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Option G Ecology and conservation

G1 Community ecology
G1.1 Outline the factors that affect the distribution of plant species, including temperature,
water, light, soil pH, salinity and mineral nutrients
Plants are distributed throughout the world thanks to their varied adaptations to the habitats they
live in. A series of abiotic factors can determine the presence of certain plant species. For example,
water and temperature enables such variety as xerophytes in deserts and pine trees in the Alps.
Xerophyte adaptations enable them to survive in water-scarce environments. Some plants adapt
to great exposure to light, others live in shadows and still survive with as little light as there is
available. Soil pH affect distribution of some alkaline soil and acid soil plants in relation to calcium
and iron concentration in soils, respectively. Salinity is an adverse factor on most plants, as the soil
is hypertonic in comparison to the roots and water drains out; though some species do survive. In
the same manner, different concentrations of mineral ions, which as seen are recycled through
trophic levels, may affect plant distribution. Mineral concentration can be affected by harvesting
or excessive fertilizers carry nutrient leakage from soils, and result in river eutrophication.
G1.2 Explain the factors that affect the distribution of animal species, including temperature,
water, breeding sites, food supply and territory
Animal species are as well affected by temperature, water, breeding sites, food supplies and
territory. Some species live in hot areas while others, such as polar bears, exist in cold habitats.
Some animals are able to perform thermoregulation, which is the homeostatic control of
temperature. This enable proper functions of metabolic pathways, but requires lots of energy
(from food). Poikilotherms cannot carry thermoregulation, while homeotherms do. Heterotherms
carry thermoregulation at times. Warming mechanisms can be endothermic (internal, as seen in
the regulation of body temperature by the hypothalamus) or ectothermic (behavioral and in
relation to the environment.
Water supplies are another important factor as many vital processes require on it. Some species,
such as fish, depend completely on water, while others such as camels can survive in arid areas
where water is scarce.
Animal species carry out reproduction during their life cycle. Therefore, breeding sites affect their
distribution, because breeding sites may vary from a nesting tree to stagnant water (mosquitoes
lay eggs there). As well, food supply is needed for the animals to survive and species may predate
on specific preys, and thus will live in areas where the preys are available. Blue whales live in
ocean regions where krill, their main prey, is present in high numbers.
Finally, some animals defend their territories during a great part of their lifetime. Tawny owls live
and defend their territory throughout adulthood, Japanese fighting fish are territorial. This
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defense gives an even distribution of species as territories are commonly their main food and
breeding sites.
G1.3 Describe one method of random sampling, based on quadrat methods, that is used to
compare the population size of two plant or two animal species
Samples are part of the total population which helps to illustrate the behavior of the total
population in relation to a variable. Random sample enable every individual the same chance of
being selected. Random sampling involves counting species from randomly selected areas of a
total area. Quadrats are used for this on terrains to find out the estimated population size of one
or two species. This enables a comparison to be established on what species is more present in the
area.
Quadrats are selected randomly from a gridline in the terrain. The number of selected individuals
on the quadrat is counted and the quadrat selection is repeated many times until a large number
of samples are obtained (30 is ok). Measuring the total size of the area occupied by the
population, the mean number of the species per quadrat, and the area of each quadrat used,
population size is estimated by the equation:




The quadrat method can be replicated on another species to enable comparisons. These are very
useful to understand how species are present in determined habitats, and could enable scientists
to question what relationships can arouse between these species.
G1.4 Outline the use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or animal species with an
abiotic variable
Transects are an alternative method to quadrats. The distribution of plants or animals is evaluated
along a line marked across a site. The line is the transect, and are useful when abiotic variables are
involved. For example, if in a valley the soil at the bottom is wetter than in high areas, a transect
will surely enable the identification of species that are affected by these factor. Thus, the
distribution is likely to be correlated with the variation in soil moisture content or any abiotic
variable of the sort.
G1.5 Explain what is meant by the niche concept, including an organisms spatial habitat, its
feeding activities and its interactions with other species
The niche is the role a species has in an ecosystem. These include the place where the species
population lives (the spatial habitat), the way species obtain their food and what food they feed
on, as well as their relationship with other species in the community of the ecosystem. To define
the niche of an organism, a careful, detailed description of these factors, as well as their
relationship with abiotic factors, is required.
