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Boiler and Steam System

Dr. Akepati S. Reddy


Head, Dept. Analytical Services, TCIRD
Assist. Prof., DBTES, Thapar University
Patiala (PUNJAB) – 147 004
Steam System
Can be considered to include
• Steam generation
– Fire-tube or water-tube boiler or combination of both
– Fuel system, combustion air system, water system, steam
system, flue gas system, bottom ash and fly ash
• Steam distribution
– Distribution lines, pressure reduction facilities, steam traps.
• End use of steam
– Heat exchangers or direct injection heating of steam
• Condensate recovery system
– Steam traps, condensate collection tanks, flash steam
recovery, pumps
• Feed water system
– Water treatment, deaerators, chemical conditioning, etc.
Boiler system
Can be considered to include
• Fuel and combustion air system
– FD fan (and often additional fans), Air pre-heater, Primary
air and Secondary air
– Fuel conditioning and loading (including fuel storage,
screening, pre-heating, pumping, etc.)
• Water system
– Makeup water treatment
– Return condensate collection
– Deaerator, Boiler feed water pumps and Economiser
– Feed water and boiler water conditioning chemicals
• Steam system
• Flue gases system
– Economizer, Air pre-heater, APCD, ID fan and Stack
– Bottom ash and fly ash handling
Efficiencies related to Steam System

• Combustion efficiency

• Thermal efficiency

• Boiler efficiency or generation efficiency

• Distribution efficiency

• Utilization efficiency

• Overall efficiency
Boiler Capacity and Boiler Efficiency
Equivalent evaporation - kg/hr. steam at 100°C (540
kCal/kg)
– Used for expressing the steam generation capacity
Actual evaporation( H − h )
Equivalent evaporation =
540
– H is heat content of actual steam produced (kCal/kg)
– h is the heat content of the boiler feed water (kCal/kg)
– Pressure, temperature and dryness factor of the steam
and temperature of the feed water are needed
Boiler evaporation ratio – kg of steam generated from a kg
of fuel consumed
– 6 for coal and 13 for oil
Boiler efficiency
Boiler efficiency depends on
• Efficient combustion (combustion efficiency) of fuel
– Bottom ash and flyash should not have unbrunts
– Stack gases should not have CO and organic vapours
– Atomizing fuel, proper mixing and intimate fuel-air contact,
and availability of sufficient oxygen are important
– Heat generated depends on NCV of the fuel ( GCV!)
• Efficient use of the heat generated (thermal efficiency!)
– Should be used up in steam generation
– Heat losses should be minimum (or eliminated!)
– Stack losses, radiation losses and losses in bottom ash and
fly ash should be minimized
Boiler Efficiency
Parameters needed monitoring for boiler efficiency
calculations
• Steam parameters: generation rate, pressure,
temperature, and dryness factor
• Fuel parameters: consumption rate, ultimate analysis
(Carbon, Hydrogen, Sulfur, Oxygen, Moisture, and ash)
and GCV (NCV!)
• Feed water temperature (blow down not considered!)
• Flue gas parameters: temperature and oxygen (or CO2
and CO)
• Bottom ash and fly ash: GCV or unburnts
Boiler Heat Balance 1
Heat Loss in Dry Flue
Heat Loss in Flue Gas Gas
Water Heat Loss in Air
2

Heat Transfer in Vaporizer


Heat Supply
to Boiler
Effectively
Exchanged
Heat Transfer in Super Heater
Heat
Heat Transfer in Economizer

6 Other Heat Loss


5
4 Unburned Carbon in Flue
3 Unburned Material Gas
Radiation Heat Loss
Boiler Efficiency – Indirect Method
Boiler Efficiency
Q( hg − h f )
Direct method: η=
q.GCV
q.GCV − ∑ ( Losses )
Indirect method: η=
q.GCV
Losses
• In dry stack gases: 0.23m(T f − Ta )

m = airstoi. (1 + airexcess frc. ) + fuel

Fuel ultimate analysis (% hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, carbon,


moisture and ash in the fuel)
2.67 × C + 8 × H 2 + S − O2
airstoi. =
0.23
Boiler Efficiency
Excess air: calculated either from % O2 or from % CO2 of
stack gases
% O2 % CO2 (theoretical )
Excess air = Excess air = −1
21 − % O2 % CO2 ( actual )
Loss through the water vapour present in stack gases
– Due to water vapour from H2 of fuel from combustion
9 H 2 [584 + 0.45(T f − Ta ) ]
– Due to water vapour from the humidity of combustion air
[ ]
airstoi. (1 + airexcess frc. ) × % humidity × 0.45(T f − Ta )

