FIGURE I-2.
tion is 13ms (3/4 cycle). This applies for a fully
offset current of 33A rms symmetrical and
assumes the CT saturates at the knee point, a
somewhat conservative assumption.

This result indicates marginally acceptable CT

performance. Fig. I-2 shows CT waveform
similar to that expected for the above example,
although the dc time constant is much longer in
Fig. I-2 than the assumed 0.02s. Note that the
CT delivers considerable energy even after
onset of severe saturation, including the nega-
tive excursions. At higher levels of current the
CT will saturate sooner; however, the negative
excursions, during which interval the CT recov-
ers from saturation, produce increased energy.
Fast response depends upon the relay’s reac-
tion to this distorted waveform.

Use of a higher CT ratio will improve ct perfor-

mance, but the reduced current levels will result
in desensitizing the unrestrained element unless
the relay taps are lowered in proportion to the
drop in secondary current level.

19
 the unrestrained pickup level (see Appendix I).
Appendix II: Ks is the ratio of the CT knee-point voltage to
the burden voltage. The higher the Ks value, the
Harmonics During Ct better the CT performance.
Saturation
CTs experience both “ac” and “dc” saturation.
Ac saturation results under symmetrical current
conditions. Dc saturation occurs when the
current contains a “dc” component, during a
fault, magnetizing inrush, motor starting or
generator synchronizing. CTs that produce
negligible distortion under symmetrical condi-
tions can become severely distorted when a dc
component exists (Reference 5). While faults
generally produce the most current, other
conditions such as a motor starting produce
much slower dc decay than occurs for a fault. A
smaller dc current that persists longer can also
produce dc saturation. For these external
disturbances, unequal times to saturation in
various CTs results in false operating current.
Either the harmonic-restraint or the percentage
differential restraint (fundamental frequency
characteristic) prevents unwanted tripping for
this condition.

Under symmetrical current conditions, CT

distortion generates odd harmonics, but no even
harmonics. A CT experiencing dc saturation
during an assymetrical fault develops both even
and odd harmonics. Relays that restrain on odd
harmonics may fail to operate if the harmonic
content exceeds the relays’ threshold for re-
straint. Relays that restrain on just even harmon-
ics may be temporarily restrained until the CTs
recover from the effects of the dc transient.
High-set unrestrained elements (instantaneous)
supplement the restrained elements, so that high
current faults, where CT saturtion can be
severe, can be cleared independent of any
harmonic restraint. These elements must be set
above the maximum inrush level and above the
maximum false operating current produced by
dissimilar ct performance during external faults.
For satisfactory protection, harmonic generation
by the cts should not exceed the restraint level
for a current below the unrestrained element
pickup. Poor CT quality can materially detract
from the reliability of the differential relay. A
good objective is Ks=8 or higher for a current at
Revised 8/03
If you have any questions or need
additional information, please contact
Basler Electric Company.
Our web site is located at:
http://www.basler.com
e-mail: info@basler.com
Basler Electric Headquarters
Route 143, Box 269,
Highland Illinois USA 62249
Phone 618/654-2341
Fax 618-654-2351
Basler Electric International
P.A.E. Les Pins, 67319
Wasselonne Cedex FRANCE
Phone (33-3-88) 87-1010
Fax (33-3-88) 87-0808