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G1.6 Outline the following interactions between species, giving two examples of each:
competition, herbivory, predation, parasitism and mutualism
Competition is the struggle between individuals for the same resource, as the usage of the
resource by one individual reduces the available usage of the resource for the other. It can be
between the same specie (intraspecific) or between different species (interspecific). Examples
include the warbler species living in spruce trees in North America, solved by niche differentiation
(partition of resources). Another example includes coral species competition between Pocillopora
damicornis and Pavona varians, which benefit when predators feed on P. damicornis.
Herbivores are primary consumers feeding on plants or other producer. Producer growth affects
the food available to herbivores. Examples include deers and cattle.
Predation is the eating of live organisms. A consumer feeding on another consumer. Number and
behavior of prey affect predators, which include Bonitos feeding on anchoveta in Peru, and the
lion eating a gazelle.
Parasitism is the long-lasting relationship between a parasite and a host organism, in which the
host is harmed by the parasite who obtains food from it. Organisms that cause infectious diseases
are all parasites. Examples include the tick Ixodes scapularis parasiting deer, and the fungus which
causes athletes foot.
Mutualism is a long-lasting relationship in which both species benefit from living together in a
close relationship. Examples include fungal hyphae and roots in dicotyledonous plants; and the
cowbird feeding on parasites in the cow, which are their main food source.
G1.7 Explain the principle of competitive exclusion
The competitive exclusion principle states that a niche cannot be shared by two species at the
same time in an ecosystem. If two species have the same niche, feed on the same food, live in the
same spatial habitat and relate with other organisms in the same way (predation, parasitism, etc),
interspecific competition will cause one of them to disappear, leaving the superior competitor.
Species are excluded where they cannot occupy any part of their fundamental niche.
G1.8 Distinguish between fundamental and realized niches
The fundamental niche of a species is its potential mode of existence, given the adaptations of the
species. Competition usually impedes fundamental niches. The realized niche of a species is its
actual mode of existence, which results from its adaptation and competition from other species.
G1.9 Define biomass
Biomass is the total dry mass of organic matter in organisms or ecosystems.
G1.10 Describe one method for the measurement of biomass of different trophic levels in an
ecosystem
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Biomass is a measure used to compare the amount of organisms in each trophic level. Measuring
it involves the destruction of randomly selected organisms, arranged by trophic levels. The
samples are killed, heated and dried to remove water. Their dry mass is measured and this is
repeated to confirm initial results.
G2 Ecosystems and biomes
G2.1 Define gross production, net production and biomass
The gross production is the total amount of organic matter produced by plants in an ecosystem. It
can be calculated from plant respiration and net production (all measured in kJ m
-2
yr
-1
). The net
production is the amount of gross production not used in respiration which remains in an
ecosystem.
G2.2 Calculate values for gross production and net production using the equation: gross
production respiration = net production
Note: Alternatively, GP R = NP
G2.3 Discuss the difficulties of classifying organisms into trophic levels
Most organisms do not follow a linear food chain and thus can be arranged at different trophic
levels. For example, Euglena (see F1.9) is a eukaryotic bacteria living in ponds which can either
produce food by photosynthesis or feed heterophically by endocytosis. In food webs, this pattern
is more obvious, as some species can be primary consumers and tertiary consumers at the same
time, depending on the food source available. Classifying organisms in trophic levels may prove
difficult; an alternative could be classifying them according to their main food source.
G2.4 Explain the small biomass and low numbers in organisms in higher trophic levels
As seen in Topic 5, energy flow through trophic levels is directly proportional to the number of
species: energy is lost and high trophic levels usually consist of a small number of individuals. This
is because energy is lost in the form of heat by respiration, and by excretion of undigested parts.
Part of the gross production is lost this way, and its also a loss in biomass. Biomass and energy are
lost at each stage in a food chain. However, energy content per gram in food eaten by the higher
trophic levels is richer because the number of food source is scarce. As energy pyramids show,
food chains cannot support a large number of organisms in the highest trophic levels and these
organisms require much more energy and are much bigger than the preys they feed in. This results
in a low biomass (small number of individuals) in higher trophic levels, in comparison with lower
trophic levels where individuals are present in large numbers.
G2.5 Construct a pyramid of energy, given the appropriate information
Note: the units are kJm
-2
yr
-1

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When constructing a pyramid of energy, the base will be the gross production and the subsequent
energy bars representing each trophic level will be the net production of the latter.