– Due to water vapour from the moisture of the fuel


[ ]
[ % H 2O × fuel ] × 584 + 0.45(T f − Ta )
Boiler Efficiency
Radiation and other unaccounted losses (taken as 5%!)
– Depends on boiler’s external surfaces temp. – poor
insulation and poor design increases radiation losses
– Independent of load – at low load losses are higher

Unburnts
• Heat loss from bottom ash and fly ash
– Generation rate and GCV of bottom ash and flyash
– Or % combustibles can also be useful
• CO and organic vapours in stack gases (due to
incomplete combustion)
Boiler blow down losses are usually not considered
Factors Affecting Boiler Efficiency
• Equipment design (burner, boiler, etc.)
• Insulation conditions
• Heat recovery (economizer, air pre-heater, blow heat
recovery, etc.)
• Fuel quality (including moisture content)
• Operating parameters (excess air, loading factor, blow
down regulation)
• Condensate and heat contribution by return condensate
• Quality of feed water (TDS!)
• Maintenance (gas side and water side deposits and their
control)
Efficient Boiler Operation
Efficient combustion requires air in excess of stoichiometric
requirement
– Less air can result in incomplete combustion (inefficient
burning) and black smoke
– Excess air ensures efficient combustion and results in
white or clear smoke and excess heat loss in stack gases
– Efficient combustion is indicated by hazy brown smoke
from stack and minimal heat loss in stack gases
• Controlling excess air is most important
• Oxy-fuel technology and oxygen-enriched combustion
enhances boiler efficiency - minimizes stack loss (N2!)
Relation between Air Ratio and Heat Efficiency
Optimum
Heat Combustion
Region Combustion
Loss
Combustion Efficiency
Efficiency

Energy Loss by Imperfect Heat Loss by Excess Air


Combustion
1.15 1.3 Air Ratio
2.74 4.85 O2 Content in Flue Gas (%)

Formation of Black Smoke Optimum Increase of NOx


(Insufficient Air) Air Ratio (Excess Air)
Efficient Boiler Operation
Controlling excess air
• Through controlling O2 (and even CO or CO2) in flue
gases excess air can be controlled
– Excellent operating range: <1% O2 (<5% excess air)
– Good operating range: 1-5% O2 (5-30% excess air)
– Fair operating range: 5-10.8% O2 (30-100% excess air)
– Poor operating range: >10.8% O2 (>100% excess air)
CO2 varies in stack gases from fuel to fuel and not a good
measurement for control
CO <100 ppm is considered appropriate for efficiency
– Higher CO (in case of oil) indicates improper atomization
Efficient Boiler Operation
Optimizing of excess air
– Raise O2 in stack gases to higher value (8-10%)
– Gradually decrease air supply to reduce O2 level in stack
gases till brown hazy stack (but not black smoke)
– 3-5% O2 should be achieved – inability to achieve <5%
indicates defective burner/boiler
– Should be done at different loads
Load factor and maximum boiler efficiency
– Maximum efficiency occurs at 2/3rd load (not at full load)
– Efficiency at < 50% load is low – combustion needs excess
air for efficient burning - heat loss through stack increases
– Don’t operate below the load factor where efficiency is low
Maximizing Boiler Efficiency
FBC Technology:
• Has ability to burn inferior coal having ash as high as 70% with
over 75% efficiently, and low grade fuels such as paddy husk,
agro-waste, low grade coal, baggasse, lignite, etc.
• Improvement in efficiency by 30-40%
• Improvement in rating capacity by 30-50% and quick response
to changes in the load
• Ensured complete combustion
• Clinker formation is lesser
Maximizing Boiler Efficiency
Return condensate from process for use as boiler feed
water enhances efficiency
– Raises boiler feed water temperature
– Every 6°C raise in feed water temp. saves 1% fuel
– Also conserves water and reduces water treatment cost
– Steam balance studies to know potential for return steam!
Heat recovery from hot stack gases
– Economizer and/or air pre-heater are used
– Stack gases temp. should not drop below due point
(160°C)
– 22°C reduction in flue gas temperature either in
economizer or in air pre-heater results in 1% fuel saving
– 20°C rise in combustion air temperature saves 1% fuel
Maximizing Boiler Efficiency
Gas side deposits affect efficiency
– Soot deposition reduces efficiency
– 3 mm soot coating increases fuel consumption by 2.5%!
– Soot blowers for cleaning - when flue gas temperature
raises by 30°C to normal soot blowing is practiced
Water side deposits affect efficiency
– 1 mm scale development increases fuel by 5-8%
– Control of blow down helps
TDS of feed water × % makeup
% blow down =
permissible TDS in boiler − TDS of water
IS standards specify limits to boiler TDS
Feed water TDS matters in boiler blow down
Maximizing Boiler Efficiency
Heat recovery from boiler blow down
– Flash the blow down to obtain low pressure steam
– Pressurized boiler feed water can be preheated with the
flash steam – or recycle flash steam to deaerator
– Condensate can be taken into feed water tank for use as
boiler feed water
– Then pass the blow down through a heat exchanger for
heating the boiler feed water