G2.6 Distinguish between primary and secondary succession, using an example of each
A succession is the process of gradual changes to an ecosystem caused by complex interactions
between the community of living organisms and the abiotic environment. Succession will
eventually establish a climax community, a stable group of populations of the species that are best
adapted to that final environment.
When a site has never sustained life, primary succession is started. These include, for example, a
new island created by volcanic activity. Secondary succession occurs in areas where an ecosystem
is replaced by another. It can occur after conditions in the environment are severely changed, such
as an abandoned farmland developing into a forest.
G2.7 Outline the changes in species diversity and production during primary succession
Only a few numbers of species can live in an environment that has never sustained life before.
Pioneer species will establish an environment that may result suitable for other species. This is a
slow process and will result in a long-term diversity increase. Productivity of species is a direct
result of this population of species, as with more species come to populate the environment,
production of individuals will naturally increase.
G2.8 Explain the effects of living organisms on the abiotic environment, with reference to the
changes occurring during primary succession
Primary succession carries a series of effects not only on population dynamics, but also on the
abiotic environment. For example, amount of organic matter in soils increases as plant populate
the area, producing organic matter which accumulates in the soil. Soil becomes deeper as organic
matter helps to bind mineral matter together. Soil structure improves with more organic matter
levels, as more water can now be retained and more can be drained if present in excess. Erosion
can also be lessened as roots of big plants attach to it and prevent it from being blown away.
Finally, accumulation of minerals is increased as more organisms proliferate, as the soil is able to
sustain a larger amount and more minerals are held in the increasing biomass of the community.
G2.9 Distinguish between biome and biosphere
As climax communities develop through succession processes, they settle in a stable ecosystem.
Biomes are a type of ecosystem, a large geographical area with a certain climate and certain
diversity. Biomes are incredible varied and they are assorted worldwide. The biomes of the world
together make up the biosphere. Ecosystems in the world work together throughout, and the
biosphere includes all the interdependent and interrelated ecosystems and biomes that cover the
Earth.
G2.10 Explain how rainfall and temperature affect the distribution of biomes
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When analyzing climographs (right), it
can be seen how temperature and
precipitation affect the distribution of
biomes. A desert has high temperatures
but low precipitation, as it is an arid, hot
biome. Tropical rainforest are hot and
wet: their temperatures and
precipitations are high. Rainfall and
temperature are the two main factors
that affect distribution of biomes across
the world.




G2.11 Outline the characteristics of six major biomes
Biome Rainfall; Temperature Plant diversity
Desert Hot days, cold nights
Very low precipitation
Few plants (xerophytes)
Grassland Warm summers, cool winters
Low precipitation
Grasses and herbs
Shrubland Hot, dry summers (fires)
Cool, wet winters
Drought-resistant shrubs
Temperate deciduous forest Warm summers, cool winters
Moderate precipitation
Trees with shed leaves in
winter, shrubs and herbs
Tropical rainforest Hot temperatures
High precipitation
Huge diversity of plants:
shrubs, herbs, small and
evergreen trees
Tundra Low temperatures
Little precipitation (snow)
Small trees, few herbs, mosses
and lichens

G3 Impacts of humans on ecosystems
G3.1 Calculate the Simpson diversity index for two local communities

) 1 (
) 1 (
n n
N N

D
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D= index of diversity
N= total number of individuals of all species registered
n= total number of individuals of a particular species
G3.2 Analyze the biodiversity of the two local communities using the Simpson index
An elevated value of D suggest a climax population with a stable environment, while a low value of
D could suggest contamination of the environment, recent secondary or primary succession or
agricultural effects on the community. Comparison between different communities may result in a
further assessment of the communities in relation to worldwide trends. High biodiversity in
communities may enable them to become nature reserves.
G3.3 Discuss reasons for the conservation of biodiversity using rainforests as an example
Biomes must be conserved for their importance as ecosystems that sustain various kinds of life.
Rainforest, which have been recently endangered by exploitation of its natural resources and
deforestation, could serve as an example to illustrate the importance of the conservation of
biodiversity. It is calculated that over 40-75% of all world species are indigenous to rainforests.
Reasons for the conservation of rainforest may include a wide array, from economic to ethical.
Products such as medicine or materials are found in rainforest species. New crop plants or
improving species can be produced using rainforest species genes. This may be profitable in a
long-term. Ecotourism is also a significant income for countries with a huge rainforest such as Peru
or Brazil. On the other hand, rainforests are known as the worlds lungs. They fix large amounts
of carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Without them, global warming would be more severe.
Damages to rainforests may disrupt the biosphere producing soil erosion, floods and even changes
in weather patterns on a worldwide scale.
Ethical reasons considered must be that every species has the right to live, whether they are useful
for humans or not. Indigenous people living in rainforests rely on them and their lives circle
around it: destroying them is wrong. The rich biodiversity rainforests offer is product of nature,
and humans have no right to destroy this and prevent future generations to be inspired by its
beauty.
G3.4 List three examples of the introduction of alien species that have had significant impacts on
ecosystems
An alien species is a type of organism that humans have introduced to an area where it does not
naturally occur. Alien species can be invasive and cause harm to ecosystems. For example, release
of ladybird beetles which feed on aphids (pests on crops) was a method of biological control that
resulted in mobility of ladybird beetles to unwanted areas. The golden apple snail was accidentally
introduced to Taiwan originally as food, but people didnt want it. They escaped and eat rice
plants, which promote algal bloom and river eutrophication, resulting in reduced crops. A
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deliberate release was that of the same golden snail in Africa and Asia to compete with snails that
causes a disease called bilharzias in humans. This was a successful attempt.
G3.5 Discuss the impacts of alien species on ecosystems
Alien species can establish unwanted relationships with native species in ecosystems and even
result in their extinction. One example of alien species is Salvinia molesta, a floating fern that carry
interspecific competition and caused the elimination of many plant native species, as it proved
more successful for the environment.
A case of predation by alien species involves cane toads, brought to Australia originally to control
cane beetles that were damaging crops. However, cane toads began to predate on other species,
competing with others and poisoning those who attacked them.
Three species of rat were introduced to mainland New Zealand during the 19
th
century. They cause
the extinction of many species of birds, and caused the survivors to migrate to nearby islands.
Rabbits brought by Europeans to Australia became a pest species as their number increased
exponentially, causing soil erosion and killing trees by stripping their bark. The biological control of
this pest was carried out by the Australian government in 1950, introducing the myxoma virus,
which causes a disease only in rabbits. The numbers severely decreased and they are now
controlled.
G3.6 Outline one example of biological control of invasive species
The rabbits in Australia are considered as invasive species. They biological control by myxomatosis
was described in G3.5.
G3.7 Define biomagnification
Biomagnification is a process in which chemical substances become more concentrated at each
ascending trophic level.
G3.8 Explain the causes and consequences of biomagnification, using a named example

The pesticide DDT was widely used to control pests in crops, until it was realized how dangerous it
was for organisms in the surrounding habitats. The animals eating plants with DDT will present the
chemical in higher concentrations. Human ingesting the animals would have even higher levels of
the chemical pesticide.
G3.9 Outline the effect of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on living tissues and biological productivity
Ultra-violet radiation has damaging effects on living tissues. High levels alter DNA structure and
may cause mutations and skin cancer. It can also damage eyes and cause cataracts, as severe
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sunburn. It can also affect biological productivity, reducing photosynthesis rates in plants and
algae and thus affecting food chains. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are killed by high levels of UV light.
G3.10 Outline the effect of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the ozone layer
The depletion of the ozone layer is caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), manufactured chemical
compounds used in refrigerators, fire extinguishers and used in large amounts because they were
thought to be harmless as they were broken down by sunlight in the stratosphere. Actually, the
breaking of CFCs causes chlorine atoms to be formed. The reactive chlorine will react with ozone
molecules and break them apart into oxygen. Ozone break this way cannot reform; one chlorine
atom can destroy 100 thousand ozone molecules.
G3.11 State that ozone in the stratosphere absorbs UV radiation
The amount of damaging ultra-violet radiation reaching the Earths surface will be much greater
without the ozone layer, which absorbs UV radiation. Ozone is present in high numbers in the
stratosphere. Ozone depletion has caused an increasing hole to open in the ozone layer in the
Antarctic for several months.