Vent
Feed
Boiler
Heat Recovery from Blowdown Water Condensate
Return
(“ Flash” Steam) Deaerator

blow down
Mud-drum
blow down
Mid-drum
Heat
Flash Flash
exchanger Feed Steam
team
Feed ‘B’ tank
water Stea Condens
Flash
Separator
to m ate
Boil boiler trap Preheated

Down
Blow
er feed water

Feed Heat
Flash purrp Exchanger
vessel ‘ C Condens

Blowdow To waste

Make up
ate

Water
n Steam Heat Cold
trap exchange feed
Auxiliary equipment consuming power

• ID fan and FD fans


– variable speed drives
– tuning FD with fuel loading and with O2 level in flue gas
– interfacing ID fan with FD fan
• Boiler feed water pumps
• Fuel handling and preparation equipment
• APCD associated equipment
Steam Distribution System
• Heat loss occurs in the steam distribution system
– Steam distribution piping sizing and length matters
– Improper or lack of insulation enhances heat losses
• Heat loss leads to condensate formation
– Formation is more with saturated steam
• Condensate in steam system causes water hammering –
moving steam picks up condensate and carries along
– Proper sizing of steam lines can minimize condensation
– Proper insulation can help through minimizing heat loss
Steam Distribution System
• Steam traps are used to remove the condensate as it is
formed
– Discharge condensate while not allowing steam to escape
– allowing discharge of air and other non-condensable
gases is preferred
• Proper selection and maintenance of steam traps is very
important
• Condensate and flash steam of steam traps can be
collected and returned to boiler
• Steam leaks
Tips for steam lines
• Should run with falling slope (>125 mm/30 m)
• Locate condensate drain points at 30-45 m intervals on
mains at
– At low points
– At points where the mains rise
– At the bottom of the expansion joints and before reduction
and stop valves
• Drain points should be through an equal T connection
• Branch lines should be connected at the top on mains
• Expansion loops should be provided
• Install steam separators
Orifice Leak Rate [lbm/hr]

Diameter Steam Temperature is 500°F

[inch] Steam Supply Pressure [psig]

50 100 150 200 250 300 350


1/16 6 10 15 19 24 30 34
1/8 23 41 59 77 96 119 134
3/16 51 92 132 173 215 269 302
1/4 91 163 235 308 382 478 536
5/16 143 254 367 481 597 747 838
3/8 206 366 529 693 860 1,075 1,207
7/16 280 499 720 944 1,170 1,464 1,642
1/2 366 651 940 1,232 1,528 1,912 2,145
20 47 74 100 125 151 176
Discharge Pressure [psig]
Steam Piping
Recommended steam velocity for saturated dry steam for
heating purposes is 18-30 m/s
• Steam flow rate (kg/hr.) can be calculated by