G4 Conservation of biodiversity
G4.1 Explain the use of biotic indices and indicator species in monitoring environmental change
Indicator species are living organisms that detect changes in an environment. Biologists can
effectively anticipate or realized if a said environment is changing, because this is signaled by
species that appear in very specific conditions. One such example of monitoring is carried out in
aquatic ecosystems to measure if the ecosystem is being polluted. High oxygen concentrations are
usually signaled by the presence of mayfly larva, which can only survive in unpolluted, oxygenated
water. On the other hand, the presence of tubifex may indicate low oxygen levels. Tubifex is a
sludge worm, so the presence of suspended organic matter, such as raw sewage, may be indicated
by its presence.
To assess ecosystems, biotic indices are commonly uses. One such method consists of multiplying
the number of individuals of each indicator species by its pollution tolerance rating. High levels of
the pollution tolerant give a low score; while high levels of intolerant species give a high score (as
their presence signals a clean ecosystem).
G4.2 Outline the factors that contributed to the extinction of one named animal species
The dodo was a bird found in Mauritius in the sixteen century when Europeans colonized the
island. The dodoes inhabited the ground, and were non-flying birds with no natural predations.
Sailors in the island have reportedly killed dodos for entertainment. As well, the introduction of
alien species such as dogs and rats cause their extinction by destroying nesting sites and predating
on them. The dodo now stands as one of the most famous examples on how human action caused
a species to be extinct.
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G4.3 Outline the biogeographical features of nature reserves that promote the conservation of
diversity
Usually, large nature reserves promote conservation of biodiversity more effectively than small
ones; though some studies have found the opposite (a high conservation is apt in small forest
patches, without high numbers dead wood from trees that may affect conservation).
Nevertheless, nature reserves promote conservation in many ways. One such way is the edge-
effect. There is a different ecology in the edges of nature reserves than in the cores. Cowbirds live
in forest edges next to meadows where cows eat grass. This enables them to sustain the
mutualistic relationship with cow eating their parasites, and at the same time make breeding sites
available in a short range. Size of the reserves influences the edge effect. Large reserves have
comparatively smaller edges, and thus a limited edge-effect, than smaller reserves where there is
an increased edge-effect (more edges, less core).
If habitats are fragmented, such as the construction of a road in a forest, wildlife corridors allow
species of fragmented populations to move between different areas. For example, tunnels under
the road.
G4.4 Discuss the role of active management techniques in conservation
Human disruption of ecosystems has caused many nature reserves to be affected, either by alien
species and consequently, disappearance of native species, as well as by exploitation and
degradation of the resources. An active management involves taking care of these factors through
an effective control.
The Hinewai Reserve in the South Island of New Zealand has carried a limited, active management.
Native species from cleared valleys used for farmland had been allowed to resettle by secondary
succession. Alien species such as goats have been culled to reduce their numbers. In this way
native grazing plants, and many other plant species, are being re-establishing at Hinewai.
G4.5 Discuss the advantages of in situ conservation of endangered species (terrestrial and
aquatic nature reserves)
In situ conservation means that species are conserved in their normal habitats and is carry out
mainly in nature reserves. In situ conservation provides several advantages for the conservation of
endangered species such as Chinese pandas. Many species, like the pandas, are difficult to breed
in captivity. In situ conservation enables species to continue to be adapted to their environment.
Their niche is not disrupted, and thus behavioral patterns are conserved such as the interaction
with other organisms. The conservation of the ecosystem is enabling by in situ conservation, which
is mainly carried out to plant crops. Animals are harder to monitor, as they are mobile. As well, its
hard to keep an effective control on them without disrupting the ecosystem. The conservation of
endangered species is particularly important and their survival must be guaranteed both in
terrestrial and aquatic reserves. Some species cannot simply stand captivity, and their reduced
numbers make their conservation critical.
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G4.6 Outline the use of ex situ conservation measure, including captive breeding of animals,
botanic gardens and seed banks
In situ conservation, however, may be detrimental to species conservation if the ecosystem is
disrupted or destroyed, or if species become rare to the point that they are not safe left in their
ecosystems. Ex situ measurement are taken, which include captive breeding, botanic gardens and
seed banks.
A saola in Vietnamese forests was found recently, but died in captivity. More specimens of saola
continue to be followed to protect the reducing species. In the same manner, the Hawaiian kestrel
is kept in captivity. Their numbers have raised and they were able to go back to the wild. Plants
can be conserved in botanic gardens, where many different species of plants are cultivated. The
Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew is one botanic garden housing over one fifth of the world known
plant species. In the same way, seed banks contain seeds in inactive forms to preserve many of the
worlds plant diversity.
G5 Population ecology
G5.1 Distinguish between r-strategies and K-strategies
As seen in 5.3, natality increase population size. There are two extremely opposed reproductive
strategies followed by species: r and K.
r-strategy involves investing more resources into producing many offspring. They are
characterized by a small size, short life span, and large number of offspring during only one
reproduction and early maturity. Examples include small rodents.
K-strategies involve investing more resources into development and long-term survival. K-
strategies are characterized by a large size, a long life span, a late maturity, multiple reproductions
and small number of offspring with parental care. These include the African elephant.
Most organisms in reality use both strategies rather than one extreme: trees have a large size but
produce a lot of offspring. Drosophila can switch between strategies depending on environmental
conditions.
G5.2 Discuss the environmental conditions that favor either r-strategies or K-strategies
r-strategies are found in unstable environments, as its better to produce as many offspring as
possible to secure survival. Population of r-strategist species will rarely grow to the point where
density factors become important, such as competition and predation. Stable environments, on
the other hand (where each organisms needs to compete for resources) require K-strategies for
the development of large individuals for a long life span. K-strategists are organisms more apt to
compete, and in ecological succession they usually replace r-strategists to establish the climax
communities. K-strategists are present near the maximum carrying capacity the environment can
sustain.
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G5.3 Describe one technique used to estimate the population size of an animal species based on
a capture-mark-release-recapture method
Mark and recapture is a method commonly used by ecologist to estimate population size. The
Lincoln index of population size is employed with the information gathered in the capture-mark-
release-recapture method, and is calculated by:

n1= the number of individuals initially caught, marked and released
n2= total number of individuals caught in the second sample
n3 = number of marked individuals found in the second sample
The method is carried in a set area, where as many organisms as possible are capture (first
sample) and marked (marks should be carefully placed to prevent individuals to become easy
preys of predators). Releasing of the individuals is followed by a second capture (the second
sample). As many individuals are caught, and the number of marked individuals should be
annotated to enable a calculation of the population size.
G5.4 Describe the methods used to estimate the size of commercial fish stocks
Fish species move around the sea and to estimate the size of commercial fish stocks can prove
quite difficult. Random samples are ineffective in such a large area and in such fluctuating
populations. Other methods are employed. Fish grow a ring in the small bones between their
brains per year; thus, age of fish can be calculated. Averages of young fish indicate that the
numbers are reducing, possibly by overfishing. Data on fish catches can give population
distribution curves based on age but this is only a portion of the real population. Very fine nets are
used to catch eggs and larvae, giving an indication on how many adult fishes are present in the
area. The mark and recapture method is also used, but it usually takes a longer time to recapture
the fish and this does not show an accurate estimate of stock size.
G5.5 Outline the concept of maximum sustainable yield in the conservation of fish stocks
The maximum sustainable yield is the largest amount that can be harvested without a decline in
fish stocks. Fish stocks provide an important source for many products and carry important
economical significances. In order for the stocks to be renewed yearly the maximum sustainable
yield is employed. This has aroused from past overfishing catastrophic experiences where the
uncontrolled fishing of species resulted not only in decline of the resource, but also in the collapse
of the stocks. The disaster in the Peruvian anchoveta by overfishing caused anchoveta to
disappear; egg production and numbers were incredible reduced in 1973, as the annual catch
dropped to zero. Sustainable use means not catching fish faster than the stocks can replenish. It
was therefore important to generate the maximum sustainable yield, to prevent cases such as the
Peruvian anchoveta to occur again.
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G5.6 Discuss international measures that would promotes the conservation of fish
As most fish live in international waters their conservation is carried by a joint international effort
such as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) in the North Atlantic.
The use of quotas by governments distributes a maximum fish stock for fishing distributed
between fishing companies and fishermen. No further fishing on the sets stocks (which are usually
low) is permitted. When counting fish for quota, notes of discarded fish are counted in the quotas
by external observers. Other measures include moratoria on catching endangered species, and
minimum net sizes, so that immature fish are not caught. There are also closed seasons where
fishing is not allowed, especially during breeding season. Certain areas could be declared no
fishing zones, becoming marine reserves. Examples include the Great Reef Barrier. The control of
fish stocks may harm the economy of fishermen as they have invested in the latest technology and
this needs to pay off. However, the long-term investment on the conservation of fish stocks for
further seasons will enable a sustainable yield of fish stocks if recommendations are followed
whenever as possible.