W = 0.00237
( D V) 2 W is steam flow rate (kg/hr.)
D is dia. of pipe in mm
U U is specific vol. m3/kg
V is velocity (m/sec.)
Can be helpful in finding right size of steam line
Oversizing of steam piping results in
– Greater heat loss and increased condensate generation
– Greater initial cost
Under sizing of steam piping results in
– Higher pressure drop and lower pressure at the user end
– Water hammering and erosion problems
Insulation
• For well insulated surfaces temperature difference between
insulated surface and ambient air is <10 to <20°C for a pipe
line of <250°C
• Needed to save energy, to control temperature and to better
working conditions
• Insulators are poor conductors of heat (have low thermal
conductivity, kCal/m.°C.hr.)
• Surface coefficient: total heat transfer to surroundings from hot
surface
• Wind speed and emissivity of the surface affects the value
• Emissivity, f (kCal/m2.°C.hr.) is ratio of heat transfer from a
surface to that of a black body
Wind Bare 25 mm 50 mm 75 mm 100 mm
1 m/sec. 4197 537 319 238 198
Insulation: Energy losses
• Heat loss from bare surfaces: both convective and radiative
losses
[ ( )
Q = 0.8612( qconv. + qrad . ) = 0.8612 εA Ts4 − Ta4 + CA( Ts − Ta ) ]
ε is emissivity of surface
• Heat loss from insulated flat surfaces (0.6 for oxidized Al)
A is surface area
( θ1 − θ 2 ) KA Q Ts and Ta Temperature in k
Q= θ2 =
+ θ3
L Af C coefficient of convection (5)
• Heat loss from insulated cylindrical surfaces
(θ1 − θ 2 ) A Q r1 Q is heat loss in kCal/hr
Q= θ2 = . + θ3 θ 1 is hot face temp. in °C
 r2  1 r1 Af r2
r1  ln  + + f θ 2 is cold face temp in °C
 r1  K r2 θ 3 is ambient temp in °C
K thermal conductivity of insulation (kCal/hr.m.°C)
L is thickness of insulation (m)
f is surface coefficient
r1 and r2 are inner and outer radius
Steam traps
• Steam traps play vital role in maintaining the quality of
steam & efficiency of heating by draining the condensate
formed in the steam lines and users.
• Most commonly used are
– TD traps- intermittent application
– Float traps-continuous/intermittent
– Inverted Bucket traps - intermittent
– Bimetallic traps- semi continuous
• This is one of the very highly neglected areas in many
plants
• Continuous steam trap management will result is
sustaining energy saving by avoiding the losses.
Steam Utilization
Some of the steam saving techniques are
– Exploit alternative modes (Rad-heat gas heating element)
– Use of appropriate controls
– Utilize steam at lowest practicable pressure - low pressure
steam has more latent heat
– Reduction in process time and optimal loading
– Mechanical water removal and processing at lower water
content(decanters performance)
– Pre-heating the products (in evaporator section)
– Isolating the redundant pipes
– Provide dry steam to process
– Recover both condensate and flash steam
– Reduce the work to be done by steam
– Minimize barriers to heat transfer
Condensate and flash steam recovery
Condensate
• Has both energy value make-up water value
– Every 6°C raise of feed water temperature saves 1% of fuel
– Saves both water and water treatment chemicals
• Condensate recovery system costs
• Condensate receivers and flash tanks of the system serve to
reduce the steam entering the condensate return piping
Flash steam
• Condensate generated has the same pressure as the steam
• When comes out of a trap, the pressure drops to atmospheric
pressure, temp. of the condensate drops, and difference in
sensible heat evaporates water to form flash steam
Q is condensate generation rate
Q( S1 − S 2 ) S1 is sensible heat of high pressure condensate
Flash steam = S2 is sensible heat of low pressure condensate
L2
L2 is latent heat of flash steam at low pressure

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